State-Of-The-Art of Close-Range Photogrammetry

XIII Congress of the International Society for Photogrammetry Helsinki, 1976 Commission V Invited Paper

A. KENNERT I. TORLEGARD The Royal Institute of Technology Stockholm, Sweden State-of-the-Art of Close-Range Photogrammetry

A review of cameras and photography, measuring instruments, and methods for applications.

I TRODUCTION a chance to see the manuscript before the HIS REPORT PRESENTS a review of recent de printing of this report. The author willingly T velopments in, and applications of, accepts responsibility for all incorrect citings close-range photogrammetry. It also gives an or interpretations from these many contri outline of possible and desirable de butions. To offset this there will be a panel velopments in the future. The author is aware discussion on the subject during the Helsinki that only to a certain limited extent can this Congress, so interested parties will have an report attain such a goal. opportunity to promote their own ideas and

ABSTRACT: The activities of ISP Commission V include all phases of non-topographical photogrammetry: cameras, photography, graph ical and numerical mensuration, data reduction, and presentation of results. Single metric cameras, stereometric cameras, and measuring equipment with a series ofaccessories constitute instrument systems which are very convenientfor certain applications, e.g., architectural photogrammetry. The analytical approach for data reduction opens the doors for multicamera photography, rigorous least-squares ad justment, different modelsfor the calibrations ofinterior orientation parameters, use ofnon-metric cameras, etc. Integration ofmeasure ment with succeeding data handling also is accomplished by digital analysis ofdata. Close-range photogrammetry is Widely used in ar chitecture and biomedical applications. A further increase in the use of photogrammetry as a measuring tool in production processes in industry and civil engineering is to be expected.

The content is partly based on replies to an have them discussed by their world col enquiry sent to the invited authors, and the leagues. If this report is not an exhaustive panel members for the Commission V ses survey of today's (July 1975) close-range sions of the ISP Congress in Helsinki 1976, photogrammetry, at least it will serve as a and partly on the personal opinions of the basis for discussion on the state-of-the-art and author. It is perhaps unfortunate that all who its future development. have very kindly contributed have never had International activities in photogrammetry

PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING AND REMOTE SENSING, 71 Vol. 42, No.1, January 1976, pp. 71-79. 72 PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING & REMOTE SENSING, 1976 are organized in seven commissions, each Close-Range Photogrammetry: All aspects one dealingwith a specific areaofthe subject. of close-range and micro-range photo Commission V deals with non-topographical grammetric systems, including dataacquis applications, which are all applications ition, reduction and processing, and with a which cannot be classified as topographical scope encompassing conventional photo (Commission IV) or interpretive (Commis graphy (metric and non-metric), and non sion VII). The Commissions I- III deal with conventional imageries (holographic, questions related to photography, cameras, thermal, x-ray, television, etc). instruments, methods, and theory. This One might ask which ofthese titles is best. would seem to restrict the responsibilities of Non-topographical excludes terrestrial Commission V. The other commissions base photogrammetry for mapping, while close their work almost entirely on aerial photo range excludes other applications when the graphy, but the non-topographical applica range is limited by a certain distance, for in tions are very seldom, ifever, based on pho stance 1000 feet as has been suggested by tography with aerial cameras. On the contrary, Karara.14 However, of greater importance there is a series of cameras especially de than the title is the real content, importance, signed for non-topographical photogram and value of the problems treated by the metry, as well as a series of plotters and data Commission. reduction instruments for these cameras. Also very often the results of a nontopo CAMERAS AND PHOTOGRAPHY graphical photogrammetric measuring proc Cameras used for close-range photogram ess differ considerably from those which are metry are divided into two groups, metric and common in aerial photogrammetry because non-metric. Karara14•15 defines a non-metric ofthe special requirements ofthe consumer. camera as one that has not been designed These requirements also necessitate the use especially for photogrammetric purposes, ofcameras that are not specifically designed while Faig7 has a more technical definition for photogrammetric purposes, and the de that such a camera has an interior orientation velopment of instrumentation, systems, and that is completely or partially unknown and methods for data reduction that are unique to frequently unstable. He also proposes a sim the application in question. This means that pler definition by saying that a non-metric Commission V has the responsibility oftreat camera does not have fiducial marks. He also ing problems related to all phases of non mentions a number ofparameters used to de topographical photogrammetry: cameras, fine the interior orientation which include photography, measuring instruments, theory, the location ofthe principal point, the princi methods, presentation of results, etc. This pal distance or calibrated focal length, radial fact is reflected in the assignments of the (symmetric) lens distortion, decentering working groups ofCommission V, namely: (frequently considered in the form ofits com (1) Analytical and Semi-Analytical Ap ponents, assyrnmetrical and tangential lens proaches in Terrestrial, Close-Range, distortions), film deformation, and affinity. and Micro-Range Photogrammetry The traditional definition ofa metric camera (2) Photogrammetric Potentials of Non having "fixed and constant" interior orienta metric Cameras tion no longer holds, since there have ap (3) Metrical Aspects of Non-Conventional peared on the market several focusable cam Imageries-Holographic and Thermal eras that definitely must be regarded as met Imageries. ric cameras. Examples are the Zeiss Jena During the Commission V Symposium in UMK and IMK, Officine Galileo Verostat and Washington D.C. in 1974, a revision of the Tecnoster, Sokkisha B-45, V-3, KSK-l00, the title and activities of the Commission was Wild P31, and the Hasselblad MK70 with two discussed. The president ofthe Commission ofthree lenses focusable. The TMK and SMK proposed a change from the current wording series from Zeiss Oberkochen now are of Non-Topographical Photogrammetry: equipped with a set of attachable lenses in (1) Close-range and micro-range photo order to widen the range ofcamera-to-object grammetry. distance. (2) Photogrammetry at extreme distances (Applications in Space and Astronomy). METRIC CAMERAS (3) Photogrammetry of objects in motion Perhaps the simplest way to classifY cam and under deformation. eras as metric or non-metric is by the exist (4) Exploration of non-conventional pho ence of fiducial marks. This holds for the tography, such as holography. tables of metric cameras published by Car 2 to the following: bonne1l and supplemented in3 , Karara14 STATE-OF-THE-ART OF CLOSE-RANGE PHOTOGRAMMETRY 73

andIS, and Peczek26• These tables also con per way, and with the use ofproper cassettes. tain information on the main characteristics of For the most accurate types of photogram the more than 30 types ofcameras. The focal metry, plates are a necessary prerequisite. On lengths vary from 56 to 190 mm, the formats the other hand, there are several drawbacks from 55-x-55 mm to 130x-180 mm, the cone with plates. They are not easy to handle. angles from 33 to 88 gon, the aperature values They are heavy. They must be transported from 3.5 to 64, and the exposure times from B with great care. They are expensive. Only a to 1/500 sec. There is thus a fairly wide vari limited number ofemulsion types are avail ety oftypes available to the photogrammme able. Delivery times are often long, and the trist. A dominant feature ofmetric cameras is shortest exposure interval is long. Several of that the radial distortion is so small that it these drawbacks are eliminated ifroll film or often may be neglected for most practical ap cut sheet film is used, but then certain pre plications. This has been a lens design criter cautions have to be taken to flatten the film ion that, together with stability require-, before exposure, and to control the stability of ments, has ended in the fixed-focus cameras. the film during the photographic processes Only during the latest decade has it been and storage. With the Verostat, P32, Nikon possible to design and produce focusable TS-20, and the Zeiss Jena SMK cut sheet film lenses with radial distortions and stability in special cassettes may be used. The Zeiss within the photogrammetric tolerances. The Jena UMK, Wild P32, Officine Galileo Tec Zeiss Jena UMK has two types oflenses, one noster A, and Hasselblad MK70 cameras are for the shorter and one for the longer, focus the only cameras that can be equipped with ing distances. This development is wel roll film magazines. The flattening ofthe film comed because it opens the doors to many is, in the UMK and Tecnoster, provided by new applications of close-range photogram suction plates, while the others rely on glass metry. Because object size and accuracy re plate in the image plane. The film deforma quirements vary considerably, a great deal of tions are controlled by four or five fiducial flexibility is needed to obtain an optimal marks. The Hasselblad MK70 is the only camera-to-object geometry. camera having a reseau (25 points), which for A few new metric cameras have appeared digital data reduction yields an excellent during the last few years, for example, from means of image coordinate refinement. The the USA (DBA Systems Inc.), and Japan roll film version of the UMK and the MK70 (Sokkisha). The European manufacturers have automatic film transport, and the short primarily have developed a series of acces est exposure intervals are 3 and 1 seconds sories for bothcameras and plotting machines respectively. This facility is very convenient which provide the photogrammetrist with an for remote-controlled firing, and for the instrumental system well-suited to certain recording or documentation or measuring of applications such as, for example, architec slowly moving objects or events. tural photogrammetry. The possibility oftilt The flatness of the plates is classified in ing the cameras (both single and stereomet three categories: standard, ultra flat (12.5 ric) by predetermined angles is a common /Lm/inch), and micro flat (0.5 /Lm/inch). Ultra feature. This also means a standardization of flat plates cannot always be obtained from the geometry during photography, speeds up stock, (the Wild Company now stock such the field procedure, and decreases the risk of plates as a service to their customers). Micro blunders, compared to the type of cameras flat plates must be ordered in sufficiently that have continuous tilt facility. This mustbe large numbers before production and even regarded as an advantage for routine work then one cannot be sure ofdelivery, which is with a standardised production. On the other dependent on the manufacturer's production hand the flexibility of the phototheodolites schedules. The cost of such plates is very and the cameras placed on theodolites is high and the use of them can only be advo often necessary in order to have an optimal cated for projects where the utmost accuracy location and direction of the cameras when is required. the object, its environment, and other condi tions make it difficult or even impossible to use standardised methods. NON-METRIC CAMERAS Most of the available metric cameras are The use of non-metric cameras compared designed for the use of glass plates as the to metric cameras for photogrammetric pur poses, has the following advantages and dis photograhic emulsion base. This is, ofcourse, IS the best solution possible from the point of advantages according to Karara . view ofstability. This also provides a defined Advantages: standard offlatness when treated in the pro- • General availability, 74 PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING & REMOTE SENSING, 1976

• Flexibility in focusing range, tion of the actual images but the elements • Some are motor driven, allowing for a quick themselves are not explicitly obtained from succession of photographs, the solution of the equation systems. • Can be hand-held and thereby oriented in any direction, Between these two extremes of complete • The price is considerably less than for metric and no calibration, Faig introduces three cameras. other categor~es of calibration, namely: par tial, self- and "on-the-job" calibration. Disadvantages: • The lenses are designed for high resolution at Partial calibration is usually performed in a the expense of high distortion, laboratory with some kind of test area or • Instability of interior orientation, target array.30 It could conceivably encom • Lack of fiducial marks, pass all the parameters ofinterior orientation • The absence of level bubbles and orientation used in metric camera calibration, but, as a provisions precludes the determination ofex rule, only some ofthem are used. The selec terior orientation before exposure. tion of parameters depends on the accuracy required and the data reduction procedures The increasing use of non-metric cameras applied. for photogrammetric purposes is, to a great Self-calibration is based on multiframe extent, due to the research and development, photography and measurement of a larger both within and outside the ISP, aimed at the numberofunknown points. Parametersfor the elimination of these disadvantages which in interior orientation are included in the ad most cases is accomplished by combined justment of the observation equations. Be calibration and evaluation techniques. As cause the redundant points are also unknown pointed out by Faig7, "the amount of object this results in certain geometric conditions space control is directly related to the calibra beingplacedon the numberand arrangement tion and/or the evaluation approach, and to ofphotographs and points in order to achieve the accuracy requirements." He also divides a strong solution. the photogrammetric equipment systems, for non-metric cameras, into five groups accord "On-the-job" calibration also determines the interior orientation in the same adjust ing to the type ofcalibration that is included ment as the otherunknowns (exteriororienta in the system. tion and/or points) but in this case the solu Some of the disadvantages can be over come by introducing fiducial marks, often tion is based on a sufficiently large number of very easily. Orientation aids such as spirit well-distributed and known control points.. levels can also be arranged in the workshop Self- and "on-the-job" calibration deter withouttoo much effort. The instability ofthe mine the interiororientation ofthe same pho interior orientation can be difficult to reduce tographs as used for the object measurement, because this necessitates more severe alter which eliminates the effect of instability of ations in the camera itself. Examples of this the non-metric cameras. These types ofcalib are the introduction of glass plates in the ration are often combined with a partial cali image plane and film flattening by hand bration for the radial distortion, which re driven suction devices in the film magazines. duces the number of unknown interior When these suggested or similar alterations parameters, and the number of observations are made to the camera, it will be more or less necessary for a strong solution. completely rebuilt, and after a complete Another approach to the problem of calib calibration, may be regarded as a metric cam ration of non-metric cameras, which has not era.3l However, because the stability of the been used regularly in close-range photo camera and the reproducibility ofthe interior grammetry, is the method of linear least orientation is limited, Faig calls the calibra squares interpolation and the use ofstatistical tion ofsuch a camera "partial", even ifall the prediction and filtering. This is used in aerial parameters used for the calibration ofmetric triangulation and digital models for contour cameras are included. line plotting. Several other applications in The other extreme to the calibration of cluding calibration have been demon non-metric cameras is the use of methods strated.20 Closely related to this are the mul which do not require any calibration at alI. tisurface fitting methods described by One example is numerical and graphical re Hardylo and Rauhala.27 It would seem to be ctification based on projectivity between the very worthwhile to try these methods with plane ofthe image and the plane ofthe object. the use of non-metric cameras because they Another example is the direct linear trans can reduce the effects of instability and non formation (DLT) approachl . In both cases the reproducibility of the geometry of the im solution is principally for the interiororienta- ages. STATE-OF-THE-ART OF CLOSE-RANGE PHOTOGRAMMETRY 75

NON-CONVENTIONAL IMAGES mission III. The reader is referred to the re ports from this group.19 By non-conventional images is meant im The Moire technique has been developed aging systems that do not use a lens and an in Japan and a direct method immediately image plane and thus are not frame photo gives contours on the object itself. This can graphs based on the central projection ofthe then be photographed using single or stereo object onto an image plane. To this group cameras. Deformations can also be recog belong x-rays, scanning electron microscopes nized very conveniently. Theory, instrumen (SEM), TV-systems, different types of scan tation, and applications in medicine and in ning images, digital images, and even pan 29 oramic and continuous strip photography, as dustry are described by Takasaki. Holography' and its potential for making well as holographic and Moire techniques. measurements has been treated by many. Most of the measurements made on these (See Mikhail25) The interested reader is re types ofimages are made by those other than ferred to the rich literature on coherentoptics photogrammetrists, such as physists, for a further study of this broad and expand mechanical engineers, physicians, geolo ing part of physics. gists, forresters, and so on. Except for the measurement of x-ray images, photogram metric activities in the area of non MEASURING INSTRUMENTS conventional images have been rather li Analogue instruments used in close-range mited. photogrammetry can be divided into three X-ray is from a geometric pointofview very groups: similar to conventional photogrammetry, be 1. Normal case plotters. They are often a cause the imaging system very well realizes part of a close-range photogrammetric central projection, sometimes even better system. than lens-camera photography. The photo 2. Universal first order plotters. These grammetric calibration of x-ray systems is have fairly large ranges for w, cf>, K, Z, c, performed by using the same methods as for and B, and are used for both aerial and non-metric cameras, the only difference terrestrial photographs. being that the object test points are made ofa 3. Mapping plotters. These are designed material of different radiotransparency9. for aerial mapping and accept vertical or Complete, partial, and "on-the-job" calibra nearly vertical photographs, and can tion approaches are applied. There are, on sometimes be used for close-range the market, x-ray systems with double tubes photogrammetry. and rapid cassette exchange mechanisms, Technical details for the first and second which provide an excellent means for taking types are given and discussed in the litera nearly simultaneous stereo photographs. ture.2,3,14 However, the stereo photographs are usually The metric and stereometric cameras from taken with ordinary equipment and with a several manufacturers have adapters for tilt few seconds' time interval, moving either the ing the cameras to predetermined angles. As tube or the object between exposures. a result some ofthe manufacturers also have Calibration of scanning electron micros developed a tilt correction device to be in copes (SEM) using the self-calibration serted between the plotter (stereo model) and method has proved to be very efficient. the drafting table, so as to have the projection Parameters for radial, tangential, and spiral planes vertical or horizontal even for tilted distortions are introduced into the adjust photography, without the use of large w-tilts ment together with the scale factors, object in the plotter. This means that a universal orientation parameters and co-ordinates of plotter is no longer necessary for the evalua points on the test object. The introduction of tion of tilted models. This must be regarded the distortion parameters has increased the as a great advantage for many architectural accuracy of the mathematical model very and civil engineering applications, where a much, which is of great importance for the graphical output is used for the presentation three-dimensional technique with SEM.8,24 of the results. The present definition of the activities of The analytical instruments are widely used Commission V includes space photogram for non-topographical photogrammetry be metry, which encompasses images from re cause of the use of non-metric cameras, and mote sensing systems. Many other commis also because of the necessity for further sions have dealt with this subject and the treatment, in computers, of the primary working group on "Geometrical Aspects of photogrammetric results (object co Remote Sensing" was formed under Com- ordinates). This is, ofcourse, due to the rich 76 PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING & REMOTE SENSING, 1976 variety ofobjects and events to be measured intrinsic mathematics as well as for the time and the necessity offlexibility in the solution needed, which means real time presentation ofthe measuring problems as such. Byanalyt of results. The instrument manufacturers ical instruments we mean devices for measur have also taken an interest in and provided ing image co-ordinates and, as a rule, the software for non-topographical photogram recording ofthese co-ordinates on a data me meby35. dium for later input into a computer. Tradi tional photogrammetric monocomparators METHODS FOR ApPLICATIONS and stereocomparators are widely used. With few exceptions most instruments have plate NORMAL CASE holders for 23-x-23 cm photographs. In a Many applications, perhaps a majority, majority of cases, close-range photogram within non-topographical photogrammetry meby is based on smaller photograph sizes are rather straight-forward from the point of and this might possibly indicate a need for view ofmethodology. Photographs are taken the construction of mini-stereocomparators. with stereometric cameras or with single For medical x-ray purposes Zeiss Ober cameras according to the normal case. The kochen has produced the StR comparator, an evaluation process is thus simplified for instrument with measuring accuracy, view graphical plotting as well as for analytical re ing system, and output ofresults specifically duction. As the interior and relative orienta optimised to suit the particular given condi tion and often several or all absolute orienta tions. A programmable desk calculator is an tion elements are known, the number ofcon integral part ofthe system which means real trol points can be kept to a minimum. Two time calculation of desired quantites. points are minimum for scaling and locating Similar in principle, but not as accurate as the stereomodel and they are preferably the monocomparators, are the digitizing ta positioned as far as possible from each other bles, which can be used for large-image for within the model. If a comparatively flat mats and not too high-accuracy requirements. model is parallel to the picture planes the This type of instrument could possibly be scale correction is made by a base change. If used for the measurement of some types of the model is perpendicularto the pictures the x-rays. scaling often is done by a 8¢-change, because The analytical plotters have been used ad this is well correlated with a principal point vantageously for close-range applications. displacement, which often is critical for the These instruments give the project planner small "base-height" ratios that are common great freedom in the choice ofcameras, orien in many cases ofarchitectural and civil engi tations, co-ordinate refinement parameters, neering applications.l9 Use ofmetric cameras mathematical models, and output in digital or and glass plates makes image-coordinate re graphical form, using any desired projection. finement unnecessary for moderate-accuracy This has been thoroughly discussed by Jaksic requirements and the output from the plot 13 ters in graphical and/or numerical (model co Rpctifiers have long been in use for non ordinates) form is often what is needed for the topographical purposes, and recently modem consumer. In case of comparator measure orthophoto printers have been used for archi ments, a reduction to model coordinates is tectural photogarammery. See, for example very simple and can be programmed even for Seeger28 and DohlerS. desk calculators. The analytical approach can offer practical methods if there are computers available. GRAPHICAL RESULTS Today we have at our disposal a broad spec For graphical presentation of results the trum of computing machines ranging from manufacturers produce systems of camera pocket calculators to desk calculators and and plotters for such straight-forward close mini computers to large general-purpose range photogrammetry. Carbonnel2 has di computer systems. This is not the place to go vided these systems into three groups accord into the details ofcomputer development but ing to the size of the objects to be measured it must be pointed out that it has been funda and has given samples of the marketed sys mental to the increasing use of close-range tems. The projection planes for the graphical photogrammeby. Today's computer technol plotting can be chosen rather freely, espe ogy already provides the photogarammetrist cially with the use of tilt calculators now of with a variety of hardware and software and fered by the manufacturers. New types of the future will certainly provide him with projections called Geometrals and even more flexible solutions to his calcula Axonometric projections are demonstrated tion tasks. This holds for programming, and by Carbonnell 4 for architecural purposes. STATE-OF-THE-ART OF CLOSE-RANGE PHOTOGRAMMETRY 77

These new types ofgraphics are very illustra non-topographical photogrammetry by Wong tive and can increase the interest for photo 34 and applications are demonstrated for sev grammetry. The possibility of choosing the eral biomedical cases by others21 • 16.17. ori~ntationofsections, profiles, and contours By its nature photogrammetry is a versatile is for engineering and industrial purposes and convenient tool for studying objects in also a means of widening the use of photo motion. There are several industrial and civil grammetry. engineering examples, most ofwhich belong to the analytical group. Both mono and stereo NUMERICAL RESULTS methods can be applied for objects moving Although, in practice, the majority ofcases in one, two or three dimensions. The move make use of the analogue approach with ments can be very slow, e.g., structural de graphical output, research and development formations6 •32. They can be rapid, e.g., vehi efforts are devoted primarily to the analytical cle studies33, or they may be termed high reduction of measured image coordinates, if speed, e.g., ballistics, aerodynamics, bubble one is tojudge from the literature in the field. chambers. The availability ofcomputers and the desire More uncommon projections are found in to use non-metric cameras even for accurate electron microscopy in that the principal dis measurements have increased the develop tances are very long, infinite, or even 'nega ment of analytical methods. The use of the tive. Photogrammetry can still be applied but photogrammetric data for further calcula ofcourse not in the traditonal way. Kratky has 22 23 tions, data analysis, data banks, etc., has also given mathematical solutions. • promoted analytical methods. Further de The accuracy of different close-range velopment in the future towards greater in photogrammetric procedures is often deter tegration J:>etween the photogrammetric data mined by experiment and check measure acquisiton and reduction phases on the one ments. For a large number of more-or-Iess hand, and the succeeding data analysis on the standardized methods this has given us expe other is to be expected. In order to reach this rience and simple rules-of-thumb for judging close co-operation between photogramme~ the accuracy in a specific case. For other trists and consumers is needed. The classical methods, more sophisticated means are photogrammetric methods (analoque or ana applied to determine the accuracy of the re lytical) are not always applicable and require sults. In some methods a rigorous adjustment ments of potential new consumers are chal of unknowns also includes the calculation of lenges to all photogrammetrists. We must, standard errors. In othercases, well-surveyed however, not be too ambitious and measure test fields are used, as in the experiments ll 12 everything photogrammetrically. There are performed by Hottier . . For a single other methods and the merits ofdifferent ap stereomodel and analytical data reduction proaches have to be judged so as to optimize he has found a considerable decrease of in the entire process ofwhich the measurement accuracy often is just a minor component. • when the number of replicated settings The analytical approach can, as mentioned on the same target is three instead ofone above, be used in the rather simple case (16 per cent decrease), where interior and exterior orientation are • when the number oftargets defining each known, but its advantages and versatility be point is three instead ofone (30 per cent come much more pronounced in the most decrease), and general case of photogrammetry in which a • when the number of frames on each sta simultaneous solution incorporates the inte tion is three instead of one (38 per cent rior and exterior orientation elements of all decrease). photographs and the space co-ordinates ofob Further, Hottier discusses the optimum ject points, all as unknowns. combination ofsettings, targets and frames as The nature of measurements is point-by well as the base-height ratio. point where mono- or stereocomparators are CONCLUSIO s used. Depending on the final output re quirement this can be more or less conven Photogrammetry has been used for a great ient. Itcan happen that the photogrammetric many different non-topographical applica phase of the job is best solved by analytical tions. The range ofimages goes from electron methods but the required result is best microscopes to space cameras. Applications presented in continuous form. In such a case are found in the most diversified disciplines. the techniques of digital modelling, surface The development of metric camera systems smoothing, prediction and filtering can be ap and evaluation equipment, as well as the in lied. This has been discussed in relation to creased use of analytical data reduction and 78 PHOTOGRAMMETRIC ENGINEERING & REMOTE SENSING, 1976 computers, have been fundamental to the re Close-Range Photogrammetry." Proceedings cent progress in close-range photogram of ASP Symposium on Close-Range Photo metry. Reading the literature on the subject, grammetry, Urbana, Ill, 1974. one finds the statement "Everything that can 2. Carbonnell, M; La Photogrammetrie Architec be photographedcan also be measured" to be turale en 1972. Societe Francaise de Photo grammetrie, Bulletin No 51, 1973. true in more and more cases. Ifrequirements 3. Carbonnell, M., La Photogrammetrie Archi on accuracy, time, cost, type of output, etc. tecturale en 1973 et 1974. Extrait du Bulletin can be optimized, there will be an increased no 56 de la Societe Francaise de Photogram use ofphotograrnmetry as a measuring tool in metrie, 1974. the future. Much effort has been devoted to 4. Carbonnell, M., Historic Center Conservation. problems connected with accuracy and type Photogrammetric Engineering, 1974, p 1059 ofoutput, while the time and cost parameters 1070. have not been studied to the same extent. 5. Dohler, M., Erfahrungen mit der Photogram They are, however, very critical where a metrie bei archiiologischen und bauges chichtlichen Objekten. Bildmessung und method is to be used in production. A further Luftbildwesen, heft 5, 1974, p 138-148. integration ofphotogrammetry in the produc 6. Erlandson, J.P., Veress, S.A., Methodology and tion process has to be made so as to widen the Standards for Structural Surveys. Proceedings practical applications of the art. ofASP-ISP Symposium on Close-Range Photo Architectural photogrammetry is Widely grammetric Systems, Urbana, Ill, 1975. used and even has its own organisation, the 7. Faig, W., Photogrammetric Equipment Sys International Committee on Architectural tems with Non-Metric Cameras. Proceedings of Photogrammetry (CIPA) which was estab ASP-ISP Symposium on Close-Range Photo lished by the International Society for Photo grammetric Systems, Urbana, Ill, 1975. 8. Ghosh, S.K., Some Photogrammetric Consider grarnmetry (ISP) and the International Coun ations in the Application ofScanning Electron cil on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) in Micrographs. Proceedings of ASP-ISP Sym 1970. Another field in which great strides are posium on Close-Range Photogrammetric Sys being made to apply and integrate photo tems, Urbana, Ill, 1975. grarnmetry is the biomedical. The Interna 9. Hallert, B., X-ray Photogrammetry. Elsevier, tional Commission V Symposium 1974 in 1970. Washington was entirely devoted to this 10. Hardy, R.L., Geodetic Applications of Mul theme. A third field ofgreat interest is indus tiquadratic Analysis. Allgemeine Vermes trial and civil engineering applications. sungsnachrichten, 79: 10, 1972. 11. Hottier, P., Contribution a l'Etude Experi There have recently (1975) been symposia mentale de la Precision de la Photogrammetrie organized in Birmingham, the UK, and Ur Analytique a Courte Distance (7-12 m) dans Ie bana, Illinois. Further activities within this Cas du Couple. Commission V, XIIth Interna third field will be welcomed so that it may tional Photogrammetric Congress, Ottawa, become as well established as the first two. 1972. The potentials of today's close-range photo 12. Hottier, P., Nouvelle Contribution a l'Etude grarnmetry are such that further development Experimentale de la Photogrammetrie is most probable. Joint efforts by photograrn Analytique a Courte Distance (7 m environ) metrists and users in industry are necessary, dans Ie Cas de Douple. Societe Francaise de Photogrammetrie, Bulletin no 53, 1974. and they will be successful, if made. 13. Jaksic, Z., Analytical Instruments in Close Range Photogrammetry. Proceedings of ASP ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ISP Symposium on Close-Range Photogram The author is indebted to all colleagues metric Systems, Urbana, Ill, 1975. who have supported him with information on 14. Karara, H.M., Recent Developments and the subject for this report. Some contributors Trends in Close-Range Photogrammetry. First are referenced, others are not, but all have Panamerican and Third National Congress of Photogrammetry, Photointerpretation and helped the author to review the recent ac Geodesy, Mexico City, 1974. tivities in non-topographical photogram 15. Karara, H.M., Non-Topographic Photogram metry. The assistance in preparing this re metry. International Symposium on Industrial port, rendered by Mr. E.L. Dauphin and Mrs. Photogrammetry, Photogrammetric Society, U. Rygh in the Division ofPhotogrammetry at Birmingham, 1975. the Royal Institute of Technology, Stock 16. Karara, H.M., Aortic Heart Valve Geometry. holm, is gratefully acknowledged. Photogrammetric Engineering, Vol XL, No 12, 1974. 17. Keys, C.W. et al., Biostereometrics in Aero REFERENCES space Medicine. Proceedings ofASP-ISP Sym 1. Abdel-Aziz, Y.!. and Karara, H.M., "Direct posium on Close-Range Photogrammetric Sys Linear Transformation from Comparator Coor tems, Urbana, Ill, 1975. dinates into Object Space Coordinates in 18. Kobelin, J., Mapping Street Intersections using

.I STATE-OF-THE-ART OF CLOSE-RANGE PHOTOGRAMMETRY 79

Close Range Photogrammetry. Proceedings of Bauaufuahme. Bildmessung und Luftbildwe ASP-ISP Symposium on Close-Range Photo sen, nr 5, 1974. grammetric Systems, Urbana, Ill, 1975. 29. Takasaki, H., Moire Topography. Proceed 19. Konecny, G., Approach and Status of Geomet ings of the International Conference on Op ric Restitution for Remote Sensing Imagery. tics, Tokyo, 1974. Technical University, Hannover, 1975. 30. Torlegiud, A.KI., On the Determination ofIn 20. Kraus, K and Mikhail, E.M., Linear Least terior Orientation ofClose-up Cameras under Squares Interpolation. Photogrammetric En Operational Conditions using Three Dimen gineering 1972:10, p 1407-1422. sional Test Objects. Thesis, Stockholm, 1967. 21. Kratky, V., Photogrammetric Digital Modeling 31. TorlegArd, K. and Wilson S., Fiducial Marks of Limbs in Orthopaedics, Proceedings of the and Vacuum Back for the Hasselblad SWC. ASP Fall Convention, Washington DC, 1974. Svensk Lantmiiteritidskrift, 1968:2. 22. Kratky, V., Opthalmologic Stereophotography. 32. Torlegard, A.KI. and Dauphin, E.L., Deforma Photogrammetric Engineering, 1975, p 49-64. tion Measurement by Photogrammetry in Cut 23. Kratky, V., Analytical Models from Parallel and Fill Mining. Proceedings ofASP-ISP Sym Beams of Rays. Proceedings ofASP-ISP Sym posium on Close-Range Photogrammetric Sys posium on Close-Range Photogrammetric Sys tems, Urbana, Ill, 1975. tems, Urbana, Ill, 1975. 33. van Wijk, M.C. and Pinkney, H.F.L., A single 24. Maune, D.F., Photogrammetric Self Camera Method for the 6-Degree of Freedom Calibration ofScanning Electron Microscopes. Sprung Mass Response ofVehicles Redirected Proceedings of ASP-ISP Symposium on by Cable Barriers. Seminar on Optical Close-Range Photogrammetric Systems, Ur Instrumentation-A Problem-Solving Tool in bana, Ill, 1975. Automative Safety Engineering and Bio 25. Mikhail, E.M., Hologrammetry: Concepts and Mechanics, Detroit, Mich, 1972. Applications. Photogrammetric Engineering, 34. Wong, KW., Digital Analysis Techniques. Pro 1974: 12, p 1407-1422. ceedings of ASP-ISP Symposium on Close 26. Peczek, L., Application of Photogrammetry to Range Photogrammetric Systems, Urbana, Ill, Architectural Surveys. XIIth International 1975. Photogrammetric Congress, Ottawa, 1972. 35. Voss, G., Problem-Oriented Software - An In 27. Rauhala, U.A., Array Algebra with Applications dispensible Part of an Instrument System for in Photogrammetryand Geodesy. Thesis, Stock Industrial Photogrammetry? Proceedings of holm, 1974. Fotogrammetriska Meddelanden, ASP-ISP Symposium on Close-Range Photo VI:6. grammetric Systems, Urbana, Ill, 1975. 28. Seeger, E., Das Ortophotoverfahren bei der

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1. Manuscripts should be typed, double stract, which is a digest of the article. spaced on 8! X 11 or 8 x 10! white An abstract should be 100 to 150 words bond, on one side only. References, in length. footnotes, captions-everythingshould 4. Tables should be designed to fit into a be double-spaced. Margins should be width no more than five inches. H inches. 5. Illustrations should not be more than 2. Ordinarily tl/;O copies of the manu twice the final print size: glossy prints script and two sets of illustrations of photos should be submitted. Letter should be submitted where the sec ing should be neat, and designed for ond set of illustrations need not -be the reduction anticipated. Please in prime quality; EXCEPT that five clude a separate list of captions. copies of papers on Remote Sensing 6. Formulas should be expressed as and Photointerpretation are needed, simply as possible, keeping in mind all with prime quality illustrations to the difficulties and limitations en facilitate the review process. countered in setting type. .3. Each article should include an ab- (Continued from page 122)

As we have assembled at the site ofone of the Shiva Temple, the "Claude Birdseye nature's scenic wonders for the purpose of Point." honoring a distinguished American citizen, From our vantage point this pinnacle can we are participating indeed in an event of be clearly recognized (under favorable at lasting historical significance to the organiza mospheric conditions) at a distance of8 miles tions involved by establishing this monu against the darker colored background ofthe ment. Our gathering is an honest, patriotic, Canyon's north rim. and cultural service which we render to our We owe the creation ofthe Birdseye Mon nation at a time when revolting spirits are at ument to the initiative of ASP's Board of work, with the aim to desecrate many of the Directors of 1973, to the U. S. Geological coveted customs, beliefs, and institutions of Survey under the leadership of its Chief our civilized community. Topographic Engineer, Robert H. Lyddan, As professionals in the arts of surveying and to the friendly cooperation of the Na and photogrammetry, we are privileged to tional Park Service serve our country by being licensed to cover This monument, carved by a skilled crafts its great expanse with a strong and durable man out ofrocks ofthe Granite Gorge, and its fabric of monumented landmarks of various plaque, artfully designed and cast ofdurable descriptions, upon which the development metal, shall stand here as a lasting beacon for oftechnical, economical, and social progress courage and devotion, wisdom and noble may be ascertained in a lawful and coordi qualities, which have been the outstanding nated manner. characteristics of the man whose name it Today we have the privilege to unveil a bears. It shall lend guidance and inspire monument of a different kind and of still ambition to present and future generations greater significance. It bears the name of a who pass by this point and remind them of great promoter ofour science and our profes the example given by Col. Claude H. Birds sion. The inscription on the plaque embed eye, Doctor Honoris Causa of his Alma Ma ded on a truncated pyramid erected on solid ter, the Oberlin College, who named him in rock of granite reads as follows: "Colonel the Award Inscription: "Traversor of Un Claude Hale Birdseye-1876-1941-Explor charted Ways of Rivers and Air, Recorder of er, Geographer, Surveyor, the first Chief the Eagle's Vision for the Service of Man Topographic Engineer of the U. S. Geologi kind." cal Survey, 1919, and the first President of I wish to express my personal gratitude the American Society of Photogrammetry, and respect to the men of the U. S. Geologi 1934. cal Survey and of ASP for having actively "He headed a geological survey through the pursued the concept of this monument and Grand Canyon in 1923, to acquire informa having given it the simplicity of appearance tion on the hydrography, topography, and and the ruggedness of character which is so geology of the Colorado River. This daring ultimately commensurate with the person it exploration provided scientific data that con commemorates. And as it stands here also as a tributed to the prudent use of the river's symbol of fortitude, it is a fitting and lasting waters for the production of energy and the contribution to the Bicentennial celebration economic development of several western of our nation. states." Finally, I have the honorable task to say a This brief characterization of Col. Birds few words on behalfofthe living members of eye's accomplishments points to a long and the Birdseye family. Col. Birdseye's wife, amazing story of his lifelong service to the Grace Whitney, is the mother, the grand U. S. Government and at the enormous im mother, and the great-grandmother of a re pact that the successful accomplishment of markable close-knit family of faithful, hard his missions has had on the control of the working humanitarian people. Mrs. Grace entire Colorado watershed and on the culti Birdseye, now in her high 90's, has followed vation of vast areas of arid lands in seven with deep emotion the events that have led to States bordering the river, and in California. this ceremony. Although her physical condi This was one of the main reasons that the tion does not permit her attendance, she is in Board on Geographic Names, that is, the spirit with us here today. Recently she has authority which controls the assignment of required the intense care by her daughter, names to geographic features on U. S. maps, Florence Sweigart. Understandably, she decided to name the pinnacle at the western cannot personally express the gratitude of end ofthe spur extending from the plateau of (Continued on page 113) 80