Understanding and Applying New Educational Communication Media Technologies

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 393 406 IR 017 742

AUTHOR Metallinos, Nikos, Ed. TITLE Verbo-Visual Literacy: Understanding and Applying New Educational Communication Media Technologies. Selected Readings from the Symposium of the International Visual Literacy Association (Delphi, Greece, June 25-29, 1993).

INSTITUTION International Visual Literacy Association. . REPORT NO ISBN-1-895130-05-0 PUB DATE 93 NOTE 282p.; For selected individual papers separately analyzed, see IR 017 743-775. Actual titles of individual papers frequently differ from the way they appear in the Table of Contents. AVAILABLE FROM James L. Bradford, 6370 Instructional Technology Services, Illinois State University, Normal, IL 61790-6370 ($25). PUB TYPE Collected Works Conference Proceedings (021)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC12 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Aesthetic Education; *Art Education; *Computer Assisted Instruction; Design Preferences; *Educational Technology; Elementary Secondary Education; Foreign Countries; Higher Education; Hypermedia; Instructional Effectiveness; Instructional Innovation; *Multimedia Instruction; Multimedia Materials; *Visual Literacy IDENTIFIERS Visual Displays; *Visual Imagery

ABSTRACT This document contains the welcoming and keynote addresses and selected papers from a 1993 symposium of the International Visual Literacy Association. Topics addressed in the papers include: visual literacy; research methodology and design for content analysis of visual images; multimedia as courseware; design issues in authoring multimedia materials, multimedia utilization, the impact of new technologies on artistic thought and aesthetics; hypermedia and teaching methods; visual imagery in distance education; projects in audiovisual and image composition; and technological literacy and the school of the future. (BEW)

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VERBO-VISUAL LITERACY: UNDERSTANDING AND APPLYINGNEW EDUCATIONAL COMMUNICATIONMEDIA TECHNOLOGIES

Selected Readings from the 1993 Symposium of the International Visual LiteracyAssociation Delphi, Greece, June 25-29, 1993

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e-mail: [email protected] VERBO-VISUAL LITERACY: UNDERSTANDING AND APPLYING NEW EDUCATIONAL COMMUNICATION MEDIA TECHNOLOGIES

Selected Readings from the 1993 Symposium of the International Visual Literacy Association Delphi, Greece, June 25-29, 1993

Edited by Nikos Metal linos

Published by the 3Dmt Research and Information Center of Concordia University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada

4 VERBO-VISUAL LITERACY: UNDERSTANDING AND APPLYING NEW EDUCATIONAL COMMUNICATION MEDIA TECHNOLOGIES

Selected Readings from the 1993 Symposium of the International Visual Literacy Association Delphi, Greece, June 25-29, 1993

Edited by Nikos Metal linos Concordia University

Canadian Cataloging in Publication Data International Visual Literacy Association. Symposium (1993 :Delphi, Greece) Verbo-Visual literacy : understanding and applying new educational communication media technologies :selected readings from the 1993 Symposium of the International Visual Literacy Association, Delphi, Greece, June 25-29, 1993

Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 1-895130-05-0

1. Visual literacy--Congresses. 2. Visual learning--Congresses.I.Metallinos, Nikos, 1934- II. 3Dmt Research and Information Center. III. Title. LB1068.168 1993 371.3'35 C94-900763-3 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form, or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photography, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher, editor, and authors.

ISBN 1-895130-05-0

Printed in Canada.

Publisher: 3Dmt Research and Information Center

7141 Sherbrooke Street West

Montreal, Quebec, H4B 1R6, Canada

Tel: (514) 848-2359Fax: (514) 848-3492 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface vi

Acknowledgements vii

List of Authors viii

I. WELCOMING AND KEYNOTE ADDRESSES

Welcoming Address Nikos Metallinos, Concordia University 3

The Age of Pixels: A Call for Visual Literacy Herbcrt Zettl, San Francisco State University 5

Analyzing the Content of Visual Messages: Methodological Considerations Robert K. Tiemens, University of Utah 10

Assessment of the Visual Image in Film, Television, and the New Visual Media: Research Design James E. Fletcher, University of Georgia 21 II. NEW VISUAL COMMUNICATION MEDIA TECHNOLOGIES

Instructional Systems Design in Complex Intelligent Multimedia Systems George Cambourakis, Eleftherios Kayafas, Vassili Loumos, and loannis Tsatsakis, National Technical University of Athens 31

Instructional Systems Design in Complex Intelligent Multimedia Systems Peter Capell, Carnegie Mellon University 38

Multimedia for Multiethnic Education: Visionaries and Illusionaries Ann Cunningham, United States International University 44

The Rewards of Visual Literacy Deborah Curtiss, The Kling-Lindquist Partnership 51

Aesthetics for the 21st Century: Another Challenge for Education Barbara W. Fredette, University of Pittsburgh 57

Using Hypermedia to Turn University Teaching Inside Out W. Lambert Gardiner, Concordia University 68

Enhancing Local and Distance Education With Computer-Produced Visuals Nancy Nelson Knupfer, Kansas State University 73

I nternational Audio V isual Composing Processes Carol Lorac, Royal Holloway University of London 90

III Technological Literacy or Illiteracy? The Reality About Greek Teachers Michael Meimaris, University of Athens 93 Education and Technology in a Global Society: Looking for Equity and Social Justice Robert Muffoletto, University of Northern Iowa 97 Before the Challenge of Technology Demetres Pnevmatikos, Aristotle University 102

Teaching With Distance Delivery Systems: From A to S2 Landra L. Rezabek, Florida State University 109 An Interdisciplinary Approach to Concept Development For Interactive Video Communication Systems Susan King Roth, The Ohio State University 114 Designing Visual Approaches to Communicate Visual Content Ellen Schiferl, University of Southern Maine 119 Laserdisc Technology: Teaching Poetry, K-12 Raymond Schneider, University of South Florida 127 III. RESEARCH FINDINGS/THESIS PAPERS Television: Stuff of Dreams Jon Baggaley 137 Intelligent Advisor Systems and Transfer of Knowledge Marie-Michele Boulet, Universite Laval 144 From Text to Television: Hermeneutic Textualism and the Challenge of Visual Technology in the Teaching of History Peter Knupfer, Kansas State University 148 The Video in the Classroom: Agatha Ctkristitz's "Evil Under the Sun" and the Teaching of Narratology Through Film Michael Kokonis, Aristotle University 159 A Rhetorical Approach to Non-Discursive Messages in Information Campaigns Kathaleen Reid, Lee College 170 Image Manipulation: Then and Now Ronald E. Sutton, The American University 183 In-School Communication System as a Medium for Media Education Yasuo Takakuwa, Sophia University 191 A Hypermedia Computer-Aided Parasitology Tutoring System Georgios Theodoropoulos and Vassili Loumos, National Technical University of Athens 195

iv Three-Dimensional Media Technologies: Implications for the Study of Visual Literacy Hal Thwaites, Concordia University 201 IV. FUTURE STRATEGIES AND INFRASTRUCTURES

The Role of Interpretation in Visual Communication Theory James A. Anderson, University of Utah 211

The Role of Educational Technologies in Cultural Studies Penelope Calliabetsou, University of Athens 223

Application of Visual Media Technologies to Investigation of the Cognitive Representation of Technical Diagrams Richard Lowe, Curtin University 227

Instructional Systems Design in Complex Intelligent Multimedia Systems Barbara S. Monfils, University of Wisconsin-Whitewater 236

Understanding a Verbo- V i sual Message Rune Pettersson, Ellemtel 243

CAI as a Medium for the Reduction of Inequalities in Education Nicos Raptis, PEK of Pastern Athens 261 The Implications of Television Broadcasts Presenting Science Concepts on the Learning of These Concepts by Adolescents Ora Silverstein and Pinchas Tamir, The Hebrew University 267 PREFACE

The International Visual Literacy Association (I.V.L.A.) in addition to the annual conferences, held during the fall season in various cities in North America, has established triennial international symposia that take place during the summer in different countries around the world. The purposes of these symposia are as follows: (1) Many educational institutions and visual communication media scholars in many parts of the world do not have the opportunity to take part in the I.V.L.A.'s annual conferences; (2) issues of global significance regarding Visual Literacy can not be thoroughly presented during the annual conferences due to lack of time and the need to accommodate the paper presentations of a great number of the Association's membership; (3) to expand beyond the boundaries of North America, and therefore to become a truly international association known to many parts of the world with representative members from all continents; (4) to spread the word about the objectives of this discourse and its great significance in the visual information age we live in. Since 1987 the I.V.L.A. has held three international symposia on verbo-visual literacy. The first symposium, "Verbo-Visual Literacy: Research and Theory," was held in Stockholm, Sweden in June, 1987 under the auspices of the University of Stockholm. The second symposium, "Verbo-Visual Literacy: Mapping the Field," was held in London, England in July, 1990 under the auspices of the British Film Board and the University of London. The third symposium, "Verbo-Visual Literacy: Understanding and Applying New Educational Communication Media Technologies" was held in Delphi, Greece in June, 1993 under the auspices of the European Cultural Center of Delphi. The Symposium attracted scholars, educators, media practitioners, and teachers from various institutions around the world. In addition to the 53 papers presented, a number of other activities took place, such as interest group meetings, a holography workshop, and visits to Greece's archaeological cities and museums in Athens, Delphi, and Olympia. The importance of the I.V.L.A.'s international symposia, in general, and the particular purposes of the 1993 Symposium were underlined in the addresses of the Chair of the Symposium and the three Keynote Speakers. The major issues are also discussed in the papers contained in this volume that were carefully selected, reviewed, and edited before they were accepted for publication. It is, therefore, a publication on an issue that is as significant to contemporary visual communication media educators as were the responses of thc Delphi Oracle to the Ancient World.

Nikos Metal linos Chair 1993 Symposium of the I. V.L.A.

vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The International Committee of the International Visual LiteracyAssociation started the preparations for the 1993 Symposium in 1990. The Symposium wasorganized by the Chair of the Committee with the assistance and advice ofCommittee Members Rune Pettersson (Sweden), Robert Muffoletto (U.S.A.), and Carol Lorac(England) to whom this author expresses his sincere thanks. This book is the result of the systematic instruction and monitoring of thesubmitted papers and the collaboration of many individuals.Papers submitted were reviewed by three committee members (R. Pettersson, R. Muffoletto, and N. Metallinos) on the following: 1. Relevance to the theme of the Symposium.

2.Originality and significance of the issues discussed.

3. Research methodology, validity, and reliability of the study. 4. Academic standards and form of submission. The publication was also supervised by my colleagues W. Lambert Gardiner and Hal Thwaites of Concordia University to whom I express my deep appreciation and thanks for their assistance. Foremost, this publication was made possible because of the care, the scholastic attention, and the hard work of my wife Daisy, to whom I owe an enormous debt. Finally, I would like to thank the authors whose works appear here for responding to my invitation to attend the Symposium and for theircooperation in submitting their papers according to the editorial instructions and publication guidelines.

Nikos Metallinos Editor LISTING OF AUTHORS

Anderson, James A. 211 Baggaley, Jon I 37 Boulet. Marie-Michèle 144 Calliabetsou, Penelope 223 Cambourakis, George 31 Cape II, Peter 38 Cunningham, Ann 44 Curtiss, Deborah 51 Fletcher, James E. 21 Fredette, Barbara W. 57 Gardiner, W. Lambert 68 Kayafas, Eleftherios 31 Kokonis, Michael 159 Knupfer, Nancy Nelson 73 Knupfer, Peter 148 Lorac, Carol 90 Loumos, Vassili 31,195 Lowe, Richard 227 Meimaris, Michael 93 Metalli nos, Nikos 3 Monfils, Barbara S. 236 Muffoletto, Robert 97 Pettersson, Rune 243 Pnevmatikos, Demetres 102 Raptis, Nicos 261 Rcid, Kathaleen 170 Rezabek, Landra L. 109 Roth, Susan King 114 Schiferl, Ellen 119 Schneider, Raymond 127 Si I verstei n, Ora 267 Sutton, Ronald E. 183 Takakuwa, Yasuo 191

viii

1. 1 Tamir, Pinchas 166 Theodoropoulos, Georgios 195 Thwaites, Hal 201 Tiemens, Robert K. 10 Tsatsakis, loannis 31 Zettl, Herbert 5 '1171,i; ',VP A L.) WTTE 1P/PREN:s71.s* VERBO-VISUAL LITERACY: UNDERSTANDING AND APPLYING NEW EDUCATIONAL COMMUNICATION MEDIA TECHNOLOGIES by Nikos Metal linos On behalfof the Organizing complexities and we must focus our Committee and the Board of Directors of attention to the educational value of these theInternational Visual Literacy technologies. Since we cannot, and need Association and my colleagues of the not, stop the rapid development, we must European Cultural Center of Delphi, I increase our efforts in establishing the welcome you to the Third Symposium of basic rules under which they operate. theInternationalVisual Literacy How can we adhere to this premise? Association:Verbo-Visual Literacy: "Understanding and Applying New In my view, we can rise to this Educational Communication Media challenge if we succeed in identifying the Technologies." problems,if we clarify the issues involved, and if we establish strategies that The speed at which the visual will help us to understand the educational communication media technologies are media technologies. This Symposium has developing and the time required to fully three sessions, each of which explores understand and effectively apply them are three specific goals as follows: disproportional. Those of us involved in visual communication media education, the Session1. New Visual Communi- fieldofstudy dealing with the cation Media Technologies development of the languages of visual communication media, have come to Provides an overview of the present realize that the constant and rapid status of new communication media developments in visual communication technologies as they relate tothe media technologies hinder the organic development of verbo-visual literacy in evolution of visual communication media education, and includes papers dealing education. We arc not fast enough in with such particular issues as: developing the appropriate grammar of visual communication media, which I.Information, design, graphics, depends on vigorous research studies and text picture analysis, etc. empirically verified media theories. We are faced with a challenging academic 2. Computer graphics, electronic problem and a complex educational cinematography, hypermedia, computer dilemma that we have come here to imagery, etc. discuss. 3. Television/video technologies, The aim of this Symposium is to switchers, editors, audio consoles, future bring into focus the specific issues raised telecommunications, etc. by the rapid developments of educational communication media technologies and to Session2.ResearchFindings carefully analyse the process required for Related to New Visual Communica- integrating and applying them to the fields tion Media Technologies From a of visual literacy in general, and education Range of Different Perspectives in particular.Our task, here, is both complex and challenging. We have to Examines the views and discusses increase our awareness to face these research findings of specialists on

14 4 Verbo-Visual Literacy

audience effects--particularly on students-- We hope to receive suggestions from of such media. all of you, gathered in this historical place, if not to resolve this centuries old problem, 1.Studies on video technology at least to familiarize ourselves with its audience effects. new face. 2. Special studies on verbo-visual communication-related factors. Welcome to Delphi. 3. Theses papers on new visual communication media technologies and their specific application to education, i.e., distance education, etc. Session3. Future Strategies and Infrastructures Establishes strategies and develops appropriate infrastructures which will enable the optimum future development of the field of visual literacy. 1. Summaries of theses papers. 2. Synopsesofworkshops, discussions, dialogues, and debates. 3. Evaluation and final planning. We have gathered here, in Delphi, once known as the center of the world (01.tcpak6g ticrrig)where similar gatherings were held, and suggestions were once provided by Apollo's spokeswoman, Pythia, to stated problems and serious dilemmas. We are asking one basic question: Giventheexistingvisual communication mediatechnologies hardware and software, what strategies must we establish and what infrastructures must we develop that will enable us to respond, effectively,to technology The Delphi Oracle being consulted innovations? by King Aegeus of Athens (from a vase painting). As Apollo's spokeswoman Pythia was given three possible answers to fmch question, or three potential solutions to a stated problem, so have we, today, at this Symposium and in response to this question, provided these three sessions, as the three potential exegeses (interpretations) of the dilemma. 15 THE AGE OF PIXELS: A CALL FOR VISUAL LITERACY by Herbert Zettl

I am very much flattered by Dr. However, we would be quite Meta llinos' kind invitation to share my surprised, if not bewildered, by the change thoughts and ideas with such an august in visual presentation. News presentations body of scholars. At the same time, I feel rival the best of video games.Titles, somewhat burdened by the fact that I do so people, and whole scenes freeze, stretch, at the classical center of the world and in shrink, turn, flip, and fly away into the shadow of Apollo. While my remarks infinity, irrespective of the gravity and to open this 1993 Symposium on Verbo- seriousness of the stories. The camera has Visual Literacy may be slightly less become restless, replacing deliberate and oraculous than Apollo's, they are, probing insight with casual glance.But nevertheless, intended as a challenge for even the print media have copied the all of us to deal with the age of pixels, the nervous blip culture of video:gaudy problem of visual illiteracy despite a colors, lines, and ill-placed photos break runaway visual technology, the needfor the continuity of layout and render story more reliable methods and techniquesof andadvertisingcopyallbut aesthetic inquiry, the power discrepancy indistinguishable. We may ascribe such between the visually literate and illiterate, razzle-dazzle displayt, to the playful spirit and with the dangers of visual pollution. of MTV youth. But I suspect that it is much more the product of competitive But the age of pixels presents us also hardware and software manufacturers than with an unprecedented opportunity to creativity exploding in a new Zeitgeist. develop and communicate with a new and powerful visual language, very much in Many a graphics generator was the spirit of the Greek painter Zeuxis who developed and used not in order to began a whole new era of visual reality by enhance communication, but because the adding attached shadows to his painting of competition had a newer and seemingly grapes. Today, like Zeuxis some twenty- better one.There is the erroneous five hundred years ago, we stand at the assumption that it is the degree of pixel threshold of a new visual reality--the age manipulation, the way pictures dance, of pixels--and we must accept the rather than the significance of the message, challenge and responsibility to guide its that holds us glued to the set. We tend to course. This Symposium is an important buy the latest digital image equipment step toward this endeavor. simply to keep up with the Joneses or to be one step ahead of them. Resourceful If we had been asleep for the past ten inventors delight in building paint boxes years and deprived of televisionand that can generate millions of colors, magazines, we would notice little change regardless of whether we can perceive that in content: The news still thrives on the many, or graphics generators that can misery and irrationality, rather than the surrealistically morph things into animals achievements, of humankind; political and animals into humans--all in real time. candidates still promise the heavens and throw mud; and commercials still sell I am always amazed by the speed everything from deodorants to presidents. and alacrity with which this new When watching soap operas, we would technologyisappliedtovisual not even be aware that we had slept, Van communication,regardless of Winkle-like, for the past ten years. appropriateness as to style or content. For 6 Verbo-Visual Literacy example, some of the weather maps I see understanding of visual structures and on thc air look as though they had just aesthetic codes. I remember attending a bccn pulled off a first-grade bulletin board; symposium on television violence, in but because they arc computer-generated, which well-known psychologists argued we tend to accept them at face value. And, the causal connections between violent apparently, nobody in television ncws screen behavior and blood on the street. seems to think that there is anything wrong Their aggression index for the screen event with having even the most grisly war was based strictly on how often and how scene freeze, tumble, morph into a Roman hard the actors punched each other on the mosaic, and then have its tiles explode in nose. When I suggested that they might order to make room for the next evidence be missing an important factor in their of human folly and anguish. What bothers aggressionindex, namely aesthetic me here is not that the age of pixels is violence, I got a blank stare.After primarily hardware- and market-driven, or explaining that I could make even a that the new visual media try to forge a tranquil scene communicate violence new aesthetic, but that we are so quick and through lens distortion, editing, and a eager to drop our aesthetic sensitivity and specific sound track, I finally succeeded in judgment. getting a brief and polite smile from one of them.I do not blame them; they simply But being hardware-pushed and don't know any better.It is up to us to having creative people explore a new remedy this problem. medium in a rather free-wheeling, seemingly aimless way, is not altogether As concerns our research efforts, thc bad. As any other creative endeavor, pixel field is fertile, and wide open. Even by technology needs this initial time of casual disregarding the new developments in exploration, a time of play, free of social digital visual communication, such as responsibility and cultural baggage. multimedia and virtual reality, we still have Eventually, it needs the discipline of art. plenty to do when studying some of the And this is where we come in:as artists, more subtle aesthetic elements and scholars, critics, and educators. In each of stnictures of the traditional screen display. these roles, we need to do some serious thinking, talk to one another, make our I have spent considerable time findings public so that everybody else has investigating the problems of structuring an equal chance to become visually literate. screen space in news, and the specific We face a dual challenge: (a) to help structural requirements of multi-screen people attain even a modicum of visual presentations. Many of you are probably.. literacy so that, they become aware of their familiar with my efforts to define such visual environment and recognize the more phenomena as graphication, first-and subtle elements and techniques of aesthetic second-order space, and personification in manipulation; and (b) to step up our television news, and to describe thc research efforts in visual communication in structural and dramaturgical differences order to help guide the age of pixels and, between single-screen and multi-screen ideally, chart its course. prescntations.

I do not have to dwell on the Just in case you have missed it, let importance of visual literacy education. me fill you in very briefly.When the Wc have all had a stake in it for quite some news anchor or host converses with a time.Likc air, most people take their guest or field reporter who appears on a visual environment for granted, be it actual secondary screen, such as thc famous box or virtual. They become aware of it only keyed over the news anchor's shoulder or whcn itis pitch dark, or when the a large television set, we tend to extend the television set goes on the blink.I am often news anchor's space (first-order space), puzzled by how much highly literate into our own living room and share it with people are illiterate when it comes to the the news anchor.In effect, we and the A Call for Visual Literacy 7 news anchor are now watching together I always thought that I had been the person who appears in the box or the working in multimedia all my professional secondary television set. By sharing our life--by combining text, still and moving own space, we tend to bestow on the news images and sound,into effective anchor more real-life qualities than the messages--until the computer told me person trapped in second-order space. otherwise and claimed authorship. And when we look at some of the new My multi-screen experiments, which multimedia creations, they seem rather stretch over almost two decades, suggest primitive in concept and execution. The an incredible potential for visual impact small, low-definition images do not carry and effective learning. If done correctly, the involving power of impressionism, or the simultaneous presentation of separate the fun of stamp collecting; they are merely events fuse into a new, more intense and hard to see. complex, configuration very much like notes in a musical chord. This relatively However, Ifeel that we are now simple extension of screen space has an barking up the wrong tree.Advanced amazing effect on all screen aesthetics compression technology and more fields. For example, zooms lose their sophisticated algorithms will certainly take power, lateral movement gains in care of such obvious problems. What is prominence, and the off-screen space of much more important for us to see is that the outside screens becomes severely digital multimedia systems have catapulted curtailed.By its ability to increase us into cyberspace in which the friendly complexity while maintaining order and interaction of humans and machines is the unity--very much in the cubist tradition-- norm rather than the exception. We now the multi-screen setup offers opportunities have an interactive learning system that can for developing a new dramaturgy be a true alternative to the classroom or the appropriate to the medium as well as our book, provided that it is used correctly. complicated lives. For example, I have tried in vain to illustrate good and bad editing sequences W hi lesuch phenomenological in a book. The problem is that the book research may succeed in identifying subtle cannot show a sequence in motion, even if aesthetic factors and their relationships, we shake the book a little.To see and even our reaction to it, it does so sequence motion in one's mind requires without reliability.Thanks to my editing experience. But then, these people esteemed colleagues, we have at our don' t need my book. As we all know, disposal some instruments that can identify teachingthe aesthetics of continuity and measure some of the more obvious editing on an actual editing system is very aesthetic variables. But then, the results costly and inefficient. A good multimedia often defy actual experience and common program could offer the student to sense, however numerically significant. experiment with various shot selections We still lack instruments and methods that and sequences, and to compare his or her are sensitive enough to detect and measure selection with examples of good continuity with accuracy and reliability the more editing, all under the student' s, rather than subtle and complex aesthetic variables and the instructor's, control.Multimedia structures. The problem is not unlike systems are ideally suited to teach visual trying to measure love. literacy, assuming that the available images are literate in the first place. Because this And now, enter the personal medium often shows several images at the computer and the age of pixels.The same time, we can use our discoveries in developments in multimedia and virtual multi-screen aesthetics toassure an reality are so rapid that even the people effective multi-image display. who are developing it can' t keep up with it.I have the feeling that the computer has As concerns virtual reality, I am sure taken over, telling us what to do. that Plato would have preferred it to his

C 8 Verbo-Visual Literacy cave in trying to explain the really real, and This is where HDTV went wrong. Instead Kant would have had some more of capitalizing on its own unique ammunition in explaining the difference attributes, such as real-time layering of between phenomena and noumena. effects, it tried to mimic the movies. We can prevent virtual reality from falling into At first glance, virtual reality seems a similar ontological trap. nothing more than an extension of multimedia displays. All but the most Finally, here islist of what I sophisticated systems deliver no more than consider to be important short-range and crude reality images that move in long-range objectives: nickelodeon fashion and that imply painting by numbers. Once again, I feel 1. That we actively participate in the that such criticism, however justified, new developments of visual technology, misses the point.Virtual reality extends help people use the new digital technology not only our visual field, but our control of with imagination, but also with prudence cyberspace, and immerses us in the and responsibility, and that our demand mediated reality. for new technology is based on social need rather than profit and greed. A much more serious problem of virtual reality seems to be an ontological 2. That we step up our efforts to one: the confusion of lens-generated and help everybody obtain a minimal degree of computer-generated images.So far, the visual literacy.I feel that a knowledge of ultimate goal of computer graphics is how images influence our thinking, paradoxically not to simulate the real feeling, and behavior, has become one of environment, the way we actually see the major social powers, very much like things, but the way a camera sees them. money and information.The visually Many virtual reality displays apply such illiterate will always be vulnerable to well-known lens distortions as z-axis irresponsible persuasion and will remain compression and stretching, forced linear infonnation-poor. perspective, variable depth of field, and zooms. Suchdistortionsare 3. That we increase our systematic understandable, if the computer takes as its research in media aesthetics, that wc raw material the photographic image. But develop more effective methods and if it is building the image synthetically, techniques of aesthetic inquiry, and that such lens-dependency makes no sense. we share information on an extended Contrary to the lens, which transmits basis.I would like to see the I.V.L.A. instantly the portion of the world it sees in enlarge its clearinghouse to include more analog fashion, the computer must build frequent electronic communication, and to itsworld inductively bitbybit, broaden the scope of the journal to new painstakingly adding pixel after pixel fields of electronic visual communication. through complex algorithms. Compared I would like to see the journal publish to the lens, synthetic images seem severely articles that struggle with significant limited by available program modules. questions and tentative ideas as well as the Here, wc probably need a reorientation of ones that claim to have definitive answers. what computer-generated visual images ought to look like.Perhaps they should 4. That, while vigorously pushing not try to rival the lens-generated images, the new frontiers in the age of pixels, wc but rathcr create their own style of eye- beware of the ever-increasing visual percei ved, orbrain-perceived, pollution and that we establish an ecology environments.It is up to us to identify that helps to keep our visual environment new aesthetic parameters and codes of relatively smog-free, prevent visual virtualrealitythatarcstructurally apathy, and that help us see and feel with appropriate and unique to this ncw heightened awareness and joy. medium and its communication functions.

19 A Call for Visual Literacy 9

5. That we always use visual media 6. That we always temper our with prudence and responsibility, and enthusiasm for modern technology with a within a basic ethical framework. And, sense of history and purpose, and finally, analytical thinking with true understanding and compassion. ANALYZING THE CONTENT OF VISUAL MESSAGES: METHODOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS by Robert K. Tiemens The visual image is so rich, so 1988).Nevertheless, these studies abundantly loaded with information, that it demonstrate how empirical treatment of the is impossible to describe or codify its data can enrichthe analysis and content in any complete way.The interpretation of visual content. seemingly simple task of analyzing a 30- second television commercial which may One might suspect that to reducc a contain hundreds of images (depending on visual image to an array of empirical data, how the unit of analysis is defined), can based on a discrete number of categories, become a massive undertaking. Those would compound the difficult task of who are engaged in the study of visual capturing the essence of the visual communicationunderstand how message. In fact, the opposite is true. By impossible it is to construct a verbal reducing the visual data to a set of description of a visual message.Visual numbers, we often expose characteristics images must be seen to be understood and of the message that are obscured by the appreciated. massive amount of information contained in the images themselves. The richness of the visual image can often conceal many of the relevant features There are two major obstacles in contained in a visual message. Even the using a content-analysis approach to study trained critic or observer sometimes visual images.First, the simple task of overlooks the subtle use of production coding visual data can become extremely techniques because of the overwhelming time-consuming due to the vast amount of amount of information that the visual information that visual images contain. message contains. The researcher must, therefore, avoid the temptation to code everything and be This paper is concerned with how discerning in establishing the parameters the content of visual communication text that will guide the analysis. Second, even can be systematically coded and analyzed. a reasonable number of coding categories The paper sets out to achieve three can produce an immense amount of data, objectives: (a)toidentifyspecific and the subsequent analysis of the data can production variables that shape the visual be unwieldy. message--variables that give the message its form, (b) to operationally define and V/Z: An Interactive suggest a rationale for observing and Computerized Coding Program analyzing those production variables, and (c) to describe the development of an VIZ isan interactive computer interactive computer programthat program designed to facilitate the coding facilitates the systematic coding and of visual data. The program is still in thc analysis of visual data. development stage, but several prototypes have been completed and tested. Systematic analysis of visual content has received limited attention (Avery & VIZ presents a series of screens Ticmens, 1992; Barbatsis & Guy, 1991; calling for the input of data for each Barker, 1985; Mayer le & Rarick, 1989; variable. As thc data arc entered thc Porter, 1987, Tiemens, 1978, 1979; program automatically advances to the next Tiemens, Sil lars, Alexander, & Werling, screen. That is, when a code "1" that Analyzing Visual Messages 1 1 represents a category is entered atthe The relative duration (length) of a shot keyboard, the program automatically reveals two things:First, it indicates the advances to the next screen. Thus, only degree to which visual details of an event one key stroke is needed to enterthe datum are emphasized. The longer a visualimage which expedites greatly the process of remains on the screen, the more dominant coding. it becomes; and the cumulative time which an image is shown (combined formultiple As the data are entered, a description shots) becomes a useful index for of the shot according to each code, is comparing and contrasting visual content. printed on the top third of the computer screen allowing the coder toconfirm its Second, shot length determines the accuracy. When all data havebeen entered cutting rate of visual pacing of a mediate and confirmed as being correct, the event. Zettl (1990) calls this manipulation information for each shot is written to a of cutting rate tertiary motion and suggests sequential data file on the computer disk. that it can heighten the intensity of an event This data file is formatted in such a way and influence the viewer's perception of that it can be used in any standard whether the event is fast or slow. Penn statistical program. (1971) has shown that cutting rate can affect the perceived potency of an activity FigureI shows a representative of shot content, particularly when persons screen from the VIZ program.The are depicted in the scene. example illustrates how the selection of Medium Shot as a descriptor for camera VIZcalculatesthe length of framing leads to a sub-category (presented individual shots (in seconds) by simply through a pop-up window) that prompts subtracting the beginning time of one shot the coder to enter the number of persons from the beginning time of the next shot. shown in the shot.The figure also Thus, codingofshotlengthis illustrates how a summary of the coded automatically calculated from a minimum information is recorded on the screen. amount of information that the coder enters.2 A useful technique to facilitate the Table I outlines the basic categories codingof shot length is to insert or that are included in the coding program. superimpose time-code markers on video Each of these categories identify specific tapes that are used for analysis.This production variables that represent various formal qualities of a visual message. Each of these categories constitute a different through movement of the objects within routine in the VIZ coding program. A the frame or movement of the camera. more complete discussion of eachvariable Therefore, the VIZ program relies on an and the rationale for using each variable in operational definition of shot as a change the coding program follows. in the visual content of framing of the screen image. Production Variables 2Typically, shot length is recorded in Shot Length number of seconds, though shorter units of measurement are possible and may be The shot is the unit of analysis that is more suitable for coding some kinds of typically used to study visual content.' visual content.Some television spots incorporate shots that are less than 1/2 second in length. In analyzing the content IAshotisusually defined in of these messages it may be more useful to traditional film terms as the continuous, code shot length by the number of uninterrupted filming by the camera. television frames. The present version of However, this definition does not account VIZlimits coding of shot length to for changes in the visual content that occur seconds. 12 Verbo-Visual Literacy

procedure allows for very precise coding between shots; that is, how two visual of shot length (to 1/30th of a second, if images are related. Visual transitions, like desired. shot length, influence the visual rhythm or pacing of the event. A cut produces a Transition quick and abrupt change from one shot to the next. Combined with shots of short Transitions define the relationship duration, cuts heighten the fast pacingor Figure 1.Representative Screensfrom the VIZ Coding Program

LAST SHOT CODED (ABC) #248 25:42 CLOSEUPOBJECT(S) not Number 3 Time: 25:47 CUT

OMSHOT COMPOSITION Camera Framing: 1. COVER SHOT (Faces or details not distinguishabla) 2. WIDE ANGLE (Generally,more then 6 persons, signs, etc.) 3. MEDIUM ANGLE (Framed at about the vaist) 4. CLOSE UP (Shot includes person's shoulders) 5. EXTREME CLOSE UP (Shoving face only) 6. CLOSE UP FOREGROUND, MEDIUM SHOTBACKGROUND /NM

LAST SHOT CODED (ABC) #248 25:42 CLOSEUPOBJECT(S) Shot Number 3 Time: 25:47 CUT Framing: MEDIUM SHOT Nom SHOT COMPOsrnoN Camera Framing: 1. COVER SHOT (Faces or details not distinguishable) 2. WIDE ANGLE (Generally,more then 6 persons, signs, etc.) elm MEDIUM SHOT

Hov many persons axe shovn in the shot?

This example illustrates how VIZ guidesthe researcher through the codingprogram. Coding of thc visual imageas a medium shot (code 3) prompts the coder toenter the number of persons shown in the shot. If the shotis coded as an extreme close up (code 5), the pop-up window would notappear since the ECU is defined as showing onlya person's face. Instead the program automaticallyenters a "1" for the number of persons shown. 23 Analyzing Visual Messages 13

Table 1.Categories for Coding Visual Information

1.Identification of segment (e.g., shot number) 2. Shot transition a.Cut b. Dissolve c.Super Imposition or Long Dissolve d. Special effects (e.g., wipes, flips, etc.) e.Camera/lens movement, movement of subject or object 3. Length of segment (in seconds) 4. Camera framing a.Cover shot b. Wide angle shot c.Medium shot (1) Number of persons shown in the shot d. Close up (1) Number of persons shown in the shot e.Extreme close up (only one person shown) f.Close up foreground, Medium shot background 5. Camera treatment a.Objective camera treatment b. Subjective camera treatment 6.Vertical camera angle of person(s) shown 7. Vector orientation (camera position relative to person(s) shown) 8. Camera/subject motion a.Static (no motion) b. Subject movement (1) Movement along the Z-axis (2) Movement only along the X-Y axis (3)Direction of movement not relevant to the shot c.Camera movement (1) Zoom in/out (2) Dolly in/out (a)Uses Z-axis staging (b) Does NOT use Z-axis staging (c)Z-axis not relevant to the shot (3)PaniTilt (4) Boom, truck, etc. d. Subject + Camera movement (1) Uses Z-axis staging (2) Does NOT use Z-axis staging (3) Z-axis not relevant to the shot 8. Shot content a.Primary Category (1) Sub-category 1 (a)Sub-category 2 (1) Sub-category 3 b.Etc. c.Etc. 14 Verbo-Visual Literacy tertiary motion of an event. Dissolves, on to branch to a sub-routine that allows for the other hand, have a more fluid quality the coding of more detailed information and tend to slow the pace and convey a (see description under the subheading of more relaxed mood. In addition, Motion). dissolvescreate a momentary superimposition which visually blends Camera Framing two images together. Camera framing alters the relative Long dissolves (i.e., 2 seconds or size of an image within the defined space longer) strengthen the connection or ofthe television frame, thereby visual association between two shots. As influencing the visual emphasis or one shot slowly blends into the next, the intensity of the image. Closeups create visual images are fused together into a greater intensity and give the image composite image, emphasizing the greater importance by directing the relationship between the visual content of viewer's attention to eventful visual the two shots. VIZ records super detail. Wide angle shots, on the other impositions and long dissolves as a hand, diminish the relative size of separate category so that the researcher persons or objects shown on the screen can examine these instances more closely. and thus de-emphasize their visual importance. Wipes, flips, rotations, squeeze zooms, and other electronic transitions Labels used to describe camera can impart special connotations of how framing (e.g., close-up, medium shot, two images are related. An electronic flip, wide-angle shot, etc.) are relative terms for example, could show a contrast andaresubjecttoindividual between visual images suggesting that interpretation. Therefore, in coding such they represent dichotomies or opposing data it is useful to have more complete points of view.Similarly, Zettl (1990) descriptions so that camera framing is demonstrates how a wipe presents the consistently defined for each shot. VIZ image of the new shot pushing the old includes the following descriptors to aid one off the screen. In this manner, the coders' judgments: wipe can suggest the replacement of one concept by another, visualized by Cover shot (faces or details not pushing away one imagc and replacing it distinguishable) with another. Wide angle (generally more than 6 persons shown on the camera movement, lens movement, screen) and subject movement often alter the Medium shot (person shownon visual content or makeup of the screen camera framed at about image. For example, a closeup image of the waist) a person or object may be interpreted Closeup (shot of person shows differently whcn the lens zooms out to his or her shoulders) reveal the context of that image or to Extreme Closeup (shows only the show thc juxtaposition of another person person's face or less) or object. V/Z treats camera movement Closeupforeground, Medium shot or lens movement as a traditional device, background marking the end of one shot and thc beginning of another. Of conise, these If the shot is coded as a medium changes can be ignored by the researcher shot or closer, VIZ prompts the coder to whcn analyzing thc raw data produced by enter the number of persons shown on the coding program. camera. This becomes useful for identifying two-shots or other groupings Entering the choice of camera or that might be relevant to the visual subject movement also cause the program analysis. Analyzing Visual Messages 15

Alternatively, visual aids such as When we look down on someone, the one shown in Figure 2, can be used to figuratively as well as literally, we illustrate more explicitly variations in place him or her in an inferior camera framing. Aids such as these position.He or she becomes reduce the ambiguity that is inherent in Kibordinate, recessive, smaller than the traditional nomenclature of camera we. ...We look up to people we composition, and help to increase the respect, who occupy a higher reliability of coders' judgements. position in society, who tower aboveusintellectuallyor professionally. Similarly, when a director places the camera below eye level, looking up at a character, that character assumes a position of dominance,ofstrength,of importance. (pp. 183-184) There is considerable empirical supportforArmer's explanation (Kepplinger & Donsbach, 1990; Mandell & Shaw, 1973; McCain, Chilberg, & Wakshlag,1977; Tiemens,1970); however, as Kepplinger (1991) poim.c out: Figure 2.Visual Diagram to Facilitate Coding of Camera ..research in this area does not Framing show a consistent effect for specific camera angles. .. .The codes Camera Treatment activated by camera angle are no doubt interacting with other codes Most often the function of the that are simultaneously processed. camera is to observe the event, in which Together they construct the meaning case it is used as an objectivecamera. and effect of a particular shot.(p. The viewpoint of an objective camera is 32) as an unseen observer and the persons seen on the screen seem unaware of its Vertical camera angle becomes presence. Subjective camera treatment particularly relevant when two persons occurs when the person or persons are shown on camera, as in an over-the- shown on screen look at or talk directly to shoulder shot. In such instances the the camera. In this case, the camera no vertical positioning of the camera will longer observes the event but rather determine the relative screen placement of participates in the event. The camera, and the two persons shown in the frame and consequently the viewer, becomes more thus give one person a visual advantage directly involved in the screen event. over the other. The person whose image Objective/subjective camera treatment is is higher in the frame generally takes on a an optional coding category in the VIZ greater dominance and creates the illusion program. that he or she is looking down (literally and figuratively) on the other person. Vertical Camera Angle This phenomenon was clearly evident in the 1976 and 1988 presidential debates Armer (1986) describes how the (Tiemens, 1978, 1989). vertical camera angle influences our perception of a person shown on the The VIZ coding program offers the screen: following choices for coding vertical camera angle of a shot:

BEST COPY AVAILABLE 16 Verbo-Visual Literacy

High camera angle (Camera looking shots show the two individuals facing the DOWN at same direction, it suggests that one subject) person is looking away from the other Medium camera angle(Camera (continuing vectors).Zettl (1990) positionedat illustrates how, in a public speaking EY E LEV EL) event, the vector combination maintains Low camera angle (Camera looking an expected speaker-audience relationship UP at subject) if shots of the speaker and the audiencc Camera angle not applicable produce a convergingvector combination. Vector Orientation The V/Z program treats vector The degree to which televised orientation as the relationship between events are visually unified and coherent is camera position and the person(s) shown the result of how vector combinations on camera. The program presents a maintain an appropriate pattern of screen graphic illustration to facilitate the coding direction. For example, a cioseup of a of this data (see Figure 3). By analyzing person facing screen-left juxtaposed with the vector orientations of juxtaposed a shot of another person facing the shots, the researcher can establish the screen-right show convergingvectors instances inwhichatelevised and suggest that the two are looking at or presentation uses converging or interacting with one another.If both continuing vectors. Figure3

LAST SHOT CODED (ABC) #121 23:14 CLOSE UP-- DELEGATES/ FLOOR AUDIENCE Shot Number 13 Time: 23:21 DISSOLVE Framing: MEDIUM SHOT 2 PERSONS SHOWN Shot Content: DELEGATES1FLOOR AUDIENCE Demographics: WHITE, MALE, 35 YEARS AND YOUNGER HIGH CAMERA ANGLE (Camera looking DOWN at subject) um CAMERA POSITION 1. Front 2. Left Front 4 6 3. Left Side 4. Left Back 3 7 5. Back 6. Right Back 7. Right Side 2 8. Right Front

Graphic aids can be presented on the screen to facilitate the coding of data.In this example, thc diagram illustrates the camera position (relative to the subject being show) to code vector orientation. Analyzing Visual Messages 17

Motion Shot content is a crucial variable in visual analyses. The relevance of other Motion is a particularly relevant variables used in the coding scheme is variable because it attracts our attention often found in how they interact with, or more than any other visual element. are used to define the visual content of a Thus, we usually attend more to what is shot. The categories that one can use to happening on the screen when the image classify visual content are endless and is moving.Of course, this could be must be chosen on the basis of the detrimental if the motion detracts from the specific research questions. point of the message; i.e., it can create communication noise. The coding program allows for eight general categories of visual content. Zettl (1990) classifies motion Beyond these categories, three additional according to three distinct types:(1) sub levels of categories can be included primary motion,the movement of with a maximum of six categories in each subjects or objects in front of the camera, sub level.Thus, if human subject (2) secondary motion, movement induced represents a general choice for shot by the camera or lens, and (3) tertiary content, sub levels may include gender, motion,the movement and rhythm race, or age of the person shown on established through editing.3 camera. An important element of primary Practical Considerations and secondary motion is the axis along and Advantages which the motion occurs.Zettl (1990) notes that motion along the z-axis (toward An interactive computer program, or away from the camera or along the axis such as the one described here, offers a that the camera is pointing) is particularly number of advantages for content advantageous on the small television analyses of visual media. An enumeration screen and creates one of the strongest of some advantages follows. indicators of depth. Thus, any coding scheme that includes motion as a primary A primary advantage of the v -.liable should classify that motion technique is that the process of coding is according to whether it or not it occurs much faster.Because each category is along the z-axis. represented by a single screen (or pop-up windows within the screen), there is no Figure 4 shows how the coding need for complicated coding sheets. program accommodates the classification Entering a code for each variable is of different levels of camera and subject accomplished by a single key stroke and movement.If subject movement or the laborious task of writing numbers by camera movement are important variables hand on a coding sheet is eliminated. the program cues the coder for more When a code is entered, the program detailed descriptions of the movement, automatically advances tothe next including whether or not the movement category. occurs along the z-axis. The ease and efficiency of entering Shot Content data arc also facilitated by having the program enter some data automatically. For example, each unit of analysis (in this case a shot number) is identified and 3Tertiary motion is operationalized entered to the data file automatically. basically by the length of shots in a video Siinilarly, the variable of shot length is segment. For that reason I have included calculated by the program and entered the concept of tertiary motion under the into the data file automatically; the coder general heading of shot length.

6Pi 18 Verbo-Visual Literacy

Figure 4

LAST SHOT CODED (ABC) *248 25:42 CLOSE UP--OBJECT(S) Coding Shot *249 at 25:47 Medium Shot 2 persons Female High Cemera Angle Front left = MOTION WITHIN THE FRAME 1.Static (no molion) 2. Subject Movement 3. Camera Movement 4. Subject Movement + Camera Movement

LAST SHOT CODED (ABC) #248 25:42 CLOSE UP--OBJECT(S) Coding Shot *249 at 25:47 Medium Shot 2 persons Female High Camera Angle Front left MOTION WITHIN THE FRAME 1.Static (no motion) 2. Subject Movement 3. Camera Movement SUBJECT + CAMERA MOVEMENT 1. Zoom!dollyin 2. Zoornidolly out 3. Pan 4. Tilt 5. Other (e.g., boom upldovn, truck, etc.)

LAST SHOT CODED (ABC) #248 25:42 CLOSE UPOBJECT(S) Coding Shotit249 at 25:47 Medium Shot 2 persons Female High Camera Angle Front left MOTION WITHIN THE FRAME 1.Static (no motion) 2. Subject Movement 3. Camera Movement -= SUB JECT + CAMERA MOVEMENT 1. Zoom/dolly in ZOOM/DOLLY OUT T1.Utilizes z-axis staging 2. Does NOT utilize z-zxis staging 3. Z-zxis not relevant to shot

Sub-categories of coded information are presented by windows. In this example, three levels of information about motion arc presented. Organizing the categories in this fashion helps the coder to proceed in a logical manner from one step to the next.

29 Analyzing Visual Messages 19 only needs to enter thc ending time for Finally, we must recognize that an each shot.4 empirical analysis of visual content is simply one approach toward interpreting VIZ can be programmed to skip the text of televised messages and cannot categories which are not relevant and stand by itself.Empirical analysis of automatically enter a zero data code. For visual content must be accompanied by example, if a shot is coded as a cover other, more qualitative, methods of shotthe program willskip those interpretation.It has the advantage, categories that call for close-up detail however, of rendering a complete and (e.g., number of persons in the shot; objective picture of what the visual gender, race, or age of persons shown in images contain. A tremendous strength the slot, vertical camera angle, etc.). of the content analysis approach, as suggested by this paper, can render The program prohibits codes which tremendous insights by revealing nuances are out of range from being entered, thus that are otherwise overlooked. As such, it reducing the likelihood of miscoding the can enhance our understanding and visual material.For example, if the interpretation of visual messages. maximum data code is 6 and the coder enters a higher number, the program will References sound a beep, alerting the coder that a different code must be entered. Similarly, Armer, A. (1986).Directing television the time marking the ending of each shot and film. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. must be greater than the ending of the previous shot, thus reducing the chances Avery, R. K., & Tiemens, R. K. of entering wrong data. (1992). Tracking the eye: An investigation of a combat Internal checks for reliability or photographer's visualodyssey. consistency of the data are built into the Feedback, 33(1), 12-15. program whenever possible. For example, if a medium shot is coded as Barbatsis, G., & Guy, Y.(1991). showing more than six persons within the Analyzing meaning in form:Soap frame, the program will remind the coder opera's compositional construction of that the shot should be classified as a "realness." Journal of Broadcasting wide angle shot and offer the opportunity and Electronic Media, 35, 59-74. to recode the shot. Barker, D. (1987). Television production Finally, a major advantage is that techniquesascommunication. the data are written directly to a disk file CriticalStudies in Mass which can be translated to a spreadsheet Communication, 2, 234-246. program or as a data file for a statistical programsuchasSAS,SPSS, Kepplinger, H. M. (1991). The impact MINITAB, etc. This avoids the step of of presentation techniques: writing the data by hand and then Theoretical aspects and empirical rekeying it for computer analysis. None findings. InF.Biocca (Ed.), of the data is coded by hand or in written Television and political advertising. form which further diminishes the Vol. 1 (pp. 173-194). Hillsdale, NJ: likelihood of coding errors. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Kepplinger, H. M., & Donsbach, W. 4The beginning of time of each slot (1990). The impact of camera is automatically recorded as the time at perspectives on the perception of a which the previous shot ended, but thc speaker. Studies in Educational coder does have thc option of entering a Evaluation, 16, 133-156. different beginning time. 30 20 Verbo-Visual Literacy

Mandell, L. M., & Shaw, D. L.(1973). relationships of camera angle to Judging people inthenews-- communicator credibility. Journal of unconsciously:Effect of camera Broadcasting,14, 483-490. angle and bodily activity. Journal of Broadcasting, 17, 353-362. Tiemens, R. K.(1978).Presidential debates: An analysis of visual Mayer le, J., & Rarick, D. (1989). The content. Communication Mono- image of education in primetime graphs, 45, 362-370. network television series 1948-1988. Journal of Broadcasting and Tiemens, R. K. (1979).The visual Electronic Media, 33, 139-157. context of argument: An analysis of the September 25, 1988 presidential McCain, T.A.,Chilberg,J., & debate.In B. Grombeck (Ed.), Wakshlag, J.(1977). The effect of Spheres of argument (pp. 140-146). camera angle on source credibility and Annandale, VA: Speech Communica- attraction. Journal of Broadcasting, tion Association. 21, 35-46. Tiemens, R.K.,Sillars, M.0., Penn, R. (1971). Effects of motion and Alexander, D. C., & Werling, D. S. cutting-rate in motion pictures. A V (1988). Television coverage of Jesse Communication Review, 19, 29-51. Jackson's speech tothe1984 Democratic National Convention. Porter, M. J.(1987). A comparative Journal of Broadcasting and analysis of directing styles in Hill ElectronicMedia, 32, 1-22. Street Blues. Journal of Broadcasting and ElectronicMedia, 31, 323-334. Zettl, H. (1990). Sight, sound, motion: Applied media aesthetics (2nd ed.). Tiemens,R.K.(1970).Some Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. ASSESSMENT OF THE VISUAL IMAGE IN FILM, TELEVISION AND THE NEW VISUAL MEDIA: RESEARCH DESIGN by James E. Fletcher

The visual image, whether a part of response to the environment rather than to the new visual communication media the image. Likewise, if the content of the technologies or of education in general, image cannot bedescribed Doses particular challenges for quantitative unambiguously, the researcher will not research. know which visual element should be credited with the effect measured in the The new media and education differ viewer. in the context provided for the image. In education the image is controlled by an Experiments-- instructor or by the designer of Sacred Cows or Bum Steers instructional environment. An institution-- the college or the school system--binds The experiment as a tool of scientific student and teacher into a common fabric. inquiry presumes a relatively well defined When speaking of visual media scholars domain of investigation in which scholars tend to understand and explain images have strong expectations asto the from the perspective of the institutions relevance of the measures employed. The which prepare and market image-bearing logic of the experiment is that a number of media. This distinction affects the conduct variables relevant to the phenomenon of research into the nature of the image as under study are held constant or controlled well. while one or more other variables are systematically manipulated and still others For purposes of this essay image measured for effect.Those variables will be defined as a presentation which is which are systematically manipulated are not part of the here and now of its called independent, while those measured audience: It represents a discontinuity in are called dependent (Fletcher, 1978). time and space from the immediate visual experience of the viewer (Fletcher, 1979). One of the first steps in assessing the To describe precisely the effects of some validity of an experiment is to assume that element of a visual image or series of the independent (manipulated) variables images the researcher must be able to have been systematically changed across specify (a) the institutional context in the experimental images to be presented to which the image is presented, (b) the study participants so that these changes-- distance in time and space from the image, and these only--may be taken as the reason to the time and space represented by the that viewers respond differently to the context of the viewer, and (c) the relative images. prominence of the image as a proportion of the total visual field of the viewer; (d) in Consider an example from the study addition, the researcher must be able to of image asymmetry.Asymmetry is describe the contents of the visual image in specified with relative ease: if right half of unambiguous fashion. image is not the mirror of left half, thenan imageisasymmetric.Zettl(1973) If the environment of the viewer identifies a series of factors whichmay cannot be specified, then the researcher make an asymmetric imageright will not know whether thc responses toan asymmetric or left asymmetric. They image in that environment is reallya include focus of attentiolpictorial weight,

3 fk.. BEST COPY AVAILABLE 21 Verbo-Visual Literacy magnetism of lite frame, index vectors. var v - variance due to study Most of these factors are difficult to apply environment unambiguously to images. Asymmetry var E- variance due to error and opposite asymmetry, on the other in measure X hand, are relatively easy to specify and affirm. As a consequence, validating two The part of the variance in the dependent images as asymmetric and mirror measure which is due to the study asymmetric may be a relatively simple manipulation must be isolated in the study. matter a photographic slide projected as it Each participant is responding with her or came from the camera and reversed left to his own peculiarities, for example. The right in a slide projector represent an effects of individual differences may be unambiguous manipulation of asymmetry removed from the liking measure by using (Metal linos, 1985). A manipulation much a large sample of participants where more difficult to validate would be that of differences will be less confounding. Or a images which must differ from 30 percent study design such as the repeated to 60 percent left asymmetric. measures design may be employed to remove this source of variance statistically. Experiments may not be particularly Or the sample may be recruited from effective in studying visual images until persons expected to have the same inherent there is a more complete catalog of biases in responding to asymmetric images dimensions along which a visual image (such as elderly left handed portrait can be unambiguously described. At the painters from Poughkeepsie.). same time, however, there are good reasons to employ some of the techniques The study design may remove the of experimentation in designs for the study influence of variance due to environment of visual images. by holding constantthe environment in which the image is presented.This is Elements of Study Design commonly done by conducting the studies in laboratory settings. One consideration One useful way of examining study among others is that the image occupies design is to consider sources of the the same segment of the visual field of variance evident in the dependent measures each study participant. (measures of effect upon an audience member or consumer) employed in the Variance due toerrorinthe study. Consider a study in which grade dependent measure is reduced to a .school students are asked to report on a minimum by selecting measures which arc five step like/dislike scale their liking of highly reliable, as indexed by a reliability various images presented by slide coefficient. The newer or more complex projector.The resulting judgments of the dependent measure, the more important liking provide a range of values for each it is that the research report include an image. The variance in this measure (X) estimate of its reliability. for any one of the slides presented in the study could be described by this model: If in a study of visual images it has been possible to control or account for var = var Xvar s var V var variance due to individual differences in study participants, variance due to the where var Ivariance due to image study environment and variance due to manipulation measurement error, the design is said to bc var x variance evident in sensitive,permitting the researcher to measure X equate a measured difference in response var s - variance due to unique to difference in images. qualities of the study participant 33 Research Design 23

Measures and Measurement direction of perceived asymmetry interacts Techniques with experience of the viewer, but that position of midline with respect to mass is An explosionininterestin a useful predictor of more attractive quantitative measures appropriate to study asymmetry. of visual images has occurred in the past two decades. Some of the new measures Magnitude estimation scaling works are the consequence of greater interest in best when participants are able to think visual images as a subject for study. about their judgments before recording Others are a byproduct of technology them and when a series of judgments are developed for other uses. Measures and required in the same study session.It is measurement techniqueswillbe appropriate to study of still images likely represented in this discussion by (a) to differ in subtle ways as judged by magnitude estimation scaling, (b) Cloze participants. It is not appropriate to such procedure, (c) multivariate measures of complex visual presentations as television feelings, (d) tachistoscope, (e) eye- or motion picture dramas. tracking, and (f) electrodermal recording. Cloze Procedure Magnitude Estimation Scaling The early development of Cloze Magnitude estimation scaling is a procedure was as a measure of readability method of soliciting audience judgments (Wimmer & Dominick, 1991). When while keeping restraints upon those employed as a measure of memory or judgments to a minimum (Mee land & recall, Cloze procedure is well suited to Kaplan, 1967). The study participant is television or film presentations in which asked to employ an interior standard for a specific memory of a rule or of an quality--attractiveness, for example. The argument are desirable goals for the visual participant may use any number system presentation studied. which comes to mind, so long as numbers increase as perceived attractiveness The instrument for Cloze procedure increases and to the same extent.Thus is a copy of the verbal text of the one subject may see Picture A as having an presentation in which one out of every five attractiveness equal to 1/4; Picture B as 10. words is removed. The study participant Another subject may judge Picture A to is asked to write in the missing words. have an attractiveness equal to 10, Picture The frequency with which blanks appear B to have an attractiveness equal to 3500. inthe copy can be varied by the The result is a set of numerical judgments investigator to make the task easier or from participants that go far beyond the harder. three to seven steps of common perceptual scales--at least in terms of power to The strength of Cloze procedure as a discriminate. measure of recall or memory is that it has high reliability. It works wellin When the responses are analyzed, combination with other measures when the the researcher puts each score in ratio to analysis will involve such multivariate the first judgment offered--yielding a ratio routines as factor analysis, multiple scale of attractiveness.In a study of the regression, discriminant analysis, or attractiveness of landscape photographs canonical correlation. presented in opposite asymmetries the measure was used to estimate whether Measures of Feeling "indexing vector" or position of midline with respect to mass of object of interest Few areas in the behavioral studies (Dondis, 1973, pp. 92-93), is the better have occasioned more literature or predictor of more attractive asymmetry. controversy than that of human emotion. Results (Fletcher, 1979) indicated that In many studies emotion is taken as a Verbo-Visual Literacy generalized state; in others, it is conceived Disinterested as a state of arousal with a cognitivelabel Agree 5 4 3 2 1 Disagree (Schachter & Singer, 1962). One of the Offended difficulties is that for study participants to Agree 5 4 3 2 1 Disagree identify which emotion theyare Suspicious experiencing, they must use language, and Agree 5 4 3 2 1 Disagree the use of language may change the Skeptical emotion either as it is experienced or as it Agree 5 4 3 2 1 Disagree is remembered. Uneasy Feelings An attractive alternative for capturing the affective reactions of viewers of Sad images is the measurement of feelings. Agree5 4 3 2 1 Disagree Recent work at Duke University has Uneasy developed a series of reliable scales which Agree5 4 3 2 1 Disagree reflect feelings as participants are able to Lonely share thcm. Unlike some other measures Agree5 4 3 2 1 Disagree these scales differentiate weak and Anxious mderately experienced feelings as well as Agree5 4 3 2 1 Disagree those that are intense (Goodstein, Eden, & Regretful Moore, 1989). The scales look like this: Agree5 4 3 2 1 Disagree Concerned Upbeat Feelings Agree5 4 3 2 1 Disagree Amused Scores on these scales are not only Agree5 4 3 2 1 Disagree reliable; they are relatively independent of Carefree other measures.In studies of image Agree5 4 3 2 1 Disagree composition they will provide good Cheerful discriminators of the overall effect of Agree5 4 3 2 1 Disagree changes in the relative position or Happy perspective of objects in the image. Agree5 4 3 2 1 Disagree Playful Tachistoscope Agree5 4 3 2 1 Disagree Silly The tachistoscope--a device for Agree5 4 3 2 1 Disagree controlled exposure to visual experience-- is widely used in psychology and in WarmFeelings reading research. A common form of tachistoscope appropriate for studies of Affectionate visual communication is a slide projector Agree 5 4 3 2 1 Disagree equipped with a shutter which when Hopeful activated allows a slide to be projected for Agree 5 4 3 2 1 Disagree a study participant. The activation Kind mechanism permits the shutter to open for Agree 5 4 3 2 1 Disagree a precisely measured period of time. Peaceful Agree 5 4 3 2 1 Disagree The idea is that the tachistoscope Warm allows the image to be seen in too little Agree 5 4 3 2 I Disagree time for the viewer to rationalize or plan an exploration of its parts.Thus thc first Skeptical Feelings exposure of an image might bc .1 second. After the exposure thc participant is asked Critical to report whatever she saw of the image. Agree 5 4 3 2 1 Disagree Then a second, longer exposure of the 35 Research Design 25 image is presented and the participant The record of the participant's exposure to asked, "What additional things have you the image is a videotape showing the now seen in the image?" (Dunn, Barban, location of the point of gaze as a cross. Krugman, & Reid,1990,P.489; Figures near the margin of the frame show Zikmund, 1989, p. 282). the relative diameter of the pupil of the eye at each moment. A cross representing the The data produced bythis point of gaze and other information are tachistoscope procedure are the mean shown superimposed over the visual accumulated length of exposure required image being studied. for a particular visual element to be reported as seen. The sooner that element The videotape is then subjected to is reported by study participants, the more analysis by computer. Important areas of prominent that element is considered to be the visual image being studied are in the image. designated as boxes. The computer summarizes the entire exposure of the The tachistoscopeis usefulin participant to an image by accumulating comparing images which are equivalent in such numerical indices as the length of purpose but different in the relative time before point of gaze reaches a prominence the designer intends to give particular box, dwell time or the some feature of the composition. The steps cumulative time during which the point of from one period of exposure to another are gaze rests in each box, the number and necessarily rough. Investigators bothered length of fixations in each box, the number by this limitation of tachistoscopes will and degrees of movement for each saccade want to investigate eye-tracking. in each box, the number and duration of all fixations in each box, and the average Eye-Tracking pupil dilation in each box.

Eye-tracking equipment is extremely This is a large volume of information expensive--so expensive, in fact, that most on the behavior of the eye during exposure investigators rent the equipment from the to a visual image. Unfortunately, science Applied Sciences Laboratories of falls short of the capacities of technology. Waltham, Massachusettsa part of MIT. We are not entirely sure, for instance, how the ratio of number of saccades to degrees Eye-tracking devices record the of arc movement in saccades are related-- movement of the eye as it scans an image. nor what such relationships imply about Most such devices do this by reflecting a learning or perception of visual images small light source off the flat spot of the (see Groner, Menz, Fisher, & Monty, corneum. This fine point of light is then 1983). superimposed upon a video representation of the visual image viewed by the study At the same time, for an investigator participant. these detailed records mean that differences can be measured between In the early days of eye-tracking visual images that differ in relatively small studies the study participant's head was ways. It is also true that dwell time held in a sort of vice, or the participant typically enjoys a moderate to high was asked to bite into a wax mouthpiece to correlation to reports of recall and affect hold her head in a fixed position. related to the image. While eye-tracking studies have a history of nearly a half The eye-tracking apparatus of today century, relatively few have been is much less demanding of the participant. published.Most of these have been A television camera and light source to studies involving small samples.Large record the direction of gazc during studies with many images in the analysis exposure to the visual image is located arc now being undertaken, and the several feet away from the participant.

3 C 26 Verbo-Visual Literacy technique is one that should interest (1) message features that to the students of visual images in the future. individual are unpredictable (because theyarenovel, incongruous, Electrodermal Recording inherently uncertain, or greater or smaller than expected in some Electrodermal recording--measuring respect); (2) message features that electrical changes in the skin--began more imply an obligation to act, either than a century ago (Neumann & Blanton, mentally or physically (because the 1970).The preferred electrodermal receiver's name is called; a reference measurement method today is continuous group norm is invoked; other recording of skin conductance (SC). previous experience involving threat or action is evoked); and (3) message In SC measurement two electrodes features that are directly at odds with are placed in a palm of the study the policies or states then governing participant. The electrodes are made of a the receiver's behavior. (p. 99) silver/silver chloride mix; they contact the skin through a low concentration saline gel Allocation of information processing (.5 % N NaCI). A tiny voltage (.2 volts) is resources is indexed by the moment-by- applied to the skin, and the ease with moment average of SC levels by the which the current passes is recorded researchof a number of digitally in a computer. psychophysiologists (Dawson, Filion, & Schell, 1989; Filion, Dawson, Schell, The skin of the palm is made a better Hazlett, 1991). This notion fits at least or worse conductor by action of the onedefinition of communication sympathetic nervous system in response to involvement: "Commitment of the central central nervous processing of stimulation nervous system to devote attention to a from the environment of the study message" (Fletcher & Shimell, 1989). participant. The mechanisms in the skin which respond to information processing When mean SC is measured as an are .the walls of the sweat glands which individual views the images of television become more or less permeable to the or film, it represents the capacity of the potassium ion--more permeable and more images to dominate the experience of the conductive as the individual takes in more viewer. When this average increases information from surroundings (Fletcher, during viewing, the images are having 1985). greater influence upon the viewer, and vice versa. So far as studies in the information processing of visual images is concerned, The prospect of SC measures applied thc most promising construct associated to studies of the imagery of new media with SC is that of the orienting response promises new understandings of the time (OR). This system of ideas was born in and persuasive vectors created by thc Russian neurophysiology (Sokolov, 1963) visualcomponents of multimedia and has been influential in the rest of the presentations, enhanced television and world in thc past two decades. Various virtual reality. The measures are highly indices based on the OR have been related reliable (reliability coefficients typically to common notions of attention and to above .9) and extremely sensitive. Their involvement or allocation of information application to the study of static images processing resources. The conditions in has not been extensive to this point, but in the perceptual environment ofan the few studies available the measures individual which give rise to changcs in have performed well when time of SC have been summarized (Fletcher, exposure was controlled across the 1985): sample.

3 Pig Research Design 27

Summary Intermedia: Communication and society. Durham, NC: Moore. While the objectives of quantitative research on visual images do not at the Fletcher, J. E. (1978). Empirical studies moment warrant the experiment as ofvisual communications: Some principal study design, the techniques and methodological considerations. Paper rigor of experimentation have great appeal. presented at the annual meeting of the Gradually the body of information about Speech Communication Association, visual causes and human effects will Minneapolis, MN. (ERIC Document justify a science in this area. Reproduction Service No. ED 166 737) Fifteen years ago an earlier paper on this topic ended with these words, Fletcher,.1. E. (1978). Physiological repeated here as a coda to this discussion: responses to the media.In J.R. Dominick & J. E. Fletcher (Eds.), But more important than new Broadcasting research methods (pp. measures and new procedures, new 89-102).Boston, MA:Allyn & curious eyes and ears need to scan the Bacon. exotic terrain of visual communication, finding in it not only a Shangri-La for Fletcher, J. E. & Shimell, J. (1989, mystic contemplation and scholarly October).Physiological indices of rapture--but a rational encyclopedia of communication involvement and inductively based generalizations which, attention in the analysis of broadcast when mastered, offer new views of human commercials.Paper presented at the capacity to share both personal insight and Association for Consumer Research, collective dream...how we got to be this New Orleans, LA. way.. .how we are shaping the visual universe...for our posterity.. .and for Goodstein, R. C., Edell, J. A. & Moore, our own maturity (Fletcher, 1978). M. C. (1989). When are feelings generated? Assessing the presence and References reliability of feelings based on storyboards and animatics. Dawson, M., Filion D., & Schell, A. Unpublished manuscript, Fuqua (1989). Is elicitation of the autonomic School of Business, Duke University, orienting response associated with Durham, NC. allocation of processing resources? Psychophysiology, 26, 560-572. Groner, R., Menz, C., Fisher, D. F. & Monty, R. A. (1983). Eye movements Dunn, S. W., Barban, A. M., Krugman, andpsychologicalfiinctions: D. M., & Reid, L.N. (1990). International views.Hillsdale, NJ: Advertising:Its role in modern Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. marketing (7th ed.).Hinsdale, IL: Dryden. Mee land, T. & Kaplan, R. L. (1967). Application of magnitude estimation Filion, D., Dawson, M., Schen, A., & scaling weights to reports of insurgent- Hazlett, E. (1991). The relationship inspired events.Report prepared for between skin conductance orienting USMACTHAI under supervision of and the allocation of processing OSD/ARPA RDFU-T (Defense resources, Psychophysiology, 28, DocumentationCenter No. 410-424. AD921305). Fletcher, J.E. (1979). The wordless Metallinos, N. (1985). Empirical studies dimension. In T. Gamble (Ed.), of television composition.In J.R. Dominick & J.E. Fletcher (Eds.), 28 Verbo-Visual Literacy

Broadcasting research methods (pp. Wimmer, R. D. & Dominick, J. R. 297-311).Boston, MA: Allyn & (1991).Mass media research: An Bacon. introduction (3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Neumann, E., & Blanton, R. (1970). The early history of electrodermal research, Zettl, H. (1973).Sight sound motion: Psychophysiology, 6, 453-475. Applied mediaoaesthetics.Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Schachter, S. & Singer, J. E. (1962). Cognitive, social, and physiological Zi km und, W. G. (1989). Exploring determinantsof emotion. market research (3rd ed.).Chicago, Psychological Review, 69, 379-399. IL: Dryden. Sokolov, E. (1963). Perception and the conditioned reflex (S. Waydenfeld, Trans.). Oxford: Pergamon.

31) A, L' 41- IS 1: 1 /( 'i")1141/IN A ".1 TA" -IN 1 1 I:" P I 17 Ei- 'HWY- Od.","1 I.-:sv EDUCATION IN ELECTRONICS: A MULTIMEDIA METAPHOR by George Cambourakis, Eleftherios Kayafas, Vassili Loumos and Ioannis Tsatsakis

Introduction tutorial systems, simulations, similarities, Education, by means of computers, metaphors, especially since CAI (Computer Aided knowledge representation. Instruction) was introduced in the late 50's, went through a lot of stages between Aiding tools are available by now, in success and failure and faced alot of order to build an educational environment criticism.After thousands of computer that simulates the tasks and the skills met installations in elementary and secondary in an electronics laboratory: schools (Price, 1991) and the relevant studies, educational software has been Circuit Analysis,Synthesis and enriched with important assistanc.: tools Simulation Software from multimedia technology. All these programs use sophisticated Great importance is given to the features developing complex circuits, definition of the educational material by which otherwise would require a great teachers themselves, something that in the effort. But as the complexity of electronic first steps of CAI applications had been design is increasing, the corresponding misunderstood. Today, nobody doubts the theoretical concepts are becoming more positive results of the computer's involved and complicated.From the involvement in education. Some of the student point of view, the effort spent in obvious advantages are: drawing lines, busses, etc., as well as learning basic and advanced theory is quite immediate access in every layer necessary, but also time consuming and of knowledge. very difficult to understand.Therefore, unlimited time of occupation, these sophisticated tools are not always flexibility in the choice of suitable as teaching aids for basic courses presentation media, compared in electronics and electronic design. with the traditional supervisory educational assistance tools, Mathematical packages for reduction of the educational time Formula Editing and Processing. One (Price, 1991). could proceed with these tools by constructing equivalents of transformation Education in electronics isa formula, and using them parallel with representative case that combines almost other applications. all the methods met in a CAI application, such as: Instrumentation synthesis and simulation, using special software and hypermedia/hypertext, hardware peripherals.It could be an drafting, animation, excellent assisting tool for simplifying the topology recognition (in the required materials. sense of connection analysis), drill and practice methods, Draftingtools forimage processing and enhancement . 41 31 Verbo-Visual Literacy

Context-sensitive help markers, introducing novice students to electronics that can help the author in the construction through a computer environment, in a of hypertexts. form of experiment pages. Authoring tools and authoring This allows teachers to prepare languages. Although authoring systems effortlessly their educational material and are easy to use and can reduce dramatically the students to experiment on the behavior the developing time, a certain amount of of electronic circuits. They can change the time is spent in learning how to use them values of parametric elements and observe and how to build complex tasks, in which the output in a graphical window. The case, a third generation language would be application is composed of three discrete easier, faster, and much more flexible. modules: The Author, The Student, and The Examiner. Evolutionary database systems, using object oriented structures. The Author is an interactive module that facilitates the preparation of the Multimedia peripherals educational material, creates pages from implemented with the appropriate software images of electronic designs, organizes such as video controllers and sound them in a object- oriented database, and synthesizers. defines text parts from the above icons as parameters, in order to obtain further Programming these tools isnot calculation capabilities on transient always an effortless process. A certain formulae functions. capabi I i ty i n prog ram m i ng is requi red to connect and combine all these discrete The Student module contains an tools into an integrated and interactive introduction to the base theory of op- environment. amps, help utilities, examples, and reference educational sources.It allows On the other hand, such an the construction of user sessions in implementation using all these discrete conjunction with the desired skills taking programs as background processes would into account the user's capabilities and confuse the author and overcharge the knowledge.It enables the userto trainees with additional commands and experiment on preselected pagesby menus. changing the values of the electronic elements and observing the output. In this Furthermore, no simulation system way the user defined values are evaluated will familiarize the trainees with electronic as formal parameters in the transient circuits, as much as a real electronic formula.The result is shown in a laboratory,butsuchanapproach appropriate graphical window (virtual represents an inexpensive and very instrument). attractive solution. The Examiner finally creates a Architecture and interface design questionnaire on the logic of the circuit to have goals in common, to create active, examine the user's understanding of the attractive and operative environments. educational material. The module watches This principal will be kept in this paper. the user's achievement and degree of understanding. It controls the answers by Goals and Strategy scaled criteria and redefines the skill level by adapting the user's session to his According to the above thoughts, a performance. good approach is to build somc of these t(x)ls considering the level of utilization. Not all of the implementation We will use the chapter of operational depends on teacher's analysis, choice of amplifiers as a tutorial example in educational, material, and authoring. An Education in Electronics 33 effort should be made to solve the of the three modules in two development following problems. layers. These layers are authoring and programming, bounded by the criterion of 1.Database consistency against independence between programs and data. improper operations by novices. Authoring 2.Compatibility between various available peripherals (e.g., different screen The authoring layer is application resolutions, different CPU speed that specific and deals with the definition and influences the animation speed, etc.). implementation of:

3.Data exchange, while switching Data classification and structures between various tasks (considering the (e.g.,tables, indexes, trees, logicalsynchronizationandthe etc.). computation steps). Authoring tools required for 4.Standard approach for various importing and processing data tasks in order to reduce the required (forms, drafting utilities, etc.). amount of code. Forms of the lessons (nodes in 5.Automation as possible, of the multimedia terms). embedding and calling images, executable code, and other binary sources (MS Data capture for monitoring the Access User Guide). student's activities.

6.Configuration of the application Protocols for data exchange into a network. between modules. According to the above list, it was The diagram of Figure 1 is a representative essential to distinguish the implementation form of the Authoring Screen. Figure 1.Initial Screen of the Authoring Module

CZ Aulhore Module : Lesson Milker rsi get help en...remember whet te deformulasprobes...Quiz...wiles next =etifaielsnrsedf Fl...s'izz-=--'--.z... ---:...." a this portion of text is imported by the help utility from file menusine. Ibis file can be edited at any time . to reflect initial LESSON 8 L....,..;:,;,...1.....: directives both for leather and student module. LC ''1----1 Alf menus.titles and contents .in all modules are constructed at run time. by processing 11-:7:.:4-Irsi575. this fife. VOLTAGE CONTROL L'Azr. ONCILATOR 1.:=111. r ManR1 re tog)Vin C,''s

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As we can see in Figure 2, the related screen and background objects. metaphors refer to seven basic tasks: Circuits,visualformulas,formula A hypertext case sensitive help is processing, virtual instruments, assist, available through assist. Query and query-examination,and activity examination follows the predefined links acquisition. A further classification of data in a sequential order according to the skill processing (icons, text, and keywords) level. leads to icons tasks, hyper tasks, and context tasks. Activity acquisition is the task designed to capture the answers and Circuits and visual formulas consist estimate the level of understanding by of bitmap icons edited to improve their means of some explicit rules. appearance and facilitate hyper area boundaries definition. Programming Virtual instrumentation is based on The programming layer deals with Lab View® which allows the measurement definition and implementationof of a series of different parameters on the instruction sets and procedures. circuit, as well as their visualization. The instruction sets are used through In the case of formula processing, the three modules in such a way that input variables are linked with the common tasks can share the same code. appropriate icons of the visual formulas and circuits. That way, a new value of an On the other hand, procedures input parameter enforces updating of all automate standard database tasks, reduce

Figure 2.The Structure of the Application

REPRESENTATION SCI-Ek4A (ID LAIIMEW SOFTWARE

Somali circuit Bub Ilesuvmeil cakulalor The busses represent the communication between various procedures via global variables DOE (dynamic Data Exchange) is the standard communication =11 protocol in Windows 3.1 This allows values from one kee pre Icon pre kse pre penis. pestles module(windowl.to be passed amiable& sensate* verialiks to another application. Pin) 11 I. Medea emperghwe Header SupplierUser deft "I" eit3blial lige admie nest Lessens Nuristan MUMS Formates monitories instruments mlii DAA IASE SYSTEM Iparanieun 111*M I reveilles .carlise ter icon in skeet ovEcn

BEST COPY AVAILABLE Education in Electronics 35 interaction with the operating system, and 4.Establishes the communication implement the data exchange. with external applications (DDE method). In the center is the scheduler that Finally, at run time, the scheduler is performs all the necessary tasks that deal responsible for capturing the user's with the interconnections. It: activities (mouse movemetits, key strokes, etc.). 1. Retrieves information about users and the appropriate lessons, or According to an implied logic the stores constructed lessons. scheduler interprets these activities into a tabular information. Any change to this 2.Opens files and retrieves the information invokes the scheduler to check necessary objects related to that lesson. a table of values for integrity and to update the screen objects. 3.Gives the appropriate values and properties to the screen objects and at Figure 3 shows the database certain time intervals, updates global structure and allthe necessary links variables according to implied logic. between hyper areas, hyper-text symbols, and properties.

Figure 3.The Links Between Circuits, Formulas, and Instruments

LESSON 8 op-amp applications

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121 10 RES1 sae_l....108 \IR:gm ihMe R1 mister Velma iliffoi 01 01 copmitar0.001CAP1 saet'....LOS Vinatrunent AMMOnone V1 main*nonenom nom mgLOS %fink table

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BEST COPY AVAILABLE 36 Verbo-Visual Literacy

Implementation if clause filter :rnin(v1,v2)<100. and .skill=8: As it was previously mentioned, Assist is a hypertext case sensitive help then statement system. To improve its performance, text :continue=continue-5: is kept as items in a choice menu that organizes them in tree structure by means then message of menus and sub-menues. The titles of :it must be>.100 try again: items serve as context help for all the application. else statement :continue=continue +10: A very convenient way to implement a link between selected areas and their else message context can be done by using the hex code :good ! proceed with next: obtained from the selected (in sequential order) background color (see RGB column in Figure 3). These values (which must be Figure 4. A Script to Implement a reserved for hyper areas) can serve as an Simple Rule index in the symbol table. This method leads in a very fast and convenient hash The interpreter then is responsible to function. incorporate these instructions into the The hyper areas appear in checking loop, in the form of macros and increment tones of a color. proceed with the control. The student has to invoke the if clause filter examiner (questionnaire is opened at the lesson's session). Selected links and titles :coniinue>upperbound: (sec Figure 4) of questions are retrieved then statement according to skill level. The questions are presented to the student and he/she has to click inside the right hyper area as a then message response to the question, or he/she has to :excellent! skip this lesson calculate a result of a function a:id paste the answer in the calculator's box.The else statement professor decides if any help will be available to the student. The same table of links used for the association of hyper else messege areas and hyper text is also used for the examination. to vatch table The Acquisition task is designed to :USEIR-NAME8cammtwe: capture the answers and estimate the level of understanding by means of some Figure 5. explicit rules: Instead of considering a A Script to Record Student's Score particular programming approach, a more generalized structure is constructed.It By these means the teacher could behaves as an interpreter of key words and construct without effort his/her own rules, expressions cmbedded in a script file. withoutworrying aboutchanging These keywords include logical operators, programs or adding new ones.Also arithmetic operators, functions, directives, he/she can obtain additional information, and application variables (field names). A using the same structure, about user rule thcn could be constructed simply as a activities in a database table.As an line in the script file: example the above script file could contain a message for teacher purposes.

46 Education in Electronics 37

The Platform electronics, both for novices and advanced students. Attention was paid to MS Windows 3.10 with the therole of theteacher. Course utilization of DDE.Dynamic Data development time is reduced, to a exchange is a method supported by minimum, without the utilization of special MicrosoftWindowsoperating au tho ri n gtool sandprogramming environment that allows two independent languages. applications to communicate with each other in a client-server model and An effort has been made also to automatically exchange data . capture the user's activities in a flexible way so that a maximum interaction with MS Access®, as database system the application can take place, both for the for the examiner module implementation, teacher and the student, with the minimum MS Access Basic, as a programming tool effort in programming. for embedding user functions. References MS Visual Basic® for stand- alone modules. Laurel, B.(1990). The art of human- computer interface design.Addison- LabViewfor Windows® Wesley. (National Instruments Corp.), a graphical, visualprogrammingtool for MS Access user guide. MS Press. instrumentation (virtual instruments), such as signal generator (for drill and practice in Price, R. (1991). Computer-aided students module), formula processing (by instruction. Brooks, Cole. constructing background instruments as links to the formal parameters of transient Van Horn, R. (1989). Advanced functions). technology in education. Brooks, Cole. Utilization of some Windows libraries (DLL) for screen capturing and Waern, Y. (1989). Cognitive aspects of construction of screen images. computer supported tasks. Essex: John Wiley & Sons. Conclusions Waterworth, J.(1992). Multimedia In this paper we have demonstrated interaction with computers. Ellis an integrated environment for education in Horwood.

47 THE MULTIMEDIA FACTORY by Peter Capell

Abstract create the multimedia factory.We understand the elements required to Currently, multimedia systems suffer from engineer our systems, however, the acommon problem: complexity. process is still relatively undefined. We Nowadays these systems can incorporate a are on the brink of being able to number of elements: intelligent systematically construct what Wenger diagnostics, computer graphics, digitized (1987),describedasknowledge sound, digital or analog video, music, and communication systems. so on. Most systems are created ad hoc such that the development method is Yes, we certainlyhavethe discarded and forgotten soon after the constraints of limited resources and system is created. However, with the use deadlines for projects to weigh against any of existing technologies as well as those heady development efforts, however I do created in the development of the Piano not believe that itis resources and Tutor, multimedia system development can deadlines that are the actual constraints be given a significant boost towards limiting the vision of multimedia systems. becomi ng a production line process. Instead, I choose to blame the process. Here is why: Introduction In the 1980's there began in earnest Oneproblem indeveloping the development of intelligent tutors. instructional multimedia systems is in These systems could make simple structuring content. Most developers have deductions about the state of the learner the same types of questions: How do I and adjust teaching strategies or thc order the ideas I want to teach? What curriculum, or both, to fit the system's would happen if I put concept y before bestreasoning aboutthestudent. concept x? Oftentimes a large curriculum Unfortunately, the focus throughout the can be daunting and the order and period, such as Meno Tutor, Buggy, sequence of ideas is not obvious, or even Proust, and the Algebra Tutor (Sleeman & linear--maybe the student should choose. Brown, 1982; Wenger, 1987), often The Piano Tutor project went down these seemed not so much upon the learner as paths and produced software to cope with much as the pompous question of the complexity of the tasks involved--from "Where's the intelligence?" My view as an automated curriculum design assistance to educator and non-computer scientist was computer-screen graphics development. something like: "...it's just a computer The Piano Tutor's tasks were non-trivial program. It'sas intelligent asits because the curriculum consists of one programmer." Unfortunately, the question hundred lessons which are executed really was about proving something about according to thc student's accomplishment artificial intelligence more than making of as many skills that are considered as excellent learning environments. prerequisites to and objectives of the sct of lessons. All of this is not to denigrate the fantastic achievements of those systems. The byproducts of our development John Anderson's LISP Tutor exceeds the effort exist now as fully functional efficacy of classroom instruction by a large systems.It is my belief that thc toolset is margin (Anderson & Reiser, 1985).So currently advanced enough to permit us to far, thc Piano Tutor has been able to move 48 The Multimedia Factory 39 its limited sample of students through one there is still a question of what these tools year's worth of piano instruction (one are building.Most often the systems year's worth as judged by two professors being built are either exploratory or of music on the project) in less than a third prototypical--intended either as research of that time. projects of proofs of cutting edge technologies. Either that, or we have a In addition to the success of these mix of applications that are not really systems, there was the development of a stretching technology at all--point of new idea--using a computer as the purchase applications and buyer assistance modeling environment for specific learning guides that are little more than databases paradigms and theoretical examination. with fancy graphics. These systems are Computers became laboratories for the useful, however we need now to consider evaluation and testing of ideas in cognitive bringing what is now cutting edge into the science. world of the commonplace, and I believe we are currently on the verge of being able Besidetheseinterestingand to do so. profound developments in the intelligent tutoring community, was the continuing There are many important obstacles practical application of computers and to this notion having nothing to do with video to conduct training. The emergence available technologies, not the least of of affordable computer video technology which is money. The Piano Tutor cost created a whole new poradigm in video $200,000 per year for three years, not and computer-based instruction.For including three years before the project people in the trenches doing real training was funded which were used for and instruction, computer video provided foundation research, planning, and the an exciting new platform upon which to effort to obtain grant money. A bigger build simulations, surrogate travel, obstacle however is perception.I am surrogate worlds, and so on. We saw the hoping that we are moving towards a time Aspen Project, and Discovision and we when these environments will proliferate learned all about levels 0-4, struggling on their own, based on a common mightily to make sure we understood understanding of their value.In other them. Specifically,Ican remember words, it will be understood how to build holding to a mental model that level one them, and they will be built because their was less than level four until I met Ed value is taken for granted. Schwartz at the University of Delaware and saw a beautifully level one application In order for this wide ranging of videodisc in the music series developed understanding to happen, the proper mix there. There was a lot of excitement in this of elements must take place between the period where new doors were opening to diagnostic power of the intelligent tutor in machine-based education at unprecedented addition to multimedia and training-type rates. systems. And their needs to be a relatively standard process for their development. In fact the rate Of door opening has There needs to be a multimedia factory, not really settled down since, and this has consisting of the tools and methods to turned out to be somewhat of a deficit. build these complicated systems quickly Endemic to the information age is the with replicable success. profusion of options. Now we have DVI, CD-I, videodisc, digitized voice, and On the Piano Tutor Project, I believe MIDI. We have multiple possible we developed a few useful tools and made implementation platforms with multiple some discoveries that could prove useful configurations per platform. We have a in building the multimedia factory. Before variety of new and improved authoring I describe those, I willprovide tools as well.And while there is no background on what the Piano Tutor is. question that the tools have improved, 4 9 40 Verbo-Visual Literacy

Piano Tutor coordinate the display of the score (turn pages on the computer screen). The Piano Tutor is a multimedia workstation that teaches basic piano Although the practicing and teaching playing. The system employs real-time systems are separate components, each has music technology, expert tutoring, and similar software building blocks: videodisc.In developing the system, a curriculum analysis system was developed pattern-matchermatches, music to model the curriculum in order to test the performance with music score in integrity of its instructional design. real time,

The Piano Tutor operates in two digital recorder--records modes;as a teacher and as a silent keyboard performances in digital observer/evaluator during practice.In its form, Teaching mode, Piano Tutor guides students through a dynamically changing playback--plays recorded lesson path with appropriate interruptions keyboard performances, for suggestions and corrections.In its Practicing mode, Piano Tutor provides guidance without interruptions, providing performance evaluator--conducts students with graphic evaluations of their evaluation of student playing,among other capabilities. performance, Students may work with a teacher or by themselves, receiving expert piano score display systems--handles instruction at a pace set by their own all score displays, ability. intelligent decision maker-- Piano is composed of a computer determinestheappropriate connected to a velocity sensitive, piano lessons to execute relative to (MIDI) keyboard, MIDI synthesizer, and immediate student input from the videodisc controller. The computer serves keyboardand student as the controller for the workstation and as performance history, a music score display. The videodisc is used to provide detailed visual and verbal videodisccontroller--handles instructions, the keyboard is the student's video-disc interactions, input device, and the synthesizer allows the student to hear what heor she has accompanist--provides accompa- played. niment for any prerecorded score. In order to evaluate the student's performance, turn music score pages at the Thesystemprovides direct appropriate times, and accompanya instruction inits teaching-mode and student's playing, the system recognizes passive criticism in the practicing-mode. In and evaluates keyboard input. The MIDI the teaching mode, Piano Tutor actively interface reports the notes played, but the teaches new concepts, evaluates the heart of the system is the pattern-matcher. student's performance, and directs the The matcher allows the system to identify student's progress. The practicingsystem whcrc the student is in a score,even provides passive visual criticism to guide though he may be playing at varying rates the student in evaluating and correcting of speed and playing many wrong notes. errors without interruption during play. The information gathered by the pattern- matcher is used to evaluate the student's In teaching mode, Piano Tutor performance, accompany the student, and instructs beginning piano students in basic performance skills. The current curriculum

0 0 41 The Multimedia Factory provides approximately one year's worth model that helped us to determine whether ofpianoinstruction (Dannenberg, its prerequisite skills were always met in a Sanchez, Joseph, Saul, Joseph, & Cape 11, network of one hundred lessons.The 1990). problem is that Piano Tutor scores skills, not lessons.So by obtaining certain The Curriculum Analyzer skills, one gains access to new lessons.It is not easy to figure out in one's head Instructionaldesign foran however, whether or not there may be automated, non-sequential lesson planner hoks in the curriculum, where for example proved to be a solvable but non-trivial a lesson teaches a skill thatis not used by exercise (Cape 11 & Dannenberg, in press). any other lesson in thecurriculum, or Piano Tutor's strategy in coping with this where a lesson is cutoff from the rest of problem comes directly from the most the curriculum because its prerequisites basic principles of instructional systems can never be met. design (ISD), (Dick & Carey, 1985). Two of the most basic ideas of ISD are: The curriculum analyzer turned out (a) Students are evaluated according to to be central to the developmenteffort, observable skills, and (b) students must permitting us to create lessons and skills, fulfill the requirements of less complicated simulate them, and determine whether our skills before moving to a new skill. This curriculum was complete unto itself. It means that any lesson taught bythe Piano also showed the utility of the systems Tutor has prerequisite skills and an approach to instructional design in a very objecti ve. formalized way with practical results. Further, any system of like complexity Observable skills are distinguished will have to cope with this problem. We carefully in ISD to avoid the uncertainties believe that our method issound, of ad hoc curriculum writers who specify complete, and replicable for systems of their objectives with comments such as: high complexity with large number of "The student will understand how to read lessons. at the first grade level." The ISKmodel is an inherent challenge tothese kinds of Video vague goal statements requiringdetailed information such as: "What does The next most difficult problem in 'understand how to read at the first grade my area of the Tutor was theproduction of level mean?" The instructional systems a videodisc to accompany the100-lesson design expert will always want to see an set. We wanted only one videodisc, so operational definition for any goal there would be no need to change discs in statement.In our example, the ISD the middle of curriculum.Since the specialist will ask: "What must the student system would be executing lessons with do in order to demonstrate the ability to many possible orderings, thestudent could read at the first-grade level?"Will the potentially wind up changing discs again student have to read "War and Peace"? Or and again as the system would require will she only be required to read a few video stored on either of the two discs. sentences? ISD is all about specifying and And so our effort began to try to put as verifying learner behaviors as evidence of much as possible onto only one disc. their comprehension, and then adapting Hopefully this need will soon be oviated instruction to adjust to weaknesses. forever with DVI, CDI, or some other variant, but in our experience coping with In one sense,itiseasier to this issue we discovered some useful implement a model with ISD's rigor in a videodisc production techniques that will computer system because people rarely have implications no matter what the video have the fortitude to be as exacting as they storage medium. need to be. One instructional breakthrough for us was the development of an analysis 42 Verbo-Visual Literacy

We learned to script our lessons So What? individually and to time them. We had the scripts in electronic form, and so these This is the question that researchers were entered into a database. Perhaps the in any field should be asking at every most time-intensive aspect of video moment. The importance of any of the shooting is changing camera angles. elements described above is not contained Having each script in the database, we in any one of them, but in all of them asa encoded each paragraph with a marker as system. Currently there is an explosion to its angle.In other words, some going on in multimedia, especially in the paragraphs would be marked overhaul, use of digital video.Systems, such as others left side, and so on. This enabled "From Alice to Ocean" (Dannenberg, et us to run simple queries to the database to al., 1990), provide users with beautiful extract all the scripts with a side angle or graphics ani an interesting interface to all the scripts with an overhead shot for navigate, but we need not stop hcre.In example, enabling us to do the action and the future these beautifully crafted systems reading for each script cluster leaving the will incorpoyate user diagnosis and camera in position. This saved a lot of intelligent feedback. We now have the time. Given the modular nature of the elements in place to bring about what the system and the sheer number of lessons, early attempts at programmed instruction had we shot in script-by-script fashion could not--a truly gripping learning moving the camera in order accordingly, experience using the best of modern we would easily have spent weeks technology. accomplishing what took only three days otherwise. The Multimedia Factory Additionally, digitized voice saved And so what is the multimedia us cnormous amounts of videodisc real- factory? A factory is a cohesive set of estate because it permitted us to repurpose operations that are dedicated to the creation portions of thc disc just by silencing the and assembly of a finished product.In audio portion of the disc and playing the other words, lots of efficient operations digitized voice synchronized to thesame cooperating to produce some sort of videoasneeded. Without these widget. efficiencies and methods, our effort would certainly have been lost. Why a factory? As multimedia aficionados, we all want these efforts to Mixing Multimedia Elements succeed. It is an exciting technology that we know in our hearts is going to sweep Although there arc now many us into a future of wealth and happiness-- multimedia event schedulers on the or at least we hope. Our big obstacles arc market, this was not so when wewere creation and development costs--costs in developing the tutor. A member ofour resources, time, and money. My team wrote a multimedia timeline program argument is that we are still spending far that permitted us to integrate video, too much time on the inefficiencies of digitized audio, MIDI, andscreen learning curve, not because ofour graphics. The system provides theuser misunderstanding of new technology,nor with a timeline onto which eventsare because we are valiant explorers, but placed, so that at time zero,a video because of inefficiencies of process. presentation would begin, then a graphic on the screen appcars with accompanying On one hand wc could say we needa voice over, and so on. Thank goodness, factory to keep up with the tide of events. these systems are now widely availableas All of us have seen technologies that have commercialproductssuch as seemed to take inordinate amounts of time A uthorware TM. to develop--consider how long videodisc has been around. And so we need the 52 The Multimedia Factory 43 factory because of the obstacles to References progress that still haunt our efforts--cost, time, and complexity. We need the factory Addison-Wesley (1992, July). From to help us to quickly create modules that Alice to ocean. (Based on Tracks can be assembled into larger components. Davidson, R. Pantheon Books).

If systems go the route of greater Anderson, J. R., & Reiser, B. J.(1985). complexity as I predict, we will need the The lisp tutor. BYTE, 159-175. factory if only to keep up with the tide. But if things do not take off as I expect, Cape 11, P., &.Dannenberg, R. (in press). and we want to create the future, we will Instructional design and intelligent need to have the factory to convince our tutoring: Theory and the precision of funding sources that we can produce design. Journal of Artificial systems with broad functionality for hztelligence in Education, 4(1). relatively low cost. Dannenberg, R., Sanchez, M., Joseph, Conclusion A., Saul, R., Joseph, R., & Cape 11, P. (1990). An expert system for teaching The reason for my excitement at this piano to novices.IC:MC Glasgow moment in time is that I believe the world Proceedings(pp.20-23). San of multimedia and knowledge systems of Francisco, CA. this kind are at a point where they Will be manufactured as products instead of being Dick, W., & Carey, L.(1985).The explorations in and of themselves for systematic design of instruction. academic ends. There really has been a lot London: Scott, Foresman. discovered in the development of these video and computer-based interactive Slecman, D., & Brown, J. S.(Eds.). systems over the past ten years, and I (1982).Intelligent tutoring systems. believe it is now time for advances in their New York: Academic Press. creation to take hold. Wenger,E., (1987). Artificial And so the questions that will press intelligeace and tutoring systems. the multimedia community in coming years Mountain View, CA:Morgan & will bc the issues of defining process. Kaufman. How are these systems created? Which parts are gruesomely time consuming? How can we automate or standardize these? What willbe our general development strategy?

As a developer inthis field,I sincerely hope that we will be able to capture our lessons learned so that the process of multimedia development will become standardized enough that wc can consider more radical extensions including advancedintelligenceinstructional systems, and so On.I would like to see stunning interactive systems with the ability to provide instruction in complex domains so that students of thc ncxt generation cannot pull themselves away. We arc now at the point of departure. MULTIMEDIA AND MULTIETHNIC LEARNING: VISIONARIES AND ILLUSIONARIES by Ann Cunningham

Have you ever been at a multimedia workstation a multimedia station. A full- show augmented with a host of high-tech service Learning Resource Center director equipment where you thoroughly enjoyed may insistthat a true multimedia the show, but do not remember what it presentation requires a host of innovative was all about? And did you ever wonder technological tools such as a laser disc why that is? player, camcorder, voice synthesizer, video board, and audio board, in addition Chances are, the show was created to a computer workstation with a gigabyte by a team of equipment experts with a CPU and Super VGA monitor. flare for showmanship, but who lack expertise in visual communication and The simple truth is, multimedia learning. Today, many multimedia means a collection of two or more presentation techniques adopted for presentation mediums of any type. instructional purposes have similar format Generally speaking, a presentation and style. They somehow give a false medium is a vehicle (print/non print) or vision that the more glamorous the show, mechanism (projected/non projected) to the better for everyone. They are the deliver information.It encompasses a illusionariesintheeducational broad range of materials and equipment. presentation business. Role of Mediated Presentation In order to create an effective technology-based presentation,the Depending on the purpose and creator must have a clear vision on the targetaudience,technology-assisted many aspectsinvolvedinthe presentations may be categorized into development of a show. A visionary will three main types. They are: Show and identify characteristics of the audience, Show, Show and Tell, and Show and organize presentationcontent Sell.Although they may not have appropriately, and match them with the distinctive features which canbe technological tools best suited for specific identified as such, one can easily sense it information presentation. during the presentation through the narrator's tone of voice,type of This paper introduces the concept visual/special effects, and orientatioli of and role of multimedia presentation, and information. investigates implications of its uses and misuses in the learning environment. Show and Show usually shows off Additionally, guidelines are provided for their "stuff" without much thought in those who plan to integrate various types planning or goals to be achieved. The of instructional tools to enhance learning. main purpose of such presentations, often fast-paced attention-getting image Multimedia Defined sequences with upbeat soundtracks, but without noticeable script or verbal The term Multimedia is interpreted information, is to entertain or impress the in a wide variety of ways depending on audience.Demonstration shows are the interpreter's prior knowledge and prime examples. Thistypeof experience. A librarian may consider a presentation is rarely suitable as a tool to CD-ROM database installed at a computer convey instructional information.

54 Multiethnic Learning 45

Show and ml, on the other hand, efficiently with techniques selected by the has a story to tell or a message to convey. presenter. Therefore, it is imperative to The audience may or may not agree with examine positive and negative qualities of thc story or message, but that is entirely each medium to be adopted in order to beside the point.The topic of the ascertain the potentials and limitations. presentation may be on religion, politics, or other special interests and events.Its Figure 1.The Role of content and method can be instructional Presentation Media in Learning and it is widely used in classrooms, especially for young learners. INSTRUCTOR Finally, Show and Sell has a clearly defined purpose or objective.The presenter must convince the audience, and prompt an immediate action by having the audience agree with the message being presented. Commercials METHODS are prime examples of this type of (Teaching Strategies) presentation. Learning activities such as debates and panel discussions can be transformed into this type of presentation by emphasizing the importance of current issues of differing viewpoints. Teaching and learning is a cause and effect relationship between the MEDIA ) instructor and the learner.FigureI illustrates the role of various media in an educational setting where it can be utilized to support and strengthen the interaction between the instructor and the learner. Depending on the teaching methods and media selected by the instructor, the outcome could vary significantly. Teaching methods procedures selected to EVALUATION help learners achieve the prescribed objectives through internalization of information presented.Media, on the other hand, are vehicles that deliver instructions between a source and a LEARNER )) receiver.A particular medium may produce different results depending on learner characteristics such as the size of Figure 2 illustrates how a typical group, prior experience, and type of technology-based multimedia station is learning tasks. designed. This system,if adopted effectively, would accommodate both thc Multimedia as Instructional Media individualized and group instruction for a wide variety of learners and topics. More Instructional media is a set of tools often than not, the selection of thc or materials adopted for learning. Some technological tools are made by teachers technological tools are better suited for not based on the students' needs, but as a learning than others. While each medium way to substitute an unprepared lesson, hasitsadvantagesin conveying or a desperate attempt to stay current in information, not everyonelearns 46 Verbo-Visual Literacy the field of instructional technology. Visual Communication and Teachers sometimes feel left out by not Visual Learning becoming a part of all the hooplas in the marketplace, and try to 'dabble on' this Educators and presentation and that.Such approach will produce professionals are keenly aware of meager improvement, if any, in final virtuallylimitlesspossibiLties of learner achievement partly because it multimedia-orientedpresentations. relies on patchwork rather than holistic Nevertheless, just putting together a curriculum. show simply will not do in today's complex learning environment. We live Each ethnic group possesses unique in a Global Society where the instructor qualities in how they react and relate to must deal with a multiplicity of effects of different sources of information. Thus, socioeconomic, cultural, and linguistic there exists multiple learning styles within differences. Furthermore, certain groups a group of students who study the same of people may be less opted for, or learningcontent.Thismultiplicity intimidated by the gadgetry employed to generates compound effects on the make a presentation. learning outcome as each medium is added as a delivery tool for instruction. The majority of technology-based A visionary takes these factors into multimedia learning activities are consideration when designing and composed of pictorial images. Pictorial developing learning activities for a group imagesarethebasisofvisual of multiethnic learners.

Master Control Computer

(CD-ROM ) Laserdbe

LCD Display/TV Monitor

Large Group Instruction I. Computer Lesenlisc Workbook! VCR Terminals I CD-ROM Tests I Reviev Individualized Instruction (Workstations of Varied Setups) Self-Paced Individualized Perim Testing/Wrg/Assessment/Evaluation

Figure 2.Multimedia System

5G Multiethnic Learning 47 communication which influences visual should be in the form of handouts or learning. Therefore, to optimize visual reading material. learning, the presenter must be able to integratetools and materialsfor Information Indigestion successful visual communication between the information source and learners. Many of the multi-mediated instructions are driven by a nonlinear This can be accomplished only random-access information linking when the media reflects the accurate level technique through the use of an authoring of audience visual literacy because a tool such as Hypercard (Macintosh), picture that could be worth a thousand Link Way (IBM), or Toolbook.The words can also become a thousand techniques often lead to an excessive confusions if not presented appropriately. branching which cause the learners to This factor is especially important to become overwhelmed by the amount of consider in the areas where an influx of information offered to them. Hence, they newly arrived immigrant children begin become completely lost within a segment their schooling. of instruction.Worse yet, they are unable to relate one area of topic and While there are visual learners who subtopic to another.As a result, the can easily transfer pictorial images into learners are unable to digest the data verbal information, there are verbal being presented. learners who feel the pictures are in their way of information processing. As a Visual Noises consequence, somc individuals would rather read a book than see a motion When dealing with graphic images, picture to learn a story, direction, or the project/program designer should events.It all depends on how each avoid embellishment graphics (pure individual differs based on their prior decoration) whenever possible, especially experiences in terms of pictorial images with older audiences, because those and symbols. It is up to the presenter to images and symbols can become excess make a careful analysis and assumptions baggage or visuai noise in ones cognitive before launching a graphics presentation process. They are like a jumble of project. The following are some of the meaningless words that can be very aspects to be considered when planning a distracting. Embodiment graphics, on the visual learning activity. other hand, are pictorial elements that support and supplement the verbal Information Density nformation being accompanied, which are useful in clarifying similar concepts or The amount of information, either ideas. verbal or visual, in one projected visual (approximately 20 words per page or Instructional Design screen) or one presentation segment (approximately 20 minutes) should be Rather than selecting a medium and observed, to insure proper digestion of finding a way to use it, onc should focus presentation. Thc larger the number of on the learning content analysis and words or longer segment of the ascertain the level of complexity of the presentation, thc less effective the information. Among media buffs and presentation will become because the professionals, there is a tendency to make audience will lose interest and the ability simple things much more esoteric than to concentrate.Furthermore, projected they need to be by trying to present the presentation should be used to convey same information through a different key ideas and concepts.If additional medium. Such approaches often lead to information needs to be provided, it an overkill. 48 Verbo-Visual Literacy

Figure 3.Learning Content Analysis

LEARNING Will Audio CONTENT Help Recall? ANALYSIS No Yes

Will Pictorial Audiotape OR Help Recall? Other Activities: AciingiStege Reading Flashcards In Addition Discussion Posters Debate Bulletin Boards Demonsttation Fieldtrip (Audio Game Yes Necessary? Panel Discussion Slide/Tape Research Presentation Role-Playing Simulation In Addition Writing-- Essays [Animated Graphics Reports Necessary? Revievs

Yes

[(Videotape or Motion Picture Require Interactivity or Higher Motivation Yes

'NN (f\ Computer Softvere (Simulation) Graphics format Unavailable IIe.g. , Special Presentation of Internal Parts/Movement MULTIMEDIA Require Additional Database Linking Techniques( ././

Gagnd, Briggs, and Wager (1988) instruction. Figure 3, developed by the developed a flowchart to demonstrate author, which is based on Gagnd and his how certain types of medium can be colleagues' principles in instructional selected by examining the learning design, is a diagram that illustrates the content. Thcy provided a systematic criteria on how to reach the decision in approach in examining the efficacy of selecting multimedia as a delivery learner outcome through a careful mechanism. analysis of the design and development of 58 Multiethnic Learning 49

According to this diagram, it is make any student learn better unless it is entirely possible to achieve the sprre level carefully chosen based on various factors of learner achievement by usin; flash that make up the learning environment. cardsasopposedtoa computer drill/practice program.The use of Heinich, Molenda, and Russell computer software, therefore, should be (1992) made an in-depth analysis of the considered an alternative or supplement to systematicapproach wherethey the main teaching methods rather than for enumerated necessary stepstobe use in place of planned teaching activities. followed to deliver an effective mediated It is also important to note that there are a instruction.Designing and developing varietyofotherhuman-interactive mediated instruction requires a team effort activities that can be more stimulating, of experts from the instructional design, thought-provoking, challenging, realistic, v isualcommunication, teaching and cost-effective than media learning. community, and creative arts.The Technological media should be called for person in charge of the entire project only when necessary. development must have a clear vision of what will work. A similar approach to this process is known as Learning Task Analysis Conclus!on (Braden, 1988).He maintains that a person who designs learning activities On the contrary to many who needs to undergo a concept mapping by: believe that technological tools would (a) Examining the learners' cognitive and solve virtually all ailments of today's physical makeup, (b) juxtaposing the educational systems, insurmountable findings onto the learning events, and (c) problems have been created by not implementing content-specific learning knowing how to emulate the tools with tasks.This is a crucial procedure in specific learners. A key to the success in facilitating visual learning where visual- multi-mediated instruction is a clear verbal translation is to take place through understanding of each component. The meta-cogni tion. equipment is only as good as the individual who knoWs how to utilize it to Development of its full potential. Otherwise, the only Technology-Based Curriculum reflection of multi-mediated learning would be just the multiplicity of number There exists a consensus among of equipment utilized. theorists and practitioners that the current mediated instruction is in need of The process of selecting the most modification to accommodate growing effective media involves a careful analysis student populations with multifaceted of:(a) Learners' prior experiences, (b) multiethnic backgrounds.The main teacher competency ininstructional focus of thc technology-based education technology, (c) techniques in content should be an ideal matching between the organization, and (d) teaching strategies. learners, irructional materials, and tools In addition, an instructor or presenter that delivc r Jie most efficient learning. needs to make a periodic examination of (a) availability of equipment in working A plethora of research studies order, (b) trained personnel who can (Kulik, Kulik, & Cohen, 1980) support provide technical support for a complex such need by emphasizing the importance presentation, and (c) environmental of Instructional Design and Development. layouttoinsuresensibleseating Clark (1983) reiterated the fact that a arrangements,proper equipment presentation medium is nothing but a placement, and adequate supply of outlets delivery vehicle of selected information. and ventilation. It is up to the user (instructor/presenter) how to utilize them. Equipment will not 50 Verbo-Visual Literacy

Figure 4.Development of MediatedInstruction

PLANNING PRODUCTION PRESENTATION

Learning Styles: Information Preparation: Sequencing:

Learner Hierarchical Order Reviev and Characteristics Priority Rehearsal Teaching Screen Display Execution: Strategies Media end Methods Graphics Design Well-Trained Staff (Visual vs. Verbal) Professionalism Shovmanship

Environment: Text Alternative Segmenting: Plans:

Classroom Support Information What ifs Systems Chunking (Backup Activities)

Figure 4 is organized as a review of Blacksburg, VA: International Visual what has beek. discussed, and to give an Literacy Association. overview of the entire process in the Clark, R. E.(1983).Reconsidering developmentoftechnology-based research on learning from media. learning. The process consists of the three Review of Educational Research, main steps:Planning, Production, and 53(4), 249-262. Presentation. An important phase, Evaluation (Formative and Summative) Gagné, R. M., Briggs, L. J., & Wager, may be added to this illustration.The W. W. (1988). Principles of purpose of this step is to examine areas to instructional design. New York: be improved or eliminated (partially or Holt, Rinehart, & Winston. entirely) in future presentations. Heinich, R., Molenda, M., & Russell, J. References D.(1989).Instructional media and the new technologies of instruction Braden, R. A. (1988). Task analysis for (4th ed.). New York: Macmillan. visual-verbal cross coding learning 4 tasks. In R. A. Braden, D. G. Kulik, J. A., Kulik, C. L., & Cohen, P. Beauchamp, L. W. Miller, & D. M. A. (1980). Effectiveness of Moore(Eds.),About visuals: computer-based college teaching: A Research, teaching, and applications. meta-analysis of findings. Review of Readings from the 201h annual EducationalResearch, 50, 524-544. conference of the International Visual Literacy Association(pp.73-78). 60 THEREWARDS OF VISUAL LITERACY: AN ARTIST'S PERSPECTIVE by Deborah Curtiss

Introduction shared concept of this complex and fascinating topic. In 1972 when Ibegan teaching drawing and painting at the Philadelphia What is Visual Literacy? Museum of Art, I was startled by my students' inability to talk about visual As with all things visual, visual experience or to understand me when I literacy by nature defies exactitude, but in spoke about possibilities of visual coming to terms with it,I and others expression.Word and image seemed borrow from the accepted definition of more in conflict than as twocooperative verbal literacy: the ability to speak, read, realms of inquiry.Thus my research and write a language.If we accept the began into what I eventually learned to be premise that visual statements--whether in a significant part of visual literacy.The theformofpaintings, sculptures, courses I developed and taught,and the buildings, park-spaces, ordinary objects, book I later wrote, were mutually posters, films or videos--do communicate, reinforced by, and reinforcing of, my the model serves us well. Let me explain. work at the easel.I found visual literacy and all its ramifications to empower all of Seeing objects,so to navigate my studio and classroom work. It ourselves in the world without bumping awakened me to new ways to think about into them, entails a constant visuospatial visual experience, for example, to dialogue between us and common reality. recognize the gap between intent of the This process is as basic to us as is maker and the message received by the speaking--most of us walked before we viewer. I became not only more accepting talked. Navigating in the world, therefore, of differing interpretations, but encouraged may be considered the visuospatial analog them. of speech. The abilityto receive communication from visual statements, Thus, as an artist,I came to whether it is information, ideas, or esthetic understand visual literacy by an indirect fulfillment,soto understand and route. While I consider that my study of appreciate visual expression, can similarly the topic has been life long, and I began be regarded as analogous to reading. The formal art training at age 17, I did not learn ability to create visual statements in at least the term, visual literacy, until 1977 when I one medium--whether asbasicas discovered Donis Dondis's (1973) book, sketching and taking a snapshot, or as "A Primer of Visual Literacy".This was complex as making a film or designing a in conjunction with teaching a course of buildingcan be considered analogous to my own design, Visual Awareness, at writing. Temple University in Philadelphia. It was another ten years, after publishing my own Most of us here, however, will not book, "Introduction to Visual Literacy" in claim that visual literacy is a literal or 1987, that I learned of the I.V.L.A. As a literary concept. Nor is it an attempt to result,Ihave a perspective thatis make literature out of visual expression. somewhat different from many members Rather,byusingthemodelof of I.V.L.A., but no less encompassing. I communication, and the notion of shall therefore begin with a brief overview acquiring visual skills and acumen just as of my perspective in order to establish a we acquire skills of reading and writing, 52 Verbo-Visual Literacy

we provide a way to think and talk about recognized this oversight, yet, tomy visual learning and experience. It knowledge, little attention has been given becomes, moreover, a way to bring the to the possibility that learning disabilities verbal and visual together. may stem from this neglect of sensory development. Even in perception theory, In summary, and Iparaphrase sensory learning has been more interesting I.V.L.A.'s founder and mentor, Jack to study than to teach. (As far as I can tell, Debes, a visually literateperson is one this neglect is worldwide.If anyone who can identify, analyze, interpret, knows of a culture or place in which evaluate, and produce excellent visual sensory education is actively nurtured, I messages.' These abilitiesare, I posit, would certainly like to know about it.) As basic and central to beingan educated we are educated, so we educate, and few person at the end of the twentieth century, are acknowledging or taking responsibility for at this time of proliferating visual for nourishing the fundamental hunger that communication, if we cannot see critically, our young people have for sensory can we really claim to be able to think stimulation and integration. critically?It is my thesis that visual literacy, at this juncture of technology and Except, that is, for the enterprising knowledge, must become an integral and media and entertainment moguls who activepartofeveryperson's exploit this voracious hunger by providing communicative lexicon. a barrage of sound and sight.From Saturday morning cartoons to boom With a tremendous proliferation of boxes, video games, MTV and the RAVE visual communication, however, I find rage, a majority of our young people are myself too frequently affronted with visual bombarded and desensitizedmore than clutter, indifference, and ignorance.It is they are educated. The resultmay be, as if that which is essentially visual: The rather than nourishment of thesensory keen perception, the assessment, the craving they feel, anesthetization,or the endeavor to develop andexpress an establishment of addictions thatmay esthetic, is ignored or overlooked. How, actually prevent growth of keen and when this is perhaps the most joyfulaspect sensitive perception. of visual communication, canwe continue to ignore it? News Possibilities Visual Ignorance With the new technologies available for research and developmentas learning Let us look to the roots of visual tools--such as interactive digitalor ignorance. When childrenare taught to computerized television, VCRs, teletexts read, write, and compute, theirsenses as and teleconferencing, and video discs--we significant learning toolsare often have a daunting array of possibilities. The suddenly ignored, neglected, and leftto challenge to learn media languaging f.'nd for themselves. Whenone considers systems and educational potentialis that from birth a child learns almost demanding, and those of us whoare now entirely through instinctivesensory devoting our careers to visual technology exploration--through touch, taste, smell, often find it difficult to make timeto and sound as well as vision--this sudden actually view the images. Aswe integrate neglect, virtual denial of thesenses after visual media in education, letus keep at agc five or six, might be an act of the forefront the fundamental importance violence, one that violates essentialaspects of sensory learning and its centrality of our beingness. One would hope that throughout education.Historically, the educators or psychologists would have arts have served that purpose. More often than not today, however, thearts are ',John L. Debcs, Founder of the considered by anyone other thanart International Visual Literacy Association, 1968.

0 4') The Rewards of Visual Literacy 53 professionals and majors to be a fringe basic facets of visual messages are learned benefit, and educationally expendable. and experienced as interactive and synergistic, and as relevant to our being in Perhaps because there seem to be no the world. rules, logical or otherwise, beyond the limitations inherent in materials and While studying excellent and technology, many individuals, despite noteworthy works of art of the past,or their high level education, find visual contemporary expressions of the present-- problem-solving and esthetic judgment learning about the meaning, the context easier to dismiss as unintportant than and significance of the work--the student address as the basic forms of inquiry and may perform graphic analyses of magazine expression that they are. The truths of pictures in order to learn about and quality and excellence have to be ascertain the use of the visual elements, the discovered, usually by devious and alphabet of visual expression. improbable routes, and such an uncertain process terrifies many of us. Visual How the elements are combined is thinking is sophisticated, challenging, and the grammar, the compositional principles exciting, for visual problem-solving both of visual communication. Students learn to incorporates and transcends the dialectic, analyze visual statements in the classroom, utilizes, by necessity, the scientific at galleries, and at home for their method, and not only employs all models underlying designs: orientation, balance, of artificial intelligence being explored focal points, rhythms, tension, conflict, today, but inspired many of them. Visual and resolved unity. Learning tosee literacy educators therefore have a beyond the surface of an image is one of responsibility to be sure their students are the most important aspects of becoming grounded with the basics, the basic verbal visually literate, for it alerts us to hidden and visual vocabularies that will providea communications, and empowers us to foundation for visual education and evaluate more astutely a multitude of life expression in all media and at all levels. and professional situations.

Basic Visual Literacy The characteristic ways an artistor visual communicator designs and shapesa As partofStrategies and visual statement, in which it becomes Infrastructures for the Future, I propose a identifiable as the work of a particular course of study in basic visual literacy. It individual, group, region, or period, would include a combination of readings, determines the work's style. The style is visuals,lectures,discussions, and also a significant part of its communicated experientialstudio-type,hands-on, content.As we recognize examples of explorations. The teaching of history and representation, objective abstraction, and perception, thereceptionofvisual non-representation;orclassicism, statements, is integrated with visual romanticism, and jazz to post-modernism; expression, the active making of visual we can concurrently create simple visual statements. statements that exemplify these qualities. By making examples in readily available In coming to understand visual media, such as drawing, photography, statements, whether in a museum, at work collage, or on computers, we gain or home, or on television, one knows that experiential reinforcement of stylistic, there is a difference between form and formal, and communication concepts. content. In most curricula today, learning about visual form takes place primarily in The interpretation of the meaning of studio art courses, and content study takes visual statements is always relevant. How place primarilyinarthistory and is the subject, information, story, social communications courses.From the function, and intent to be interpreted, both perspective of visual literacy, these two within the historical context in which the 54 Verbo- Visual Literacy work was created, and from the As one of my literature colleagues is viewpoints both individuals and scholars fond of telling his students, "If you don't hold today? Historians, past and present, master the written word, you are destined have interesting and diverse ways of look- to be manipulated and mastered by it." By ing at art and visual communication. the same token, if we continue to neglect Iconographic, connoisseurial, structuralist, visual literacy in education at all levels, we social, semiotic, and deconstructionist are at risk of being generously manipulated approaches to experiencing visual and mastered by the media of television statements, are all part of a visually literate and advertising. Some say we already are. person's lexicon for interpreting all visual Thus it is our task to support and nurture experience. The recognition of hidden creativity through educational courses that intent, persuasion, manipulation, and the are germane to the issues at this time. ethics of any information embedded in visual expression, relies upon the visual Let us begin with ourselves. Each of literacy of the individual viewer to discern us, as we got dressed as we are right now, and evaluate. engaged, to some degree of consciousness or lack thereof, in making a visual We would not consider a person statement. Each of us individually and fully literate who could read but not write, together as a group, are visual statements. so a person who only passively What we wear, how we carry ourselves, appreciates art and visual communications how we look, says a lot about who we is not fully literate either. The ability to are, what we care about and value. What draw, to take a decent photograph, to we don't. What we project into the world, arrange objects effectively in space, and what we wish to hide or wish to reveal. increasingly, to use computers and video, Whether we wish to attract one kind of are fundamental skills that every educated person and not another. Visual literacy is person should possess. The purpose is based upon visual responsibility as well as not to aspire to make great art or artists, visual response.It has a multitude of any more than the purpose of teaching rewards which I shall now address. writing is to create poets. Through active creation of visual statements, one comes to The Rewards of Visual Literacy perceive and know a wealth about the for an Artist world in which we live, as well as appreciate the visual statements of others. My work in visual literacy would Invisual problem solving, forces, never have been possible without structures, relevancies, and implications something I can only call my own personal are discovered, developing paths and and passionate love for the world of methods of thinking that simply cannot be visible and visual experience. Early in my taught intellectually. career I chose several challenges: Today, when trendy popularity often To carry on the tradition of the reigns as a measure of merit and banality nude in Western art. can pass for wisdom, all of us need to have the synthetical and interactive tools of To do so with a uniquely visual literacy to evaluate and take personalresponsethatis responsibility for the visual statements we informed by both tradition and support and make.Only then can we awareness of developing trends, rediscover the richness of the world with but shackled by neither. an educated and civilized vision, with sensitivity to the visual statements of To depict the essence of our others, and to the ecology of which we all humanness, of o u r arc a part. consciousness.

6 4 The Rewards of Visual Literacy 55

To keep drawing and painting, to my work in visual literacy I am more realism and abstraction, on equal conscious, more verbally aware, .of levels of importance. balance, figure/ground relationships, and dynamic forces as energy. Style options Thiscombination ofvisual and painting techniques threaten to crowd experience with verbal expression of that my consciousness with possibilities for experience inspired me to launch DEalp painting requires so many choices to be made continually while one works. Some SEE, a visual literacy consultancy under of these choices I make consciously while whichauspices I givelectures, others, due to the intrinsic spontaneous workshops, jury exhibits, etc. element of true creation, remain mysterious until after the workis Anotherrewardhasbeen completed. Later I may recognize choices, participation in a demonstration affordable and question or justify them as an exercise artist housing project. In addition to being of my ever growing visual literacy. an artist to qualify, however, I also had to finance a down payment and prove that I While developing my work in visual could garner a stable income to pay off a literacy, all these options initially crowded 30-year mortgage. Having just finished my mind, threatening that I become a writing my second book, "Making Art calculated rather than spontaneous painter. Safely" (Spandorfer, Curtiss, & Snyder, Nevertheless, I accepted the challenge to 1993),I hung out my shingle as a extend my verbal vocabulary about visual wordsmith and am currently working at experience, and I am not sorry. I think that Philadelphia's largest architectural firm as my work is stronger for it, and the a writer.(To my delight, there are a recognition I continue to receive may ratify number of artists who also must earn their it. living other than through their personal work.) Thus qualifying financially, we The Rewards of Visual artists purchased an abandoned factory Literacy for All building, gutted it and built 18 combined studio and living spaces. Visual literacy Now for your Rewards: When you served me well as I designed my own are visually literate, you will be aware and space, hired workers to build a loft, install attuned to everything visible around you. lighting, industrial carpeting, and to paint This will be affected by the degree to the ceiling and walls. Having moved into which you choose to be visually aware, it in August 1992, I am proud to say that I for we would be zombies if we proceeded have the home and studio of my dreams, in a constant state of keen visual one where I can paint all day by natural receptivity. light. By the same token, when boredom In my painting now I am in a period threatens while waiting for someone or ofexperimentationincludinga thing, you have the povver to become forthcoming exhibit in which I shall focus interested in the most trivial thing that lies on thc architecture of Prague; quite within your field of vision. You can see it different from the elegant architecture of as the remarkable visual phenomenon that . the human figure. it is, watch it dance with all that surrounds it. Whatever the subject, in my painting I move on several levels simultaneously.I As you rcad a story, a passage of celebrate thc elements:line as melody, history or literature, you can envision color as flavoring; shading and value for yourself in that place and timc, use your mystery and illumination.While I visual imagination to bring it alive, make it instinctively employ the Bauhaus design vivid and memorable instead of an abstract principles with which I was educated, due and distant place and time. 56 Verbo-Visual Literacy

As you watch television, you will bringing visual literacy and all it implies to recognize hype and differentiate it from a broader audience.With my work, substance, separate sham from truth. whatever the subject or medium, I hope to open doors of perception in ways that When you go home or to your work affirm life and its potential for excellence, place, you will know how to assess your integrity, beauty, and enrichment. At the environment and whether it is designed same time, I am aware of realities and well for its purposes; whether your room atrocities both in the world and within nurtures and relaxes you, or annoys with myself.But through all, I continue to its discombobulation. You will have ideas explore a synthesis of drawing and about the poetics of space. painting, to seek a voice thatis authentically my own, to paint what it is When you shop you will assess a that I have to say that can be said no other product for its positive or negative visual way. As a creative artist, I have the power presence. When you dress in the morning, of creative transformation, and the art of you will see yourself objectively in the visual literacy suffuses my life with, and mirror, and have a sense of how and what in, all that I do; rewarding me in ways that you communicate. are immeasurable. It is a pleasure to know that my fellow members of the I.V.L.A. Those who are visual literacy are with me in this remarkable realm of researchers and teachers will educate inquiry. vision--encourage critical seeing and viewing--with every person and in every References way possible. Curtiss, D. (1987). Introduction to visual And finally, you will spend the rest literacy. A guide to the visual arts and of your lives looking at everything you communication. Englewood Cliffs, choose, with a keen and observant eye that NJ: Prentice-Hall. is able to differentiate possibilities from actualities, and dare to make the possible Dondis, D. A. (1973). A primer of visual actual; to contemplate the ideal and make it literacy. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. real. With visual literacy we are empowered to expedite thinking and Spandorfer, M., Curtiss, D., & Snyder, J. critical assessment inallrealms of ( 1993 ). Making artsafely: experience. Alternatives in drawing, painting, printmaking, graphic design, and The Art of Visual Literacy photography. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. As for me, all of those arc part of my incredibly rich life, and I am dedicated to

6 AESTHETICS FOR THE 21ST CENTURY: ANOTHER CHALLENGE FOR EDUCATION by Barbara W. Fredette

Nelson Goodman tells us that "art is the question "what is art "is the most not a copy of the real world, one of the important"issuein contemporary damn things is enough." But how will we aesthetics--especially if this discipline is to help students to judge or find value in the contributepracticallyaswellas 'worlds' created through new media? This theoretically to society" (p. 98). She paper examines aesthetic theories which supports her position by telling us that have guided our value systems for imagery attempts to find answers to this question of the past and the present and makes are important as a way of uncovering the recommendations for an approach to values of our culture. aesthetics which is grounded in and connected to prior image traditions but "In order to become art, artifacts which takes into account the new image must be treated in special ways" (Eaton, technologies.These new technologies 1990, p. 98). One important thing that include time arts such as photography, people do when they consider something a film, video, holography, and computer work of art is that they talk about it. based systems as well as interactive processeswhereoneormore Eaton (1990) suggests that it is not the spectator/creators can be involved both as content of this talk that is important but it observer and designer. The search for is the goal of the discussion that is the aesthetic continuity between the older critical aspect."When artifacts are traditions referred to as mark making and discussed as works of art, the goal is to the new ones which are recording bring the viewer or listener to perceive processes (marking time) is attempted. aesthetic features that might have becn Implications for education which include missed if the viewer or listener had been considerationof developmentally left on his or her own" (p. 99).As an appropriate school curricula are given in educational focus in schools, aesthetics is conclusion. taught to broaden students perspectives on art and to develop critical skills. What is Meant by Aesthetics Aesthetics Versus Aesthetic "Aesthetic derives from the Greek Education word AISTHETIKA, meaning 'things perceptible through the senses,' with the A few art educators have becn verb stem aisthe, meaning 'to feel, to interested in aesthetic education since the apprehend through the senses" (Abbs, 60's but when the Getty supported effort 1991, p. 246). called Discipline Based Art Education became the "village dance," teaching Aesthetics was first used by a Aesthetics as one of the four disciplines German philosopher in 1744 to refer to the became a concern of many art educators. Science of the Beautiful. (Even then an There is a difference between aesthetics effort was being made to connect Science used as a noun, referring to philosophical and Art.) The present use of the term inquiry in the arts and esthetic used as an aesthetics refers to philosophic inquiry into adjective defining education as in aesthetic the naturc and value of art and its place education. The Getty approach suggests within a broad cultural context. In a recent that the contcnt for aesthetics as a article Marcia Eaton (1990) suggests that discipline comes from the concerns of

(37 58 Verbo-Visual Literacy aestheticians which include concepts, described (after the fact), but what makes theories, and issues in the Arts. Aesthetic an experience aesthetic (before the fact) is education as defined by Madeja (1977) is not easy to answer.Kern (1982) in "its simplest form learning how to suggested that when all the qualities of an perceive, judge and value aesthetically object or an event achieved an harmonious what we come to know through our whole, an ideal state of harmony, we may senses." This earlier educational multiarts achieve an aesthetic experience. Beardsley approach was interdisciplinary in the sense (1982) provides five criteria that may that all of the arts were addressed through characterize an aesthetic or art experience: the study of their essential elements and organizational principleswiththe Criteria of Aesthetic Experience expectation that these basic leamings could be connected with other areas of the school 1. Object directedness. curriculum.In comparison the Getty promoted discipline based art education 2. Felt freedom. seems to believe in and promotes the integrity of the separate arts while 3. Detached affect. acknowledging that the four disciplines are essential to education in each of them. 4. Active discovery.

Isee a relationship, a continuity 5. Wholeness. (pp. 299-289) between the two approaches (aesthetics and aesthetic education) rather than a Although Beardsley (1982) suggests distinct difference which requires an that only the first of these criteria--object either/or selection. Aesthetic education is a di rectness--i s a necessary characteristic broad view in which aesthetic concern may taken as a whole these attempts to identify be applied to a wide range of phenomena the nature of aesthetic experience enhance as a way of gaining familiarity with the and expand our reflections on what is specific focus. For example the basic involved in responding to works of art. elements of time, space, light, and movement may be explored through a A parallel aspect must also be wide range of perceptual activities. considered, that is, what makes a negative Aesthetics tends to be limited to a content aesthetic experience.Kern (1982) and focus on works of art. others have suggested that aesthetic experiences (or the phenomena to which In 1982 Kern assured us that the they refer) could be placed on a continuum purpose of aesthetic education was to help which would range from aesthetic (high in students to understand and to cope with aesthetic potential) through anaesthetic aesthetic experience as a natural, normal (mundane) to unaesthetic (intense negative component of all human experience. experience). Where something would be Aesthetic experience is different from other placed on this continuum is dependent on experiences in that it is valued intrinsically. how its aesthetic qualities are experienced. It is valued for itself rather than for sonle How a person experiences the aesthetic extrinsic end. There can be an aesthetic qualities of something is dependent on two dimension to all experience, in other things: their aesthetic preferences and their words many phenomena can be capacity for aesthetic experience. Many experienced from an aesthetic point of persons believe that their capacity is view. Aesthetic response is, in effect, a sufficient as it is referenced through their learned filter which gives a particular preference: "I know what I like." flavor to perceptual experience. Aesthetic Judgement Aesthetic Experience Defined Versus Personal Preference Aesthetic experience canbe I have developed an inquiry process 68 04/10/96 09:15FAX 309 438 8788 ISU IT5 Own

59 Challenge for Education

While many phenomena can provide for my non art trained universitystudents them the aesthetic experience, only works of art, art which I believe helps reveal to primarily difference between personalpreference objects and events, are created and aesthetic judgement_ In thisactivity I for that purpose. Although some may show three objects to the studentand ask disagree with identifying it as the primary then to function certainly a major function of a them to examine them closely and for answer a set of questions.The same three work of art is to provide opportunity The intense aesthetiC experience. Works of art questions are asked about each object. the object arc: a mathematical formula, a copy exist for aesthetic reasons and and a examination of these reasons or purposes of a Greek poem (in Greek), the study of re prod ucti on of a Cubist portrai t by are encountered through Picasso. The questions are: aesthetics. It may be useful to look at the place of aesthetics in the four disciplines 1. What is it'? (describe briefly). that encompass art education.(Much about the educational importance of each 2. Do you like it? Dislike it? Why? of these components of art education can be found in the many publications of The 3.Is it good? Not good? Why? Getty Center of Education in the Arts.) The four disciplines arc: No one has trouble recognizing "what" each thing is and describing it, some with Art Production more specificity in terms ofits perceived form. As expected the next two questions, Creation and Performance especially for the formula and the Greek poem, pose a problem. Some, women Art History especially, say they do not like the fonnela (as categorical dislike).They mhy . Cultural and Historiaal Context sometimes say that, as a consequence of their dislike for math, the formula is not Art Criticism good. More often they recognize that without knowing what it means they Perception and Analysis carniot evaluate it (say that it is good or bad). The same is true of the Greek poem. Aesthetics Some say they like it because they like poetry but them admit that they cannot Nature and Value of the Arts judge it without being able to read it. The Picasso is, for many of them, another Art criticism and aesthetics may be matter. Unfortunately many who dislike seen as very similar efforts in treating the distortions of the cubist portrait say works of art as educational material. that it is a "bad picture." Others say that Criticism focuses on specific works of art they like Modern Art and therefore it is in a more in-depth manner.Aesthetics "good." The students are asked to reflect also uses specific works of art but uses upon this process and recognize that the them as a way of getting at larger ideas two questions ask about different things. about art. Knowledge acquired through We assure them that they are entitled to art, criticism and art history become the personal preference (to like or dislike content for aesthetic inquiry. specific works of art) but that this is not a sufficient basis for judging its aesthetic have developed a format for art worth.Their capacity for reading the criticism which is a variation of Feldnian's aesthetic qualities of art must be educated (1973) Critical Performance.I call it a just as the aesthetics of Greek poetry systematic approach to "reading" pictures. before they can judge the worth of the The sequentially addressed components Greek poem. This is an important lesson. for it are these:

69 60 Verbo-Visual Literacy

the visual arts (color, line, shape, texture) First Impression: with the inclusion of sound, space, and motion. Also included were the traditional DESCRIPTION principles of design called Formal Qualities.These included: rhythm, ANALYSIS OF FORM balance, tension, proportion, harmony, ********************************* unity, and variety. Degge (1985), in a "Model for Visual Aesthetic Inquiry in CREATIVE INTERPRETATION Television" identified "Design Operants" Gather information about the work which appear to satisfy the same notion of visual attributes or grammatical initiates as CRITICAL INTERPRETATION the sensory and formal aesthetic qualities Summarizing statement listed above. Design operants, which she suggests are the "designing tools of the (Fredette, 1986). medium" (p. 87), include grammatical, formalistic, and formulaic clusters of This exercise has proved to be variables which provide a focus for successful in helping non art trained aesthetic inquiry into television imagery. students uncover aesthetic meanings in Degge's work is included to show that works of art through their own perceptual although specific qualities may change in efforts.These meanings may then be relation to a particular medium the concept applied to aesthetic inquiry about the of aesthetic qualities as a basis for nature or value of art.In other words description and analysis remains. coming to know a specific work in depth, pursuing the multiple dimensions of Representational Qualities meaning within it through an art criticism approach, provides a resource of specific The variety of meanings accessible information that can be examined through through the presented form are another set broad aesthetic inquiry. Itisalso of aesthetic qualities. In reference to the important to recognize that through this more traditional two and three-dimensional activity of response to a work of art the artsofpainting,sculpture, and students are also practicing important photography these have been identified as response skills. These skills included: representations of: i nternal /ex ternal images, signs, symbols, feelings, abstract I. The ability to describe aesthetic concepts, metaphors. These attributes of qualities (discrimination). representation may suffice for "still" arts or "timed marks" but contemporary 2. The ability to explain aesthetic imagery such as film, television, and a meanings (interpretation). variety of computerized forms require attention to the aesthetic qualities of the Questions which sometime arise at unique perceptual experience of the new this point are: What are aesthetic qualities imager. In her examination of the aesthetic and furthermore, what is the basis of qualities of television imagery Degge aesthetic meanings? Although both of (1985) refers to Berleant whom she writes these are complex matters I will attempt to "argues that (in television imagery) there clarify them in a succinct manner. are distinguishable kinds of aesthetic facts,

among them 'experiential facts.' These.. . Aesthetic Qualities are made up of statements by artists and qualified perceivers alike 'that presume to Sensory Qualities describe the characteristics of aesthetic experience itself.'" One experiential Early work in aesthetic education category is given as "immediacy" and (Kern, 1982; Madeja, 1977) identified "ubiquity." Immediacy, however, may be these as the traditional design elements of complicated by "issues of reality." What 70 Challenge for Education 61 is real? And to whom is it reality? Degge families (even though stereotypical) follow points out that different versions of reality a mimetic charter (Anderson, 1990). exist for different viewers.She quotes People who question the artistic value of Tarroni who writes that "a televised event the distortions of Picasso or Van Gogh are passes through a number of filters persons who implicitly adhere to an (technical and human) which leave it aesthetic criterion of mimesis. According irremediably mutilated and distorted" (p. to this theory "artworks may be judged on 92). To what extent does this make the their 'correctness, completeness, and television imagery anaestheticor convincingness" (Lankford, 1992, p. 8). unaesthetic? Other aspects of reality are "authenticity" and "time." Each of these Art as Teacher: Instrumental representational aspects provide options Theories for varied aesthetic intention. The purpose of the work of art is to In summary, aesthetic qualities are provide a guide for life, to have beneficial those aspects of any given phenomena effects on people. This pragmatic theory of which are perceptible directly or through art "emphasizes the use of art as an interpretation. In this sense aesthetic instrument for furthering moral, religious, qualities are features of specific works of social or political points of view. ..using art. But aesthetic inquiry must go beyond this theory, artworks may be judged by specific works.In order to answer the their effectiveness in influencing the BIG questions asked in aesthetic inquiry it thoughts and actions of individuals in is necessary to consider aesthetic theories. society" (Lankford, 1992, p. 8). But if art can inspire it can also corrupt.Some Aesthetic Theories people fear art as a result of this theoretical position which leads to censorship. For many people aesthetic theory is Although there is no way to establish the synonymous with philosophy of art, extent of specific effect it is apparent to referring to abstract notions of the nature many that particular popular art forms and value or purpose of art. Western serveasestablishment propaganda theories or philosophies of art tend to fall (Anderson, 1990). into four major categories or types of aesthetic tradition (Anderson, 1990). Feldman (1973) tells us that: These four approaches are useful to consider because they implicitly fund .. .instrumentalists do not believe notions of the meaning of art even for aesthetic values exist independently, those unfamiliar with them as specific that satisfactions or meanings in art theories. can be experienced apart from their involvement in some larger purpose. Art as Imitation: They would arguethat Mimetic Theories of Art Michelangelo's Pieta is a great work not only because it represents The purpose of the work of art is to realistically a central event in represent or imitate something in the real Christianity but also because it world as it generally appears or in some supports crucially important ideas idealized form (better than life).These about grief and maternal love.(p. theories can be traced back to ancient 462) Greece but seem to prevail even today. Heroically proportioned Roman statues, Instrumentalism"emphasizesthe still-life paintings that "fool the eye," and legitimacy of art related to the dominant photorealism are exemplars of this theory concerns of life and thus acts as corrective (Lankford, 1992, p. 8).In popular art, to the artistic tendency to become movies which tell it as it is or television excessively involved with purely technical programs which portray working class problems" (Feldman, 1973, p. 465).

7 62 Verbo-Visual Literacy

Art as Feeling: Expressive Theories interdependent relationships which, when perceived, stirred a particular kind of Based on these theories the purpose emotion-aesthetic emotion"(p.9). of the work of art is to reveal, the inner Anderson (1990) suggests that this is psychological experience or feelings of the where the notion of skill comes in to individual.It is well known that the arts consideration in art. Art's formal qualities can provoke powerful feelings (Anderson, are the result of masterful manipulation of 1990).Lankford (1992) revealed three techniques by artists. The word art refers versions of this theory which exemplify to the highest level of skill. "different relationships between the emotional life of an artist, the evocative Feldman (1973) wrote: power of an artwork, and the responsive feelings of an audience" (p. 8). One view If we penetrate to the heart of is that the artist undergoes an extreme formalism, we should find the wish emotion and transmits it to the viewers of that works of art depend for their his artwork. A second interpretation effectiveness solely on the principle suggests that the artists feelings/emotions of unity in variety, with that unity become clearer as the artist works and achieved through the non-symbolic, these clarified feelings are exemplified in non-cognitivepropertiesof the art which in turn evokes empathy on materials. (p. 457) the part of the viewer. A third view is that the feelings expressed in the art are there He goes on to tell us that "if pressed, the as a result of a deliberate conscious formalist might say that an organization is production effort by the artist and are best when it embodies the ideal structural recognized by the viewer through the same possibilities of the visual elements present cognitive realm. Under the aegis of this in the work" (p. 457). He suggests that the theory artworks are judged by the formalist shares with the Platonist the vividness of their emotional substance. notion that there is an "ideal or perfect embodiment of all things, and that art, Feldman (1973) acknowledges that when it is successful, reveals, represents, all art communicate feelings to some extent or communicates that ideal." but to meet this challenge of common factor expressionism "offers us the idea of Current writers have added to this intensity of experience in the presence of list of theories. Carmen Armstrong (1990) art. The best work arouses the most vivid has developed a teaching resource for feelingsfeelings stronger than those we aesthetics in which generalizations based would experience in everyday life" (p. on theoretical positions are used as the 459). basis for questions suited to different educational levels which she calls "vertical Art as Form: Formal Theories sequencing"To Art as Imitation, as Expression, and as Formal Organization This may be the most compelling she adds Art as a Social Institution and Art theory of our century."Formalism as No Theory or a Combination of emphasizes the composition or structural Theories. arrangements of works of arc" (Lankford, 1992, p. 9). The form of the artwork is These theories of art, ideas about the the essential property to be considered. purposes and products of aesthetic Thc idea of significant form is manifest. endeavor are important to anyone who has Lankford (1992) relates that "critic and an interest in aesthetics. Weitz (1991) told aesthetician Clive Bell, in seeking some us not to take the theories literally but property common and unique to artworks, instead to see each of them as emphasizing concluded that the unifying property was some aspect of art that adds an important 'Significant Form': a special combination dimension of meaning. Single works of of lines,colors,shapes, and their art may have multiple meanings, the

7"4 Challenge for Education 63

Krietlers referred tothis as multi- apprehended in order to develop an leveledness, Goodman calls it density educated aesthetic stance toward the new (Fredette, 1986). Each theory or category forms of imagery. These attributes, or of theories may provide adifferent design operants to use Degges (1985) perspective on a work which enriches an term, should satisfy the two categoriesof interpretation of it. Weitz (1987) suggests what it is (the directly perceptible qualities) and what it means (the interpretive- that: representational, symbolic or metaphoric What iscentral and must be content aspects). Technical aspects should articulated in all the theories are their be included in the first category and debates over thereasonsfor contextual, sociological aspects in the second. In order to use these qualities or excellence in art. . . the whole of which converges on the perennial attributes as a basis for aesthetic education problem of what makes a work of art teachers will need to have several kinds of good. To understand the role of knowledge about them. aesthetic theory is not to conceive it as definition, logicallydoomed to Reimer (1992)identifies and failure, but to read it as summaries of describesfourtypesofaesthetic seriously made recommendations to knowledge or cognition. Because of the attend in- certain ways to certain implicitemphasis on knowledge as fact or features of art. (p. 153) knowing about something it is important to consider the other types or ways of This effort may not be limited to traditional knowing a particular object or form which forms of art but is applicable as INell to the may be addressed aesthetically.Besides artistic forms created by new media. knowing about or knowing that, in other words having the facts about something it Aesthetics for the Future is also important to know of (or within), to know how, and to know why. Knowing When Iinitially identified the of or within includes understanding thc problem for this paper my intention was to role of form, the role of content and review aesthetics ideas and issues related function, and theroleoffeeling to the imagery of traditional art formsand encountered through an artwork. Reimer based on these suggestions for a new (1992) suggests that knowing how is aesthetic to be used as a basis for artistic cognition and it includes how to assessing the nature and value of the imaginc, craftsmanship, how to be imagery found in new technology. After sensitive, and how to be authentic.It is an extensive review of theliterature (which obvious that these types of knowledge merely touched the surface of a surfeit of may come about as a result ofproduction resources on this matter) I have come to or creation of an artwork.Personal the conclusion that it is not a new aesthetic creative efforts contribute an important which is needed. No, what is needed is a dimension to aesthetic response to the systematic effort to adapt the analytic aesthetic work of others. Although it may criticism format to the attributes of the new be called to question there is some forms of imagery. Engaging in this generalizability of the abstract notion of analytic process would in turn provide the creating which may reach across groundwork for the synthetic effort of technologies. Certainly the craftsmanship aesthetic inquiry. involved in 2-D painting is different from that involved in creating a hologram but The processes of analysis such as the concept of craftsmanship engaged in those encountered through the systematic the process of creation may bridge the two approach to reading pictures may remain efforts. The last type, knowing why, may the same. What needs to change, to be represent the highest level of knowledge as brought up to date, is thc list of aesthetic synthesis.Knowing why about an art qualities or attributes which must be form includes all of the other dimensions 64 Verbo-Visual Literacy of knowledge.Acquiring all of these third major tradition, photography, came dimensions of knowledge may appear to about through the "invention of optics and be a formidable task of preparation but the isolation of chemicals" (Loveless, they are the necessary groundwork for 1992, p. 117).It changed the way the engaging in aesthetic inquiry.This world could be seen by providing access approachalsoacknowledgesthe to new ways of seeing such as exact constructivist notion of psychology which seeing (portrayal of a moment in time), is currently in favor--individuals must rapid seeing (through a succession of construct their own knowledge. It cannot shots), slow seeing (time exposures), and be given to them or poured in.This simultaneous seeing (through images review of the four dimensions or aesthetic superimposed upon each other).The knowledge may be seen as a structure for generation of successive images in time the construction of aesthetic knowledge. eventually became the tradition of film and video. Evolution of Imagery Technologies Holographyisoffered as an What new forms of imagery for introduction to the fourth tradition aesthetic contemplation will require this (Loveless, 1992). It is identified as a construction of knowledge? What new medium which brings together art and directions for learning through art need to sculpture. be considered? To answer this question Loveless (1992) writes about the evolution It creates a lenseless photography of media technologies and identifies "their that combines illusion and reality, the changing effects on consciousness and aesthetic with the mathematical... their parallel role in redefining literacy (p. since each part of the hologram is 115). He suggests that children of the equal to the whole, we have a 3- future will need to be literate with both dimensional concept of lateral data in motion and images in motion. The displacement. This introduces a new language of the motion of images found in fantasy of the fourth dimension. Out photo,film,video, andsatellite of this tradition arises the laser and communications is the basis of the latter other light-generating forms as well literacy. as new technologies for synthesizing images.It is at this point in the Loveless (1992) reminds us that history of image making that the McLuhan told us, "the artist's obsession computer becomes accessible to the with the eye as we have known it artists. (p.118) throughout earlier traditions in the arts was never the same for at that time a new Image making through electronic paradigm was created" (p. 117). Loveless media must take its place as the fourth reviews the visual arts traditions which he tradition in art and as such will need to be says have always been concerned with addressed through aesthetic inquiry. creating images as an obsession with the Questions about the aesthetics of new eye using whatever technology was media bring the concept of technology into available. play. Technological or media generated issues may be an appropriate focus for Thc first tradition, painting, was an aesthetic inquiry. The artists use of new effort to produce an original form which materials or tools may generate discussion represented an illusion of what was real. about the legitimacy of works of art. What Sculpture, he suggests, is the second makes an object or event produced through major tradition based on imaginative uses new media art, or non-art? of three-dimensional space. Each of these forms of imagery changed as new tools I suggest that a source for the answer andtechnologies became available of this question may be found in the bringing new styles and traditions. The concept of children's development in 65 Challenge for Education

the connection to aesthetics bytelling us graphic expression. When achild first that branch of holds a drawing tool andmakes marks that: "Aesthetics is for them a new philosophical activities which involvesthe they are exploring what is and medium. The first marks theymake are critical reflection on our experience Scribbles are records of the evaluation of art" (p. 20). Manyissues scribbles. Aesthetics. A primary actions of exploration of themedium. may be addressed in bringing into concern is with"aesthetic values and our Children enjoy thc power of and existence something that wasn'tthere standards for the interpretation beforetheir marks. I offer the notionthat criticism of particular worksof art. medium by Another major focus concentrates onthe all explorations of a new artworks can come to anyone are in effectscribbles. This is not many ways in which it is a way of looking have significance or meaning" (p.20). In a negative judgment, (1991), writes: at the possibleevolution of skill with a summary Crawford result in medium which may (or may not) Philosophical aesthetics is the critical achieving the level of an. Thispreliminary effort is a kind of pentimentoeffort, the reflection on our experience of art, precede whether from the standpointof practice of skills which must critics.It future efforts. These efforts whendirected creators, appreciators, or the aimsatunderstandingthc toward the goal of art must represent and consciously directed intention of theartist. components of these experiences at the bases of the values we findthere, While some happy accidents may occur insight into how preliminary stages in the explorationof a as well as at gaining these values integrated, or sometimes new medium thecreation of an requires a consistent repeatable level of skillwhich conflict, with other values (such as and those inthe moral, economic, knowingly utilizes aesthetic qualities (p. attributes integral to the specificmedium. political, and religious realms). This is the artistic cognitionthat was 231) referred to earlier. It is the aestheticeffort required to make new worlds through new Aesthetics for Young Students media. Worlds that not only give us new Smith (Levi/Smith, 1991) suggests things to sec but also new ways to see schools is a them.Artists have created a variety of that aesthetic learning in the with the long journey. The purpose ofthis journey different worlds for us to see and which is newer media more and more arepossible. is the cultivation of percipience Smith's term for a well developed sense or Educational Issues in Aesthetics art. He devised a sequential patternfor the development of percipience which begins Aesthetics as Philosophic Inquiry withfamiliarization, exposure, and perceptual training in Phases I andII Crawford (1991) assists us in which encompass kindergartenthrough the understanding aesthetics as philosophic sixth grade.He proposes that thc inquiry. He suggests that this is not to production of art would be the basisfor of this goal.Phase III for grades seven make philosophical aestheticians develop studentsbutinsteadto broaden through nine is the time to perspectives and help them to develop historical awareness and Phases IVand V critical skills. Philosophy, he writes,"is (grades 10-12) isthe time for the not simply reflectionbut critical appreciation of exemplars and critical reflection, the assessment of chainsof analysis.In some ways this appears to short change both children and aesthetics reasoning. ..in the attempt to gain insight . . . as an educationalfocus. While children into our beliefs and values. in inquiry Philosophicalinquiry,beingboth cannot be expected to engage reflective and critical, always beginsby into the nature or value of art without an taking one step back from thephenomena adequatevocabularyorpersonal it seeks to understand" (p. 19). Hemakes experience with art they should bc

t? 66 Verbo- Visual Literacy introduced to talking about art as early as Appropriate activities for grades K-2 possible so that it becomes a familiar and and 3-5 are given with each of the necessary way to think about art. identified content/skills except "describe Eventually this talk will become critical aesthetic characteristics" which is not discourse. expected of grades K-2.

Hagaman (1992) tells us ".. .the Conclusion elementary art classroom is as much a place for talk about art as it is for making Aesthetic ways of knowing must art. Such talk need not be theory-driven, become part of the basic education of all alien, or dull, but must begin with students. What is learned is dependenton children's own experiences and their the ways in which it is taught. Students at craving for meaning" (p.106). The all levels should be given opportunities to NAEA (1992)in"Elementary Art engage in talk about art that reveals not Programs: A Guide for Administrators" only the ideas encoded in the art but also includes Aesthetic Valuing as the fourth important things about themselvesas component of a curriculum outline. The human beings. The art which engages this goal is "to develop a base for making talk should represent a widerange of informed aesthetic judgements" and the imagery including that produced with objectives are: electronic media. 1. Make informed responses to Technology is both science and art. works of art, nature, and other objects I have attempted to show that aesthetic within the total environment by using knowledge is important, perhapsas objectivecriteriaforanalysis, important as scientific knowledge in interpretation, and judgements. understanding the imagery of our culture. Science and art are not antithetical but in 2. Derive meaning and value from fact from the beginning have been experiences by making and justifying conjoined. The Greek goddess Techne judgements about aesthetic qualities in was the patron Goddess of both practical works of art and other objects within the knowledges and of art. The Greek word total environment. tikein (to create) comes from hername (Shlain, 1991.) 3. Use analysis interpretation, and judgement about visual relationships based "The meaning of aesthetics, like the on learned aesthetic values (p. 6). meaning of 'love,' depends on whosays it and where" (Anderson, 1990, p. 33). The contentiskills listed are: References Analyze Design Elements Recognize Use of Design Abbs, P.(1991). Defining the aesthetic Elements field.In Smith, & Simpson, (Eds.), Recognize Art Media and Aesthetics and arts education (pp. 245- Processes 222).Urbana, IL:University of Recognize Artistic Styles Illinois Press. Describe Aesthetic Characteristics Anderson, R. L. (1990). Popular art and Discriminate Artistic Styles aesthetic theory: Why the Muse is Analyze Aesthetic Similarities unembarrassed. The Journal of and Differences Aesthetic Education, 24(4), 33-46. Recognize Artistic Characteristics Armstrong, C.(1990). Development of Recognize Aesthetic the aesthetic resource :An aid for Characteristics. (p. 6) integrating aesthetics into art curricula

76 Challenge for Education 67

and instruaion.Northern Illinois Kern, E. (1982). The nature of aesthetic University. Copy of paper received education. A four part article from author. published bythe Pennsylvania Department of Education. Beardsley, M. C.(1982).Quoted in Levi/Smith (1991), Art education: A Loveless, R. (1992). Open the window critical necessity. Urbana,IL: to the 21st century by chancing a University of Chicago Press. romance with contemporary media forms: A challenge for the arts in Crawford, D. (1987). Aesthetics in higher education. In N. C. Yakel discipline-based art education. In R. (Ed.), The future : Challenge of A. Smith (Ed.), Discipline-based art change. Reston, VA: National Art education. Urbana, IL: University of Education Association. Illinois Press. Maquet, J. (1990). Perennial modernity: Degge, R. M. (1985). A model for visual Forms as aesthetic and symbolic. The aesthetic inquiry in television. The Journal of Aesthetic Education, 24(4). Journal of Aesthetic Education, 19(4). NAEA. (1992). Elementary art programs: Eaton, M. M. (1990). Context, criticism, A guide for administrators. and art education:Putting meaning into the life of Sisyphus. The Journal Osborne, H. (1991). Types of aesthetic of Aesthetic Education, 24(1), 47-58. theory.In Smith, and Simpson, (Eds.),Aestheticandarts Feldman, E. B.(1973).Varieties of education.Urbana, IL:University of visual experience. New York: Harry Illinois Press. N. Abrams. Reimer, B. (1992). What knowledge is Fredette, B.(1986). How do pictures of most worth in the arts.In Reimer, mean. In E. J. Kern (Ed.), Collected and Smith,(Eds.),The arts, papers: Pennsylvania's symposium on education, and aesthetic knowing. art education, aesthetics, and art Chicago, IL: NSSE. criticism.. Harrisburg,PA: PennsylvaniaDepartmentof Shlain, L. (1991). Art and physics. New Education. York: William Morrow. Hagaman, S.(1992).Aesthetics in Weitz, M. (1987). The role of theory in elementary art education.In A. aesthetics. In J.Margolis (Ed.), Johnson(Ed.),Art education: Philosophy Looks at the Arts (3rd ekmentwy. Reston, VA: National Art ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Temple Education Association. University Press. USING HYPERMEDIA TO TURN UNIVERSITY TEACHING INSIDE OUT by W. Lambert Gardiner

Five Processes of Change matrix, which can serve as a useful taxonomy of media (see Figure 2). Innovations in computer technology, i nnovations i n telecommunications technology,their convergence into informatics, and their penetration into TRANSMISSION society has resulted in a paradigmatic shift Exlragmtic &traumatic from an industrial society, based on energy, to a post-industrial society, based on information (see Figure1). The Extragenetic SNOW INN TELL revolution is over. Focus now shifts from 0 (Oturs awl SNsell "What's happening?" to "So what?" We A now consider the-implications of this shift 0 for our various institutions. The major &traumatic implication for my disciplineof (loek and Film) communication studies is that it introduces a fourth generation of media.

Figure 2 Four Generations of Media In the first generAtion (speech), storage and transmission of information convergence in informatics are both extragenetic; in the second (print), II storage is extrasomatic; in the third penetration into society (video), transmission is extrasomatic; and i nthis emerging fourth generation (hypermedia)--which completes the taxonomy--both storage and transmission are extrasomatic. Information is stored electronically in diskettes (floppy, hard, video, CD-ROM, etc.), and transmitted by the informatics infrastructure of a network Figure 1Five Processes of Change ofcomputernodeslinkedby telecommunications. Whereas the second Four Generations of Media generation assists in the creation of a conceptual map of the objective world Carl Sagan (1977) classifies tools as (verbo-literacy), and the third generation in extragenetic (that is, outside the genetic the creation of a perceptual map (visual code but inside the body) or extrasomatic literacy), this fourth generation enables us (that is, outside the body). Any medium to integrate those maps (verbo-visual involves use of tools for the storage and literacy). thc transmission of information. Those two distinctions yield a two-by-two Using Hypermedia 69

Three Interfaces of Adam mediating, within each person, between this subjective map and thc objective Since the shift from an industrial to a world.The subjective map could be post-industrial society is a structural rather considered as composed of a perceptual than a sectorial shift, it is necessary to map and a conceptual map, corresponding have a broad model to understand it. That roughly to the thing and the word in the is, a model which desc ies the whole objective world and to text- and image- society rather than simply .-le sector of based media (see Figure 5).It is a useful it. The Three Interfaces of Adam is an metaphor to consider the perceptual map as attempt at such a broad model. a function of the right hemisphere and the conceptual map as a function of the left hemisphere.

ecospace .

technospace self-amcW

alperson

teChnosphere Figure 3 The Three Interfaces of Adam Figure 4 Objective World and Subjective Map The person could be considered as the triple overlap of three spheres-- ecosphere, sociosphere, and technosphere SUBJECTIVE ([Gardiner, 1987] see Figure 3).It is MAP important thatthe environment be differentiated into the natural world (ecosphere), social world (sociosphere), MED IA and artificial world (technosphere), because, whereas the person is part of all OBJECTIVE three, the relationship between the person WORLD // AdOrlir and each of the spheres is different. The person is the most complex system in the ecosphere, an element of the sociosphere, Figure 5 and the source of the technosphere. The "Media"ting Between Subjective study of the person in each of those Map and Objective World spheres is therefore different. Person-in- ecosphere is the domain of the natural Some tasks are best performed by sciences, person-in-sociosphere is the the left hemisphere and some by the right. domain of the social sciences, and person- We academics tend to privilege the left in-technosphere is the domain of what hemiSphere. For example, it is obvious Herbert Simon (1981) has called "the that recording directions given over the sciences of the artificial." telephone lends itself best to the perceptual map. This has only become obvious to Two Hemispheres me, however, within the last year (partly as a result of thinking about those things). Within each person in the center, For example, look at Figure 6. On the left there is a subjective map of the objective (for the left hemisphere), you see my world (see Figure 4). We usually consider attempt to record the directions to the media as mediating between people. house of my friend Sally written on 22 However, they can also be considered as March, 1990; on thc right (for the right 79 70 Verbo-Visual Literacy

hemisphere), you see my attempt to record serves then as a positive prosthetic which the directions again, drawn on 7 July, fits. 1990--just over three months later. (In the interval, I had forgotten how to get there-- A major problem of our post- partly becauseIhad used my left industrial society is the management of hemisphere inappropriately.) The second complexity. Our richinformation strategy was superior--not only because I environment enables us to make a subtle was able to get there with only one stop to subjective map of the objective world. The glance at the map but also because I still computer helpsusmanagethis remember how to get to Sally's place years complexity. Just as the telescope brings later--the physical map has been etched in the too-far near enough to observe and the as a mental map. We have to learn to fire microscope makes the too-small large on all our cylinders. enough to observe, so the computer makes the too-complex simple enough to CONCEPTUAL MAP PERCEPTUAL MAP observe.

(*; NODE 1 UNK NO0 E 2 12 1.../tn.irritrd KNOWLEDGE 0t. Eec...rose w subjective map SOki-tii OFFLt

Livr,-Evial,,R. tk fSE-L-r.4 R. STACK //o

AINFORMATICS rirTait--117:---Ceomputo objective world Figure 6 How to Get to Sally's Place Figure 7 One Corpus Callosum Isomorphism of Hypermedia Within this metaphor, the computer To do so, however, we must stop could be considered as the corpus using it as a typewriter.It is necessaiy to callosum. This captures the two basic go beyond word-processing(one- characteristics of computer-based media-- dimensional) to idea-processing (two- integration and interactivity. The corpus dimensional)to meta-media (three- callosum links the two hemispheres, as the dimensional). See Figure 8. computer integrates text and image, and it may link the cerebral cortex with the rest ONE DIMENSION WORD-PROCESSING THE STRING of the body, as the computer provides sh Nalt tdah Non Nalt IAA ONO Olott Net MA MO Mott bloh NM WO WA IAN Nob MO Won interactivity between thought and action. TWO ONENSIONS IDEA-PROCESSING THE TREE Isuoi I Now that we have the technology to MA I simulate the entire nervous system, we can CE111 =ES MOO QM seriously consider mapping our subjective maps isomorphically on to the objective THREE DIMENSIONS METAMEDIA THE WEB blah 31 world. The structure of hypermedia--a blab 1 2 networkofinterlinkednodes--is blab isomorphic with the structure of the mind-- blah efp a network of interlinked concepts--and the structure of the informatics infrastructure-- Figure 8 a network of computers interlinked with Three Dimensions of Computing telecommunications (see Figure 7). It

so Using Hypermedia 71

Hypermedia has incredible potential laboriously and messily written and as a tool for teaching in theuniversity, drawn, then rewritten and redrawn the which has confined itself largely to the following year. The advantage over the first two generations of media--talk and overhead projector with transparencies is chalk. This paper describes the use of fully appreciated only when animation is hypermedia by the author in his lectures, used.Itisdifficultto show 24 seminars, and tutorials. transparencies per second. The four communication settings in The handout is a hard copy of a university are listed inFigure9. Hypercard stack. A disk containing all the Hypermedia simulates the fourth setting, handouts in electronic form is given to any which is the real-life situation of the student who requestsit. They are student. He/sheisdealing with encouraged to use this stack as astarter set information from many sources (various to which they add their own cards and professors, parents, friends, media, and links, and to use the computers in the so on), impinging on a single destination. university lab if they do not have one at Let us look, in turn, at the use of home. hypermedia in each of the three other settings. Hypermedia in Seminars Despite those innovations, the setting ONE ONE TUTORIAL SOURCE DESTINATION isstillteacher--rather than student-- directed. This may be an inevitable feature

MANY DESTINATIONS I have transferred a solarium in my electronic cottage into a Smart Room, MANY ONE HYPERMEDIA SOURCES DESTINATION which is my vision of the seminar room of the future (see Figures 10, 11). It differs from the traditional seminar room largely Figure 9 Four Communication because it contains Caesar. This is a Settings in the University system for pulling information into the room from other computers over the Hypermedia in Lectures modem, from CD-ROM discs, from videodiscs, from the hard disk, and so on Before each of my classes, the (see Figure 12). students are given a handout which includes an outline of the presentation, the figures, and the references. This enables them to be scholars rather than secretaries. There is no need to feverishly make messy, inaccurate copies of my material. They are encouraged however to make, rather than take, notes on the content of the lecture. The cards are projected on a screen using an electronic blackboard attached to the computer. This establishes a common visual space. The advantage of the electronic blackboard over the traditional blackboard, is that the material need not be Figure 10 The Electronic Cottage Si 72 f Verbo-Visual Literacy

tutorials could play a larger role, since the teacher has more time and energy for the seat inside out inspiration-creating aspect of teaching. The advantage of the tutorial is heat that the student chooses the topic, the professor, and directs the project. Unless they learn to do so, they will never become independent scholars.It is not by chance that Oxbridge has produced so many fine scholars. shelf When a student approaches me about a tutorial,Iconsult my colleague, leaf Siliclone.This is a satellite brain containing all my favorite sources, notes, quotes, anecdotes ([Gardiner, 1987], see Figure 11 The Smart Room Figure 13). Rather than vaguely muttering the names of some possible sources, I print out the information in my siliclone which is relevant to his/her topic. This synergy between the person and the NW/ft AIN *Ninny machine is an attempt to find some optimal ow#015, orchestration of natural and artificial intelligence. Irlorts0-411111.A. 11,1M-OliiirjalltbM,

INN

reenj Pyritic NOTE ANECDOTE SOURCE LISTEN . SPEAK dirrlis nerd. s4i switeMmirOw QUOTE IMAGE RESOURCE READ WRITE Ivireos owe I OHM adoil Obi ebb,

4aws MArlriredrilm,ders, ibe1441LAINddalt...E. Figure 13 The Siliclone EOM titaiMee. reeks tareJeves astno,priri MO413 References Gardiner, W. L.(1987). The ubiquitous Figure 12 Caesar chip: The human impact of electronic technology. Hudson Heights, Quebec: Hypermedia in Tutorials Scot & Siliclone. Whereas tutorials are the basis of Sagan, C. (1977). The dragons of Eden: university education at Oxbridge, they play Speculations on the evolution of a minor role in North America. Honors human intelligence. New York: projects and directed studies are very Random House. minor (and unrewarded) aspects of teaching.Perhaps, now that we have Simon, H. A.(1981).The sciences of electronic colleagues to do thc outside-in the artificial (2nd ed.).Cambridge, information-providing aspect of teaching, MA: The MIT Press.

S BEST COPY AVAILABLE ENHANCING LOCAL AND DISTANCE EDUCATION WITH COMPUTER-PRODUCED VISUALS

Nancy Nelson Knupfer The increasedcapability and as those played from a videodisc. Some availability of computers for education has equipment even allows a mix of both led to questions about the potential analog video and digital displays on the applications and impact of this medium on same screen. the teaching and learning process. The design of visual images can greatly Because computer and television promote or interfere with learning. Image screens contain similarities, there are some design needs to consider several variables design considerations that are common to including, but not limited to, the audience both media. Presentations that mix images and intended message, along with the from a computer with images from a medium and technological constraints. videodisc, television camera, or other projected image generally follow thc rules When learners use computers on a of televised video screen design with some iocal basis, they have opportunities to special consideration for the computer- interact with the program. This interaction based medium.This paper addresses enables each learner to control the pace, some design considerations for computer- length of a session, and path through the produced visual displays that are intended program (Jonassen, 1988). Distance for either local or distant audiences. It education offers the ability to reach a larger assurnesthatelectronically-produced range of students, but the technology often instructional images require different limits the type of interactive possibilities. design considerations than those that are Computers can be used to offer online limited to print. instruction in both live and delayed modes. A udiographics and other typesof Information display can be organized shareware even can allow multiple users to into three perspe,lives: the structure of the manipulate th 2. same screen image. But the image, the mean ng of the image, and the most common usage of computers in power of the image (see Figure 1). The distance education is in the preparation of a structure of the image contains the visual image that is then sent to the essential elements of good screen design. studentsbyvideotape, television These elements can enhance the learner's broadcast, coded transmission, facsimile ability to perceive and interpret the modem, or in print format by using intended message. This leads to the facsimile or paper distribution systems. As learner's ability to apply meaning within computer-based multimedia products the given context. Finally, images add become more standardized, they too have a power to text-based messages; they have place in the distance learning scheme. the potential to both clarify the message and add emotional impact. Ongoing improvements in computer hardware and software have removed Structure of the Image some of thc former technological barriers and now computers can supplement text The structure of thc image first with colorful graphics in both static and considers the visual as a whole, then its d y nam i cmodes.Computer-controlled components and the elements of good multimedia presentations can display screen design. In order for the various images that arc either digitized such as imagc components to work together, those on CD-ROM, or analog format such elements of well-planned screcn design

8 74 Verbo-Visual Literacy

Figure 1.Effective Instructional Images

Structure

Essential Elements of Good Screen Design

Meaning

Learner's Percrtption and Interpretation

Pover

Emotional Impact of the Image

must weave the components together in an 1988) since they induce eye fatigue aesthetically pleasing and understandable (Hathaway, 1984; Mourant, Lakshmanan, format. Thus, one must consider both the & Chantadisai, 1981) and are likely to be image and the screen design. forgotten when presented on the screen (Wager & Gagne, 1988). The Image In addition to the amount of text, its The image contains a mix of density, along with typographic cueing components that can work together or and the mix of upper-case and lower-case separately to modify the intended message. characters can affect legibility (Hartley, As you read this section, try to visualize 1987; Hathaway, 1984; Morrison, Ross, the possible image variations that result & O'Dell, 1988; Ross, Morrison, & from influences such as text, color, O'Dell, 1988).Variations in font type, graphics, animation, and multimedia. size, and density along with direction and screen placement can add meaning to the Text text image (see Figures 2 and 3). With the exception of titles, headings, or special Since text dominates computer-based effects, the text should contain a mix of instruction (Soul.r, 1988), it is important upper and lower case letters. to design text displays that communicate clearly to the reader.With appropriate No matter what the screen design, fonts and spacing, computer screens can legible text requires an appropriate font work very well for presenting limited thatisproperly spaced. There is amounts of text. Large amounts of text disagreement about thc appropriateness of work better in printed form (Soulier, serif or sans serif style fonts. Some

84 Local and Distance Education 75 authors claim that fonts with serifs, as recommendations about font style and opposed to block-style lettering, are a weight as it was in the past. An important better choice for computer screens contributing factor is the availability of (Soulier, 1988). Yet others believe that good resolution provided by a VGA sans serif fonts with proportional spacing monitor and a quality projection device. provide a cleaner effect that is easier to Also, color can be provide visual cues read than their seriffed counterparts within the text. (Gibson & Mayta, 1992; Kemp & Dayton, 1985).Fonts with small serifs can add Color interest to the display, while elaborately- seriffed fonts are difficult to read, Specific educational objectives can especially if the image is to be viewed on be enhanced by using color in visual television or in a large room. illustrations (Dwyer, 1978), but while a few colors can cue the learner about the Text legibility also depends upon the intended message, too many colors can be point size of the font. The point size of confusing. Color should assist the user in text on a computer screen can range from focusing on the material; it should never be 12 to over 100 points per inch and remain a distraction (Gibson & Mayta, 1992). legible. However one should consider the Accordingly, Hannafin and Peck (1988) intended usage when selecting point size. suggest using a bright color to cue the Images that are likely to be projected for learner for new information, while large audience reading should not use a presentingthe remainder ofthe point size smaller than 26 (Gibson & information in standard colors consistent Mayta, 1992) and images that are not with the rest of the screen. Soulier (1988) likely to be projected or broadcast will recommends checking the program on a seldom require an extremely large font. monochrome monitor and using a pattern Also consider the user; when designing as a backup technique to aid those people screens for young children or people with who are color blind. visual impairments, use a larger font. Although this document is printed In addition to style and size of the without color, Figure 4 shows an example font, the weight of the typeface, line of how color can be used to highlight length, phrasing, and spacing between menu choices. In part A, the learner sees lines of text affect the legibility of that the Child Development module has computer screens. The weight of a font five selections, with Review currently can vary from light, narrow, fine lines to highlighted using a border color that heavy, broad, bold lines. A medium to matches the background of the Child bold weight is very good, depending upon Development box. Part B shows that the the mix of elements on the screen. Gibson learner has single clicked the Normal and Mayta (1992) recommend that bold Development topic and that box as well as typefacebeusedthroughoutall the boxes of the newly revealed subtopic computerized screen images that are choices are now bordered in the highlight intended for broadcast so that the text color. Highlighting the menu selections in shows up against the graphics.At the this way can be particularly helpful in least bold fonts should be used for all titles situations where there are many potential and headings as well as for particular branches. words that need emphasis. Drop shadows behind the text characters can add legibility A few colors with good contrast if used carefully. values will show up well on both color or monochrome displays, but an extreme Because computers,monitors, contrast like stark white On a black software, and projection systems are background will cause bleeding and becoming more capable, perhaps it is not illegibility; it is better to usc light grcy to ascriticalto adhere precisely to achieve the desired effect. Also avoid high 0 0 76 Verbo-Visual ljteracy

Figure 2.Light and Airy Text

Figure 3.Bold, Forceful Text

STOP!

values of red and orange because they can projected. Complementary colors with low bleed into the surrounding colors. saturation would have a good chance of working. In addition, certain colors that look ideal on an individual computer screen Graphics and Animation tend to flare or wash out when they are projected to a large screen or transmitted Graphics add interest to the screen over a distance. To avoid disappointment by providing visual variety (Kemp & it is best to experiment with a few color Dayton,1985) and offer another combinations using the equipment that will opportunity to suggcst meaning to the support the image when it is actually learner. Possible graphic treatments range

86 Local and Distance Education 77 from simple to complex, from small clearly designed so the reader can interpret monochromatic embellishmentsto the meaning based upon the legend, dramatic, richly-colored, full-motion video scales, symbols, and other provided cues. images complete with sound effects. Graphs that display data depend Like verbal metaphors, visual upon the reader's thought processing, metaphors can help us to understand an interpretation, and comprehension; to be unfamiliar concept. Metaphoric graphics effective they must consider the intended (Soulier, 1988) may be used to clarify a visual message carefully. Sophisticated meaning within the computerized message, graphic displays that are designed to or they can guide the user through the suggest inferences, generalizations, and mechanics or functionality of using the evaluative interpretation can help students software. For example, standard weather interpret meaning (Reinking, 1986; Singer symbols might represent part of the & Donlan, 1980). High-level instructional content in a lesson about tornadoes while graphics, such as symbolic, schematic, or an exit sign icon would symbolize the figurative displays can be effective in functionality of the software. teaching, and the visualization of abstract ideas through figurative displays may very Computer images are frequently well enhance learning (Nygard & transferred to other media such as Ranganathan, 1983). All graphics do not transparencies,camera-readyart, require the same level of detail and clarity, computer-designed slides, animation, but even simple, decorative graphics at the video segments, and so on. One type of pictorial level have their place. Indeed, graphic application thatis regularly Boyle (1986) suggests a need for produced beyond the original computer designers to address cognitive processes screen is the common tabulated data graph. by developing more materials for graphic Graphs that represent data need to be thinkers, not just graphic readers. Figure 4A.Color Highlighted Menu, Part 1

TOUR MAP Oveiviev

Normal Development

I CHILD Development DEVELOPMENT at Risk

Assessment techniques

ISingle click 03 viev1 subtopics. DoubleI click to go to topic. Reviev 78 Verbo-Visual Literacy

Figure 4B.Color Highlighted Menu, Part 2

Psychological ant ettotioaal developmeat TOUR MAP Overviev Physical Developatat

Normal Motor skills Development levelopmext [Cogutive barna asi skills tevelopsent I CHILD Development DEVELOPMENT at Risk [cogaitive beuviors sad skills Aavelo auk

miFessment Rev]ew techniquts Single click to viev subtopics. Double click to go to topic. Reviev imomimmmllg)Nmm

To assist with designing computer material by, for example, gaining attention graphics, Soulier (1988) offers the or illustrating a concept.When used following guidelines: Keep illustrations sparingly animations can be effective, but appropriate for the audience; use simple they can become irritating, distracting, or line drawings when possible; preload disruptive to the thought process if graphics into the program so that they overused or left on too long. Whenever appear quickly on the screen; use standard possible, allow the user to interrupt the symbols and symbolic representations; and animation. keep graphics on the same screen in close proximity to the corresponding text Computer-Based Multimedia message.These few tips can greatly improve the aesthetic appeal of a graphic Computer-based multimedia includes and promote clarity of the message. a wide range of possible delivery options, but is usually characterized by mixing Most development software allows video images with computer images. The the use of simple animation to illustrate a possible styles range from single computer motion, provide interest, or draw attention screen, to projected computer screen, to to particular areas of the screen (Kemp & 360 degree theater in the round displays. Dayton, 1985). Although it is tempting to embellish the graphic, it is important to use A currently popular instructional animations only when appropriate and practice uses multimedia to support keep them short (Soulier, 1988). lectures with images from a videodisc or compact disc driven by a computer Animate only a few graphics that will program. Despite its great potential for aid the learner's comprehension of the providing rich imagery and stimulating 88 Local and Distance Education 79 thought, this delivery method often falls the top or bottom of the screen that contain short of expectations because of cluttered consistent information help the learner screens or inappropriate lesson delivery. assess progress and maintain some control One of the greatest problems in actual over the program direction. The reader usage is the size of the text; the audience should control the display rate when cannot read text from a distance unless it is possible so that there is adequate time to enlarged. A second common problem is read the text, interpret the graphics, and washed out colorsin the computer consider the meaning of the message. graphics; color selection that does not hold up during projection. The general Menus should be clear, concise, suggestions for computer screen design uncluttered, and consistent. Icons within found below may be applied to various menus can be very helpful if the meaning forms of multimedia dispiays as well as of the icon is readily apparent. The range more traditional computerized images. of possible choices in some programs can lead to cluttered or excessively layered Screen Design menus; pull-down menus can be a solution.Highlighting or fading some Good screen design aids the learner menu choices will quickly give a visual by using visual components to portray the cue about which items are currently message in a way that provides both clarification of information and visual interpretation. To visually aid the learner, Careful nositioning of tcxt on the it is necessary to consider the specific screen can citiq to its aesthetic appeal and elements of good screen design as well as legibility. Although centering can work the general screen layout. for lists, diagrams, or graphic mixes, most text should be left justified and limited to Elements of GoodScreen 65 characters per line or 25 characters per Design line for projected images.Partitioned screens in which text is confined to interesting screens are composed of specific areas, can work very well. a variety of elements that work well together.Many of these elements are Ross and Morrison (1988) suggest equally important so they are presented using a hierarchical text display that is here in no particular order. The goal of vertical and uses indentations similar to an good screen design is to use the various outline. They further recommend a low- elements together to compose a simple, density text display with reduced wording consistent design that provides sufficient and sentences limited to one main idea.It information while avoiding clutter. it also important to use care when splitting lines so that phrases remain complete Unlike printcd material which can be Soulier (1988). Personal preference varies skimmed at will, the computer screen concerning single or double spacing of limits the learner's view of the overall text, but do provide text breaks where thc content. Screen designs that are simple, content allows. straight forward, and consistent can help lead learners through the material, while In addition to font size, the text complicated designscanleadto legibility is influenced by contrast with the frustration. The basic simplicity of frame background. Common considerations for layout and user options does not restrict both computer screens and video images the ability to add interest and meaning with suggest cool, neutral background colors a full range of simple and complex like grey or blue instcad of bright, very graphics. light, or very dark backgrounds. Tasteful use of enhancements such as outlined, Ccrtain user options should always inversed, flashing, or drop shadowed text be available. For example, status lines at can add to legibility. 80 Verbo-Visual Literacy

Special techniques for changing the materials can be helpful. These include screen display, such as zooming, panning, balancing text with white space, tilting, and wiping onto the screen, can improving the aesthetics of the page, and vary the viewer's perspective of the image. positioning graphics as the dominant For example, a section of the screen can be visual element (Parker, 1987). Designing enlarged to give a close-up view of the display with attention to legibility, the specific details. Or the image can change purpose of the particular frame, and from a long shot displayed in a small part consistent protocol, can result in visually of the screen to an extreme close-up interesting computer screens.Avoid showing part of the same image displayed cluttering the screen with too many in full screen mode. This technique can images; provideprintcopiesof give the learner the sense of moving in to complicated images that are important to take a close look at the image. Imagine, remember. for example, the visual effect of looking at a long shot of a group of trees in a small Likesilencewithinoral box on the screen and then changing to a communication, empty spaces can be used full screen display of a close-up shot of to advantage on the computer screen. For leaf on one of those trees. example the screen can be used to organize or highlight information, to draw Whenbroadcastingcomputer attention to particular parts of the frame. graphics for distance education, overscan The mix of graphics and text can provide a and underscan considerations become visual cue; so can boxing and grouping of important.Overscan fills the screen information. Partitions, borders, standard beyond the edges so that no blank space icons, and consistent placement of will show around the edge when the image common elements will visually aid the appears on a television monitor; computer reader. graphics need to be produced in overscan mode so that no blank edges or distracting While partitions and borders can video signals will show around the edges draw attention to an area, artistic sense can during transmission (Gibson & Mayta, still flourish.Figure 5 shows a screen 1992). Underscan protects a blank area layout that protects a bordered area for around the screen edge so that images graphics where the designer has don't get cut off during the transmission incorporated two borders, one within the process; important information should be other. The image is allowed to overflow placed within a safe area, usually the the internal border while being contained middle two-thirds of the screen (Kemp, by the external border. 1980).It is important to pay attention to both overscan and underscan because the Generally headings are centered and desired result is neither an empty pocket bold, sometimes even boxed. For long or around the around the screen nor loss of complicated sequences, subheadings can important information around the edges. be used that include numbers or Roman One way to handle overscan and numerals to aid the reader in visually underscan variations is to use a border following the general flow of information. around screen; this fills the screen edge As a general rule, information should flow completely while marking the safe area. from the top, left part of the screen to the bottom, right part of the screen because Screen Layout that is the way people in our culture read. Figure 6 shows artistic variation that splits Thc elements of good screen design a title between the top and the bottom of work together to build a cohesive screen the screen. Because the information flows layout.The computer scrccn layout from top left to bottom right, this title should never be visualized as a printed works.It also provides a subtle hint to page filled with text, but guidelines similar the reader about the program content; both to those offered for desktop published the title and the quilts discussed in the Local and Distance Education 81 program must be pieced together to make completion orshort answer, or a a whole. Variations in standard layout can constructed response which is considered work if they are with purpose and fit the to be a more open-ended answer. situation. There are also variations to the Good layout technique depends upon general type of frames. For example, an understanding that not all computer sometimes a frame contains both frames are alike. Hannafin and Peck instruction and a question. Copy frames, (1988) address transitional, instructional, prompt frames, hint frames, and interlaced and question frames. Transitional frames frames are some types of variations are used to tie together the different parts (Hannafin & Peck, 1988). Copy frames of the a computerized lesson: they provide provide information and a question about an orientation to the beginning of, and that information in the same screen. This various sections within, the program; they type of format can be helpful in directing serve as bridges between various topics or student attention, emphasizing important sections;theyprovidefeedback, points, and for assuring a high degree of directions,andinstructions; and success for particular students.But periodically, they present a progress report because they are so obvious, copy frames toletthe learner gauge success. are considered very elementary and need to Instructionalframes present basic be used sparingly. information to the learner: these frames can alert the student to a need for prerequisite Prompt frames direct the learner to information; provide links between supply input; these can be used effectively relationships from past and current for questions as well as instructional learning;andprovide definitions, screens. Hint frames are usually provided examples, and rules. Question or criterion after a student has failed to enter an frames solicit input from the student to expected response; they offer guidance but help individualize the instruction; these do not supply the correct response. frames usually are based upon a true or Interlaced frames are hybrids which false,yes or no, multiple choice, combine various components from the Figure 5.Partitioned Frame with Double Bordered Graphic AAA A AAA AAAAAAA A "AAA AAA A A "AAA" "AAA AAAA A AAA A AAAAAA AAA. AAAAAAAAA ...AAA AAAAA AAAAAA AAA "AA A A A AAAAAA "AAA. A, AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A A A AAA.A AAA AA A A AAAAAAA A A A A A SECTION - HISTORY A A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A A A AAAAAA A A A A AAAAAAAAA A A A A A A A AA AA A AAAAAAAA A A A A A A AAAA.1AAAAA AA A A A A AA A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A 4 A A A A A A A A A ft A A A A A A A A . A A A A A A As the fabric was fashioned into a A A A 4 A A A A A A A A A quilt, it became en expression of art. Many A A A A AA (6- . A .1 A A A i A A AAwomen sav the quilt as an expression of A A A A A A A A A A A love for beauty, life, vork, and family. For A A A A A A A A A% A A A , A many, it vas a symbolic representation of A A A A ft A A A A A A A A events in a woman's life; the celebrations A A A 4 A A A A A A A A A A of family, the beginnings and endings so h A A A A A A A A . A A A common in everyday life. A. A A ft A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A AAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAA A AAAAAAAA A AAAAAAAAA A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAA A ÂAAAAAA A A A " A AAAA A A A"AAA. A A A A AAAA A A AA A"AAA A A A AAAA". A AA AAAAA AAFAAA AA AA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A A AAA AAA 4 A AAA tAAAAAAAAAwAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAA AAAAAAA AAAA ÂAA. AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAA AAA. A A AAA A "AAA. AAA A AAAA A A I ÂAA/. AAAAAAAAAAAAA A A AAAAAAAAAA AAA 4 .A A AAA A A A AAA" A AAA A A A AAAAAAAAA A A A AAAAA AAA AAAAAAAAAA A A AAA A AAAAAAAAA4 A "AAA. AAAAAAAAAAA A A A A"AAA. AA AAA AAAA.A.AAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A A A AAA AA A A AA A A A . A FIFIEST43 AAA.. AAAAAAAAAAAA A A ASSA A ...... AAAA AAAAA A 4 82 Verbo-Visual Literacy

Figure 6.Left to Right Title Split: A Maw)? of

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golignaki.lag standard frame types; they might include discovery of meaning, it follows that well-. instruction, question, and feedback all on designed visuals will help students the same screen. This design can appear interpret the meaning. Computer images cluttered if not presented carefully but it vary widely in potential design and usage. has the advantage of allowing the student Images can be static or dynamic, concrete to visually examine and compare the or abstract, and they can change as a result question and feedback. of user interaction with the program. A learner's interpretation of the image can be Each type of frame depends upon affected by the text, type of graphic, and grouping of information in a way that layout employed. visually aids the reader. To make optimal use of visual cues, it is helpful to design Layout must consider the principles standard protocol for each type of frame of perceptual organization, which include and use it consistently throughout the similarity, proximity, 'continuity, and program. Whatever protocol is chosen closure (Bloomer, 1976). These four will need to comply with the overall processes, by which the mind organizes program design. Programs that vary the meaning, depend on how physically close screen location of pertinent information or the objects are, how similar they are, procedures used to advance throughout the whether there is a continuous line to guide program can be confusing and frustrating the eye, and whether the minimal amount (Mackey and Slesnick, 1982). Although of information is present that is necessary standard protocol is necessary (Heines, toobtainmeaningorclosure. 1984; Lentz, 1985; Simpson, 1984) Comprehension is directly affected by the designers can provide artistic variation to way the mind organizes meaning from the other parts of the screen to suggest placement of graphics and text. meaning. Creating Meaningful Data Displays Meaning of the Image Since powerful computers and Information becomes valuable as it software are now available to many takes on meaning for an individual. people, the practice of transforming Since visuals are meant to aid in the numerical data into visual displays is no Local and Distance Education 83 longer limited to trained professionals. It placement on the newspaper column. Thc follows that some design guidelines are reason that it appears here is because it needed. does not match the information provided in the graph. Both the title and text of the Graphs article claim that football ticket sales have increased for the 1992 season over the There is a wide selection of software 1991 season. However there is no data that produces graphs to tabulate or provided for the rate of 1992 ticket sales represent data. These data displays can within the graph nor within the article. take the form of circle or pie graphs, bar or chart graphs, line graphs, histograms, It is confusing that the graph goes and scatterplots, among others. The ease out of its way to vary the horizontal scale, of creation does not always result in good, yet omits 1992 information. This scenario meaningful graphics.It is important to demonstrates a typical example of follow some common sense approaches to unusable information that was meant to graphical data display, whether the enhance an article. In practice, the reader information is to be used on or off the sifts through visual clutter only to find that screen, locally, or at a distance. the comparative information is missing in the end. Itistempting to use various software features to make elaborate and Figures 8 and 9 provide alternate colorful graphs, but in reality simple is displays to the same information. Figure better when displaying data (Tufte, 1983). 8 employs the very popular three To help learners interpret the meaning of dimensional display in which the third graphs, use only those dimensions and dimension is meaningless. Figure 9 is not colors that arc necessary to convey the perfect, but it presents the three pieces of message; three dimensional graphs should information in a way that can be only be used when the third dimension interpreted from the visual pattcrn. It is an represents a third aspect of the data improvement over the original graph interpretation, and color should only be presented in the newspaper, but still omits used for contrast as an interpretational aid. necessary 1992 data which remains a To help illustrate the point, two poor mystery. graphs and a better graph are provided, each presenting the same information in a The critical point is that visual different way. information is frequently misrepresented by lay people who produce data graphs The three graphs all illustrate the rate without the benefit of proper guidance. of ticket sales at Kansas State University This practice can be dangerous since it can (KSU) over the last twenty years. The confuse and mislead consumers. horizontal scale reflects two-year intervals Computers are not responsible for poor and the vertical scale shows increments of visual design, but they make it possible 5,000 tickets sold. Figure 7 displays thc foruninformed userstoproduce original graph printed in a local newspaper inadequate products. (Seaton, 1992). It is cluttered, numerals are redundant, thc horizontal scale is Data Visualization inconsistent, the title is within the graph, the legend is scattered throughout the data, Data visualizationisaway and the accompanying article disagrees displaying information as an image instead with thc displayed information (the full of a series of numbers.It allows data text of the article is not contained hcrc, from scientific events to be visualized in a only thc title). The caption below the symbolic, pictorial way that can seem graph appears to be not centered but that is more understandable to the lay audience not a flaw;itisthetitle of the and to professionals who prefer to accompanying article in its original interpret data visually as opposed to 84 Verbo-Visual Literacy numerically.For example, digitized motion and various dimensions are computer imagery can show a tornado in involved. action. The visual display of the tornacL's dynamics allow scientists to study the Power of the Image patterns of wind, motion, and behavior of tornados in a way that could only be Computer graphics and appropriate screen interpretedbefore from numerical displays lend power to communications recordings. Some other examples of data by adding an image to the text.Visual visualization include: symbolic imagery images can aid message interpretation and about atmospheric conditions from other enhance learning. They can also add planets, that has been collected via satellite power to the message by providing an measurements; visual display of data emotional element that is beyond that of collected from a physics experiment, such other communication strategies. Realism as data points that represent the upward can be enhanced by providing a graphic and downward trajectory of a ball as it is component. Images can represent realistic tossed into the air from a moving object, data ranging from simple sketches or travelling at a certain speed; visual display graphs to intricate displays or vividly of possible outcomes of automobile emotional scenes. Virtual reality can even accidents occurring between a certain conjure tip imaginary situations through number of automobiles with specific artificial iniagery. characteristics, travelling at a particular speed under given road conditions, etc. Because computers display images This last sort of visual information could from peripheral devices, it is possible to be used to solve mysteries about how display still or dynamic photos of real particular accidents happened for law events. These events and their results can enforcement or insurance purposes, or it combine with text and audio segments to couldbeusedby automobile provide a sense of realism to the user that manufacturers who seek to design safer otherwise would not be possible.For vehicles. example, the ABC News videodisc provides real news footage that goes Data visualization displays images of beyond newsroom reporting to provide an event in action while standard types of visual displays of field events.Along graphs display patterns of numerical with the understanding provided by the information resulting from the event. Even realism of these events, comes the though the general public can better potential to stir emotions for various understand a data visualization than a set reasons. of numbers, the method is controversial bccause some scientists question its Going Beyond Reality accuracy for displaying scientific data. These objections are not necessarily well Virtual reality offers the opportunity grounded, but most likely reflect a set of to remove a person from the real values that fear removal of the traditional environment and create a feeling of living professional skill required to interpret the within an artificial mode. Some examples standard numerical data. of this sort of application include specific video arcade games, airplane simulators, People need to know that there is and architectural design software in which something in between the two extremes of the user's actions are reflected visually data visualization and lists of numbers; in within the software display. the middle lie the various common graphs that so many people have come to rely Within virtual environments created upon. However, those graphs are limited by the computer, participants become part in the type of information they can of the software environment and feel as accurately display, particularly when though they are within the computerized image that is displayed.Rather than Local and Distance Education 85

viewing the image from without, the for the common consumer to obtain the participants change perspective and view feeling of entering and moving around the image from within the software. within an environment prior to its actual construction. A good example of this type For example, arcade gaMes in which of application is a department store which the player becomes part of the game, as creates custom-designed kitchens. A opposed to manipulating the game as a customer can don a viewing helmet and a viewer, employ virtual reality. Instead of body movement probe in order to try out a manipulating a lever and observing the new kitchen prior to its actual construction. result of its movement on a screen- Sophisticated software allows thc customer disp'iayed game, the player might to try different room arrangements while wear a viewing device over the eyes and a doing such things as stretching to reach thc manipulative device such as a data glove highest shelf or testing the comfort of the to control a particular action within the counter height and drawer positions. game.The viewing device limits the player's view to the three-dimensional These virtual environments are image of the game and the data glove digitized images that not only display produces simulated movements within the information to the visual senses, but allow game based upon a realistic motion of the the user to participate in the resulting player's hand or arm, such as throwing a displaybycontributingother ball. This produces the feeling of actually communication strategiessuchas playing the game. movement or speech. You can imagine that such images can get very complicated and Virtual reality is used within high- can stray from the standard rules of class pilot training in which the trainee computer screen design. Certainly aitificial obtains the feeling of actually flying the reality opens new doors for visual aircraft. Placed within a simulated cockpit communications with computer input and the realistic knobs, switches and levers display devices. (pilot control devices) become the input devices, while the flight control panel and Summary the windshield become the viewing devices where the pilot observes the effect Structure, meaning, and power of control movements. Not only does the combine to produce effective instructional control panel light up appropriately, but its images that can be created on computers. gauges reflect the trainee's actions at the The structure of the image considers both flight controls, while the control panel the components of computer images and displays various maps of the flight path the elements of good screen design; the and even simulates a radar screen. All the interworkings of both produce effective while, thc pilot views the surroundings instructional displays. through the simulated windshield and can observe other airborne craft in the New levels of knowledge, a variety immediate area as well as the appropriate of media options, and sophisticated ground activity based upon the altitude, software, offer the ability to improve speed, weather conditions, and general computerized images and their resulting visibility being simulated.This type of products. Although text remains a very pilot training usually progresses in stages important part of computer from standard classroom training, to communications, today's technology traditional computer-based training, and encourages the use of more morc then on to the flight simulator for the graphics. artificial practice flight, prior to engaging in a training sortie in a real aircraft. Visual communication combined with sound cognitive strategies can The third virtual reality example, provide meaningful messages for learners. architectural software, produces the ability In order to provide meaning, computer 86 Verbo-Visual Literacy graphic displays need lb follow some artificial situation that appears to be real. rules of good design. Today, artificial reality remains limited to a small set of applications andis Understanding and emotional impact accessible to a restricted range of people, can be enhanced through powerful yet its future potential is tremendous in computer imagery. The imagery can terms of visual communications and represent real situations or it can create an educational impact. Figure 7.Cluttered Graph 40,000 038,002 Ticket trends at KSU

4011 34,711

30,000_ 31,496

27,409 27,371 25,781 28,080 26,662 =.1 25,697

,Overall Average Attendance (21,9)2) 21,277. 20,000 (20,110) (19,547) (19,301 (21,137) (18,220) (19,497) 18,9 19,001 (18,293) (18,089) (16,422) (17.687) 18,205 (15,158) (13,847) (Kansas State Enrollment)

10,000 N10,881 N8.516 8,225 8,361 7,546 \ 6,789 \-- -- -.r . 6,102 6,265 N 4,178 Student Season Tickets N ..-.13,190 2.658 4,,.o t &-A1 0

1970 1972 197419176 1917819180 19182 191-8419861988'89'910'911 Ticket sales show increaseover 1991

9 6 Local and Distance Education 87

Figure 8.Graph with Excessive Dimensions

KSU Tickets Trends

0 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 19881990 Year

Figure 9.Line Graph

KSU Ticket Trends 40 -40.Avg. Attend. 35- -4 St. Seas. Tckt. -*. Enrollment 30-

25-

20.

15-

5-;

0 1- 8-11-1.1- i 7 i 11 - ' 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 19861988 1990 Year

COPYtaloa 97 BEST 88 Verbo-Visual Literacy

References Kemp,J., & Dayton, D. (1985). Planning & producing instructional Bloomer, C. M. (1976).Principles of media (5th ed.). New York: Harper visual perception. New York: & Row. Reinhold. Lentz, R. (1985).Designing computer Boyle, M. W.(1986).Hemispheric screen displays. Performance and laterality as a basis of learning: What Instruction, 24(1), 16-17. we know and don't know. In G.D. Phye & T. Andre (Eds.), Cognitive Mackey, K. & Slesnick, T. (1982).A classroom learning: understanding, style manual for authors of software. thinking, and problem solving.San Creative Computing, 8, 110-111. Diego, CA: Academic Press. Morrison, 0. R., Ross, S. M., & O'Dell, Dwyer, F. M. (1978). Strategies for J. K. (1988). Text density level as a improving visual learning.State designvariable in instructional College, PA: Learning Services. displays. Educational Communication and Technology, 36(1), 103-115. Gibson, R. & Mayta, M. (1992, August). Designing computer-based Mourant, S.J., Lakshmanan, R., & instructional graphics for distance Chantadisai, R. (1981). Visual fatigue education. Paper presented at the and cathode ray tube display terminals. eighth annual conference on Distance Human Factors, 23, 529-540. Teaching and Learning. Madison, WI. Nygard, K. E., & Ranganathan, B. Hannafin, M. & Peck, M. (1988).The (1983,Spring). A systemfor design, development, and evaluation generating instructional computer of instructional software. New York, graphics. AEDS Journal, 16(3), 177- NY: MacMillan. 187.

Hartley, J.(1987). Designing electronic Parker, R. C. (1987). The Aldus guide to text: The role of print-based research. basic design. Seattle: Aldus Educational Communication and Corporation. Technology, 35(1), 3-17. Ross, S. M., Morrison, G. R., & O'Dell, Hathaway, M. D.(1984, January). J. K. (1988). Obtaining more out of Variables of computer screen diplay less text in CBI: Effects of varied text and how they affect learning. density levels as a function of learner Educational Technology, 7-11. characteristics and control strategy. Educational Communications and Heines,J. (1984). Screen design Technology Journal, 36(3), 131-142. strategiesforcomputer-assisted instruction.Bedford, MA:Digital Reinking, D. (1986). Integrating graphic Press. aids into content area instruction: The graphic information lesson. Journal of Jonassen, D. H.(1988).Instructional Reading, 30(2), 146-151. designs for microcomputer courseware. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Ross, S., & Morrison, G. (1988). Erlbaum. Adaptin instructiontolearner performanceandbackground Kemp, J.(1980). Planning & producag variables.In D. H. Jonassen (Ed.), audiovisual materials (4th cd.).New Instructional Designsfor York: Harper & Row. Microcomputer Courseware (pp 227-

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Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Soulier, J. S. (1988). The design and 245). development of computer based Erlbaum Associates. instruction.. Newton, MA: Allyn & Seaton, J. (1992, September 4).Ticket Bacon. sales show increase over 1991.The ManhattanMercury, 7 . Tufte, E. (1983). The visual displayof quantitative information. Cheshire, Simpson, H.(1984). A human-factors CN: Graphics Press. style guide for program display. In D. F. Walker & R. D. Hess(Eds.), Wager, W., & Gagne, R. (1988). Instructional software: Principles and Designing computer-aided instruction. perspectives for design and use. In D. H. Jonassen (Ed.), Instructional Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. designs for microcomputer courseware (pp 35-60). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Sinvr, H., & Donlan, D. (1980). Erlbaum Associates. Reading and learning from text. Boston, MA: Little, Brown.

J IN SEARCH OF AN AUDIO VISUAL COMPOSING PROCESS

CarolLorac

For those of us working within the communication system and the relationship area of audio visual media, it is rather like of this to the teaching of media practice in riding a roller coaster which is constantly universities and colleges. being up-dated, redesigned, and with no consciously defined sense of direction. Clearly,theemergence and development of audio visual texts on Whether you are concerned with: television and video owe much to the pioneering endeavors of prior audio visual 1. Technological development (and communication systems, namely film and this effects every aspect of our work to radio.Indeed, the fundamental activities some extent--long before the applications involved in audio visual composing or effects can be appreciated, understood, processes which embrace filmic and and disseminated the technological wizards televisual composition are the main focus have moved on! of the International Media Literacy Project. However, it is pertinent to consider the 2. Economic structures, policy specific developments inherentin frameworks, or organizational practices-- television, and in particular video, because blink, and the rules have changed! this provides an opportunity for examining how these audio visual media have 3. Impact on social behavior or extended the scope of audio visual cultural values--are the magicians in the communication systems in a number of consciousnessproductionfactory significant ways. subverting reality with illusion? The relatively recent extension of 4. Mediapractice--arethe expressionthrough audiovisual potentially diverse audio visual composing communicationsystems,bythe processes being dominated by the introduction of television and then video, imagicians of the global tongue? has been predominantly determined by the television broadcasters and video We may be grateful to discover that producers in the large audio visual riding a roller coaster presents us with the publishing houses.They have been possibility of two existences.The one developing specific types of production outside which moves past so fastit processes for the creation of particular rcmains by and large a fairly blurred kinds of media texts.This has been in sensation and the one i.13ide whereby you response to the gradual realization of the try to focus on the place you have selected potential for audio visual communication and attempt to make some sort of sense of to cover ever more areas. The result has it, however slow the progress seems been the production of a whole new range againstthespeedof everything of audio visual genres. Another factor has surrounding you. beenthe developing audio visual technologies which have enabled new This paper briefly describes the work forms of image manipulation, and through of thc International Media Literacy Project this, new types of production values and which is based at Royal University of audio visual compositional possibilities. London, U.K., and is cooperating with universities and colleges internationally. In this environment of continually Thc International Media Literacy Project evolving production processes, it has been developed an evolving audio visual useful to establish the relationship between

100 An Audio Visual Composing Process 91 professional media practicesand patterns of other media--architecture, communicative purposes.This has painting, and music. Clearly,the provided a way of understanding how international skyline, city, motorway, audio visual c,mmunication systems, airport,orshoppingareahave developed by the publishing houses, are homogenized once culturally distinct operating. Clearly, their specific purposes architectural forms. Modern painters will have influem .;c1 the ways in which they often have an international look rather than have developed and used audio visual being very nationally specific. Popular composing processes. music certainly contains international sounds and is now an international Looking at the evolution of audio phenomena.Questions reflecting the visual composing processes in this way, it national/international debates surrounding might be fitting to signal that when the cultural identity in a global communication purposes for audio visual communication era are being addresscd. areextended beyondthepresent publishing interests then it is likely that The International Media Literacy other audio visual formulations will need Project has been developing a programme to be developed. This might indicate that a of activity which may provide ways of more broadly based approach tothe understanding how audiovisual teaching of audio visual composing composition occurs in different cultural processes may be relevant in preparing and language settings. The results of this students as audio visual communicators. may shed light on the role thataudio visual communication might play in a range of The linking of audio visual media to new applications. computer technology will mean a more integrated audio,visual, and print The international programme of communications system in the future. The activity involves teachers of media International Media Literacy Project has practitioners andaudiovisual been bearing this in mind as it has been communicators, from a large cross section exploringthepossibleways of of continents, collaborating on a joint piece approaching the teaching of audio visual of research which will provide extensive composition in the twenty-first century. documentation on the ways in which they teach media practice and in particular audio The increase in multi-national visual composition. The participants from production and marketing strategies for each country arc providing three sets of television and video, and the implications materials:examples and extracts from implicit from the development of satellite national film and television output, case system, has produced an international studiesoftheirpractical teaching audio visual communication network and, strategies, and examples of their students therefore, audience. The International video texts. Media Literacy Project has been exploring whether indigenous languages and The compilations of extracts from cultures, and visual and performing arts, national film and television output will be have an influence on the media texts being selected on the basis of attempting to created from a diversity of backgrounds; identify a particular national look. This or whether the influence of global look may be aparticularlyvisual transmission of dominant audio visual phenomenon, or may be achieved by the compositional forms have produced an use of specific movement or rhythm, or by international form. some other factor altogether. Comparative analyses may produce some identification The evolution of an audio visual of key elements which might in turn bc composing process which might have related in some way to a diversity of international multi-cultural roots will need cultural visual imaging, languaging, and to be considered in light of the developing drama, or music. 92 Verbo-Visual Literacy

The international case studies on effective domain in the expressive systems teaching media practice should provide the of the arts), but it has also provided a way opportunity of seeing whether there are of presenting an innovative framework for similar general patterns, and particular teaching media practice. individual difference, in the process of audio visual composition.Comparing Furthermore, the results of this these case studies will enable a cross- research programme may illuminate cultural enquiry, as well as an opportunity questions pertaining to the cultural of identifying basic elements, in an audio influence on audio visual composition. visual composing process.It should also We may discover specific national, provide access to differing approaches to cultural, and language differences or the the teaching of audio visual composition. notion of an international audio visual compositional process (which may have In addition, examples ofset much to do with innate aspects of seeing, assignments will be given to students and hearing, and thinking than with the global the resulting video texts will be examined capacities of the audio visual technologies) to provide insights into the relationship may be reinforced. between different kinds of audio visual teaching and the unfolding audio visual It is hoped that by tapping into the compositional forms developed by media expansion of new media programmes, students. within the higher education system, which have included the teaching of media The Media Literacy Project has been practice, that it is now possible to provide looking at the audio visual composing information on the nature of audio visual process by examining its compositional composition--the theories underpinning the elements. The current approach has been art of media practice, methodologies for to look at the visual and performing arts, teaching audio visual composition, and the their relationship to human communication relationship between teaching strategies and the ways which their vocabularies are and the acquisition and use of an audio used within audio visual composing visual communication system.This processes. Not only has this perspective information could provide the framework provided a framework for looking at an for developing appropriate strategies for audio visual communication system as a meeting the needs of new applications for means of developing an intelligence of media communication in the future. feeling (because of the role played by the TECHNOLOGICAL LITERACY OR ILLITERACY? THE REALITY ABOUT GREEK TEACHERS by Michael Meimaris

Assumptions Taken Under subject's entire domain, its evolution, and Consideration applications" (Strantzalos, 1991). Active primary school teachers are Any form of introduction of the new graduates ofthetwo-yearterm technologies to schools will therefore have Pedagogical Academies, which were to take into consideration: abolished in 1986 along with the founding of four-year term Educational Departments 1. The perceptions and practices of inside the universities. the teachers themselves about the teaching and the learning process. These educators have the obligation to teach the whole school curriculum; there 2. The teachers' own knowledge are no specialties. about the new technologies. Therefore, thcir training on basic 3. The possibilities of a wider use Sciences (Mathematics and Physical of new technologies (Meimaris, 1992). Sciences) is insufficient, being oriented mainly towards the subject matter taught in The Present Situation Concerning primary schools. In Greek primary the Relation Between the New schools there exists a detailed curriculum Technologies and Education in describing analytically each book chapter Greece per teaching hour according to every subject and relating exclusively to the Educational television has been in teaching manual-book, which is unique usesince1978 without becoming and obligatory for all schools. functional in the process of school life. The Greek teacher's everyday The practice of sending video practice consists ofteaching by the book, cassettes and television sets to schools in instead of teaching the student's relation to remote areas, which was done in a limited knowledge, using the book as an way the last few years, has not produced accessory. specific results on a regional level, nor has it had any effect on an all-round level. With the appearance of new audiovisual techniques in education, the For the time being, the 5,000 to efficacy of the previous method is 6,000 PC's that are programmed to reach seriously questioned. mainly secondary schools and to a smaller degree primary schools, are in the process As a learning process we accept the of being bought for the hardware, while as theory of constructivism, based on the far as software is concerned, there exist conccpts already available to people, the only general outlines. construction of knowledge being the result of thc active subject (Fort, 1992). It has not been verified if the above mentioned PC's will be used for ncw As a teaching principle we accept the technology literacy programs or as a tool following thesis: "Thc teaching of a certain of initiation to informatics, or as a new subject presupposes the knowledge of the technology method of approach for the

103 94 Verbo-Visual Literacy

teaching of a large number of lessons (or usually as an initiative of private and social for office work!). sources--communities for example. The teacher's participation in these multi-hour There exists a promotional yearbook and not clearly education oriented seminars on informatics, which canadhere to is limited. graduatesofComputer Science, Mathematics, and Physics.It is obvious Teacher trainees have not received that these graduates will teach their lessons connected withthenew students based on their fields. technologies and computer science during their basic education in the Pedagogical In a number of private schools Academies. computers are functioning on a laboratory basis, but they have not been in use as a Basic Elements of Training in New class accessory. Technologies During the Three Month Term of P.E.C. Special Training in the New Technologies for the Teachers During the ten hours of theory the following subjects are examined: The mass training of teachers is the workoftheP.E.C.(Peripheral 1.Basic elements of computer Educational Centers) established in 1985 science and N.T.'s (Binary system, and functioning since September 1992. computer configuration,networks, Attendance is obligatory for all active hypermedia). educators of all levels and specialties. 2. Examples of educational video There are 14 P.E.C.'s in Greece, cassettes (Greek and foreign productions). three of them in Athens and Piraeus, while the capacity of each is approximately 400 3. Initiation to educational television trainees for a three month period. (from the conception and design of a scenariototheproduction and P.E.C.'s offer for the first three distribution). months of each academic year a pre- service training period, followed by two 4. Examplesof multimedia in-service periods for the remaining six educational products (CD-i with disks months. from Smithsonian Institute, Time-Life, Van Gogh, and applications for children). Thus, it can be assumed that in the next eight to ten years all Greek active During the 20 hours of lab work, educators will have completed a three with two persons per machine (PC's 286 month training period on the P.E.C.'s. network with a 386 Hos. computer), the following subjects are examined: The function of P.E.C.'s provides lessons five hours daily, five days a week, 1.Familiarization with the for a three month period of audio-visual as machines. well as new technology lessons and computer laboratory cover respectively one 2.Basic principles of MS/DOS. and two hours weekly:i.e., we have 10 hours of theory and 20 hours of practice 3. Word processing. (hands-on) for teachers per training term. 4. Examples of Logo an different Outside thc P.E.C. structure there school data processing applications. arc held, occasionally, special training seminars on computing languages, logo, word processing, spread sheets, etc.,

1 0 ,1 Technological Literacy or Illiteracy? 95

The Questionnaire's Design and In this phase the questionnaife was Procedure addressed to 120 pre-service teachers of primary schools: The questionnaire is designed in such a way thatwillpermit the 73% female and 27% male, investigation of: 65% 26-27 years old, 1. Teachers' literacy in the N.T.'s and their ability to use them. Half of the above were graduates o f regionalpedagogical 2. Teachers' pre-existing opinions- academies, attitudes concerning the introduction of N.T.'s in education, especially in relation 80% had graduated in 1986, totheir own training and school curriculum. all had experience of school 3. Their relation to educational teaching as substitutes, television. 31% had given private lessons, 4. Their potential to organize a lesson using different elements based on 73% had a teaching experience of the N.T.'s. more than three years, The questionnaire was submitted 9% (11 persons) owned a PC; six during the function of the P.E.C. in of them used the PC regularly and Piraeus, in two training terms, the first only one had the proper training, concerning pre-service training and the second concerning in-service. Out of the total number of 120 teachers, only four had been About eight hundred (800) educators trained in computers of whom two of all levels and specialties from the greater neither own nor use a PC; only Piraeus area and the Cycladic and four use a PC at school and of Dodecanese Islands were questioned. those only one had the proper training. Methodology In reference to the question about the For the analysis of the complete set teachers literacy in the N.T.'s, we note of data, linear (factor analysis) and non among others the following results: linear (cluster analysis) statistical methods have been used.More specifically: Correspondence Analysis (Benzecri, Items in relation to no don't 1973)andAscendingHierarchical computers relationknow Classification have been employed for the exploration of the latent structure of mouse 26% 21% 42% different data matrices constructed from diskette 82% 7% 7% the initial table of data (Meimaris, 1978). software 46% 2% 37% fax 36% 34% 18% First Results logo 16% 18% 49% Complete data processing being 0-1 14% 2% 65.59 under way as these lines are written, we arc obliged to present here elements Concerning the question about concerning the pre-service training of whether they have attended educational primary school teachers. television programs, they answered: 1.05 96 Verbo-Visual Literacy

62% yes, 27% no, and 10% gave no In an educational policy it would answer, while they had anoverall positive seem quite an easy thing toobtain a view concerning its educational value and personal computer for work at school or its assistance towards the lesson's better for the teachers training (at home, with the comprehension. help of a grant as is the case for buying books). The difficult thing is the proper Concerningthe hypothetical training in the new technologies and their existence of all the new technology items multiple uses. in the classroom, they prefer television and video as an accessory to teaching, and to a This training will have to cover the lesser degree the computer, especially in cost of both the initial phase of training matters of the environment. As amode and the hands-on phase as well as the d'emploi they propose a projection observance of real-life teaching situations followed by discussion and commentary. with the use of PC's, and to foresee future uses. Looking to the introduction of the N.T.'s to education: Therefore, more time is needed before educators can arrive at a level that InRelationto the Educator's will permit them to organize experimental Training educational scenarios.

1. 17%proposeonlyfor References mathematics teachers to be trained in programming languages and use. Benzecri, J. P., et. al.(1973). L'analyse des donnees. 2 volumes. Dunod. 2. 47% propose short term training for teachers of all specialties oriented Fort, M. (1992). Constructivism: From toward programming languages. the cognitive to the pedagogical model. Proceedings of the second international In Relation to School Curriculum: symposium on the didactics of mathematics (pp. 351-368).Athens, 1. 39% propose the introduction of Greece: Protaseis. a special lesson on informatics, Meimaris, M.(1978).Statistique de Penseignement en Grece. Les cahiers 2. 45% propose the creation of a analysedes donnees, vol. 111, 3, (pp. computer lab, 355-366). 3. 26% prefer the introduction of Meimaris, M. (1992). New technologies N.T.'s to school through the different and education.Proceedings of the already existing lessons without creating a second international symposium on the new one. didactics of mathematics (pp. 147- Discussion 158). Athens, Greece: Protaseis. Strantzalos, C.(1991). Mathematics in It appears that the ownership, the the secondary school curriculum. use, and the training in apersonal Proceedings of the 1st international computer are in themselves quite different symposium onthedidactics of things. mathematics (pp. 4-18). Euklides, This in itself is unavoidable but as 3(8), 29. far as educators are concerned it breeds certain dangers about the implementation of the N.T.'s in education. 1 0 13 SCHOOLS AND TECHNOLOGY IN ADEMOCRATIC SOCIETY: EQUITY AND SOCIAL JUSTICE by Robert Muffoletto

Questions need to be addressed unrecognized by researchers in our field. concerning the role of education and Beneath all of this lies the ideology of the technology in a fair and equitable global machine and the expert (Muffoletto, political and economic system. As 1993). individuals, and as a profession, involved in the research, development, production, Our field has strived to create and dissemination of educational through various presentational formats a experiences for children and adults, we reconstructed reality. Most of the debate need to consider what we have created and in these attempts has centered on the will create in light of social justice and veracity of the experience; does it feel real, democratic principals. does it reflect reality, is it efficient, and is it effective in its delivery. There has been Ourhistory in educational little debate on the consequences of those technology is full of attempts to design and strivings for a reconstructed reality on the produce effective learning environments. lives of real people and their culture. With (I realize it is not our history but a history the recent developments in virtual reality that has evolved out of conflicts and and multimedia hardware and software we contradictionsrepresentingvarious must begin and continue our attempts to interests. There are many histories, many address the psychological, social, and voices yet to be heard.)We, as a political implications and effects of what profession, have consumed various we do as perceived experts, as educational learning theories and have produced technologists and media educators.No various formats for the delivery of longer can we afford to claim the neutrality educational and instructional materials. of a modernist tradition or the non- Our collective purpose has been to increase historicalconsciousnesswhich the effectiveness of teaching materials and accompanies a positivist discourse towards the efficiency of the learning process. At reality and experience. As educators, the same time, our purpose has been an researchers, and developers of learning ideological one. The materials we have and experiences we must find avenues and will produce speak of us and others in entry points for debates and practices that ways which construct them as wewish to argue and provide for spaces that support see them. Technology is not aneutral and maintain democracy and social justice. conduit, but an ideological apparatus.It The first step I believe is to recognize speaks of the world as we have created it. ourselves for what we are: a social, historical, and epistemological Our field is grounded in logical construction. The second step is to define positivism, capitalism, and a 19th and 20th what we mean by democracy and social century notion of progress and classical justice.The third is to position our realism. Technology, both as machine and definitions in practice. as system, was and is linkedwith modernism and progress. Reality, Technologyasa Medium for especially social reality, and the stories Discourse told about it by experts, is understood to cxist outside the individual and has for the Technology is more than a tool, it is most part gone unquestioned and a medium which cffects how wc think and 107 98 Verbo-Visual Literacy interact with others and machines male, and European). How one thinks (Rhcingold, 1991). It is a form which not about the world and one's self init only controls and limits discourse but determines the rationale for understanding determines the nature of the content as well why things are the way they are (common (Postman, 1992).Technology is more sense), and not why reality is thought than access to information and learning about in that manner. experiences. Technology determines the nature of that information ar well as our How one thinks about the world as understanding of it.As a medium of well as self, is how one has been told to experience (discourse), technology effects act and think in relationship to self and our consciousness, our visions, and our others.Having information, but not expectations. The wetware of a modernist divergent ways of thinking, maintains the technology constructs the individual as a individual and the community in a subjcct (Berger & Luckmann, 1966; powerless relationship to those who do. Muffoletto, 1991).The technological Having access to information may create a medium is more than a mind manager and false consciousness resulting in less real a reality simulator, it is a consciousness power than before. generator --an ideological horizon line. Simulations as Experience Information Virtual reality, as a technology of If technology is to provide us with experience, poses a number of questions. access to information, there are a number First and most basic, we must consider of issues that must be considered and what the relationship is between a virtual addressed. Simply providing access to reality and something we call reality.Is it information is not enough in a social good enough to be concerned with only context where historically access has been the veracity of the experience and its limited to the wealth, gender, and race of correspondence to what is believed to be the individual or community. Access to out there? (The physical and social information must also include equity in sciences can be separated here, but access toways ofthinking about questions concerning how we know reality information. If information is to be used to and truth are essential to both paradigms.) empower people within the democratic In doing so we must offer up for analysis tradition, then educational experiences the manner in which we came to think must provide a means for equal access to about what is out there. We tend to forget ways of thinking as well as valuing that our understanding of what we think is different ways of thinking. out there is a result of the tools we use to explore it, the language we use to To have information and not know construct it, and the beliefs and context what to do with it, is as serious problem as used to understand it and give it mean'ng not having information at all (of course (Goodman, 1978; Rorty, 1991). Change this begs the question about the nature of the tool, the language, or the system, and information, epistemology, legitimization). reality differs. As individuals concerned Individuals who historically have been with the creation of simulations, other positioned on the margins of power and worlds, we can not forget that we exist knowledge because of their culture, their within a social reality, a virtual realty of economic class, their gender, their race, or sorts. We must also recognize that their religion, may have been given equal through discourse management, our access to information (even in limited constructed reality has become reified and ways), but not ways of knowing objectified. (thinking). For example, thc cultural ways of making sense in the United States has Second,ifvirtualrealityis been limited to primarily one cultural and understood in terms of simulations, looks, economic framework (white, middle-class, feels, and sounds-alike, virtual reality

1. Technology in a Democratic Society 99 must be understood as adiscourse. As a Whatley, 1990). Questions referring to discourse virtual reality must be analyzed equity and social justice emerge out of a as any other discourse?Borrowing from discourse on social learning, power and Cherryholmes (1988) we would need to control, benefit, and history. question virtual reality by asking: Who is controlling the discourse (reality)?; Who is School Reform and Technology: allowed to speak and listen?; What is being Towards Social Inquiry and Justice said?; Who benefits from what is being said?; as well as, What is not being Curriculummaterials,delivery spoken? systems, and learning environments may beunderstoodassocialtexts, Any simulation or virtual reality must representational in nature, always overtly beconsideredfrom two different referring to something else, while covertly perspectives.On one side we must referring to themselves as a formative consider who is constructing the world to medium. The form and content of learning be experienced by users (students, environments not only speak to methods teachers, workers, infonauts). Notions and content, but also refer to ways of concerning hypertext environments, thinking and knowing. Thinking about all interactive video, and virtual reality include learning environments, methodologies, authors and readers, suides and travellers, and contents as representational, as navigatorsand explorers. No ideological representations, adds another technological environment, as a system, is dimensiontoour thinking about authorless. Every author,every schooling, technology, and change. programming production team, every navigator, holds a world view, an Change always refers to difference. ideological perspective, a consciousness In education as well as business, change is about seif and others. On the other side, considered as a reply to some identified wemustconsiderthesocial, problem.How these problems are psychological, and political effects of a identified is as important to understand as constructed world on the readers of the what the problem is reported as being. virtual text. Needs assessments, goal development, and vision statements refer to a history, the Social Learning present, and to a future.Futures are normally related to notions of progress. How we come to be as subjects, as social beings, is a result of experiencing What the problem is, is determined constructed texts (texts is used here in a by who (who being not an individual but a post-modernist manner) and meanings community) is asking. If problems and (Belsey, 1980). All texts are hegemonic solutions are defined in terms of and are part of a larger discourse encoded efficiency, outcomes, and management, with meanings, values, and ideological the problems and solutions will be of one perspectives on others and self. How and nature. If problems are contextualized in a what we learn about a social world is the discourse of democracy and social justice, result of experiences with various efficiency, outcomes, and management discourses about that world. In doing so, may be part of the solution but towhat and we either reproducedominate meanings how they refer to will be different.As and ways of knowing or offer oppositional education in the United States considers and alternative discourses (Hall, Hobson, why and how it must change, technology & Willis,1980). In either case, individuals as a medium whicheffects knowing, as members of interpretivecommunities institutional and individual relationships, (Fish, 1980) understand a reality to be as it as well as a sense of self andothers, must is, to be real and truthful, because of their be better understood within a discourse of experiences with various formative and democratic ideals. The problem needs to informative discourses (Ellsworth & be redefined. (Again, the language has to 100 100 Verbo-Visual Literacy be problematic when we consider that breaking from the common sense reified there is not one education, but many.) world offered by modernist and positivist alike, would need to address issues Critical Theory concerning the function of schooling and a and Educational Technology technology of instruction in a democratic society. Critical theory offers an entry point for unpacking the values, assumptions, References and practices of educational technology. From a post-modernist perspective critical Cherryholmes, C. H. (1988). Power and theory claims no absolute authorship.It criticism: Poststructural investigations declaresits own subjectivity and in education. New York & London: ideological construction. As a theory Teachers College Press. working within a post-modernist tradition, those who practice critical theory are Belsey, C.(1980).Critical practice. concerned with questions of power, London & New York: Methuen. control, and epistemology as social constructions with benefits to some and Berger, P. L., & Luckmann, T.(1966). not to others. The social construction of reality: A treatise in the sociology of knowledge. A critical theory of educational Garden City, NY: Doubleday. technology would be concerned with issues of consciousness and epistemology, Ellsworth, E. & Whatley, M. H. (1990). power and control, institutional and The ideology of images in educational individual relationships (Feenberg, 1991). media: 1-:idden curriculums in the Questions concerning equity and social classroom. New York & London: justice, and the construction of individuals Teachers College Press. as subjects within an ideological discourse would be critical to the unpacking and Feenberg, A. (1991). Critical theory of redefinition of the theories and practices of technology.New York & Oxford: educational technology. A major impact of Oxford University Press. critical theory on the field of educational technology would be to recognize itself as Fish, S.(1980).Is there a text in this a social construction with a history of class? The authority of interpretive conflicts, struggles, and contradictions. In communities. Cambridge & London: understanding the social and historical Harvard University Press. nature of the field, the values and assumptions which are expressed through Goodman, N.(1978). Ways of various discourses would be open for worldmaking. Indianapolis & analysis. Cambridge: Hackett . Conclusion Hall, S., Hobson, D., Lowe, A., & Willis, P.(1980). Culture, media, Schooling, in reflecting a democratic language:Working papers in cultural society,requires a societyto be studies,1972-79. London: democratic, non-racist, non-sexist, and not Hutchinson. class based. In positioning education as a major socializing institution, with a major Muffoletto, R. (1991). Technology and role in forming the world views and texts:Breakingthewindow. subjectivities of its participants, the Paradigms regained:The uses of products and processes of educational illuminative, semiotic and post-modern technology do play a major role in how criticism as modes of inquiry in communities of individuals think about educational technology.Englewood others and self. A critical theory position,

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Cliffs, N.J.: Educational Technology Rheingold, H.(1991)Virtual reality. Publications. New York: Summit. Muffoletto, R., & Knupfer, N.(Eds.) Rorty, R. (1991) Objectivity, relativism, (1993) Computers in education: andtruth. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge Social, political, historical Uniyersity Press. perspectives. New Jersey: Hampton Press. Postman, N. (1992). Technopoly: The surrender of culture to technology. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. BEFORE THE CHALLENGE by Demetres Pnevmatikos Quality in education is a central Classroom Organization preoccupation in all developed countries. Improving the quality of basic education-- The structure of a classroom in a primaryand secondary--obviously school of the future will not be too comprises a number of changes in different from a current classroom. The curricula, teaching methods, and the classroom will still have its blackboard. organization of schooling with particular On one side, behind the teacher's desk, emphasis on the role of the teaching staff. there would be a screen whose size would On the other hand, teachers have begun to vary with the size of theclassroom. On be dissatisfied with the inability of the the teacher's desk, there would be a high school to link school and society. Many capacity multimedia system, equipped teachers, also, have turned towards probably with peripheral CD-ROM, full- technology because of "a felt need to motion video, touch sensitive screen, reflect the nature of our rapidly changing voice/document delivery system, printer, society in education and to underline its etc. On the desks there would bePCs relevance for all pupils" (Dodd, 1978, p. equipped with appropriate software for 37). From this point of view, education every lesson. They wouldhave a CD- hasalways followed technological ROM as well as CD-WRITE and an on- advances in trying to apply scientific line link with the school's library. achievementsto teaching practice. Contrary to the other fields, educational Class-Student Organization technology is characterized by a lack of targets. Although,multimedia A common feature of all students of applications, for example, promised rapid each class will not be their chronological changes in education, there is no plan to age but the possession of the samelevel of assimilate these ideas and knowledge. cognitive abilities, corresponding to the Therefore, it is time for education to define requisite level for the comprehension of its targets in aspiring to the school of the every unit of the lesson.Students would future and call in experts that could solve be tested on every subject and assigned to the problems that might arise.This a class in accordance withthe results. impliesthatthe psychologists, pedagogists, and computer scientists Library Organization should cooperate to solve the problems which arise.In order to show what I The school's library will not have mean exactly, in this paper Ishall attempt books, magazines, or newspapers. It will to describe the school of the futureand I have a computer capable of linking with shall point out some of the problems that databases and in a short time it will be able must be resolved from each science. to provide information for everything that has been written, providing writing ability The School of the Future of information on a CD-ROM, for further processing, for every type of school Forgive me, if the first part of my There will also be in the library a relevant proposal seems like a science fiction story softwareserieswithmultimedia but as Denis Healy (1987) said:"The encyclopedias so that students are application of information technology to informed directly.The contents of education requires new and imaginative encyclopedias would be graduated approaches" (Lesgold, 1987, p. 13). according to the level of cognitive demand.

1 arN -L.h. Before thc Challenge 103

Curriculum and Syllabus Design Collaterally, teachers will have in their possession plenty of media and methods If we accept that the spectrum of to succeed in their target. Teachers shall scientific knowledge of every scientific develop in this way to the maximum region is reproduced almost every ten degree, the technologicalpotential. years, it is apparent that thecurriculum Initially, they will be able to present the should be reorganized and the educational lesson plan on the screen and pose the values required in future life should be questions that will occupy the class during evaluated.Therefore, the curriculum's the lesson.By using the multimedia objective targets will provide toits system they will b.s, able to give a vivid students a fundamental body of knowledge picture of the phenomena they will teach for every scientific field.They should not only in laboratory conditions but also stress the cultural educational values of in real conditions. Students will be able to cach country and encourage a sense of experiment on the computer themselves universal moral values in combination with through a simulation program, to search the commonly accepted educational values for other useful information from the which would be necessary for the library, to transmit new knowledge to new conservation of our planet. The applications. To establish the unanswered curriculum will put on a scale the questions and to formulate possible knowledge, based on the allocated abilities solutions for these questions or, even which are required for their resolution and better,to experiment about their they will provide to students the ability to resolution. Finally, students will be able attendcourses accordingtothe to evaluate themselves by answering the development of their capacities, putting special test made to test the degree of into practice the individualization in acquisition of new knowledge.The teaching. There will be lessons which will computer will be able to process (aided by help students acquire a clear picture of the a statistical program like SPSS) the way they operate as cognitive beings, answers automatically and to give the laying equal emphasis on metacognition picture of every student's record. (Flavel, 1979; Wellman, 1985) and on knowledge. The content of the lessons Development Pace will be clearly defined but beyond the Student Grading fundamental knowledge, it will provide the opportunity for a broader exploration of Thissystemwillassistthe the lesson. Itwill also pose the continuous assessment of the students' unanswered questions which engage the progress. When students rise to a higher field of the lesson for the students to development level in some lesson and consider these subjectsindepth. possess the fundamental knowledge, then Teachers, to accomplish every lesson by rights they will be able to attend the targets, must have the opportunity to select lesson at the same level. This means that from a series of alternative methods, one the importance of the course is not limited of which will correspond to the special to the acquisition of the necessary need of each student's socioeconomic knowledge but also to the development of status. cognitive abilities, of self respect, of self awareness,andofmeta-cognitive Teaching Organization awareness. Lesson Planning The Problems With Teachers will be aware of students' Computer Science capacities for the acquisition of new knowledge, and they will also have a clear Multimedia systems provide the picture of students individual differences potential for multi-sensory presentations andwill be aware of the factors that and therefore in addition to the fact that would potentially affect their teaching. they maintain the student's attention during 104 Verbo-Visual Literacy the lesson, they have the capability to problem from errors occurring as a result accelerate and improve the comprehension of representing the problem in program of information. It is a fact that computer form" (p. 235). That implies that first tf sciencehassucceededto many all we should have a clear and documented applications which only a while ago view about the structure of the problem belonged to the field of science fiction. and secondly we should command This fact allows us to be optimistic about proportional flexible methods and even more applications in thefuture. techniques which will allow us to transmit Since 1978, when Philips Laser-Vision this structure into the program explicitly. was first presented (it was based on a Dr.Jean-PaulHaton (1987)has video disk appliance which had the ability considered artificial intelligence research to store pictures) we have seen until now for systems that would be able to use all more complex applications concerninglive theknowledge,includinghuman video and sound in analogical form. The expertise, available in a given domain. He CD-ROM, the VGA card of IBM, Apple's considers the application of knowledge- logismic Hypercard, have progressed to basedtechniques to understanding more complexapplicationslike systems, especially speech understanding voice/documentary delivery (Scherr, and computer vision where the basic 1989), CD-Write (Udell, 1993).Very problem consists of interpreting input simple educational applications have physical data. In these two related fields, progressedtothe Computer-Aided Dr. Haton notices:"there exists a close Language Instruction (CAL), (Last, interaction between numerical data- 1984), or the educational encyclopedias processing (perceptual aspects such as in like MAMMALS Multimedia Encyclopedia signal processing and pattern recognition (one complete encyclopedia for the animal techniques) and symbolic computation kingdom of mammals basedon (cognitive aspects).Moreover, itis Hypertext),Compton'sMultimedia difficult to implement reasoning processes Encyclopedia, the concise Columbia due to the multiple knowledge sources and Dictionary of Quotations and Hammond to the fact that data are incomplete and/or Atlas. Inother words, the new erroneous (p.1). We should therefore information technology offers a wide command a clear view of the symbolic variety of programs covering nearly all the operation of the human's cognitive stages of learning.However, building operations to project them later on in one's educational program presents some computer operation.We should also problems. Some of them I shall try to know which of the human capacities can describe now. I will not go into technical be developed by computers and which can details as I am not an expert in this subject. not. However, I will point out some of the problems that researchers have detected in Sperandio and Scapin (1987) point an attempt to apply usefuleducational out the problems of the ergonomics aspect programs for us to have an understanding in man-machine communications: of them. Speaking to the machine in natural Researchers from the Center for language may seem more natural educational Research and Innovation than using a keyboard. It is certainly (CERI) who consider the building of more natural, but not necessarily educational programs for mathematics, faster nor safer. First of all, today's emphasize that creating of such programs machines recognize spoken words must include "knowing what the problem only within boundaries that are much is and knowing a method of solving it" more restricted than man to man (Howe, 1987).Therefore, in building communication. This technological such a program for computers "we can constraint requires the operator to distinguish errors which are due to the speak in a more stereotypical way inexact or imprecise conceptualization of a than in everyday life, and to use a 1 4 Before the Challenge 105

reduced language.Therefore, the propose more flexible systems for the user has a greater risk of violating architecture of the mind. Demetriou and these boundaries, these rules, than if Efklides (1993) suggested three different he/she was using a more classical systems (the processing system, the entry mode, such as a key-board. hypercognitive system, and the specialized Current software design can structural system) in which the human sometimes be described as an art mind is structured. The first one refers to rather than a science, depending the most general system of intellect. This more on individual judgment than involves components which are so general systematic application of knowledge. that they are present in every intellectual It is that knowledge, both in terms of endeavor. The second one,the methods and existing results that hypercognitive system, does not have software ergonomics can provide. solutions to problems.It simply directs (pp. 83-84) the mind, when it isin a state of uncertainty, to select a course of action that Inother words, planners of seems more relevant and promising, given educational curricula should select from the presentation(s) of the solution of the the superabundance of offered techniques problem.The specialized structural the most operative.Even though all systems are complex modules involving programs of new information technology concepts, mental acts, schemes, or are material well produced, Professor operations interconnected into networks Gilbert de Landshere (1987) pointed out that make their co-activation possible for that taken in isolation, and not seen as the sake of particular mental goals. These tools for use in an educational project, networks may be conceived as abilities. manyofthemareof dubious That is to say, they make the person able psychological and pedagogical value. to understand whole domains of reality Therefore,criteriaofcourseware and they structure the action required for description and evaluation must be efficient interactions with the elements of adapted, improved, and extended.It is these domains. From this aspect, the mind customary to consider the user interface is conceived more as a network of (screen layout, forms of control and relations connecting the intellectual units feedback, nature of dialogue), the technical into systems which are functional vis-à-vis quality of the program, and its pedagogical the demands of specific environments in structure and function. the individual's own history (Demetriou, Efklides, & Platsidou, 1993). Psychological Problems (Cognitive Sciences) Therefore,thestructure and organization of knowledge in every special Cognitive science emphasizes the field of reality should have a particular role of prior knowledge in learning. We inner structure and organization and have already pointed out the need of the should follow a particular developmental computer programmer to know the exact rate. This means that the exact structure operation of the human mind to construct a and developmental rate of every field of new educational program for a computer. reality should be explored and later on Furthermore, in the first part class educational programs built which would organization based on the same level of take into account all these specialties. A cognitive abilities in each domain of first step towards this direction, pertaining knowledge was discussed. However, to religious thinking has already been done there are many different aspccts of the (Pncvmatikos, in preparation).It was growth and organization of cognitive establishedthatalthoughstudents abilities.Jean Piaget (Inhelder, 1963) possessed the corresponding abilities for a suggests a holistic model for the structure higher level of religious thinking than thc and development of the mind.On the one thcy demonstrated, they remained, contrary,neo-Piagetian researchers however, at a lower level of religious 106 Verbo-Visual Literacy thinking.The factor which was of be dependent upon the reliability of the significantinfluencewas the research and also upon the aspect that will socioeconomic status. That means, tha: be adopted for the architecture, structure, research beyond the structure of every and development of the human mind. form of complex thinking, should be turned into pointing out explicitly all Pedagogical Problems factors responsible for the creation of individual differences.In other words, In recent years much has been one must specify precisely the manner in learned about expertise in many different which knowledge is acquired and built in areas, and one way to view education is every domain of reality and secondly one "as the conveying of expertise to children. should define allfactors which are We continue to expect our children to be responsible for the creation of individual facile at the basic skills of reading, differences. Today there is no doubt that a writing, and arithmetic computation, but thorough analysis of the domain specific increasingly, we also expect them to knowledge of a person is a necessary respond flexibly,like experts,to requirementfor understanding the continuing technological change (Lesgold, person's problem-solving activities in each 1987, p. 20). domain (Glaser, 1984). Beside that, there existsaneed,asmanyagree, On the other hand, time exerts great "metacognitive processes should receive pressures on education. Pressures more consideration in development of produced by the time problem combined teaching programs. A teaching program with other weaknesses of educational should help explicitlyto acquire systems have led to widespread belief that mechanism to control and monitor the educational standards have been lowered. domain-specific knowledge and cognitive The rapid pace of our society, and skills" (Corre, 1987, p. 167). What is the particularly the media, reinforces the belief relevance of metacognition to each one of of many children that skills can be the fields of reality? Does their influence acquired very quickly. Most teachers do occur in the same way in all developmental not have the opportunity to attend a levels? These are questions that should be training course during their career.In answered.For the time being, "recent sciencethe amount of important studies of training in the development of knowledge continues to grow and it is cognitive strategies demonstrate the easier for those responsible to add to the success of cognitive and meta-cognitive curriculum than to redesign it. This is the training measures with students with picture of education all over the world. learning disabilities,students with The curriculum of the school of the future different levels of maturity, and students in must be redesigned. We will soon have a different college semesters" (Corre, 1987, new cognitive science telling us how p. 167). learning takes place and what is learned from certain standard components of Psychology should research the schooling.We need to turn to our structure of every particular field of human advantage new skills, new tools, ncw knowledge, should build hierarchical teaching methods, new time, and student developmental models for each one, division. should point out the relations between each level of development of this hierarchy and Conclusion the cognitive abilities and metacognition, and finally should specify the responsible We have considered the school of the factors for the creation of individual future. We have also pointed out some of differences as well as the manner in which the problems that should be solved. This these factors interact in each field of demands hard worked from many reality. This point needs attention because scientists and the joint efforts of various the success or failure of every course will scientific disciplines in order that our 1 0 Before the Challenge 107 dreams should be made reality.It may Britain: Hodder & Stroughton also be necessary to outlay a lot of money Educational. at time for scientific research. So much scientific potential and such a prohibitive Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and amount of money is impossible for only cognitive monitoring: A new area of one country to provide. There is the need cognitive developmental inquiry. to create an international institute which American Psychologist, 34, 906-911. should research and join the efforts between the institutions all over the world. Glaser, R. (1984).Education and Furthermore, the national institutions thinking.The role of knowledge. should be activated to define their American Psychologist, 39, 93-104. educational values and national ideals. They should also describe those specific Haton, J. P.(1987). Knowledge-based factors of their nation, that would create and expert systems in understanding the differentiation environment in which problems.In J.P. Haton (Ed.), the cognitive abilities are growing. Fundamentals in computer However, this is a vital question: If today understanding: Speech and vision (pp. a great number of illiterates exists all over 1-22). Cambridge University Press. the world, what is going to be the number of illiterates in the future under the new Howe, J. (1987). Arithmetic and demanding conditions?This question mathematical concepts. In Infortnation needs to be answered. technologies and basic learning. Center for Educational Research and References Innovation (pp. 217-257). Paris, France:Organization for Economic Corre, Y. (1987).Scientific and Cooperation and Development. technological concepts. In Information technologies and basic learning. Inhelder, B. (1963). Criteria of the stages Center for educational research and of mental development.In R. G. innovation (pp.151-2 14). Paris, Kuhnen & G. G. Thomson (Eds.), France:Organization for Economic Psychological Studies of Human Cooperation and Development. Development (pp. 28-48). New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. Demetriou, A., & Efklides, A.(1988). Experiential structuralism and neo- Landsheere, G.(1987).Reading.In Piagetian theories: Toward an Information technologies and basic integrated model.In A. Demetriou learning.Center for Educational (Ed.), The neo-Piagetian theories of Research and Innovation (pp. 55-115). cognitive development:Toward an Paris,France: Organization for integration (pp. 173-222). EconomicCooperationand Amsterdam: North Holland. Development. Demetriou, A., Efklides, A., & Platsidou, Last, R. (1984). Language teaching and M. (1993).The architecture and the microcomputer.England:Basil dynamics of developmental mind: Blackwell. Experiential structuralism as a frame for unifying cognitive developmental Lesgold, A. (1987). Information theories. Monographs of the Society technologies and basic learning: Main for Research in Child Development, issues and future prospects. In 58, (5, serial no. 234). Information technologies and basic learning. Center for Educational Dodd, T. (1978). Design and technology Research and Innovation (pp. 13-49). in the school curriculum. Great Paris, France: Organization for

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EconomicCooperationand computer understanding: Speech and Development. vision (pp. 79-91). Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. Pnevmatikos, D.(in preparation). The structure of religious thinking. Udell, J.(1993, January). Byte. McGraw-Hill. Sherr, I.(1989, December). Pepperoni and paperwork. Byte, 309-316. Wellman, H. M.(1985).The child's McGraw-Hill. theory of mind: The development of conceptions of cognition.In S. R. Sperandio, J. C., & Scapin, D.L. Yussen (Ed.), The growth of reflection (1987). Ergonomic aspects of man- in children (pp. 169-206). New York: machine communications.In J. P. Academic Press. Haton(Ed.),Fundamentals in TEACHING WITH DISTANCE DELIVERY SYSTEMS: STRATEGIES FROM A TO Q by Landra L. Rezabek

Though nuances of the definition still instructional design and development are debated, the term distance education continue to serve as the foundation for broadly refers to a wide variety of educationalplanning. However, educational activities conducted when the participants using new technological source(s) and recipient(s) ofthe delivery systems may require assistance in educational event are geographically or learning to engage successfully and temporally separated (Garrison, 1990; serenely in distance teaching and learning. Keegan, 1990). Distance educational can This paper focuses on tips and strategies assume a variety of forms, from very for educators interested in expanding their traditional courses provided via videotaped teaching repertoires to include the use of lectures t o computer-mediated distance delivery systems. communication among teachers and students that occurs when participants' In honor of the nation of Greece, schedules allow them to send and receive host country of the 1993 Symposium of electronic messages.Though time- theInternationalVisual Literacy honored, print-based correspondence Association, strategies for teaching with courses are indeed considered a form of distance delivery systems are associated distance education, developments in with each letter of the Greek alphabet and technological hardware and software are discussed below. Since many distance provide means of instantaneous, live, two- delivery systems are available, strategies way interaction among instructors and are generic and can pertain to the use of students.Technological advances now bothaudioandvisualsystems offer distance education participants incorporating either live or delayed communication options such as audio, communication with a variety of learners. audiographic, facsimile, compressed This brief overview of strategies is merely video, VSAT (Very Small Aperture an introduction to the many opportunities Terminals), microwave, satellite, cable, awaiting educators who engage in distance computer-based, and a variety of other teaching. delivery systems. Indeed, distance delivery systems frequently are hybrid Attitudes. Educators systems, taking advantage of the attributes engaged indistance of a variety of delivery technologies. teaching must carefully assesstheir attitudes The focus of this paper, however, is about distance education. not on the ncw delivery systems (for a Teacher predispositions concise overview see U.S. Congress, can be a crucial factor determining the Office of Technology Assessment, 1989, success or failure of distance programs. Chapter 3). As with any type of Attitudes of students, administrators, and educational hardware, distance delivery other stakeholders are important as well, systems themselves serve as the tools of but an unhappy teacher forced into a teaching and learning, not as the primary distanced role can sabotage a program just consideration. Though the attributes of as a committed teacher can contribute the distance delivery systems must be energy and enthusiasm that leads to the considered during thedesign and success of the endeavor. Wise distance development of distanced education teachers know about both the strengths endeavors, traditionalprinciples of

9 110 Verbo-Visual Literacy and limitations of distance education and successful experience for their distanced believe it is a worthwhile endeavor. students and will select strategies to do so. Barriers. Distance Evaluation. Distance teachers are overcoming teaching requires that barriers of time and educatorsconsistently beta geography, just by the evaluate not only the natureof distance performance oftheir education. Other students,but the barriers, ranging from tight budgets to successes and limitations of the entire luddite colleagues to administrative red distance teaching experience.In a tape, often present obstacles to educators distanced context, teachers will want to teaching at a distance. Wise distance evaluate their own performance; the teachers identify existing barriers and appropriateness and effectiveness of the develop strategies for dealing with them, delivery systems; and the support received knowing that new barriers will arise to from administrators, staff, site facilitators, present additional challenges. and technicians. Wise distance teachers will solicit assistance with evaluation of the Groups. As the role of many factors affecting the overall success educator shifts from that of distanced teaching endeavors. ofadispenserof information to that of a Zest. Justasa facilitator, coach, and teacher's enthusiasm is mentor,teachers are contagiousinalive increasingly incorporating student group classroom, a distanced activities into the instructional process. teacher'szest is Group assignments can be a challenge to transmitted across arrange in a distanced context, but they geographical space and over time. Wise can be a very beneficial element of the distance teachers will remember that their distanced educational experience. Careful degree of zest for distance teaching and preplanning, assignment of group roles learning will be translated to students and responsibilities,use of on-site using audio or visual means and that facilitators, and frequent communication students will perceive and often reflect that among group members and the instructor enthusiasm. all support the inclusion of group work in distanced settings. Wise distance teachers Eerie. Sometimes take advantage of group options during teaching at a distance may instruction. H seem a little strange. en:q Depending on the type of Determination. delivery system being Distance teaching is not used, a teacher may have B casy. Those who naively the eerie feeling that no one is out there deft& state that teaching at a attending to instruction.Feedback is distanceisjustlike important to teachers as well as to students teaching in a face-to-face in order to combat an eerie sense of situation probably have never taught at a isolation. Teachers may also fcel a little distance. However, distance teaching is not unsettled when working with new delivery necessarily harder than normal teaching. It technologies for the first few Liles, but merely requires the determination to comfort levels rapidly rise as teachers incorporate new teaching strategies and to become accustomed to the hardware and to modify traditional ones in a new type of the strategies to take advantage of ncw learning environment. Wise distance teaching options. Wise distance educators teachers are determined to provide realize that eerie feelings will bc replaced Distance Delivery Systems 111 by a new sense of confidence in dealing knots, and they proceed to the best of their with distanced teaching situations. ability in the face of challenges. Thoughtful and Learners. Learners are Thorough. Teaching at a crucial variable in the 6 71 a distance may encourage successful distance theb a teacher to be more education equation. thoughtful in planning Wise,learner-centered i nstructi onal activities. distance educators will When using some distance delivery realize that their educational philosophies systems, a degree of spontaneity may be and classroom strategies that focus the sacrificed in order that predetermined educational act on learners and learning materials arrive at distant locations in time rather than teachers and teaching can be to be used in class. Wise distance teachers translated to distance situations. Some of use this fact as incentive for timely, these strategies may include the use of thorough preparation of materials and for student-negotiated learning contracts prior planning of instructional strategies. including identifying the objectives and grading criteria, a consideration of Interaction. Interaction students' learning style preferences in frequently is considered instructional planning, and encouragement crucial to good teaching and validation of student ideas and Jinlf a n d learning comments. environments.When workingindistanced Media. Media such as contexts,H teachers may wish to be slides, laser discs, audio especially mindful of the opportunities for recordings,videotape, interaction that they build in to lessons. and graphics can be Simple strategies such as calling on selected and incorporated students by name, assigning students from appropriately into distantsitesas spokespersons or distanced contexts just as they are in live equipment operators for the group, face-to-face teaching settings.Though directing students to ask questions and copyright issues, distribution schedules, interact directly with each other, assigning and fidelity of transmission are just a few group tasks, requiring individual or group of theconcerns thatarise when reports during class, and other activities supplementing distance instruction with that encourage interaction in face-to-face additional media, wise distance teachers classrooms often can be translated to realize that principles of communication distanced classrooms. Though the and learning that support the use of attributes of some delivery systems may educational media in face-to-face situations tend to limit interaction, wise distance apply in distanced contexts as well. teachers use their own creativity and expertise to overcome these limitations. Needs. Distance education currently is in Kinks. Working with N vogue.Unfortunately, distance delivery systems 121* many educators select K usually means working distance education as a AcalPf with technology, and trendy solution without hardware glitches at one determining what the problem isor time or another. Distance whether a problem exists at all. A wise teachers also will face kinks in the smooth distance educator will help determine the operation of a distanced program due to needs of the school or institution which is human factors. Wise distance teachers do considering distance teaching and learning not let kinks in the system tie them up in options.Once needs are identified, distance delivery systems and solid 112 Verbo-Visual Literacy instructional design principles can assist in Repetition.The old the development of appropriate distanced adage, "Tell them what interventions. you're going to tell them, tell them, then tell them Xerography. Distance what you told them," education endeavors rings true for distance often extend beyond the educators.Distance teachers will soon dissemination of print- learn that repetition of Assignments, due based instruction, but dates, and key point9, is appreciated by xerography,facsimile, distanced students who want to confirm and other print-based technologies still that they are not losing any valuable support distanced teaching endeavors. information due to transmission noise or Distance teachers may choose to distribute other technological or human interference. copies of graphic and written information Wise distance teachers will repeat to distanced students to reinforce other important points and confirm that the teaching-learning activities. Wise distance students have received the messages by teachers will take advantage of the speed asking students to restate the information and general accessibility of facsimile and themselves or to respond in other xerographic technologies to supplement appropriate ways. their distance teaching with print-based materials. Simplicity.It may be a tendency of human Organization. Distance naturethatsome teaching requires a great educators want to use the deal of organization on newest, most complex, the part of the teacher and most dazzling the many types of people technologies available, and this inclination involvedindistanced often holds true in distance education endeavors.Wise distance teachers will contexts.However, the goals of a draw upon principles of instructional distance education endeavor often can be design and development to help organize reached using simple delivery systems, their instructional responsibilities and will alone or in hybrid combinations, in work closely with colleagues to organize effective ways. Wise distance educators all aspects of the distanced teaching and realize that simplicity of presentations and learning experience. delivery systems often is virtuous. Punctual. In many Team.Team work is instances, distance perhaps the single most delivery systems are Tt important factor leased,rented,or ttszt contributingtothe otherwise scheduled to be success of a distance used for specific finite educationendeavor. blocksof time. Some delivery Teachers, students, staff, administration, technologies,suchassatellite technicians, site facilitators, vendors, transmission, may begin and end precisely production personnel, aides, instructional at predetermined times, regardless whether designers, and a variety of other people or not an instructor is running late to class must coordinate efforts and share expertise or is in mid-sentence.Wise distance inorder to establish and maintain teachers will be punctual in starting and successful distance education programs. ending class sessions, particularly when Wise distance teachers will be team players the technology is unforgiving. and will know that they can not be successful without the help of others. Distance Delivery Systems 113

Update.Technologies four-letter expletive may be both change. Teaching appropriate and therapeutic. In those methods change. moments, wise distance teachers will rely Instructional media and instead on this exclamation of impatience, materials change. disapproval, irritation, or disbelief. Students characteristics change. Course goals change. Wise Optimistic.Engaging distance teachers consistently update their in distance teaching and knowledge of and expertise using distance learning is a continuing delivery systems and modify their distance 0.122607 challenge that requires offerings to meet changing instructional time and commitment. demands. 7.1Learning the limitations of delivery systems, translating successful Philosophy.Distance face-to-face lessons into distance contexts, teachers frequently nave and dealing with instructional and non- formulated a philosophy instructional student problems are just a of education thatis few of the challenges of distance teaching. reflected by their Wise distance teachers will remain chtssroomstyle and optimistic about the opportunities distance teaching strategies.Distance education education offers to their students and will courses can be delivered using traditional value the opportunities for their own lecture formats dominated by teacher talk personal and professional growth. or can be designed to reflect the perspective that teachers are facilitators, Though this is the end of the Greek coaches, and mentors. Wise distance alphabet, this is not the end of the teachers recognize the aspects of their strategies that distance educators can teaching philosophies that will translate incorporate into their teaching.Wise well using distance delivery systems and distance educators will continue to try new then work with other members of the ideas, overcome new challenges, and distance education team to make sure the devise new approaches to teaching at a delivery systems are used effectively to distance. Asdistance education support their philosophy and style of opportunities expand toinfluence teaching. increasing numbers of educators and educational consumers, entries are Humor. Even the most constantly added to this lexicon. prepared distance X teachers using the most References reliable equipment supported by the most Garrison, D. R.(1990).Understanding appropriate human, distance education: A framework for financial, and physical resources will have the future. New York: Routledge. a bad day when something, if not everything, goes wrong. Wise distance Keegan, D.(1990).Foundations of teachers will maintain a sense of humor distance education. New York: and perspective and will encourage their Routledge. students and colleagues to do likewise. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Pshaw! Regardless of Assessment. (1989, November). the teacher's skill, the Linking for learning: A new course w distance program's foreducation, OTA-SET-430 effectiveness, and the Washington, DC: U.S. Government Av. participants' good Printing Office. humor, distance teachers may find themselves in situations where a 123 AN INTERDISCIPLINARY APPROACH TO CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT FOR INTERACTIVE VIDEO COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS by Susan King Roth

New technologies are changing the evaluated each other at midterm and at the way we communicate, learn, and teach. In conclusion of the course and this Winter of 1993 a design research project information contributed to each student's was conducted in the Department of final grade. Industrial Design at The Ohio State University by interdisciplinary teams of There was extensive communication graduate students from Industrial Design, with the sponsoring organizations in Industrial Systems and Engineering, Indiana. Three videoconferences and two Marketing, and Communication. The face-to-face meetings took place over a objective of the course was to allow ten-week quarter. The sponsors freely students with diverse backgrounds to gave the student teams information and apply knowledge from their respective feedback, but very little direction. Their areas to the development of concepts purpose was exploratory. through team methods. The project, sponsoredby Thomson Consumer The course was taught by co- Electronics and Indiana Bell, involved the instructors Susan King Roth, Assistant development of future applications for Professor of Visual Communication interactive video communication systems. Design in the Department of Industrial This area of research is enormously active Design at OSU, and Dr. Elizabeth B.N. at the present time with telephone and Sanders, Vice President for Research and cable companies, electronics firms, film Strategies at Fitch, Inc., an international and television production companies, design firm. computerhardwareandsoftware comp-iiies, and others, trying to assure Guest lecturers were invited from that they will not be left out of what other departments to complement the promises to the be the next great wave of background of the instructors. These economic and technological development. guests included Dr. StevenAcker from the Department of Communication, and Dr. The original intent of the course was Dave Woods from Cognitive Engineering to focus on human factors in the design discussedhumanfactorsresearch process. Because of the scope of the methods. John McCluskyfrom the project and the exploratory interests of the Department of Industrial and Systems sponsors, however, a longer time than Engineering discussed team formation. expected was spent in the discovery phase (searching foruseful and relevant Course Structure application areas) than in the design phase. Extensive readings were assigned to The course was structured around students (and instructors) in order that periodic scheduled meetings with the participants from all disciplines get up to sponsors in the form of face-to-face speed with the latest information on meetings, videoconferencing sessions, and electronic communication technologies. e-mail communications via computer. The instructors developed a calendar at the Emphasis was placed throughout thc beginning of the quarter that included key course on the importance of working in meeting points and other events as they interdisciplinary teams. Team members should occur in sequence to assist the 1 2 4 115 Interdisciplinary Video problem-solving process. infomiation about themselves by filling out a short questionnaire.This information We were fortunate to have extensive was used to formthree preliminary facilities at research teams balanced in termsof access to videoconferencing of Ohio Bell headquarters inColumbus department, age, sex, and country (through arrangement with IndianaBell), origin. so that we were able to usethe same live, interactive video technology that was also Each of the teams selected a content the subject of the course,thereby area in which to conductresearch for the becoming aware of the advantagesand first four weeks of the quarter. disadvantages of communicating and collaborating in this way. The goal of the research teams was to gain an in-depthunderstanding of the preliminary area of focus (either society, technology, or individual/group) and to exploreopportunities forfuture applicationsofinteractivevideo ' technologies. At midterm, the research teams presented their understandingof the problem space and ideas for applications as well as desirableattributes for the communication systems. New teams were formed after the Students located at the Ohio Bell videoconference midterm presentation. Four concept or facility seated before the camera and television design teams were formed bybalancing monitor unit that transmitted and received discipline and research focus. Minor communications from Indiana and Columbus. A adjustments were made due to personality second camera overhead transmitted graphics. factors that emerged in the first set of Team Formation teams. Nineteen graduate students from four Project Groups different academic departments participated in the class. Students were solicitedfrom The assignment of projects to the Business (MBATTechnology Management) four design teams was a highly Communication, Industrial and Systems collaborative process. Selection of the Engineering, and Industrial Design. All of project areas was done in a face-to-face the class meetings, videoconferences, and work session following the midterm presentations were videotaped by a presentation. Present at the work session Communication student. Another student were students, instructors, sponsors,and from Communication provided a meta- several outside guests with an interestin analysis of the course, working teams, and the subject. group dynamicsincorporating information related to collaborative research projects Research team members were into her thesis study. All students were responsible for submitting index cards pursuing graduate degrees in their describing potential applications that respective departments; many were mature emerged during the course oftheir and preliminary studies and discussions. Over with previous professional experience, of the represented various cultures and ethnic 70 ideas were offered as a result brainstorming. Closely related ideas were backgrounds. placed in the same category, resulting in The first step in team formation 16 separate categories. Withguidance requiredthatthcstudents share from the sponsors, four very distinct

1.25 116 Verbo-Visual Literacy project areas were chosen. These four areas were: 1. Remote Troubleshooting/ Dia- 4:..str e gnostics (on the scene access to experts). Z.11 2. VolksVision (personal applications of video and electronic technology). 3. Education(K-12,higher education, continuing education). Cards representing 70 ideas generated during a brainstorming session were placed on the wall in 4. Town Hall (political and social order to establish categories of ideas on a Concept group interaction). Location Matrix. A separate attributes section describing desirable attributes was also creatcd, with cards copied and distributed to each of the Assignment of projects to design four concept groups. Combining ideas with teams took place the following week. We attributes resulted in further concept generation and assigned project areas randomly by definition. drawing student names when some of the project areas proved more popular than Participants from the Department of others. This resulted inan equal Communication played a significant role in distribution of students to all areas. the evaluation of existing applications, with one of the highlights of tne course Each team was responsible for being the lecture by Dr. Steven Acker on developing concepts in the project area eye contact and the effect of image size and assigned and presenting results in the form otherfactorsonacceptanceof of a preliminary and final presentation to videocommunication as a reasonable the sponsors and the class. Each was to substitute for face-to-face communication. produce a written document as well. Communication students brought a knowledge of media and public policy to Evaluation the teams. Students were evaluated on the Studentspresentedextensive results of their teamwork (60% of the researchreports during thefinal grade) as well as their performance as team presentation, with Business students members (40%).Resultsoftheir supplying the marketing plan, while teamwork were shown in a preliminary Design students produced visualizations presentation via videoconference facilities (concept sketches and computer-based and in the final presentation (a face-to-face interface designs) for products and meeting). The final presentation used a systems developed by the teams. All variety of media such as slides, video, and members of the teams supplied concepts computer-generated interface designs to and participated in brainstorming sessions. demonstrateproposedapplications. Written reports included: Because of the experimental nature of the course, it was important that a problem statement students be given a means of evaluating technological underpinnings the course and the instruction. The form market analysis and planning used for this purpose provided feedback user research that encouraged us to continue with future productiservice embodiments endeavors. recommendations to Thomson- Indiana Bell. The course was extremely successful in terms of the outcome--thc research Interdisciplinary Video 117 reports were outstanding. It also provided very important to acknowledge that one a real-life experience with afuzzy design person (or discipline) can not possibility problem (one without clearly defined know all there is to know about designing parameters) and important experience such a system or product, but must working in interdisciplinary teams. There understand when to call in experts in a were a few negative aspects of teamwork, given area to produce the best solution. such as the fact that one team had fewer membersdueto unforeseeable Consistent with the project goal of circumstances and did not benefit from developing future applications for new equal contributions by remaining team technologies was the finding that the use members. In the future, team dynamics of e-mail and videoconferencing to will be more carefully considered and communicategreatlyenhanced controlled. Rather than expecting a leader management of the course. The ability to to emerge naturally, as had been predicted distribute timely information to students by students from the MBA management and receive their questions and comments area, it would be preferable to assign a through e-mail, and to use video team coordinator or facilitator to assure conferencing to communicate with progress and direction in the future. sponsors in another state facilitated progress of the course and contributed to Also, we would extend the amount the successful completion of the design of time available for this course to two research project. quarters, or at least more than the usual ten week quarter. We hope to develop other collaborative sponsored research projects building on the strength of this experience, the wealth of brainpower in a variety of disciplines existing on campus, and the need to present opportunities for both graduate and undergraduate students to workon interdisciplinaryteams. Additional time should ideally be devoted to testing proposed applications with user groups, and incorporating feedback into the design of new user interfaces. The most difficult aspect of predicting user reaction to new applications of technology is the inability of users to visualize or imagine how these technologies might be used. Prototypes facilitate visualization. The key to acceptance for any new communication or information technology is attention to the human use of the system. For this reason, many of the concepts were based on needs and wants of potential users, with consideration of social and cultural factors surrounding the Assigned Reading for the Course productionandconsumption of The following reading list was communication technologies. supplemented by current related articles In terms of project development, the from the media and research journals: designofapplicationsfornew technologies presents a challenge that Acker,S., & Levitt,S.(1987). involves more than one content area.It is Designing videoconference facilities 118 Verbo-Visual Literacy

for improved eye contact. Journal of Chapter 8: Teleconferencing, pp. 183- Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 196. 31(2), 181-191. Chapter 10: The electronic home, pp. Bodker, S. (1991). Through the interface. 220-241. A human activity approach to user interface design.Hillsdale,NJ: Schwartz, P. (1991). The art of the long Lawrence Earlbaum Associates. view. NewYork: Doubleday- Currency. Chapter 6: User interface design: Advice to the designer, pp. 139- Ulloth, D. (Ed.). (1992). Communication 164. technology. Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America. Bretz, R. (1983). Media for interactive communication. London: Sage. Chapter 2: Teleconferencing: A rapidly growing innovation, by L. Part I: Some familiar interactive media Lappin, pp. 19-26. systems, pp. 29-68 (television systems). Chapter 13: Interactive video: A learning tool, by R. Gould, pp. Part III:System design features: 137-144. Issues and problems, pp. 167-263. Chapter 14: Social effects of Compaine, B. (1988). Issues in new interactive video, by N. Greco, pp. information technology.Cambridge, 145-152. MA: Program on Information Resources Policy, Harvard University. Credits

Chapter 1: Introduction:The Thispaperincludesmaterial information "revolution" is more developed by Susan King Roth, Associate than technology, pp. 1-14. Professor of Visual Communication Design, The Ohio State University, and Chapter 5:Information technology Dr. Elizabeth Sanders, Fitch Inc., Co- and cultural change: Toward a new instructors. A related article was published literacy, pp. 145-178. in the Winter 1994 issue of Innovation, journal of the Industrial Designers Chapter 9:Contradictions and AssociationofAmerica.The concerns, pp. 293-302. interdisciplinary project course was made possible by generous funding from Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Indiana Bell (Ameritech) and Thomson Naturalistic inquiry. London: Sage. Consumer Electronics.

Rosen, A. (1987). Telecommunications. Photographs by Rich DiCenzo. SanDiego:HarcourtBrace Jovanovich. DESIGNING VISUAL METHODS OF COMMUNICATING VISUAL CONTENT WITH ART HISTORY SOFTWARE by Ellen Schiferl Words vs. Images My art history curriculum moves Art history is a hybrid discipline that beyond cultural context toward an even combines the verbal with the visual, yet more fundamental question:How do verbal communication traditionally has people in a particular culture perceive defined the field.In class, students hear reality?Here world view becomes a words and see slides but they take verbal perceptual concept. As an extension of the notes and thus words become the basis for mind, our eyes construct the visible world studying and understanding.Words for us.While the biological mechanism dominate the scholarly approach to art for perceiving images is common to history as well because academe can human beings, these images are processed assess verbal publications more easily in by selecting certain forms.The mind tenure and promotion and because photos, selects forms on the basis of their particularly color photos, are expensive to importance and thus the perception of reproduce. Unfortunately, words provide reality interconnects with what a culture a limited vehicle for communicating visual deems important. Art cannot reproduce ideas.Our eyes perceive an immense the reality of the eye but it can reveal the variety of colors, textures, and shapes that visual emphasis and spatial logic of a allow us to make an almost infinite number particular society. Further, art functions of visual distinctions that words cannot as both a passive reflection of perceptual communicate. With a greater reliance on systems as well as an active agent in visual means to teach visual concepts, art generating those systems. By studying the history could be taught more effectively. art of different cultures we gain a better understanding of different patterns of Paths to Visual Literacy thought. At the university level, art history Software example courses, like studio and art education courses, play a vital role in communicating The interactive software example the importance of visual literacy, yet each used in this essay, Space: The Visual art discipline defines visual literacy Frontier, represents an intermediary step differently: between the heavy dependence on words characteristic of current art history Art appreciation and studio instruction and a more rigorous approach courses emphasize art terms and to communicating visual concepts through visual elements (Dondis, 1973). visual means which will be presented in the near future.In the Visual Frontier Arteducation focuses on software, most screens are evenly divided perceptual and cognitive between text and visuals, but in contrast to approaches (Arnheim, 1969; publications and slide lectures, many of Gombrich, 1956). the visuals include animated overlays and diagrams to relay concepts. Art history currently stresses cultural values such as the The program focuses on one of the significance of afterlife in Egypt most significant shifts in the history of or harmony in Japan. representation globally, the development 129 120 Verbo-Visual Literacy of linear perspective in early fifteenth color harmonies for the entire program and century Italy.Typically art historians buttons composed of six shades of gray teach linear perspective as an advanced presented a shallow three dimensional method of representing the visible world frame for easy recognition. that signaled an increased interest in the physical rather than spiritual environment. Visual Targeting Today many North Americans regard linear perspective as realistic and more I began designing computer tutorials sophisticated than other methods of two when I realized that computer animations dimensional representation. The program would be more effective than waving my delves into the religious, economic, and hand before a projected slide to make scientific sources of linear perspective and different points about the direction of the the examples for this paper stem from the eye or the relationship of the figures.In religious section featuring Bernardo the program, animated overlays serve a Daddi's Meeting at the Golden Gate (14th variety of purposes. The white oval in century), Masaccio's Trinity (1420s), and Figure 4 identifies key figures, the red Leonardo da Vinci's Last Supper (1490s). lines reveal the spatial structure in Figures 6 and 7, and the orthogonal lines link the After outlining some Medieval viewer's space to the projected space of perspectivetechniques, suchas the painting in Figure 10. hierarchical scale (Figure 4), the program shows how Christian art communicated Image Manipulation spiritualcontent thmugh spatial organization. The placement of images of Slide comparisons, a standard God the Father, the Holy Spirit, Christ, technique of art history instruction, clarify the Virgin Mary, St. John the Evangelist, the differences between two artists, and the male and female donors follows themes, or cultures by juxtaposing images. established conventions for conveying the In the Visual Frontier, transformation, relative importance of each figure by rather than juxtaposition, reinforces the aligning them according to the centric, difference between Medieval and vertical, and depth hierarchies (Figures 5- Renaissance approaches to space which 8).These visual hierarchies spurred the students oftenfinddifficultto development of linear perspective (Figures comprehend. 9-10) and explain why linear perspective flourished in religious images. Far from To dramatize the differences between developing in opposition to Christian the hierarchical scale of the Middle Ages spirituality, linear perspective reinforced (where the size of the object is determined religious models. by its importance, Figure 4) and the hierarchical depth of the Renaissance Visual Restraint (where the size of the object is determined by its distance from the viewer, Figures 8 Educational software should be and 10), the program transforms the visual visually appealing to the user but designers structure of the Renaissance painting into should exercise discipline to ensure that the visual structure of a Medieval artwork. form does not interfere with content. The The figures expand or shrink according to primary challenge in designing the Visual their spiritual significance and since the Frontier program was to keep the text, background no longer needs to be an graphics, and background from competing extension of the viewer's space,it with the illusionistic techniques of the becomes a uniform gold field (Figures 11, paintings. However, completely flat 12).By transforming one visual logic graphics would appear datedin system into another, students recognize the comparison to Macintosh system 7 icons. spatialordergoverningdifferent As thc focal point of the program's representational approaches. content, Masaccio's Trinity determined the 130 Art History Software 121

Kinevisual Testing aspects of the program and saw CBI as an alternative to books rather than to the Computer programming allows the classroom.When asked specifically user to move an objectform one place to whether they would rather use a computer another on the screen.With kinevisual or a textbook, 68% preferredthe interaction, the viewer can engage in the computer, 9.5% preferred the textbook, decision making process of the artist and and 23.5% wanted to use both, a appreciate the significance of the artist's surprising response for a student body choices. The example in Figure 3 composed of 85% non-traditional students represents one of the simplest applications with an average age of 26. of kinevisual testing and follows an animated diagram that replicates a Sample comments from one class: Renaissance method for producing linear perspective. To connect this technique to I would rather use the computer. Leonardo da Vinci's Last Supper, students It, depending upon the program, view the painting, mentally determine the forces you to make decisions as location of the vanishing point, and then you go along. A book throws a manipulate the mouse to superimpose the list of questions at you typically red dot on the vanishing point. Depending at the end of the chapter. on the student's action, the responsevaries from "You found it!" to "Close enough!" The computer made it much more to "Please try again." interesting. The info broken up into sections made it a lot simpler Student Responses to digest rather than sitting down with a whole text. The Visual Frontier was tested and qualitatively evaluated in four different The advantage to using a courses with three differentinstructors textbook is that you can do it (Art History survey from Paleolithic anytime and anywhere. I felt like through Medieval, Art History survey I had accomplished more using from Renaissance through the 20th the computer.It was more century, Cross-cultural Perspectives in Art interesting and fun. History,RenaissanceArt). The evaluations served as a means to an end--a The computer is less hard on better program, rather than as a research your eyes and you are a more tool for its own sake. Responses to the active participant. openended questions improved subsequent versions of the program and The more senses used, the provided insights into the value of greater the learning--hearing, computer based instruction (CBI). reading, and interacting with the computer are all valuable. Inthefirstversion, students complained that the structure returned To be honest, art history is not users to the main menu at the endof each my favorite cubject to study. unit. While nonlinear approaches are often Using the computer program, I touted as a major advantage of CBI, got to take a more active part in students feared they would miss a section. the learning and it makes the As a result, later versions allowed students material more exciting for me. to move through the entire program using Using sight, sound, and touch to the forward arrow or select a particular learn has a lot of advantages--it section with pull down menus. keeps you focused a lot longer.

As expected, students responded Yes, the moving visual displays favorably to the interactive and multimedia 131 122 Verbo-Visual Literacy

convey the point much easier. visuallyorientedmethodsof communicating visual content, students I like being actively involved in. will receive a clearer message about the . . seeing things move as significance of the visual knowledge. demonstrations. So many times when you read a book the Credits illustrations are barely skimmed over; on the computer you can't The following have allbeen help but see the point being made reproduced courtesy of Art Resource, Inc.: and you can't help but learn becauseyouareinvolved Bernardo Daddi, Meeting at the Golden actively. Gate, predella panel from Madonna and Child with Saints polyptych (Florence, I like the action part of the Uffizi), tempera on wood. program. It added a bit of life to the assignment. I was curious to Masaccio. Trinity. (Florence, Sta. Maria see what would happen. Novella), fresco. Challenge for the Future Leonardo da Vinci. Last Supper. (Milan, Sta. Maria delle Grazie, refectory), fresco. Computer programs provide one route to developing more visually direct References methods of teaching art history. As visual media, computer technologies stimulate Arnheim, R. (1969). Visual thinking. new ways of communicating concepts and Berkeley, CA: University of we have only glimpsed their potential for California Press. new approaches to instruction. One of the major challenges for instructional software Dondis, D. (1973). A primer of visual designers is to create programs that stretch literacy. Cambridge, MA: beyond the distillation of information and Massachusetts Institute of Technology the appeal of multimedia presentation to a Press. more comprehensive approach that stimulates another level of thinking. As an Gombrich, E. (1960). Art and illusion. intermediary step, the Visual Frontier A study in the psychology of pictorial demonstrates more visually oriented representation. Princeton, NJ: pedagogical tools but the ultimate goal is a Princeton University Press.(reprint: new level of visual thinking for the 1989) discipline of art history. By reshaping the art history curriculum toward more

132 Art History Software 123

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Format: One 1.4 M floppy disk including program, sound, images.

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Level: Advanced high school or university.

Contents: Who/When/Where: Historical background

What: Perspective methods defined with animations

Why: Religious, cconomic and scientific context.

Features: Animated diagrams and overlays explain key conccpts. Sound: music interludes and pronunciation of names. figure 2

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In 1985, the Florida Model School Their mission is to experiment and Consortia Act addressed strengthening the conduct research on how educational public school system by establishing technology can be most efficiently prototype technology throughout the state. and effectively incorporated into the The Model Technology Schools (MTS) public schools. The initial goal was program was set up 'to research and to learn how to use technology to demonstrate the effectiveuseof best prepare students to adapt to the technology in instructional deliver and rapid changes in society brought enhancement.' Literacy is a strong focus about by the infusion of technology area in the five model schools. in all facets of life. At the same time, the project should discover how to Literature has long been the favored prepare teachers to incorporate tool of literacy--familiarity with the classic technology into their teaching, texts of a culture, its crafted expression of learning, and management functions. feeling, thought, imagery, and language (pp. 20-31) style shapes the aesthetics and ethos of the culture wherein it lives. Of all literature, Schools throughout Florida were poetry most appropriately preserves the invited to submit proposals to meet thc themes and forms of cultural expression. objectives of the new statute. The Model Yet, through a lack of understanding and Technology Schools (MTS) Consortium appreciation, poetry has become a Committee selected five schools (two marginalized, even endangered, subject in elementary and three secondary) for English education today. inclusion in the project. An MTS Facilitator was funded for each of these Ipropose a poetry curriculum schools to oversee the ongoing school structured with increasing complexity for project and serve as a resource person for K -12. Student understanding and all school personnel. appreciation of poetry will be enhanced through the medium of performance, made Webster Elementary Model immediately accessible via laserdisc Technology Pilot Program technology. The laserdisc performances will allow sound, music, and dance into Webster Elementary School (K-5) in the figures and the forms of poetry. This St. Augustine was the smallest of the five will pull poetry out of its traditional print schools chosen for the MTS pilot bias and into the verbo-visual tech culture program. A committee of public school where it belongs. administrators, university consultants, and local business partners had worked with The Florida Model School the Webster principal, teachers, and Consortia Act parents to develop a concrete plan for their 5-year model technology grant program. In1985, the Florida Legislature All Webster teachers were asked to passedtheFlorida Model School identify specific ways technology could Consortia Act (228.0855 Florida Statutes) enhance their class preparation and to strengthen the public school system by instructional presentation, and to suggest establishingprototypetechnology specific software which could meet their throughout Florida (UCF/DOE, 1992): needs. Many of the teachers' suggestions 137 128 Verbo-Visual Literacy were incorporated into the successful grant closed circuit television system planned for proposal which emphasized teacher later stages in the grant. This was a training. difficult and expensive process, given the cement block construction of the original The 1988-89 Planning Year (1959) building and the presence of fire walls throughout (Eason, 1992). Initially, there was some resistance to implementation of the MTS program at The Apple Share LAN has been Webster, so teachers were given the useful for sharing information such as opportunity to transfer out. None did so. worksheets or project notes with other In-service training began during the initial teachers. As an additional incentive to planning year; every member of the teacher involvement, all communications Webster staff (instructional and non- from the school administration are sent via instructional) took part in the program. electronic mail. The network is also used The technology they worked with included in teacher-parent communication. Parents CD-ROM, interactive video, laser can dial into the Teacher's voice mailbox videodiscs, video recorders, computer 24 hours a day to learn what is going on in hardware, and several different software the classroom, the weekly spelling list, applications. Teachers earned in-service field trips that are planned, etc. According credit, released time, and limited stipends to Webster MTS Facilitator Cathy as incentives to participate actively in the Hutchins (Schneider,1993),this program.By the end of the 1988-89 networking brings down the walls school year, each teacher had logged over between the classrooms and encourages 40 in-service training hours. teacher-sharing even across grade levels. However, Webster has already outgrown Under the guiding principle that this limited access network. curriculum should drive the technology, the teachers developed a list of hard to Within the 93-94 school year, teach areas, by grade and subject matter, Webster will upgrade to a multi-use Novell and began to identify specific technology network with on-line classroom access to to facilitate instruction in these areas. the school media center. Recognizing that Hardware and software were prioritized the idea of an individual classroom and purchased as the MIS grant money workstation for each student is not becameavailable.Teachers were financially feasible, the goal at Webster is encouraged to check out equipment and to have five networked workstations in software for home practice. each classroom. The Implementation Years Active Learning During the 1989-90 school year, in- All technology is geared toward service training continued two days a active student learning by individuals or in week, with an additional focushands-on small groups.This goal was based on student involvement with the new observation of students in the IBM and technology. At the end of the school year, Apple labs and at the five Macintosh Webster students produced a videotape to workstations currently set up in the school illustrate this new involvement. Media Center.

In 1990-91, an Apple-Share network Use of the new technology is was installed throughout the school. The especially evident in the kindergarten and teachers chose Macintosh workstations as first grade classrooms, where interactive most suited to their needs and computer software packages are replacing the basal skills.Cabling was run simultaneously readers. The software monitors individual for this network of teacher workstations, student progress and builds the cumulative as well as the classroom phone lines and student record. This frees the classroom 136 Literacy Through Technology 129 teacher to work with individuals or small friendly for the media novice who is groups as needed.Expert students are assembling a classroom presentation. identified and given extra media access so they can be an in-class resource to fellow Closed Circuit Television students. In January of this year, Webster's At Webster, there is little student closed circuit television studio became enthusiasm for the old-style handwritten operational, complete with two commercial research report, especially in the area of Panasonic cameras, line and camera science. Students are encouraged to use monitors, and a switcher. Grades 3 and 4 the computer as a word processor. Their produce the daily news show. Students in final reports are output on one of the three grades 1 and 2 handle the weather and laser printers that are part of the system. features, respectively.

F o r classroom presentations, Project Evaluation students access slides and videodiscs, sequencing the media segments, adding One key component of the Florida titles, and incorporating these visuals into MTS project was ongoing research and their oralreports.Thus, modern evaluation within each model school, technology actually encourages student which would be shared with schools creativity and imagination. Students at the throughout the state.Ongoing research media center workstations build programs, projects at Webster include surveys of use save to a videotape, and then modify as of the technology by teachers both in- needed to show in their classrooms. The school and out-of-school. Although all the Media Center is currently experimenting technology was made available, teachers with CDI (Compact Disc Interactive), were encouraged to use the equipment they where the program is developed at the felt best met their own instructional goals workstation and written onto a CD using a and needs.Survey data indicate an mouse. average use of 1.97 hours per day for each of the 43 participating teachers. In much the same way, teachers use scanned original art or purchased image Teachers were asked to complete banks to build instruction modules for reports indicating how the new technology presentation to the whole class, small has changed their instructional methods. target groups, or even individual students. Their comments included the following: The new multi-user network with 1. More emphasis on writing five classroom workstations will greatly skills/word processing. facilitate student and teacher access to all available media. Slides, film strips, laser 2. Varietyofpresentational discs, video tapes, and other resources are methods. currently being catalogued on an automated library system for classroom 3. More hands-on student activity. use. 4. Increasedopportunityfor The Hypercard software originally working with individual students. purchased proved to be very difficult for many teachers to learn since it requires 5. More organized presentation of programming knowledge. However, the matetial. Media Specialist and seven of the expert teachers have programmed Hypercard 6. Betterclassroomvisuals stacks and made these programs available (videodiscs). to other teachers. The new Hyperstudio software is much faster and more user-

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Current surveys indicate that the poetry comes up from the biblical sadness teachers use the technology more for inter- in the parallelism of African-American teacher and teacher-parent communication spirituals such as Deep River and Go and for improved record-keeping than they Down, Moses and Blues poetry to the do for actual instruction. MTS Facilitator, fearless free verse and industrial vigor of Cathy Hutchins, estimates a 3-5 year the American Midwest. America grew learning curve for integrating technology from the informal, blank verse of Robert intoeveryday classroom curricula Frost's New England to the small town (Schneider, 1993). However, as teachers' free verse epitaphs of Edgar Lee Master's level of technological expertise increases, a "Spoon River Anthology" (Masters, corresponding increase in instructional use 1962), from the syncopated jazz poetry in is anticipated. the chants and ballads of Vachel Lindsay's tribute to the American dream to the Webster teachers have one day a militant elegies of the same dream by month released time to plan the use of "Beat" poets Lawrence Ferlinghetti and Le technologyintheirclassrooms. Roi Jones. Curriculum planning software has been installed at each teacher's workstation. A Yet, through a lack of understanding key part of the Webster MTS program has and appreciation, poetry has become a been early identification of expert teachers marginalized, even endangered, subject of whose enthusiasm for and creative use of modern English curricula in American the new technology sets them apart. These schools. expert teachers are sent to special training programs, and serve as in-school This author's immediate teaching resources for their fellow teachers. contact with the students atthree universities (Eastern Illinois University, Long-term follow-up of student skill University of Bridgeport, and University acquisition would be an ideal evaluation of South Florida) has reinforced the tool, but this has not been possible. conviction that the figures and forms of Construction of two new schools in the poetry, and, consequently, the cultural district, and the resultant shift of students themes found in poetry that make up the has left only 33 students at Webster of the ethos of our country are seriously 900 who were there during the initial year neglected at both the elementary and of the grant. secondary levels of education. Literacy and Technology The result is that much of the richer levels of national expression historically Although literacy is a fundamental embedded in the language of poetry have goal of the MTS program, much of the yielded to the peripheral sound-and-sight available software is designed for science bites of commercial television. Moreover, and math.Literature has long been the so much of lasting value that is offered on favored tool of literacyfamiliarity with television is spectator-centered, prioritizing the classic texts of a culture, its crafted passive viewing. expression of feeling, thought, imagery, and language style shapes the aesthetics Poetry and Active Learning and ethos of the culture wherein it lives. The presumption of technology- Poetry and Culture based education, such asthe MTS program, is that any new knowledge and Of allliterature, poetry most instruction would include an active appropriately preserves the themes and learning component employing interactive forms of cultural expression.Thus, television methodologies.While these poetry celebrates and preserves the practices are in place and ongoing in areas sensibility of each culture.American of science, geography, biology, and some 140 131 Literacy Through Technology language arts, the introductionof poetry as talent/production groups to come up with an ingredient oflanguage arts curriculum two separate video versions of that same introductory poem.The production is rare. groups when formedhad creative For the past 30 years, the present authority, of course, over their respective author has been adapting and staging prose talent group during the rehearsal and and poetry while teaching collegestudents shooting process. communication as performance. Recently (this past year), during a course invideo The outcome of this project was a performance, the idea of exploringhow leap forward in the success of this computer technology canmake such beginning class. The mutual engendering performance more accessible to students of creative solutions to image flow challenges kept the class at these projects emerged. through the 105-minute dinner break Poetry and the Video Medium between the two scheduled class sessions. This course featured the American Time and time again, they worked in classic, "Spoon River Anthology," a series the studio from 2:00 to 6:15. The resultant of 244 verse epitaphs, created byEdgar videotapes ably illustrate the success of Lee Masters in 1915. This workgives this active learning process; the matched voice to the charazters of a small dissolves, superimpositions of ghost-like Midwestern town who are interlocked by conversations among the dead town fate (Masters, 1962). residents, drawing the face of the narrator through the tombstone image, embedding The students in this course first took the tragic rites of final passage from out of tIrse short verse epitaphs and presented the church hill, and so forth were some of them directly as soliloquies to the camera. their experimental imaging effects. They gradually began to see that, though they had met the television requirement of Toward a New Poetry Curriculum intimate immediacy, they were still word- bound. In the imaginative autobiographies This successful experience, with that the students created to give students handling the performance of background to the characters, there was a poetry in a video format, suggests the heavy imbalance of verbal over visual possibility of such video products being discourse. Like so many television news used to make poetry more available and programs and educational televisiontoday, appreciated as an elementary educational they were preserving what was essentially tool.If the forms and figures of poetry, a radio format. especially in the heightened and active forms of children's poetry, could be With the cry, "Tell a vision!" the entered into by means of modern group moved to image sequence. technology, elementary and secondary Recognizing that MTV and television school students might involve themselves commercials held an image bite of slightly actively in the richest texts of their culture less than two seconds, the poems were i n an increasinglysophisticated reprocessed to fit a lyric flow of image curriculum. What I speak of is as old as changes that might be suitable to the video Greek culture itself, where the oral text of experience. To explorethis new Homer's epics were communally entered production concept the students focused into at Panathenea (Bahn & Bahn, 1970). on the introductory poem,"The Hill," (Mastcrs, 1962, p. 23-24) that summarizes Now, it became clear that poems as simple and profound as Robert Frost's "Spoon River Anthology." "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy The classwas dividedinto Evening" (1992, p. 133) or Lawrencc alternatingproduction/talentand Ferlinghetti's"Constantly Risking

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Absurdity" (1992) could be brought to life The function of the anapest that moves the through video performance by a group of line is made immediately available:the young people in a choreographed chamber rhythm becomes audio-visual. theatre format or by using the poem as vocal text under a series of visual images. To move from poetic form to figures Winter forest slides would make the of speech, another use of creative experience of Frost's snowy evening more technology, would be to consider the same immediate, and images of circus acrobats poet's use of the device of metaphor. To might illustrate Ferlinghetti's experience of quote a later verse from the same poem, the personal dangers in risking the art of poetry. I know that the ostriches witness a wonderful sight Finally, it is then only a small step to having students in active learning projects When at nightfall he hides in his assigned to find these images (whether still emerald cave. or moving) and assemble them to create their own evocation of what the poems Now the figure of speech, emerald mean to them in visual terms.Students, cave, could be eminently clear to a third working individually or in groups, from grade student simply by transforming a their own level of sophistication, might colored photograph of a cluster of emerald search out the images to express the form gems into the cluster of green-leafed and feeling as well as the actual poetic branches in a low-hanging tree where the devices manifested in the poems, and giraffe rests at night.This process of share these poems with their fellow changing one computer image into students, using technology. another, called morphing, is well within the capability of current computer Learning the forms and devices of technology.The student, without the poetry becomes a process of felt sensing. tedious necessity of defining the poetic A line of anapests, for example, when device of metaphor, verbo-visually used to describe the galloping of a giraffe comprehends "seeing one thing in terms of in Nicolai Gumilev's (1957) poem of the another." same name can turn the line of verse into a vocal image. The line itself describes the Onomatopoeia (w ordsw hose giraffe thus: utterance mimics meaning) can be technologically exaggerated, for example, He is KINGly and STRAIGHT and his by increasing the volume in a film of MOVEments inCREDibly LIGHT. snakes hissing, by audio/visual raindrops plopping, by a close-up of bees buzzing, The linked string of two slack or by a film of water swishing and followed by one stressed syllable is splashing on the rocks. "Assonance and deliberately designed to create the echoing internal rhyme in Gwendolyn Brooks' sound of the hoof beats of the galloping (1962) "We Real Cool" can be made giraffe.The teacher may explain this audio-visualby Afritan-American device by reading the line aloud or the syncopated dancers stretching the vowels students may chant thelinewith and echoing the drums and cymbals at tne exaggerated emphasis on the stressed end of each line of verse. syllables.However, if the sight and sound of a film of an actual giraffe Finally, if a student should use the galloping as projected on a classroom laserdisc and computer with Frost's poem, television or computer screen can match "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy the verse line, voice-recorded by a trained Evening" (1992) she/he might prepare performer, the viewing student(s) can see slides or photos of New England snow and hear the reason for the device of the scenes with horse and sleigh, winter forest poet in so arranging the beat of his verse. scenes, and starry skies outside a window 142 Literacy Through Technology 133 of a bedroom where a child sleeps. These be poems enriched by American values pictures, found in magazines, newspapers, and experience. or art book illustrations, reinforce a presentation preparatory to a performance References of the poem.The iambic rhythm (characteristic of Frost) and the rhymes in Bahn, E., & Bahn, M. (1970). A history the line endings might be superscripted of oral interpretation. Minneapolis, and underlined thus: MN: Burgess.

Wliose woods theseare I think I know. Brooks, G. (1992). We real cool. In L. Perrine & T. Arp (Eds.), Sound and His house is in the village though: sense (p. 168). New York: Harcourt He will not see me stopping here Brace Jovanovich. To watch his woods fill up with snow. Eason, M. (1992, August). Retrofit for technology.Innovatorsand My little horse must think it queer innovations, 2, p. 3. TO stop Withouta farmhouse near Ferlinghetti, L.(1992).Constantly Between the woods and frozen lake risking absurdity. In L. Perrine & T. The darkest evening of the year. Arp (Eds.), Sound and sense (p. 282). New York:HarcourtBrace He gives his harness bells a shake Jovanovich. To ask if there is some mistake. Frost, R. (1992). Stopping by the woods The only other sound's the sweep on a snowy evening. In L. Perrine & T. Arp (Eds.), Sound and sense (p. Of easy wind and downyflake. 133).New York:Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. The woods are lovely, dark- and deep, But I have promises to keep, Gumilev, N. (1957). The giraffe.In H. Ferris (Ed.), Favorite poems old and And miles to go before I sleep, _, new (p. 470). New York: Doubleday. And miles to go before I sleep. Masters, E. L.(1962). Spoon river Advanced students might try to anthology. NewYork: Collier match the poem with one of their own, MacMillan. even counting the syllables (eight) in each line and then printing out both Frost's Schneider, R. J.(1993, April, May). poem and their own on facing pages. Interview and school tour with Cathy Hutchins, Webster, MTS Facilitator, In summary, therefore, I propose a Florida. curriculum for teaching poetry in grades K-12 using laserdisc technology such as UCF/DOE. (1992).Technology in that in place at the Webster MTS. The education: Florida's model technology series of lesson plans would facilitate schools. Orlando, FL: University of increasing comprehension of the devices Central Florida, College of Education. of poetry, but the curriculum base would TELEVISION: STUFF OF DREAMS by Jon Baggaley

Abstract basis they argue that television is a more overwhelming source of ideas, images, Since the techniques of modern and diversion than any other medium. visual communication are continually Media researchers commonly counter this evolving, visual literacy is not amenable to position of extreme concern by pointing to rigorous definition in the same manner as the ways in which the images of television verbal literacy. The fluctuating effects of are interpreted according to the individual media, however, can be minutely observed viewer's psychological predisposition. by new data collection techniques which They too argue that television is a reveal patterns of audience response powerful modern force.However, they similar to those which C. G. Jung stress that its effects are typically to observed inhis analyses of word reinforce the attitudes and behavior to association and dreaming. The technique which the viewer is already inclined; and is known as Continuous Response they find these effects, in their own right, Movement or CRM. to be a powerful source of information about audience uses and gratifications. T h e Conference presentation demonstrated, via an electronic audience Curiously, one other stimulus source response method known as Time- with comparable powers is nowadays Scaling"',the second-by-second patterns greatly overlooked. When the television which unite an audience in tacit consensus set is off and we the viewer are asleep, towards media presentations, and the images and ideas continue to bombard us unexpected differences which divide them. via the medium of the dream. The nightly The points at which an audience shapes the parade of dreams can divert and disturb us meanings of a presentation--and is with the vividness and spontaneity of a occasionally shaped by it--were illustrated. technicolor movie; and psychoanalysts, The current paper discusses the importance just like media analysts, have found the of television as a source of dynamic data dream to be a rich source of information about the individual and society, and the about those who experience it.Both needfornewformsof media analysts, doubtless without realizing it, communication whichfeedthis even favour the same research techniques; information back to them. Examples are and today's media analysts are using given of the author's uses of CRM in investigative methods which bear a contrasting areas of management training remarkable similarity to approaches and community development (with developed by the psychoanalyst Carl Canadian fishermen). The extent to which Gustav Jung 85 years ago. We may turn, an audience can ever become 'verbo- therefore, to the work of Jung for insights visually literate' is discussed in terms of into the directions that current media international efforts to educate the public rcsearch is taking. about AIDS. Continuous Response Measurement Introduction IntheJournal of Abnormal Community groups concerned about Psychology (1907), Jung reported his use the effects of the media in society of a sophisticated laboratory system of frequently remind us that today's child pulleys, weights, slides, and balances, spends more time in front of the television built to measure the second-by-second set than in the school classroom. On this reactions of his subjects to verbal stimuli. 144 138 Verbo-Visual Literacy

From the information yielded by this The vertical axis in the Figure highly precise measuring device, Jung represents the average responses on a scale developed insights into the individual of approval (from positive to negative) to a psychological differences between his television electioncampaign experimental subjects; and on that basis he advertisement, given by supporters of two devised the celebrated word association different Canadian political parties. The technique. Eighty years later, modern horizontal axis indicates the passage of researchers are using similar second-by- time, second by second.Taken as a second measurement principles in their whole, the graph demonstrates how the studies of audience reactions to television. viewer's responses fluctuated as a direct Today, their technique uses compact lap- function of the moment-by-moment top computer technology, and is known as television stimulus. In the hands of party continuous response measurement o r political researchers, the precise moments CRM (Baggaley, 1986). at which the audience responses become positive and negative can be charted on The CRM technique is relatively this basis, and used to advise campaign unknown outsidetheworlds of strategy.In the hands of commercial commercial and political advertising. researchers, the same techniques are used Neither is apt to advertise or publish its to develop maximally persuasive television approaches and findings, regarding them advertisements for beer and soap flakes. as trade secrets to be jealously guarded. But the powers and incisiveness of CRM Fortunately, the use of these incisive are increasingly evident. techniquesis becoming increasingly familiar to television viewers, particularly Study: campaign End time: 00:00:59 in the media's political campaign coverage. After the 1991 Gulf War, for example, the Vote in next election? - Time sequence 2 crucial role of CRM was noted; and during the 1993 Australian national election, Pos. +1 delimillitainii viewers of the television leader's debate on iiiittileill lull Channel Nine saw a simultaneous second- by-second reading of audience responses known popularly as the white worm. Neg. -1 Secs. 20 40 60 CRM 'Behind Closed Doors' Grim size: Legend: PC = 22 PC From their innocent applications in Liberal = 14 Liberal the hands of Carl Jung, to their often --- Time-Scaling" Machiavellian uses in modern political research, CRM techniques have a far- Figure 1.Voters'second-by- reaching and to some extent frightening second responses to a television potential; and their quiet evolution in the party political advertisement. North American television industry makes a fascinating story. What, for example, do former US Presidents Reagan and Bush have in Inearly1988, Vice-President common with some of the most popular George Bush was considered a long shot characters in children's television? Like for the US Presidency.His position as the puppets of television's Sesame Street, secondfiddletoRonald Reagan their public images were monitored and represented a severe handicap to his refined following audience feedback election hopes; and compared to the Great collected via some sophisticated CRM Communicator his smiling image seemed research techniques. Figure 1 indicates the wimpy and wan.Clearly some serious type of CRM data collected in the political image-doctoring had to be done. research context.

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During the final months of the them in the development of educational campaign,Bushunderwent a films and television campaigns, to identify metamorphosis. Gone was the quiet and ways of communicating topics which diffident Bush: In its place was a tiger. A audiences find difficult to discuss verbally. battery of opinion research techniques had We have used them in communication supported the need for the new image. skills workshops, providing teachers and Question and answer techniques defined executives with feedback on the aspects of Bush's public image in the regular theirpresentationwhichneed manner. In addition, his second-by- improvement. As with any communication second appeal for television viewers was tool, the ethics of CRM obviously depend recorded on electronic hand-units via on the intentions behind its use. CRM. During the '70s, for example, an The CRM method revealed parts of unusually profitable relationship arose Bush's public image that other research between producers and researchers at the techniques could not reach. The audiences' Children's Television Workshop in New moment-by-moment reactions showed that York. Together they devised some highly they had particular respect for him at pragmatic ways of inspecting their young instants when he projected a tough-guy audiences' programming tastes.In persona. In a real sense, their perceptions conjunction with the Ontario Educational were subliminal, for only the researchers Communications Authority, a second-by- were in a position to recognize the patterns second response system was developed, of opinion revealed by different viewing providing more precise insights into groups. The art of public pulse-feeling had children's perceptions than were available reached a powerful new level. by regular question-and-answer methods. Although the CRM method was not new, At first blush, such methods sound the advent of the microcomputer in the late unethical. Their association with secretive '70s streamlined it; and some of the most political research adds to that impression; successful series in children's television and George Onve ll would be proud to note (e.g., Sesame Street and 3-2-1 Contact) that Republican advisors first used the were based upon its findings. second-by-second technique in their reelection bid of 1984. During the '80s, inevitably, CRM has found more lucrative markets. To However, the same approach has advertising researchers, the method offers long since had a far more innocent obvious benefits in the pilot-testing of application, in the development of some television commercials.Since time is useful educational television shows, money in a 30-second television spot, notably in New York and Toronto; and every second must carry as much weight George Bush and the Sesame Street Big a s possible. Moment-by-moment Bird owe CRM methods a similar debt of measurements of viewer's reactions gratitude. indicate the specific points at which a television spot should be expanded or CRM In Education tightened. In this way the advertiser searches for ways of keeping his The subliminal nature of CRM is a audience'sattentionremorselessly major reason for its political appeal. The engaged. With modern computer facilities, most persuasive tactics in a person's bid CRM feedback can bc instantaneous, for high office are often those which the allowing the evaluation to take place public around him does not consciously during the production process itself. On recognize. But after ten years' work with this basis, actors and camera crew can be these techniques in Canada, wc have briefed about the impact of shots they have concluded that thcir potential benefits just taped. A live television presenter can outweigh their abuses. We have used 146 140 Verbo- Visual Literacy even note viewers' responses to one distinctive speech pattern or a nervous tic, sentence before moving on to the next! the participants in a face-to-face discussion may find it difficult to agree whether the CRM in the Training Industry trait is harmful to the trainee's impact--or even to mention it at all. CRM feedback, Particular uses of these techniques on the other hand,isclinical and can be envisaged in the training industry. anonymous.The implications of a Management colleges, for example, spend nervous smile or fumble are evident in the appreciable sums of money to provide immediate rise or fall of the audience their executive clients with video feedback responses whenever it occurs. Responses exercises dealing with interpersonal skills with no statistical are discounted by the and the strategies of public performance. analysis routines, and trainees readily Yet, in terms of depth and precision, acknowledge the detached authority of the conventional feedback procedures languish computer display. in the Dark Ages compared with those used tosellsoap flakes and US JINNI If Presidents. In a conventional video feedback session, a group of trainees is presented with an exercise (e.g.,a debate, conferencepresentation,television interviewtakes,or a role- playing/simulation game). They carry it out individually or in small groups, and _ their progress is videotaped for subsequent analysis by the group and/or a specialist. Such exercises have been used since the '60s,toteachskills ranging from counselling andnegotiatingto Figure 2.A CRM keypad used by trampolining and the golf swing. a farmer's wife in a field on Mount Kenyatocritiqueapilot-test A typical CRM session is based on a versionofaradio agriculture similar range of assignments, but program. automates the audience feedback process. As they watch the exercise, either live or It is reassuring to notc that these taped, the group members record their methods do not tend to breed the bland, moment-by-moment assessments of it on stereotyped styles of communication the hand-held keypads (Figure 2).The encouraged by some training approaches. assessments may be given on any basis: CRM's unusual sensitivity to nonverbal interest value, clarity, persuasiveness, factors indicates that, in the right situation, credibility, or any other relevant index. A an idiosyncratic, even tense style of computer-animated graph indicates the communication can be a credible asset. momentary high and low points in the With second-by-second precision, the sequence (as in Figure 1), and can be CRM hand-units disclose that nothing synchronized with the video record so that impresses an audience morc than having thereasonsfor second-by-second something sincere to say.The approach perceptions can be precisely identified. offers, in fact, an antidote to training procedures which yield an off-the-peg These procedures obviate a common style of communication, and indicates that problemoftraditionaldiscussion communication style without substance situations: the inability of group members counts for little in thc critical audience cyc. to achieve consensus and to level with one another. If a trainee public speaker has a Just as Republicans Reagan and 147 Stuff of Dreams 141

Bush may have won their Presidential decisiveness which surprised even election campaigns by adjusting their themselves. The data were cross- personal styles, so their Democratic referenced with further responses given opponents may have lost them byfailing after the film, and were fed back to the to.In 1988 for example, while Bush men for their own use. In the process, the turned tiger, Michael Dukakis strove to men seemed to gain insights about the look relaxed, to look the television camera similarities and differences in their views in the eye, and to look presidential in the which had not been apparent previously. JFK mould.While television comics The feedback sessions proved to be key lampoonedhisapproach,Dukakis eventsin a process of community persisted in using a smooth, bland style development which led, within a year, to which political analysts have debunked for the formation of the Canadian Sealers' years.The Dukakis policies may have Association and to significant social been substantial, but his style did not help change. him to communicate them. On other sccial fronts, the process of In future contexts, it is inevitable that change takes a Mlle longer. In Montreal we strategic planners will seek to define the have been studying attempts since 1986 to public mood more thoroughly than the inform the public dbout AIDS, and Dukakis camp did in 1988. CRM methods comparing the campaign styles with the will assist them in this, indicating accurate greatest and least educational impact. perceptions of public affairs as well as the CRM studies have revealed that audiences public relations strategies via which they prefer simple, straightforward styles of should be discussed. This possibility was information on health topics, and that, for illustrated in an unusual project in Atlantic example, florid or melodramatic elements Canada in 1982. are received negatively by viewers.Yet AIDS campaigns using a straightforward CRM and the Community approach have often been withheld from the public on suspicion that they may have The Canadian seal harvest was under harmful effects. Meanwhile, many siege.The European Parliament had broadcast campaigns have used complex boycotted the seal pelt, and Atlantic advertising techniques which CRM studies fishermen were facing hard times. To help have shown to be inappropriate. them maximize their dwindling income, t he FederalFisheriesMinistry Clearlysomethingin the commissioned an educational film about management of these campaigns is awry. pelting and storage techniques. In order to It may certainly be assumed that the divers check whether the film needed any styles used in AIDS education to date have revision, its rough cut was pilot-tested in been developed in good faith.But they two fishing villages 400 miles from St. cannot all be right; and it is highly John's Newfoundlard. probable that conventional market research methods are failing to define the actual Eighty fishermen took part in the psychological impact of public health analysis. Their literacy levels were low, promotion strategies with sufficient clarity. a n d normal questionnai re/i nterview methods were unlikely to be much help in Conclusions probing their views. Group discussions were unlikely to elicit their unguarded If the studies discussed in this report opinions in view of the issue's extreme are any guide, it is feasible that CRM sensitivity. methods can provide a quality of feedback about media effects which other research Using CRM hand-units, however, methods do not yield. Questionnaire and many of the men responded nonverbally interview methods, administered before and anonymously to the film, with a and after exposure to campaign materials, 1 4 t * L.4 142 Verbo-Visual Literacy may be quite incapable of eliciting thefine- attitudes, and communicaiion styles. tuned responses which CRM methods detect while the materials are being 2. Revealing patterns of public viewed. When the issue at hand is as opinion which would never be suspected sensitive as, for example, AIDS, the normally. anonymity of CRM responses is also likely to increase their reliability. 3. Punctuating mythsabout communication practice which seemed Since the images and situations unassailable. conveyed by the communications media areso varied and so permanently 4. Reassessing stock approaches to susceptible to change, it is possible that communications management which do our efforts to understand their effects in not seem to be yielding results. terms of verho-visual literacy skills may be too ambitious. In view of the vast range Such methods sometimes seem of individual differences in viewers' Machiavellian. Or maybe they are simply reactions to media, a more pragmatic better at distinguishing the politics and approach, focussing on the second-by- style which the public wants from those it second idiosyncrasies of the media does not.Either way, we have seen to consumer, may now be timely.It seems date thatcontinuous response to be no coincidence, therefore, that measurements of a person's modern media researchers are returning to communication style can help him to gain the meticulous techniques used by C. G. the most powerful executive office in the Jung to examine individual psychological free world.Perhaps they can also help differences.Viathistime-honored him to use it in the best possible way. paradigm, modern researchers may find the effects of television to be a rich source References of data about the individuals, just as psychoanalysts have found the dream to be Baggaley, J. P., & Duck, S. W. (1976). a mine of information about the dreamer. Dynamics of television. Farnborough: The contcnt, form, and effects of Saxon House. television may come to be regarded as indeed the stuff that dreams are made on. Baggaley, J. P., & Duck, S. W. (1979). On making charitable appeals more Numerous contentious issues arise in appealing.Journal of Educational societywhichthisapproachto Television, 5(1), 6-10. communications research could be called upon to resolve. Health, the environment, Baggaley,J.P.,Ferguson, M., & trade:public campaigns are needed on Brooks, P. (1980). Psychology of the each of these public agenda items, and TV image. Farnborough:Saxon their design strategies need immediate House. attention. Traditional communication researchstrategies certainly seem Baggaley, J. P., & Smith, K. (1982). unreliable in dealing with them. (As this Formative research in rural education. chapter is written, a Canadian television Media in Education and Development, election advertisement, presumably based 15, 173-176. on the most up-to-date of conventional research methods, is having disastrous Baggaley, J. P. (1982). TV production effects for the national political party research and media development. which has sponsored it.) The new CRM Media in Education and Development, techniques have shown that they can help 15(0, 46-48. in these areas by: Baggaley, J.P. (1982). Electronic I.Sharpening discussion of issues, analysis of communication. Media in 149 Stuff of Dreams 143

Education and Development,15(2), Southern Africa. Media in Education 70-73. and Development, 21(3), 106-109. Baggaley, J. P.(1985). Design of a TV Baggaley, J.P. (1989). The acquired character with visual appeal for immunity to ads syndrome. Marketing preschoolchildren. Journal of Week, 12(13), 42-47. EducationalTelevision, 11, 41-48. Baggaley, J. P., Brauer, A. H., & Glegg, Baggaley, J.P. (1986).Formative L.(1990).AIDS education: The evaluation of educational television. boomerang effect. Studies in Canadian Journal of Educational EducationalEvaluation, 16, 41-62. Communication, 15(1), 29-43. Baggaley, J. P. (1990). Media AIDS Baggaley, J. P.(1986). Developing a campaigning: Not just what you say, televised health campaign: I. Smoking but the way that you say it!In R. prevention. Media in Education and Berkvens (Ed.), AIDS prevention Development, 19(1), 43-47. through health promotion. Geneva: World Health Organization. Baggaley, I P. (1986).Developing a televised health campaign:II. Skin Baggaley, J.P., Salmon, C., Lewis- cancer prevention. Media inEducation Hardy, R., Tambe, B., Siska, M., and Development, 19(2), 86-90. Jorgansen, C., Harris, R., & Jason, J. (1992).Automated evaluation of Baggaley, J.P. (1987).Continual AIDS messages with high-risk, low- response measurement in television literacy audiences.Journal of research. CanadianJournal of EducationalTelevision, 18, 83-96. Educational Communication, 16, 217- 238. Baggaley, J. P. (1993). Kenyan farmers Baggaley,J.P.(1988). Perceived respondtoradio agriculture effectiveness of international AIDS programmes. Ottawa, Canada: Report campaigns.Health Education to the International Development Research, 3(1), 7-17. Research Centre. Baggaley, J P.(1988).Campaigning against AIDS:A perspective for

150 INTELLIGENT ADVISOR SYSTEMS AND TRANSFER OF KNOWLEDGE by Marie-Michile Boulet Introduction one performance to another. They cannot easily be broken down into steps because In Quebec, the teaching of music is the activity varies each time the task is regulated by the Quebec Ministry of performed. To compose a melody is a Education. That correspondstoa transfer task. mandatory music curriculum (Ministere de l'Education, 1981) divided into six An intelligent advisor system is a modules: creation, execution, graphics, technology to be used after the initial musical language, musical literature, and learning of concepts, principles, and rules. sound environment.Thisresearch It aims 4: providing individualized, fast, concerns the creation module. The main and detailed explanations and feedbacks. objective of this module is to allow the The intelligent advisor system MUSIC transfer of knowledge of the musical relates to the creation module of the grade language elements. Composing melodies 9 high school. Its purpose is to help a is the activity proposed by the Ministry of student while he or she uses a musical Education (Ministere de l'Education, writing software to compose a melody. 1983). Therefore, in accordance with"' Burns (1988), the Ministry of Education ¶ Functions I Piano I considers that the creative process not only synthesizes previous learning but also elevates the mind into a higher stage of Process of composition reasoning--the problem solving stage. OAnswer (Q-A) Moreover, in accordance with Moore CiAugmentation, diminution, repetition (1990), the tasks are conceived as COQuestion- Answer "musical problem solving" within a @Quit context of implicit as well as explicit musical parameters (an incomplete melody). Figure 1 shows the variety of exercises proposed to students which io J 112 7 II correspond to musical composition activities proposed in "Musicontact 3," a Figure I.Activities Proposed book approved by the Quebec Ministry of Education (Fournier, Milot, Richard, The Requirements Béchard, & De Melo, 1986). Ten years after the implementation of The Technology the music curriculum, many observed that the main objective of the creation module An intelligent advisor system is an was not reached (Boulet, Dufour, & instructionaltechnology especially Lavoie, 1992; Fédération des Associations designed to furthcr the transfer of des Musiciens Educateurs du Québec, knowledge. It is an adaptive system aimed 1990). Creation activities were not at intervening when the user of any individualized, but group based. Students application software performs transfer did not really transfer their own tasks (Boulet, 1992). According to knowledge of the musical language Lcshin, Pollock, and Reigeluth (1992), elements. Consequently, we decided to transfer tasks have great variation from develop the advisor system MUSIC.

151 145 Transfer of Knowledge

The Advisor MUSIC word with the mouse, the corresponding explanation is displayed. Therearethreetypesof

instructional transactions: I/Functions! Piano I 1. Explanations requested by a (Accidental ) student in regard to musical language It is a sign aiming at elevating or elements. reducing of a semitone the note it is in front of. There are flat, natural , 2. Comments on the student's and sharp. composition. Fl index 3. Comments on compositions made up by the advisor. 6 7 Type 1 Figure 3.Explanation When students perform exercises The student can also see an index of all MUSIC can help them by presenting the explanations available, ask for one or explanations on prerequisites. The ability of more melodies related to aparticular to use the question/answer process explanation, see a map of prerequisites, go composition being considered, the analysis back to the previous window, or go to the of the music curriculum, and specialized books allowed the identification of67 current composition activity. prerequisites and 29 rules(Boulet, & Dufour, 1991; Boulet, Dufour, & Lavoie, ifFunctions J Pianos 1991a, 1991b). Analysis : Answer (Q - A) ( Your melody being analyzed, I realize FunctionsPianol that the answer does not have the same Help number of bars than the question. The Statement question having 4 bars, the answer should Playl Li P have 4 bars. Play2 Do you want an example? Analysis NEI

0 6 71Y II

7 II \. Figure 4:Commenting on Melody Figure 2.Functions Menu Type 2 For an explanation, the student merely When a composition is completed, selects the Help option in the menu MUSIC can analyze it. Figure 4 presents Functions (Figure 2). The explanation an example. Here again,underlined words requested is superimposed on the musical give access to prerequisites. writing software (Figure 3). Type 3 As illustrated in Figure 3, there are underhned words within each explanation. MUSIC can also create a composition. They represent corresponding pre- If the student clicks on the "Yes" button requisites. When a student clicks such a illustrated in Figure 4, the advisor

1 5 2 146 Verbo-Visual Literacy composes. The advisor can also comment .00.Because the group realized a on its own composition. The comment will statistically significant improvement of the be similar to the one displayed to the transfer of knowledge, the hypothesis was student (Figure 4). rejected. Purpose of the Study Table 1 Pilot Studies Results The purpose of the study was to determine if the advisor favors the transfer Mean% StdSpearman- KR20 of knowledge. Stated in the null form, the Dev Brown following hypothesis was tested: 1st 58.3 12.6 .9 .9 Ho/. Students exposed to MUSIC 2nd 28 11 .9 .8 will not show any significant improvement when transferring the knowledge of the Discussion musical language elements. Students improved the transfer of Procedures knowledge. We think that this result must be interpreted as the effect of the Subjects individualization. As mentioned before, music teachers have some problems with The subjects consisted of 27 the creation module. Corresponding voluntary ninth grade students from activitiesarerarelyperformed. Quebec high schools (at the beginning Corresponding activitiesarenot there were 29; because of the attrition, individualized. The advisor MUSIC does only 27 completed the study). what is impossible for the human teacher of a class of thirty-three students, i.e., to Instruments perform concurrently the following tasks: for each learner's composition to generate The validity and reliability of the test adaptive, fast, individualized, detailed, were established in two pilot studies remedial, and corrective explanations and (Boulet, Simard, Lavoie, & Dufour, feedbacks. 1991). 28 ninth grade students participated in the first.Results are summarized in We also think that the way we Table 1. The Spearman Brown and KR20 implemented the advisor MUSIC had an both reached 0.9. We calculated factors of influence on the results. We personally difficulty and discrimination and removed implemented MUSIC in its environment. easy or non discriminant items. We Consequently, we were there to make sure reformulated certain items.The new that computers and technical featurcs version was tested on 51 ninth grade related would always be in order. We were students. Results are summarized in Table there to make sure that the advisor will be 2. The Spearman Brown reached 0.9 and used.Therefore, no technical problems the KR20, 0.8.Each item reached a interfered with the use of the advisor. satisfactory level of difficulty and of discrimination. To conclude, we would like to recall that an advisor system does not aim at Results replacing formal teaching.It handles the issue of the transfer of knowledge. Other For the pretest, the mean was studies with different populations and 29.1%, with a standard deviation of 11.9. different advisors will allow to learn more Results of the post test are the following: about the effectiveness of this particular Mean = 66.2%, standard deviation = 14.5. kind of help. A Two Group Paired t-Test was performed to verify the hypothesis: p = 153 Transfer of Knowledge 147

References Boulet, M. M., Simard, G.,, Lavoie, L., & Dufour, F.(1991). Elaboration et Boulet, M. M. (1992). Advisor systems: étude de validité et de fiabilité de l'outil The development life cycle illustrated de mesure visant a verifier les by two case studies. Québec: Edition hypotheses formulées en regard des Dwayne. effets sur l'apprentissage d'un systeme conseiller en composition musicale Boulet, M. M., & Dufour, F.(1991). (Perriode de mai 1990 a avril 1991). Systeme conseiller en composition DIUL-RR-91 0 6,Québec:Dép. musicale. Le procédi question- Informatique, Université Laval. réponse: Analyse des connaissances requises en troisieme secondaire pour Burns, M. T. (1988). Music as a tool for corn-poser un theme mélodique en enhancing creativity. Journal of utilisant le procédi question-réponse. Creative Behavior, 22, 62-69. DIUL-RR-9 107,Québec:Dép. Informatique, Université Laval. Fédération desAsssociations des Musiciens Educateurs du Québec. Boulet, M. M., Dufour, F., & Lavoie, L. (1990). Les actes de la biennale du (1992).Description d'un systeme sommet sur l'avenir de la formation conseiller en composition musicale. musicale au Québec. Québec: FAMEQ. Recherches en Education Musicale, 11, 57-69. Fournier, G., Milot, J., Richard, G., Béchard, A., & De Melo, D. (1986). Boulet, M. M., Dufour, F., & Lavoie, L. Musicontact 3. Montréal: Les (1991 b). Systeme con-seiller en Editions HRW. composition musicale. Le procéde question-réponse: Analysedes Leshin, C. B., Pollock, J., & Reigeluth, connaissances requises en troisieme C. M. (1992).Instructional design secondaire pour composer une réponse strategies and tactics.Englewood a une question en considérant le Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology. programme de musique du secondaire. DIUL-RR-9102, Québec:Dép. Ministere de l'Education. (1983). Guide Informatique, Université Laval. pedagogique: Secondaire: Musique. Québec: Direction générale du Boulet, M. M., Dufour, F., & Lavoie, L. développement pedagogique. ( 1991a). Systeme conseiller en composition musicale. Les procédés Ministere de PEducation. (1981). d'augmentation, de diminution et de Programme d'études secondaires. répétition: Analyse des connaissances Musique. Québec: Bibliotheque requises en troisieme secondaire pour Nationale du Québec. développer un theme mélodique a l'aide de ces procédés en consi-derant Moore, B. R.(1990) The relationship le programme de musique du between curriculum and learner: Music secondaire. DIUL-RR-9105, Québec: composition and learning style. Dép. Informatique, Université Laval. Journal of Research in Music, 38 , 24- 38.

rt5 FROM TEXT TO TELEVISION: HERMENEUTIC TEXTUALISM AND THE CHALLENGE OF VISUAL TECHNOLOGY 1,-; THE TEACHING OF HISTORY by Peter Knupfer

Just as the audiovisual revolution of The history of mass communications the postwar period entirely rearranged the suggests that the manipulation of visual history and social studies classroom, so imagery can have as powerful an effect on has the multimedia explosion of the 80s human behavior as the manipulation of the and 90s offered real temptations to the written word. Recent warnings about a history teacher. Many of us old enough to hidden curriculum incorporated in the use remember the novelty of AV presentations- of instructional technology indicate that -including educational films, ITV, and multimedia techniques will not escape the analog tape--are now intrigued at the perennial controversy about the kinds of exciting and promising ways that the social values the schools are supposed in television documentary or digitized inculcate.2 With the expansion of media imaging can help reconstruct and interpret technology one can trace the intelsification the past.It is rare indeed to find the of the controversy about hidden messages history teacher unfamiliar with audiovisual in the classroom because the very nature of media, or who has not employed film, the electronic medium is fluid, ephemeral, videotape, the transparency, or more and increasingly responsive to the recently, the computer, in his or her momentary demands of emotion and courses. But it is less common to observe whim. If the awesome potential of visual the gap between the development of visual technology heightens the importance of technology and its implementation in the visual literacy, then it would be valuable to history course. It is the purpose of this understand how the advocates of verbal paper to suggest some reasons for this literacy used the media of their day-- discrepancy and to raise some questions especially the lowly schoolbook--to about how the multi-media revolution associate literacy with publicly-approved challenges those of us dedicated to sharing social values. and transmitting the past to the present generation. The teaching of history was a late corner to the common school curriculum. The challenge of visual technology to Until the middle of the nineteenth century, the historian and to the history teacher is of public education concentrated on training tremendous magnitude for the simple youth in reading, writing, and arithmetic. reason that the transformation of the Verbal literacy and numeracy were human record means the transformation of considered the platform for an informed, history itself.Largely concerned with industrious, respectful citizenry ready to using the hum, n record, historians, participate in public life. The curriculum in history tcachers. .t id those entrusted with the early public schools, therefore, the care and preservation of the remains of stressed the mastery of language and our past, are understandably nervous numbers,usuallythrough rote aboutthepitfallsofelectronic memorization and recitation of basic technologies. At thc heart of this concern vocabulary and tables of numbers. is what the profession prpfers to call the Althougheducators occasionally objectivity question--the extent to which incorporated historical themes in their historians uncover the truth or merely talk teaching, they were too busy trying to about what they think to be true.' control their unruly charges and to satisfy

.1.55 From Text to Television 149 the demand for fundamentals tooffer maps of famous battles.6 systematic study in history. The graphic arts could also be As the common school reform brought to bear. Text included woodcut movement of the 1830s demonstrated, engravings of the state seals, of famous however, this was hardly a morally or leaders, of important events, and of ideologically neutral agenda. The common religious and classical symbols that school reform movement, led by such associated the progress of the nation with notables as Horace Mann and Henry fprovidentialbeneficence. George Barnard, hitched literacy to civics and Washington's paternal visage greeted helped to bring historY into the classroom. every young reader and beckoned him to Careful studies of the common school national greatness through civic propriety curriculum and its mainstay, the textbook, and republican rectitude. Elaborate charts, have amply documented the nationalistic, and occasionally maps, tracked the ethnocentric, and moralistic message that it acquisition of territory and the industrial was designed to convey.The schools and agricultural development of the were to be the "pillars of therepublic" and, country. Such visual imagery clearly and likethe family,the"nurseries of forcefully reinforced the basic message patriotism."3 History textbooks appeared that the republican system was the only to meet the demand; the most popular ones and the best system adapted to the went through dozens of editions and were American character, and that this way of still in use at the end of the century. As life could self-destruct if students failed to one influential text writer boasted,"it is place the public welfare above their own. from our common school histories, those unassuming companions of the school- All of this is evident with even a room, and not from those moreelaborate cursory review of common school and writings which grace the libraries of the popular history texts. Yet it is also clear mean of wealth and the professional that the ultimate emphasis of early history scholar, that the great mass of our citizens and civic training was the text itself: must ever derive their knowledge of the History teachersthen,liketheir character, toils, and privations of our successors, were tied to texts. The most fathers, and of the institutions."4 remarkable feature of early texts is the scarcity, and not the abundance, of If patriots were made, not born, then illustrations. Early history textbooks the work was serious business indeed. greeted the young reader not with the Teachers, armed with a transformed dazzling illustrations common to modern pedagogy that now recognized childhood textbooks, but page after page of small- as a distinct phase of life, had a numberof print text punctuated by side bars and techniques at their command. They were catechisms designed to induce complete instructed to take children out of the mastery of the text.Oral and written classroom to any suitable local scene recitation remained the standard exercise associated with some unique historical for history students.7 event to stimulate and exhort students in the lessons of the past.5The very One surveyof hundreds of architecture and governance of the secondary school texts across the entire classroom were designed to transmit century determined that only the science republican ideas. Monitorial pedagogy books--especially zoology, botany, and placed younger scholars under the biology, with their emphasis on anatomy-- direction of older ones and rewarded the innovated in any serious way in the mastery of lessons with advancement to incorporation of illustrations into the text.8 positions of leadership. Where possible, Chromolithography had advanced far teachers decorated the room with pictures enough by the middle of the century to of great leaders, nation and state flags, and allow publishers to incorporate elaborate

156 150 Verbo-Visual Literacy colored plates, but rarely did these find sentences and word lists more like the their way into history books.Of the modern-day spelling book), his public and history and civics texts, most contained a publisher complained loudl y.10 Webster frontispiece, a picture above the title of restored a few pictures, but stood by his each chapter, and occasional drawings belief that one learns a language by sprinkled through the book, but this learning his letters.At that point, Will constituted barely a fraction of the whole. McGuffey's more carefully graded books, Even the pictorial histories, written both which taught children to read through for school children and general audiences, lavishly illustrated stories about other devoted but a tiny amount of their space to children, captured the market for school illustrations. primers. This is not to say that writers, A number of factors--current publishers, teachers, or the public thought pedagogical theory, the architecture of the illustrations unnecessary. A few well- school room and governance of the chosen and -executed illustrations can school, the state of existing technology, economically and powerfully convey a the ideology of common school reformers, wealth of meanings without the confusion andthefragmented, disorganized of interpretations fostered by a large condition of extant historical sources for number of pictures.Benson Lossing's illustrations--helpexplain the (1857) Pictorial Field-book of the disproportion of verbal and visual material Revolution9demonstrated what the in early school texts.Some of these marriage of research and graphic creativity reasons are self evident, others obscure could accomplish. The research, writing, and complex, but all point toward an and indexing, plus the creating of exquisite ideology of literacy and textuality that was 1100 engravings that graced every page at the heart of common school education in took Lossing three years of tireless effort. the prephotographic age. And none of Lossing wanted those illustrations to them should hide the important point that convey the actual modern condition of illustrations,ratherthanconvey Revolutionary war sites--they were the information, were to convey a message forerunncr of the photograph taken from about American life and the reader's place Nature. The typical school text in the in it. 1830s and 1840s on the other hand, shamelessly copied from existing works A schoolteacher in the early republic and could be compiled and published with believed that a student learned more from a ycar. Lossing was an engraver--he reading words than from understanding eliminated the middle man and did the pictures, charts, or maps. The latter form sketches and woodcuts himself, cutting his of education was simply a rudimentary costs considerably.His school texts step on the road to a higher state of (about a dozen of the eighty-odd books to knowledge and skill:the ability to his credit at his death in 1891), were slap interpret texts. Pictures--be they maps or dash affairs, cut and pasted together with sketcheswere to serve texts, and not vice much less attention to illustration. versa. To the teacher, the purpose of common school education was civic and Certainly the public liked the graphic moral training, and that meant mastery of a arts. Noah Webster's spelling book, first unique constitutional and political tradition published in 1783 and designed to teach, founded on written texts. Words and their through orthography and pronunciation, a meaning dominated the curriculum of the written language, included woodcut nineteenth century common school. engravings to illustrate its fables. When Webster eliminated the fables and The public square that future citizens illustrations from the new 1829 edition (in were to inhabit was above all dominated favorofdisconnected, contextual by the sensationalizing newspaper editor From Text to Television 151 andtheoratingpolitician whose intimately bound up in the country's civic manipulation of language civics and consciousness, so that mastery of all history texts constantly warned against. became the defining characteristic of the As Michael Warner has pointed out in his young citizen. In the study of history the interpretation of the period's "culture of student was to see this philosophy print," mass communications invariably teaching by example. reinforced textual interpretation.Even though the quickened tempo of democratic The emergence of mass media, political culture in the 1840s and 1850s accompanied by the individualization of featured public rituals (like parades, readership, heralded the tremendous singing,and campaign placards) success of the common school literacy ornamented by the graphic arts, the very campaigns. As Carl Kaestle has pointed text of public discourse was texts, out, "the big story in nineteenth-century especially the constitution.11 American literacy is the development of common-school systems and the near As one civics writer put it in the elimination of self-reported out-right preface to his 1823 civics manual, "the illiteracy among native-born whites." 14 most effectual method of preserving our rights unimpaired, is to make them Civil war and industrialization generally known and universally shattered this cozy marriage of verbal text recognized; and the best mode of effecting and visual image and loosened the this desideratum is to incorporate in the historian's tie to texts. The Civil War left education of youth official documents too many loose ends, especially because containing their fundamental basis.12 One Americans could interpret it as either a did not teach the constitution, therefore, by vindication or a failure of a unified sketching its structure of divided powers tradition embodied in written texts. on a chalk slate.Instead, the student History writers had to grapple with the memorized the constitution, usually by war's terrifying and unsettling themes. practicing his handwriting with it, by And they also had to confront the war's reciting a constitutional catechism in class, new visual heritage: photography, which and occasionally, by studying a chart transmitted the brutality, not the glory, of comparing its provisions to those of the mass destruction.During the war, an twenty-odd state constitutions. insatiable public demand for pictorial images stimulated the rise of illustrated Existing theory about hermeneutics, magazines and provided plenty of the science of textual interpretation, employment for master sketch artists like buttressed contemporary faith in textual Frank Leslie. Furthermore, the perfection literalism. Nineteenth century of lithographic technology equipped the hermeneutics, unlike its post-modern graphic arts with a magnificent array of version, emphasized that the author's tools. Engravings--be they woodcut, steel, intent determined the meaning of a text, or line--now could be supplanted by and that although reasonable people might tremendously detailed pictures completely disagree over how to construe a text, its under the control of the illustrator, pictures essential meaning remained unified and that could be transferred cheaply and indivisible. Littlewonder that efficiently to the printed page.15 constitutional literalism was of such tremendous importance to Americans that, Photography, unlike engraving, like the theologians who originated the eliminated the middle man. Americans concept of hermeneutics, they cited chapter invested the new medium with powers of and verse of their constitutional Bible as realism and natural replication that they the underlying reason for killing each other would apply later to radio and television. in unprccedented numbers in the Civil The camera could capture Nature, unlike War.13 Literacy, language, and law were the engraver who acted as the medium

156 152 Verbo-Visual Literacy between the sketch illustrator and the some photographic, half-tone illustrations, reader. Even engravers who had striven the pictures rarely conveyed unique or for accuracy in depicting natural scenes discrete historical events. Frequently could not compete with the camera. Here, books printed pictures of pictures: in the words of Oliver Wendell Holmes, photographs of paintings and sketches. was a "mirror with a memory" capable of Even though many mid-nineteenth-century bringing history directly before the eyes of public figures rushed to have their pictures nonparticipants. taken, history texts fifty years later preferred line portraits over the original The advent of photography coincided photos. One poSsible reason:writers, with the professionalization of history. A proclaiming their fidelity to the truth, new generation of scholars trained in thoughtthat photographs conveyed history as an academic sciencethat unnecessary truths by showing history's painstakingly reconstructed the past heroes warts and all. The publication in succeeded the generation of ministers, 1890ofJacobRiis'spioneering lawyers, journalists, and scissors-and- photographs of slum life in turn of the paste compilers responsible for the writing century New York alerted Americans to of textbooks. The new history's revolt the sobering power of photography--yet against romanticism and the literary none of his startling images appears in tradition of history writing exalted the American history texts before the 1930s. uncovering and transmission of facts Like Riis's photographs, the images of the unmediated by the personality of the Civil War came to the public largely by writer.16 History writers still held to the way of illustrated magazines and mass narrative form, but they directed its course media--not a single academic historian with what they believed was a rigorous associated himself with the use and chain of cause and effect derived from the preservation of this new form of recording tedious analysis of the record. the past. At its beginnings, photography was Another and perhaps more powerful not regarded as a form of artistic explanation for the continued resistance of expression. It was instead another way of historytextstographicarts and documenting reality. The camera, not the photography was the nature of the photographer, controlled the picture. competition. With the achievement of high Furthermore, photographs recorded the and sustained literacy rates by the end of unusual, the significant,the prominent the century, the public's access to mass scenes of life. For example, by the turn of media widened at a furious pace.The the century, as the Civil War faded from hallmarks of modern mass memory into history, photographic and communications, especially its commercial pictorial histories flooded the mass market. character and individualistic thrusi, were Perhaps more photographs were available already evident by the 1840s. As the to the public then they are now, and their century passed, mass advertising and the subjects ranged from the boredom of camp expansion of visual technology affirmed life to the eventful turning points of a the triumph. Americans fascinated with presidential assassination andthe the drama of recent history not only could execution of his murderers.17 flocktonewmuseums,where photographic and other graphic displays Thepossibilities for textbook awaited them. They could vacation there, illustrations seemed limitless. But judging take their cameras with them, and return by thc textbooks in use up through the with pieces of history for proud display in 1920s, almost a half century after the their very own parlors.18 appearance of photographic transfer processes, history text writers resisted the Faced with such competition, the trend. Although textbooks incorporated history text stayed the course: its emphasis

159 From Text to Television 153 on narrative, on high politics, on macro expression of an important phase of events like industrialization, war, and our development expressed in art.20 territorial expansion remained essentially unchanged and undocumented by visual And what was the truth the book images. Teachers could set aside the text tried to convey? "The story of the greatest and use new forms of historical evidence of the American nations" a "dramatic and to challengetheirstudents,while inspiring story--a moving picture of professional historians still grappled with brilliant colors and stirring action." The the problem of trying to develop a method book's illustrations were, largely, artists' ofinterpretingphotographsand conceptions of events, material culture, establishing their validity as historical and people.Photography just framed a sources. Change would come fitfully. story controlled by the author; it had yet to Albert Bushnell Hart's "New American enter the textbook universe as an History," published in 1917 and destined independent historical source. Up through for many editions, informed the teacher the1930s, publishers and authors that its pictures "with the exception of a preferred artwork over photographs, even few reproductions of famous paintings, after photography had been in existence are all realities, intended to place before the long enough to record events and become pupil in visible form the faces of public a powerful tool for the history teacher. men, the surroundings of famous events, Although the patriotic, ethnocentric themes and some of the national monuments and remained as the driving force in the writing buildings.19 Yef even Hart's book of these texts, the preference for artwork preferred artist's reproductions over over photography suggested that historians original photographs. Photography was persisted in the desire to control the action not art; art could more readily be bent to and thereby the reaction of the reader. the needs of the publisher and agenda of Photographs, when included, had to be the writer.In 1928, Row, Peterson, and explained tothe reader, to prevent Company, a major textbook publisher, misconceptions and connect the image to announced that "for the first time original the story. Artwork was more malleable three color illustrations have been used in and could convey emotions, prejudices, an elementary history text." The authors, and ideas that photography supposedly a trio of the profession's finest scholars, had yet to capture. boasted that: Long after photography itself had The physical beauty of the book is become recognized as an art form that due to a conviction which the manipulated images of reality, long after publishers share with the authors, the campaigns for verbal literacy achieved that school children are entitled to theirgreatest successes, historians textbooks having artistic qualities at remained tied to texts supported by artful once interesting and faithful to truth. and inaccurate graphics. As historical No effort has been spared to make conventions and pedagogical theory the illustrations of this textbook changed, artwork marched along in steady reinforce the story told in words. support. Progressive era educators and Contemporary photographs, historians revisedhistory and the drawings, and cartoons having curriculum in alignment with new special historical value have been historical theories about class relations and liberally used. Scenic views portray new educational theories about the our country's natural beauties and its socializing of children. Texts down-played economic development. recitation and emphasized analysis and the Reproductions of painting and expression of feelings. statuary enable thc child to visualize persons and thingsthatthey This was true regardless of the commemorate, and give him a visible writer's political agenda, for in the 1930s,

160 154 Verbo-Visual Literacy

texts employed artists to illuminatethe of the child's moral sense so that he could darker sides of American life.Leo act rightly on the information drilled in to Huberman's elementary text "We the him day by day. Americans by the middle People," (1932) relied entirely on Thomas of the twentieth century had significantly Hart Benton's evocative black and white muted this exclusivity.Cultural literacy sketches of class distinctions, the horrors entailed not simply the ability to read and of the slave trade, and the deadening write, but also the development of critical, impersonality of industrialism to support independent thinking in public affairs.21 its progressive critique of American Educators in both time periods shared the history. basic consensus that a republican form of government was best suited to the I suspect that a similar tale could be American character, but they had very told about the impact of electronic media different notions of that character and how on the teaching of history.The radio, the it was formed. LP, and the motion picture seemed to Americans to be other mirrors with a Recently, there has been a surge of memory: ways of transmitting real events interest in the question of declining literacy unmediated by the personality of trained rates.22 Some historians, noting that the experts. But a number of developments, supposed decline dovetails with the decline especially the use of mass communications of narrative forms and the rise of visual both as political propaganda by totalitarian technology, have tried to maintain the old regimes and for advertising, made it clear emphasis on reading and textual analysis. that visual technologies transmitted not The textbook publishers, on the other reality, but a number of interpretations of hand, have moved vigorously into the reality.Television so quickly diffused multimedia markets, aggressively pushing throughout and flattened the culture that its CD-ROM texts that provide instant access impact remains to be assessed fully. By to picture, photograph, chart, and word. making the viewer an eyewitness, it Yet the publishers also display an seemed to have pulled down the final overweening sensitivity to the historian's barrier between a hictory distant and and the teacher's desire to control the intangible and the making of events for story. For even though multimedia future generations to witness. workstations and CD-ROM databases free the student from the tyranny of text, they The history textbook tried to adapt. do not, so the argument goes, free the In the aftermath of the second world war, student from the teacher. the country's reflexive concern about recovering lost values and protecting them In the past decade, historians have against ideological enemies of foreign and been responding, if belatedly, to the domestic origin reinvigorated the teaching challenge of visual technology.While of history with a sense of vital purpose. they are quarelling about the relative biases Publishers came out with ever more of narrative forms, they are moving to lavishly illustrated editions, filled with understand the nature and iiiipact of visual maps, charts, and photographs.The cycle technology. Scholarly committees of the ofhistoricalrevisionism, withits professional societies are investigating the assumption that generations rewrite the development of electronic archives, the country's history, encouraged text writers transmission and durability of electronic to pose difficult questions and print more texts,theuse of computer-based controversial images. The common school simulations and desktop publishing, and reformers had definedrepublican the collating and preservation of the citizenship as a patriotic faith, leavened rapidly deteriorating yet vast array of with vigilance for one's rights, but based photographs that languish uncataloged in almost entirely on the moral capacity of museums and historical agencies.To individuals to make public decisions. In accomplish this important task, historians this view, education required the training From Text to Television 155 need to develop a set of basic criteria for interpreting visual images, as they have Merton England, "The Democratic Faith in had for understanding the documentary American Schoolbooks, 1783-1860." record.Ancient, medieval, and biblical American Quarterly 15 (1963):191-199; scholars have for years studied the nature Lee Soltow and Edward Stevens, Rise of and method of text illumination, and have Literacy and the Common School in the produced loose systems for interpretation United States: A Socioeconomic Analysis and analysis. to 1870 (Chicago, 1981), pp. 11-22; Carl F.Kaestle, Pillars of the Republic: Simply put, historians and educators Common Schools and American Society, should consider mounting a visual literacy 1790-1860 (New York:1983), pp. 35, campaign of the magnitude and energy of 75-103; Lawrence Cremin, American the early common school reformers. Education, The National Experience, Historians and teachers working with 1783-1876 (New York, 1980), pp. 490- visual images, especially photographs, 495; Baker, "Learning to be Americans," television, and film, need to alert students in Her Affairs of Party:The Political to the inherent biases of these formats. Culture of the Northern Democrats in the Students will be willing partners in the Mid-Nineteenth Century (Ithaca, 1983), endeavor, for they seem more capable of pp. 71-107; D.J.Booth, "Popular critiquing film and tape than they are of Educational Thought of the Early National printed text. In that way, they can test the Period in America, 1776-1830..." (Ph.D. truth of Oliver Wendell Holmes's Dissertation:University of Colorado, definition of the photograph as an illusion 1974); R. Freeman Butts, "Historical with the "appearance of reality that cheats Perspective on Citizenship Education in the senses with its seeming truth."23 the United States," in Education for Responsible Citizenship(New York, 1977), pp. 47-68. 1See Peter Novick, That Noble Dream: The "Objectivity Question" and 4Marcius Wilson, A Critical Review the American Historical Profession (New of American Common School Histories York, 1988). (New York, 1847) p. 1. 2See,for example, Elizabeth 5Samuel R.Hall, Lectures on Ellsworth and Mariamne H. Whatley, The School-Keeping (Boston, 1829), pp. 95- Ideology of Images in EducationalMedia: 98. Hidden Curriculums in the Classroom (New York, 1990).On the country's 6Baker, Affairs of Party, pp. 91- emotional and ideological investment in 105. postwar education, see Diane Ravitch, The Troubled Crusade: American Education, 7A straightforward description of 1945-1980 (New York, 1983). content, organization, and style may be found in John A. Nietz, The Evolution of 3For a good bibliography, see Jean American SecondarySchool Dresden Grambs, The Study of Textbooks Textbooks...Before 1900 (Rutland, Vt., andSchoolbooks, A Selected 1966). Bibliography in William E. Patton (Ed.), Improving the Use of Social Studies 8Neitz, Evolution, pp. 2-6. Textbooks, National Council for the Social Studies Bulletin #63 (Washington, 1980), 92 vols. (New York, 1859). pp. 61-76. The standard content analysis is Ruth Miller Elson, Guardians of 10E. JenniferMonaghan, A Tradition: American Schoolbooks of the Common Heritage: Noah Webster's Blue- Nineteenth Century (Lincoln, 1963); J. 162 156 Verbo- Visual Literacy

Back Speller (Hamden, Conn., 1983), pp. (Cambridge, 1988), pp. 160-163; and 128-130. Jussim, Visual communications, passim.

11Michael Warner, The Letters of the 18Richard D. Brown, Knowledge is Republic:Publication and the Public Power: The Diffusion of Information in Sphere in Eighteenth-Century America Early American, 1700-1865 (Oxford, (Cambridge, 1990). 1989), p. 219. 12Pardon Davis, The Principles of 19(New York, 1917), p. v. the Government of the United States. Adapted totheUseof Schools 20Authors' note, Eugene C. Barker, (Philadelphia, 1823). Walter Prescott Webb, William E. Dodd, The Growth of a Nation:The United 13Hermeneutics was introduced to States of America (Evanston, 1928), p. vi. the United States by the country's first The publishers claimed that "the pictures self-proclaimed political scientist, Francis tell a true story of some event or personage Lieber, who was trained by German in American history." scholars conversant with ancient texts. See Francis Lieber, Legal and Political 21RichardPratte,TheCivic Hermeneutics (Boston, 1839) and Lieber's Imperative: Examining the Need for Civic discussion of language as "the greatest link Education (New York, 1988). and tie of humanity" in two of his works, On Civil Liberty and Se y..Government 22Kaestle, et al., Literacy in the (Philadelphia, 1859), 2:185-86, 424,134, United States,pp. 74-148, analyze and On History and Political Economy,... contemporary reading levels and dispute (Columbia, 1836), p. 14.Post-modern claims of a decline in literacy. thinkers have radically reoriented hermeneutical methods away from 23Quoted in James West Davidson Lieber's intentionalist perspective.See and Mark Hamilton Lytle, After the Fact: Shaun Gallagher, Hermeneutics and The Art of Historical Detection (Knofp, Education (Albany, 1992), esp. p. 350. 1981), p. 229. 14Carl F. Kaestle, et al.,Eds., Literacy in the United States: Readers and Reading since 1880 (New Haven, 1991), p. 25.

15These developments can be traced in Estelle Jussim, Visual Cominunication and the Graphic Arts:Photographic Technologies in the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1974) which covers more than its title implies.

16Novic, That Noble Dream, pp. 21- 46.

17For a discussion of the reaction to photography, see Lawrence Levine, Highbrow/Lowbrow: The Emergence of CulturalHierarchyinAmerica 163 From Text to Television 157

Short-Title List of Teacher's Frost, J.(1838).The history of the Manuals, History, and Civics Texts United States of North America. Examined London. Barker, E. C., et al.(1928). The growth Goodrich, C. A. (1833). A history of the of a nation:The United States of United States of America...to the America. Evanston. present time. Hartford. Bradford, A.(1840).History of the Goodrich, S. G.(1850).A pictorial federal government, for 50 years from history of America: Embracing the March 1789 to March 1839 .Boston. northern and southern portions . Hartford. Brownell, H. H.(1854).The people's book of American history, comprising Graff, H. F.(1972).The free and the the new world .Hartford. brave (2nd ed.). New York. Burleigh, J.(1848). The American Green, R. P., et al. (1984). The manual, ...adapted to the use of American tradition: A history of the schools, academies, and the public United States. Columbus. Philadelphia Grimshaw, W. (1841).History of the Butler, F.(1826).A history of the United States .Philadelphia. United States of America.With a geographical appendix,and a Hall, S. R. (1829). Lectures on school- chronological table of contents. For keeping. Boston. the use of families and schools . Buffalo. Hart, J.S. (1862, 1874).A brief exposition of the constitution of the Butler, F. (1821). A complete history of United States for the use of common theUnited States of America, schools. Philadelphia Embracing the whole period from the discovery of North America, down to Hart, A. B.(1917).New American the year 1820. Philadelphia. history.. New York. Connor, R. D. W. (1921). The story of Hickey, W. (1854). The constitution of the United States:For young the United States of America, with an Americans. Raleigh, NC. alphabelicalanalysis. Washington. Davis, P. (1823). The principles of the Hopkins, C. T.(1872).A manual of government of the United States. American ideals. San Francisco. Adapted to the use of schools . Philadelphia Howe, E. P. (1861). The young citizen's catechism...Together with rules for Fisher, R. S. (1854). The progress of the parliamentaryandcommercial United States of America from the business.Designed for schools . earliestperiods, geographical, New York. statistical, historical. New York. Howitt, M. (1860). A popular history of Flanders, H. (1860,1874). An the United States of America from the expositionof theconstitution... discovery of the American continent to Designed as a manual of instruction. the present time . New York. Philadelphia. Judson, H. Pratt. (1906). The growth of the American nation . New York. Verbo-Visual Literacy

La Ruc, D. W. (1924). The child's mind Quillen, I. J., & King, E. (1951). Living and the common branches . New in our America: History for young York. citizens. Chicago. Lord, J.(1854). A new history of the Sheppard, F.(1855, 1866). The United States of America, for the use constitutional text-book. Philadelphia. of schools. Philadelphia Sullivan W. (1831).The political class Lossing, B. J.(1857). A primary history book. Boston. of the United States, for schools and families. New York. Taylor, C. B. (1831). A universal history of the United States to the present Mansfield, E. D.(1834, 1855). The time. New York. political grammar of the United States. New York. Watson, H. C.(1853).History of the United States of America, from the Mason, C. (1842). An elementary treatise discoverytothe present time. on the structure and operations of the Philadelphia. national and state governments...for the use of schools and academies and Willard, E. (1854). Abridged history of for general readers. Boston. the United States. New York. McCartney, W. (1847).The origin and Williams, G. S. (1872). The constitution progress of theUnited States. of the United States. For the use of Philadelphia. schools and academies (4th new and enlarged ed.). Cambridge, MA. McCulloch, J. (1813). A concise history of the United States, from the Wilson, M. (1847).Juvenile American discovery of America, till 1813 (4th history for primary schools. New ed.). Philadelphia. York.

Olney, J. (1836, 1851). A history of the Woodburn, J.A., & Moran, T.F. United States,...to which is added the (1906). American history and constitution of the United States. New government:A text-book on the Haven. history and civil government of the United States. New York. Olney, J. (1836). A history of the United States, on a new plan; adapted to the Young, A. W.(1835 through 1900). capacity of youth. New Haven. Introductiontothe science of government. Warsaw, NY. Page, D. W. (1847). Theory and practice of teaching:Or, the motives and Young, A. W. (1845).First lessons in methods of good school-keeping. civil government (8th ed.). Auburn. Syracuse.

Parker,Rev.D. (1848). The ^onstitutional instructor. Boston. Parker, F. W. (1894). Talks on pedagogics: An outline of the theory of concentration. New York. THE VIDEO IN THE CLASSROOM:AGATHA CHRISTIE'S "EVIL UNDER THE SUN" AND THETEACHING OF NARRATOLOGY THROUGH FILM by Michael Kokonis

Educational technology has made skills, or, in extended curricula, where tremendous strides in introducing the new literature and the arts are integrated in audiovisual and electronic media in the language courses, films shown on video teaching of any subject, especially are meant to help studentsappreciate language teaching. Since the 1980's many literature toimprove writing and institutions have adopted the use of video composition.2 over traditional film technologybecause it is less costly and more user friendly.It is A sfar asliterature courses natural to expect that there are many themselves are concerned, there have been technology-prone teachers who make only a few articles or books exploring ample use of the new technologies in the methods for using commercial films on teaching of literature as well. However VCRs to study themes, formal elements of there is little documentation of specific literature, literary terms, and the aesthetic methods of video use in the literature decisions behind film adaptations of classroom. The aim of this paper is to literary works, as for example in the suggest some ways in which the versatile manner described by R. H. Fehlman facilities of video can be put to effective (1987), in "Quoting Films in English use in teaching literature as well ascinema Class." A practical method is suggested courses at a college or universitylevel, by Rodney D. Keller (1985) in "Movies with the intent to promote audio-visual and Literary Elements," a paper presented literacy. The method proposed for video at the International Reading Association applications to the teaching of literature, Conference, inIdaho: The writer especially fiction,presupposes an proposes showing short, ten-minute movie approach to narrative through the tenets of clips to motivate students to read literature narratology, the discipline that examines and explore elements of fiction such as texts of narrative fiction as narratives, plot, character, setting, symbol, irony, and irrespective of their mode of manifestation theme. (whether verbal, visual, or other). In other cases, movies are shown for Methods and Aims of Teaching comparative purposes, e.g., between Literature on Video literature and cinema,incourses concentrating on problems of adaptation. There has been considerable research Thierry Lancien's (1988) "Litterature et done on the practical applications of video, cinema: de la page a l' ecran" (Literature which has enjoyed wide use in all fields of and Film: From Page to Screen) is a case .education in thousands of institutions all in point, since the article looks at thc over the world.However, most of the process of making a novel into film by research has been concentrated on video as focusing on comparisons of composition, an aid to support languageteaching.' The characters, and language. Similarly, Suc software video material employed varies Heibling (1985) in "The Dollmaker: A from documentaries, advertisements, Cross-Media Approach," uses the novel news, and general entertainment, including and television adaptation of Harriet film narratives.But even when film Arnow's "The Dollmaker" to teach narratives arc used, the aim is either to problems of translating literature into film. improve speaking and writing language Problems of adaptation from a literary to

166 160 Verbo-Visual Literacy film narrative pose no obstacle to paintings, a film, a television miniseries, a developing a teaching methodology for the ballet, a play, and so on. The expression practical analysis of narratives provided codes pertaining to the nature of different that they are explained to the students early media may affect the mode of narration in the course. and the formal organization of the narrative up to an extent, but basically the story- Far more interesting, however, is an content remains the same because it obeys approach of examining a literary topic in the inherent narrative codes shared by all an interdisciplinary manner, that is, by media.In this case, having taken into placing it in the wider context of art. consideration the difference between the Dorothy M. Jehle (1990) in "Medieval verbal narrative discourse of the novel and Romances: Perceval to Monty Python," the audiovisual mode of narrative traces the appearance of medieval themes, presentation *in film, Iwill attempt to motifs and characters in works of modern explore their commonly shared codes of poetry, fiction and films. Also interesting narrative form and structure.Highly is the notion of drawing on the tenets of a abstract notions, such as narrative particular theory from one discipline and structure, focalization, retrospective, and applying these tenets to another:For reiterative narrative strategies, etc., will be example, the application of literary theory easily comprehensible because they will be to film theory.Lynn Kear (1988) in presented visually through film excerpts "Teaching Film Studies: The Viewer on video, each video clip illustrating an Response Approach," examines how abstract idea. Louise Rosenblatt's reader response theory can be applied to film study in the A narrative then, in the form of a classroom. In the view of reader response film adapted from a novel, can be an theorists, although there are differences excellent case study for explaining and between film and literature as media, the illustrating aspects of the theory of processes that one uses to make sense of narrative fiction.In the last two years I literature and film are similar. have been using Guy Hamilton's "Evil Under the Sun," a detective story film, Narrative as a Teaching based on Agatha Christie's classic of the Subject on Video same title,for this purpose in my Introduction to Fiction course.It is a Thc approach to be followed here course addressed to freshmen with the aim will also account for the similarities to introduce them to basic elements of the between reader and viewer response, but it theory of narrative fiction.The reason will be couched within the wider why a detective story is chosen from all perspective of narratology, which takes possible genres, is because the detective care of the more complex relationships story is an archetypal form for all between author and text as well as reader narrative, as it will be demonstrated later. and text. Narratology is the discipline that But first a few words on the nature of examines texts of fiction primarily as narrative seem to be in order here. narratives, irrespective of the mode of their discursive manifestation, that is, verbal, Narratologists posit three terms for visual, or audiovisual. The termsauthor, the textual analysis of narratives: Story, reader,andtextare employed in the broad Text, and its Narration. Story and sense of the words, meaning both Narration are conceived in abstract terms, filmmaker and novelist, film viewer and while Text is the only concrete entity novel reader, and novels and films available to the reader. Text is what we respectively. According to narratologists, actually experience, while reading or thc same story, conceived as the content of viewing."In it [the text], the events do narrative message, can be transmitted in a not necessarily appear in chronological number of ways, for example in the form order, the characteristics of the participants of a novel, a comic-strip, a series of are dispersed throughout, and all the items

6 Video in the Classroom 161 of narrative content are filtered through relationship derives from the paradoxical some prism or perspective(focalizer)" nature of the text itself: (Rimmon-Kenan,1983,p. 3). Reconstructing the narrated events in their There is one end every tcxt must natural chronological order occurs at the achieve: it must make certain that it stage of analysis, after reading the text, will be read; its very existence, as it and it is an exercise in abstraction. This is were, depends on it. Interestingly, so because the reader reconstructsthe the text is caught here in a double narrative experience in his or her mind. bind. On the one hand, in order to Also, the act of narrating and the role of be readitmust make itself the narrator are abstract concepts; narrators understood,it must enhance and narratees are theoretical constructs intelligibility by anchoring itself in employed to distinguish them from the real codes, frames, Gestalten familiar to author or reader.The notions narrators the reader.But if the text is and narratees are deciphered by reading understood too quickly, it would indexical signs of their presence scattered thereby come to an untimely end. through out the narrative. Thus, from what So, on the other hand, it is in the is inscribed in the text, we are able to text's interest to slow down the appreciate authofial voice and attitude both process of comprehension by the towards the narrated events as well as reader so as to ensure its own toward the reader. By employing a film survival. To this end,itwill narrative as a case study, we take introduce unfamiliar elements, it advantage of the concreteness and will multiply difficulties of one kind immediacy of cinematic image, as well as or another, or simply delay the the versatility of video use, to render the presentation of expected, interesting above mentioned theoretical abstract items. (p. 122) notions more tangible and understandable. Of course authors are well aware of In practice, the method of video the nature of the text, which progresses by application to the teaching of core employing delaying devices. They are also theoretical issues is the following: A single aware of the reader's propensity to speed session is devoted to the viewing of the up reading in order to discover the secret entire film without any interruptions, so as of the narrative--all narratives do have a not to spoil the pleasure of the first secret, as a rule.3 Therefore, during the reading. Then in the next session, an actual act of writing, the author calculates analysis of the film's structureis in advance the effect, of his special attempted, introducing certain aspects of techniques to generate suspense and theory, such as plot structure and design, promote pleasure in the reader. The secret narrativestrategies and modes of of the narrative is well kept until its narration, the role of the narrator, and revelation time, the text does not yield its textual relationships.Specially selected meaning too easily and therefore does not excerpts from the film text are shown to come to an untimely end. In a sense, this illustrate abstract theoretical concepts in antagonistic relationship between author their complex interrelationships. and reader constitutes the game of fiction, with the text being a kind of shared Analyzing the Film Text common territory, a play field where their imaginations engage in a competitive The Nature of the Text and Textual struggle.4 Relationships The detective story by naturc is the A good starting point is the complex kind of narrative that best illustrates this relation between text and reader, which is notion of fictional game, since the secret of central to the theory of narrative fiction. the narrative becomes literally the secret Rimmon-Kenan (1983) notes that this

168 162 Verbo-Visual Literacy that the process of detection aims to the viewer's interest undiminished until the uncover. A detective story "purports to end. Most of the narrative is taken up by narrate the course of an investigation, but the process of investigation. No matter the 'open' story of the investigation how hard we, as viewers, try to speed up gradually unravels the 'hidden' story of ahead of the narration and discover the the crime. In other words, the initial crime culprit, that is, the murderer, we fail. on wh:ch the tale of detection is predicated is an end as well as a beginning. It As a matter of fact, Poirot gives us a concludes the 'hidden' story of the events clue too many. This can be shown on leading up to itself at the same time it video through the dialogue scene involving initiates the story of the process of Daphne Castle, the hotel proprietor, Sir detection" (Porter, 1981, p. 29). Since the Horace Blatt, a business tycoon who has crime in detective fiction becomes the commissioned Poirot to find his lost tangible goal in the competitive struggle diamond, and Hercule Poirot himself. between author and reader, the game of When Poirot tells them that he is going to fiction in detective stories has a more reveal the identity of the murderer after antagonistic character than in other genres. breakfast, both Daphne and Sir Horace are surprised and thrilled: "Evil Under the Sun" is a good example.It is a typical Agatha Christie "You mean you know?" they ask story telling the sudden and unexpected him eagerly. "Well, give us a few clues." murder of a former theatre actress, Arlena And then Poirot gives them a whole list: Marshall, on the beach of a resort island "All right, I wish you to consider very on the Adriatic. Having interrogated all carefully: a bathing cap, a bath, a bottle the guests at the hotel and finding an alibi thrown to the sea, a wrist watch, the for each one of them, Hercule Poirot is diamond, the noon-day gun, the breath of nevertheless successful in eventually the sea, and the height of the cliff. From unravelling the identity of the murderer. that you should be able to solve it In Guy Hamilton's film version of the yourselves." story this process of investigation is graphically and vividly dramatized. But due to the fact that we are overwhelmed by the multitude of clues and The film respects the ingenuity of the the fact that they are given to us verbally, structure, so characteristic of the Agatha therefore, in abstract form, we can Christie story, although there are some intensify the challenge of the mystery by minor plot alterations.The balance making use of the versatility of our between ratiocination and mystification, so teaching aid; we can carefully edit the artfully created by Agatha Christie in the particular shots scattered in the body of the novel, is also maintained in the film, narrative and assemble them together in a though the expressive means employed are visual presentation. Thus we can have the different.After the standard expository concrete details of all the incriminating sequence introducing the detective, the clues in a clip: A shot of the bathing cap setting, and the characters, and an that Linda is reminded to wear shows what additional sequence of complication, the actual object looks like and, moreover, stating the possible motives of practically places it in the particular context of the all the characters who would want to story.Similarly, some shots of the bath murder Arlena, there follows the scene of taken by Christine to wash off the suntan the crime and clues. As usual in formulaic lotion from her body establish it as a structures of this kind the story of the specific event in the context of eliminating crime remains secret. The viewer is not incriminating evidence. The same can be given a chance to witness the actual said about the bottle of sun tan lotion she murder, only the discovery of the throws over the cliff. Thus, all of these murdered body.This will initiate the clues acquire an air of particular process of investigation that will maintain concreteness and specificity: Linda's wrist 16 V ideo in the Classroom 163 watch as Christine sets it 20 minutes camera zeroes in on Kenneth's room we earlier, the false diamond as it drops from see his troubled or puzzledface through Arlena's hand in the grotto, the noon-day the curtains looking over the bay. The next gun going off, Arlena'sperfume called shot is that of Arlena sunning herself at the Breath of the Sea, and the height of the beach alone, though we fail to see the cliff from which Christine allegedly waved connection.There are so many clues to Linda. By showing all thesedetails scattered throughout the sequence which visually, we can make the puzzle of the confuse the issue and make matters more crime even more vivid and challenging. complicated, leading us astray. A visual presentation of these clues in this manner In spite of the fact that Daphne and makes them more telling than a simple Horace, who act as surrogates for the verbal description. viewer here, are given so many clues, they still manage to find nothing. This is Backward Construction of Plot because, the author has planted various clues and gives us many hints, that instead The role of the detective in tales of of helping, confuse us more and retard the ratiocination or detection parallels the role resolution process. According to Roland of the reader in encountering a narrative. Barthes (1974), some of these clues are Like the ideal reader, "the detective," as snares, otherwise called redherrings, Porter (1981) remarks, "encounters effects becausethey offer outrightfalse without apparent causes, events in a information. Others are half truths, partial jumbled chronological order, significant answers, suspended answers, and soon.5 clues hidden among the insignificant. And Again, we can depend on the flexibility of his role is to reestablish sequence and video editing capacity to isolate some of causality" (p. 30).Peter Ustinov's these instances and render them more incarnation of the notorious Hercule Poirot concrete visnally: In most of these cases type is impeccable. As in the novel, the we can not help noticing theinquisitive character of the idiosyncratic and probing of the camera through steady whimsical Belgian super-detective, with pans, tilts and zoom-ins, thatguide our the beady eyes and the curly moustache, is attention to inexplicable pieces of action faithfully represented in the film.He is and behavior in some of the characters. patterned after the traditional image of the For example, why is Christine peering artist-hero, initiated by Poe, with colossal from the balcony of Linda's room at Linda ratiocinative powers and a keen eye for going up the steps? Then what is Mr. details, no matter how trivialor Gardner looking at so intensely when insignificant. In the film's narration, the following Christine and Linda with his camera identifies with Poirot's point of eyes? And whose hand is it behind a view most of the time, thus making the tree's branches revealing the two women detective a surrogate for the viewer. And receding in the garden? What is it off the yet, despite the fact that we experience field of view that causes Daphne's almost all events exactly as Poirot surprised expression? What does the half- perceives them, we are surprised to find eaten carcass of a dead rabbit, consumed out that, as viewers, the solution to the by worms, have to do with the story in crime escapes our intellect. On the question? These narrative incidents have contrary, Poirot, after some mysterious absolutely nothing to do with the story calculations and considerable reflection, offering the viewer clues (red herrings) announces he has discovered the identity that mislead the viewer and impede the of the murderer and is ready to explain progressofthenarrativetoward how the victim was murdered. But wc resolution. will return to the question of focalization or point-of-view immediatelyafter we Further, in a slow zoom-in we are consider the plot of the narrative and the presented a view of the hotel, and as the manner of its construction. 164 Verbo-Visual Literacy

Detective fiction is characterized by a eventually handed to the authorities. peculiar structure in which the plot is of primary importance. As mentioned above, Hercule Poirot explaining his the detective story actually consists of two brilliant theory of how the murder was stories, the one embedded in the other. committed. Unmasking of the murderers One, the story of the crime, is known only (Patrick Redfern, the actual culprit, and to the criminal and the author. Both have Christine Redfern, his accomplice). strong reasons to keep it secret. The other is the story of investigation, the story we Poirot announces he has come to read. Detective fiction, then,is an the solution of the crime and he is going to archetypal genreexemplifyinga reveal everything after breakfast. displacement of chronological time. As Porter points out, "detective fiction is Poirotmakessometime preoccupied with the closing of the logico- measurements with his stop-watch, testing temporal gap that separates the present of a hypothesis of which we have no idea. the discovery of crime from the past that prepared it" (p. 29). Paradoxically, it is a T h e investigationitself: genre that moves forward in order to move Practically all the hotel guests are ques- back. The primacy of the plot in detective tioned and all prove to have a "cast-iron fiction is clear since so much in the genre alibi." Note that action is shown from the depends on the intricacies of the plot. This point of view of the suspect, denoting a point was stressed by Edgar Allan Poe, the different version of the story in each case. inventor of the detective tale, in his theory of artistic composition: "Nothing is more The moment of the crime, clear than that every plot must be preceded by some clues. The actual elaborated by its dénouement before murder is not shown, just the discovery of anything is attempted with the pea.It is the victim's body.Poirot is asked to only with the denouement constantly in investigate. view that we can give the plot the indispensable air of consequence, or Complication: Setting the possible causation, by making the incidents, and motives for each character. Accompanied especially the tone at all points, tend to the by foreshadowing of the impending crime. development of the intention" (Davidson, 1956, p. 453). We can demonstrate that Exposition: Introduction of the the backward construction of narrative, in detective, the characters and the possible conformity to Poe's theory of composi- relationships between them, and the tion,is standard practice in det xtive setting. Heightening expectations in the fiction and neither Agatha Christie's novel viewer. nor Guy Hamilton's movie isan exception. As we move backwards, the author's strategy in constructing the narrative Having the climactic moment of the becomes obvious. The climactic moment unmasking of the murderer and the final of revelation is what the author has explanations of the denouementat the constantly in mind, and every part of the endas the starting point, we can retrace, narrative is constructed step by step, in the various stages of plot development by order to move the plot toward the ultimate moving backwards. Herei s a moment of resolution.But at the same diagrammatic account of the film's plot time, these passages that add to the moving backwards: movement towards closure also delay the final moment of resolution, simply Thc ultimate moment of revelation because they take time to process. The plot of the crimc: The actual scene of the in detective stories is not important in murder followed by minor explanations in itself, but for the effects it has on the the denouement. The criminals arc reader's expectations.Through the I 71 Video in the Classroom 165 intricacies of plot, the author creates a the notion of the narrating agent is quite "composition that plays with the reader's problematic. Entering the long debate sensibilities, arousing morbid curiosity, about the status of the narrator in cinema and having toyed with it for an appropriate would be beyond the scope of this paper length of time, by satisfying it in a totally and would only confuse the issue. Suffice unexpected way" (Porter, 1991, p. 27). it to say that we have to theorize the The more the desired resolution is kept existence of a narrating agent in film, who suspended, the more the reader's appetite undertakes the telling of the narrative. As is heightened and interest in the story is far as film narrating techniques are maintained undiminished. concerned, the standard mode of film discourse is a combination of objective and Coming to the practical task of subjective point of view shots, especially presenting the backward construction of when the director's objective is to enhance the plot in the classroom, there are two audience participation in the film events possibilities depending on the time narrated. available. If time is limited, we can make use of the still function capacity of the In this film, we might say that video equipment to isolate the pertinent objective point of view shots predominate, images from each section of the plot and but there are several cases throughout the present them as freeze frames. Their narrative, that the camera adopts Poirot's duration can be timed to coincide with the point of view, rendering him the focalizer time it will take the instructor to describe and facilitating identification with the verbally each stage of the plot.This viewer. For example, early in the story, technique presupposes that our video when Poirot is enjoying his favorite icc equipment will have a perfectly clear image cream in a hotel lounge, he is made privy at the still mode.If there is more time to something interesting. As he glances available, we may choose to select short idly opposite him, he notices a handsome one- or two-minute clips from each man, who is later proven to be none other scction, present them piece-by-piece, than Patrick Redfern, sending his wife on stopping the action for the appropriate an errant in order to be alone with a commentary in each case. Thus the mysterious lady. From Poirot's point of backward construction of the plot will be view only her hand is seen, adorned by a more vividly and adequately presented. gold bracelet, caressing Patrick's face. Along with Poirot, we infer that Patrick The superiority of video over other has an illicit affair with another woman. teaching aids, such as still photographs, Later, at Daphne Castle's hotel lounge, slides, drawings, or diagrams on OHP, right on the first night when all the guests becomes apparent. With video clips we gather for drinks, Poirot notices that the can present pieces of action intact, same golden bracelet, shown now on preserving their continuity, revealing close-up, belongs to Arlena Marshall. At narrative events in motion After all cinema this point, a camera shot adopting Poirot's is the art of moving pictures, constructed point of view, stresses the fact that the in terms of time and space, two aspects detective makes a discovery. Moreover, that can be amply and fully presented the next shot takes us from Poirot's beady solely through the use of video. eyes to a close-up of Patrick's face, so that the association of the illicit relationship Aspects of Narration between Patrick and Arlena is made clear both to Poirot and the viewer. This capacity of the medium becomes more evident in explaining Focalization shifts occur mostly in aspects of narration,for example two long sequences:(a) Whcn Poirot focalization and multiple points of view, interrogates the suspects and (b) when hc flashback, retrospective narration, and the presents his own theory of how thc role of the narratingagent. In film theory, murder was committed. In the first case,

172 166 Verbo-Visual Literacy we have a visual account of the events as focalization and the narration are objective, seen from the point of view of each that is, from the point of view of a third suspect in his or her version of the story. party, the film's narrating agent. Later, Thus we end up having multiple however, when Poirot develops his theory storytellers (narrators) and multiple agents and refers to this episode, the same scene of perception (focalizers), through whose is presented, this time shot from different points of view we get different approaches angles to designate the point of view of to the search for truth. These little pockets Mrs. Gardner. Now, the view of Arlena's of narrative content become instances of body lying in the sun as experienced from what narratologists call analepses, or as Mrs. Gardner's point of view in the boat is more commonly known, flashbacks.6 totally different.Mrs. Gardner was not Video is the appropriate means to show close enough to distinguish whether this these time displacements in the narrative wasactuallyArlena'sbody,or evoked by flashbacks. For example, the Christine's, who, according to Poirot, was same narrative material presented from a posing as Arlena in order to establish an different point of view gives a totally alibi for her husband, Patrick, the real different version of the story: The visual murderer.By actually presenting the presentation of Christine's action leaving spatio-temporal dimensions of the narrated Gull Cove to return to the hotel for a game events, the argument made verbally by of tennis agrees with the account she gives Poirot in the hotel lounge acquires a verbally during her interrogation by distinct visual concreteness and lucidity. Poirot. A slightly different visual presentation of the same events is given Additionally, the instructor has also during Linda's narration of the story. the chance to illustrate visually the abstract Finally, a totally different presentation concepts of retrospective (flashback) and occurs later when Poirot gives his own reiterative (repetitive) narrative modes, as account of what actually happened. The well as the theoretical notions of narrator, differences can be immediately registered narratee, and narration, which are standard and be more easily appreciated when terms in narratology. The best examples shown by video clips. to illustrate these ideas can be found in the climactic sequence where Poirot reveals When the same piece of narrative the identity of the criminals. All the guests (given through these flashbacks, each by a are kindly asked to gather in the lounge different focalizer) is told more than once, and comfortably seat themselves so that we have the phenomenon designated by Poirot can start telling the real story of the narratologists as reiterative narrative. In murder of Arlena Marshall. The scene other words, the narration shifts back to a therefore is set in time present with Poirot posterior point of narrated time and retells narrating the events of the story, thus the same event. This may be spoken by assuming the role of the narrator, and the another agent, who temporarily is invested guests, listening to the story, assuming the with the role of a narrator, and can either role of narratees. However, as the events be witnessed through his or her eyes, or of the story of the crime prescnted by seen through the eyes of someone else.It Poirot belong to the past, the diegesis in is a very complicated concept to explain the present time is interrupted by a series verbally, therefore, by actually presenting of visual passages, depicting events in it on video, we manage to make it more timepast,while Poirot continues easily comprehensible.Instances of delivering his theory in voice over.In literative narrative are many: The other words, the visuals presenting events discovery of Arlena's body, for instance, in the past support the aural argument of is shown in the film's diegesis for the first Poirot, acting as narrator, in thc present. timc, when Patrick accompanied by Mrs. For example, when Poirotstarts Gardner, who serves as a witness, finds developing his theory, he begins by saying her dead on the beach.Both the that all thc suspects seemed to have an alibi, but actually one of them was lying: 1 3 Video in the Classroom 167

"It was you,"--he pauses momentarily, showing Ladder Bay ends with a cut to the then turns suddenly to confront Christine, lounge, with Christine speaking: "But I "Madamme Redfern!" Several insert shots couldn't have climbed down the ladder, I of various guests in the lounge are added suffer from vertigo! You know that." Cut here to register the snrprise on their faces. to Poirot:"I only know that because you Then a shot of Christine follows defending took good care to stage an incident herself while on the audio band we have showing me that you suffer from vertigo. the following dialogue:Christine: "Me, Immediately the narration repeats the same but I didn't lie to you, I swear it," Poirot: scene shown quite early in the narrative "Oh yes you did Madamme. en I where Christine had leaned against asked you at what time you left Gull Cove Poirot's shoulder, having a stroke of yesterday, you said it was 12 o'clock. acrophobia at the edge of the terrace. This You knew this you said, because--the is an instance of reiterative narrative when scene is interrupted here with a visual the narration returns to repeat the same account of this action set in the past, scene in a different context.During showing Christine leaving Gull Cove and Poirot's narration of the story of the crime walking among the trees in the path there are several such cases of repetitive or leading to Ladder Bay, where the crime reiterative passages. was committed. Meanwhile, Poirot's narration continues in voiceover:"You Conclusions heard that awful gun go off" (sound of cannon heard in voiceover too), "when Video can be an excellent means to you were staying on top of the cliff"--shot teach aspects of narrative theory. Through of Christine on top of a cliff--"waving at the presentation of elements of narratology Linda who was swimming in the water it was pointed out that certain ideas are below." End of flashback, the narration more abstract, just because they are returns to time present and the camera theoretical, ideas pertaining to Story and focuses on Poirot as he resumes his Narration.But due to the capacity of argument: "But Mr. Brewster was in the video to make elusive and abstract ideas bay at the same time, it is very curious that accessible and concrete, the difficult task you did not mention him. ...And yet he of teaching literary concepts becomes made no mention of you standing over the easier and pleasurable. Moreover, even in cliff. Why not?" Poirot now looming over the case of dealing with the rather concrete Christine:. "The answer is very simple." items of the Text, such as any of the Cut to the empty cliff:"You were not particular details describing characters, there!"This scene in which visual events, and setting, video is equally presentation shifts freely from the lounge helpful in rendering them more concrete (time present) to events in the past (in and specific. These conclusions are drawn flashbacks) is an illustration of the concept from practical experience in teaching of retrospective narration. elements of narratology during the last five years. There has been a distinct difference Besides, in order to support his in student comprehension of literary and argument, Poirot will refer himself to theoretical concepts between the first three events that had happened prior to the time years, when no video was used in this of the crime, which was established course, and the last two years, when film between 11:30 and 12:30 of the second was introduced as a teaching aid. day on the island.For instance, when Although no formal attempt was made to Christine denies that she descended the measure the degree of the students' ladder at Ladder Bay, where Arlena was comprehension of the literary concepts sunning herself--as Poirot insists, she taught in the course, personal observation brings up the point of her suffering from of class discussions and evaluation of vertigo. She would not have been able to examination papers revealed that thc climb down the ladder, she says, because students did in fact benefit from these she was afraid of heights. The flashback simultaneous explorations in literary and 174 168 Verbo-Visual Literacy cinematic concepts through the use of Literature, 17,1, pp. 44-62; E. Bruss video. (1977), The Game of Literature and Some Literary Games, New Literary History, 9, Footnotes pp. 153-72; for an overview of Play and Game Theory in relation to narrative and a I A typical sample. of this kind of definition of fictional game, see M. research in the U. K. is indicated by such Kokonis (1991), Metafictional Games: article titlesas:Video and English The Play Element in Cinema and the Language Teaching in Britain, pp. 1-17; Novel, Ph.D. Dissertation, Aristotle The Potential and Limitations of Video, University. pp. 17-29; 101 Ways to Use Video, pp. 43-57; Video Applications in English 5 Inhis bookSIZ,Barthes Language Teaching, pp. 69-83. In John (1974/1970) notes five types of clues, of McGovern (Ed.),(1983),Video different degrees of significance and Applications inEnglish Language relativity to the story, planted in various Teaching, ELT Documents Series, parts of the narrative to enhance the Pergamon Press in Association with The enigma or mystery of the crime. They are British Council. part of the hermeneutic code of the narrative and their function is to suspend 2 For example, Baird R. Shuman & the advance towards resolution and Denny Wolfe (1990), Teaching English deliberately mislead and puzzle the reader Through the Arts: Theory and Research (pp. 75-76). into Practice. The National Council of Teachers of English, Urbana IL. As stated 6 Gerard Genette (1980) employs in the Abstract, this book discusses specific terms for the categories of teaching English through the arts...and narrative, such as the flashback or the intends "to help students make stimulating flash forward: analepsis and prolepsis. connections between English and some of They are inherent codes of narrative dis- the arts they know best--popular music, course and apply to all narratives (p. 40). film, photography, design, drawing and Also, for the notions of retrospective and painting, and drama. Following a brief repetitive modes in a narrative see the discussion of the theoretical and research- chapters on Order, Duration, and based support for their ideas, the book Frequency (pp. 33-160). presents 15 activities that focus on language, nine that focus on literature, and References five that focus on writing." Barthes, R. (1974).SIZ.(R. Miller, 3 Pierre Macherey (1978) observes Trans.) New York: Hill & Wang. that the movement of the novel is double: (Original work published 1970). "the mystery must be concealed before it is revealed. Until that crisis the secret must Brabourne,J., & Goodwin,R. press upon the mind or the heart of the (Producers), & Hamilton,G. hero, and the entire elaboration of the (Director).(1982). Evil Under the narrative consists in the description and the Sun. [Film]. organization of this delay" (p. 29). Bruss, E. (1977). The game of literature 4 May or Game theory has been and some literary games. New Literary evoked by a number of critics to explain History, 9, 153-72. the playful and game-like character of fiction. See Peter Hutchinson (1983), Davidson, E. H. (Ed.).(1956). Selected Games Authors Play, Methucn; R. writings of Edgar Allan Poe. Boston, Detweiler (1976), "Games and Play in MA: Houghton Mifflin. Modem American Fiction," Contemporary .1 75 Video in the Classroom 169

Detweiler, R. (1976). Games and play in Kokonis, M. (1991).Metafictional modern American fiction. Con- games: The play element in cinema and temporary Literature, 17(1), 44-62. the novel. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Aristotle University, Fehlman, R. H. (1987). Quoting films in Thessaloniki, Greece. English class. English Journal, 76(5), 8487. Lancien, T. (1988). Litterature et cinema: de la page a I' ecran (Literature and Genette, G. (1980). Narrative discourse. film: From page to screen). Francais- Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. dans-le Monde, 218, 63-66. (Original work published 1972). Macherey, P. (1978). A theory of literary Heibling, S. (1985).The Doll aker: A production. (Geoffrey Wall, Trans.) cross-media approach. xercise- London:Routledge & Keagan. xchan e, 31(1), 8-13. (Original work published 1966). Hutchinson, P.(1983). Ga es authors McGovern, J.(Ed.).(1983).Vi eo lay. London: Methuen. alications inn lish Ian ua e teachin. ELT Documents Series. Jehle, D. M. (January 1991). Medieval London: Pergamon Press (in romances: Perceval to Monty Python. association with The British Council). Florida: ERIC, Resourcesin Education. Porter, D. (1981). The pursuit of crime: Art and ideology in detective fiction. Kear, L. (October 1988). Teaching film New Haven: Yale University Press. studies:Theviewerresponse approach. Georgia: ERIC, Resources Rimmon-Kenan, S.(1983).Narrative in Education. fiction:Contemporary poetics. London: Methuen. Keller, R. D. (1985, October). Movies and literary elements. Paper presented Shuman, B. R., & Wolfe, D.(1990). at the annual meeting of the Idaho Teaching English through the arts: Council of the International Reading Theory and research into practice. Association, Rexbourg, ID. Urbana, IL: The National Council of Teachers of English.

17C A RHETORICAL APPROACH TONON-DISCURSIVE MESSAGES IN INFORMATION CAMPAIGNS by Kathleen Reid

Public information campaigns have issuesashealth,trafficsafety, informed and mobilized the American environmental concerns, and crime public for more than two centuries. Early prevention. efforts were developed primarily by strong, independent individuals who Dissemination of pertinent campaign persuaded their followers to particular information is most often through public actions, and by the nineteenth century, serviceadvertisements(PSAs). these individuals and their followers had Sponsorship of most PSAs emanate from developed significant strategies, including not-for-profit or governmental grass-rootsorganizing, legislative organizations. Theyreceivegratis testimony, use of mass communication, placement in both the broadcast and print and confrontation.Priority 'topics at that media.Because of this free media time centered upon reform, such as the placement, most do not receive the same abolition movement, women's suffrage, status in placement as do regular paid and temperance campaigns. The advertisements or commercials.In fact, popularity of contemporary American more appear only as space or time permit publicinformation campaigns has with a recently growing number of continued to thrive throughout this exceptions (ABC, 1986; Hanneman, century, but with a dominant shift toward Mc Ewen, & Coyne, 1973). O'Keefe and the role of the mass media in the Reid (1990) found that the public is fairly information dissemination process. Most attentive to PSAs, especially those over recently, publictommunication campaigns television and, for the most part, the have sought to inform, persuade, or audience have favorable reactions to them. motivate large audiences, usually for noncommercial benefits, with a specified Much of the developments of these time frame, by organized communication recent campaign efforts have been through efforts that involve extensive use of the the support and direction of social science. massmedia complementedby The primary contributions of the social interpersonal communication (Rogers & scientists have been in grounding the Storey, 1987). campaigns in theory, as well asin planning, conducting, and evaluating these As this suggests, public information effirts (Paisley, 1989). As this suggests, campaigns serve a primary role in much of the evaluation effort of public contemporary American society to promote campaigns has been upon audience more active citizen involvement in varying response; however, as works such as that dimensions of society. Specifically, when of Grunig and Grunig (1990) and Salmon the U.S. government seeks to influence its (1989) indicate, even the strongest social citizens, it uses the mass media to develop science effortsregarding campaign systematic social change.As such, strategies and development remain at best information campaigns become forms "of part art, part science. In light of this, a social intervention prompted by a recent move in evaluations of the determinationthatsomesituation campaigns has been to recognize a need represents a social problem meriting social for a careful examination not only of the action" (Salmon, 1989, p. 20).Today, audience, but also the content of both the these campaigns address such diverse verbal and visual messages found within Information Campaigns 171 information campaigns. proclaim: Nothing thatis human symbolization is alien to me" (p. 14). In this paper, the Mc Gruff "Take a Bite Out of Crime" public information Using the simplest definition, Foss campaign will be examined to provide and Radich (1980) indicate that visual students and practitioners who develop communication is within the scope of such campaigns with a methodology for rhetoric becauseitis a "conscious assessing the content of the visual production to evoke a response" (p. 47). messages they develop for theirvarying Burke (1964) adds credence to this view publics. Secondly, this paper seeks to by noting that when visual communication demonstrate what meaning and patterns captures our attention, we are as drawn can be derived fromthisspecific and involved in the communicative campaign. AsDondis(1974) relationship as that which "prevails acknowledges, viewers attempt to organize between a pitchman and a prospective visual materials. They seek to establish customer" (p. 106). visualpatternsthatresultin intersubjectivity between the creator and This perspective that parallels the receiver of the message. The strength of discursive and non-discursive is one that the organization of the visual elements will historically can be found with the study of determine the clarity of the messages. visual arts. Through the years, scholars such as Egbert (1944) in studies of A Rhetorical Perspective aesthetics and art history have emphasized that visual communication must be One otentially usefulers ective for understood in rhetorical terms. Gombrich analyzing the meaning and patterns behind (1960) takes this a step further by noting a form of visual communication isderived that good articulation is essential for good from rhetoric. Historically, rhetoric has communication no matter the form of the been confined to the study of discursive rhetoricalprocess:"Allhuman communication, but, recently, rhetorical communication is through symbols, criticism has been expanded to include through the medium of a language [he non-discursive elements. These non- includes the visual arts in his notion of discursive forms of communication are language] and the more articulate that deemed parallel to discourse in that they language the greater the chance for the engage our attention, transmit information, message to get through" (p. 385). and evoke responses from the audience in ways similar to discourse. Here the non- These and other theorists hold that discursive is defined as communication visual communicators use their techniques through visual forms such as videography, as a medium of rhetoric for expressing film, photography, and painting. ideas and experience just as verbal rhetoric functions to express the experiences of the That such human activity is within speaker (e.g., Arnheim, 1971; Kleinbauer, the purview of rhetorical criticism was 1971). suggested by the Committee on the Advancement and Refinement of Further evidence for the treatment of Rhetorical Criticism (Sharf, 1979), which visual forms as parallel to verbal oncs can reported that the rhetorical critic "studies be found in schools such as the Prague his subject in terms of its suasory potential Structuraliststhatreinforcethe or persuasive effect.So idcntified, phenomenological position that both verbal rhetorical criticism may be applied to any and visual rhetoric function as social human act, process, product, or artifact" artifacts in the communication process. (Sharf 1979,p. 21).Karlyn Kohrs This work examines how ihe relationship Campbell (1974) cchocd this sentiment by between creator of an artifact and thc asserting that "if criticism is to fulfill its interpreter function to form society. This function, the rhetoricalcritic must work, especially that of Lotman (1976)

178 172 Verbo-Visual Li teracy and Mukarovsky (1977), presents both PSAs to make the Crime Dog so verbal and visual communication as part of apparently symbolic and identifiable. An the communication process that constitutes examination of the content of the PSAs, our entire social system (Bailey, Matejka, both verbal and visual, will document the & Steiner, 1980; Lotman 1976; Lucid, themes, messages, and appeals that have 1944; Morawsky, 1974; Mukarovsky, been conveyed by the campaign since its 1977). inception. This analysis will reveal the content that audiences have been exposed BriefSummaryofMcGruff to, and how the PSAs establish for the Campaign audience a common viewpoint or world view that accounts for the role of the The McGruff "Take a Bite Out of individual and community in the fight Crime" campaign was conceived in 1979. against crime. The extent that identification It has been active with new PSAs and common world view are established developed for each of its fifteen phases. between the cartoon character and the Each phase emphasized specific aspects of audience determines the success of the crime and violence prevention for varying symbolic functions of McGruff. constituencies of the American public. From its inception, the overall campaign Methodology established three purposes: (a) To educate the public, (b) to convince citizens that The formal term for the method used they can help reduce crime, and (c) to offer here is cluster analysis (Burke, 1954, clear advice to take direct action for crime 1957). This is a qualitative method prevention. These purposes were based involving a structural analysis of the on the assumption and belief that crime discursive and non-discursive elements of prevention can increase substantially the thePSAs. Discursive elements quality of life for everyone. Furthermore, incorporate such elements as layout the basic premise of the campaign stressed design, sound effects, tone of voice, and that if crime prevention were to work, it visual elements. Visual elements include must originate within communities and be design components such as light, color, sparked and supported by educational and form, and setting. governmental systems. Cluster a-alysis notes that one key to As a Tesult of this philosophy, the systematizing le varying elements in this crime prevention campaign was centered PSAs lies in a examination of what around the cartoon figure, McGruff, the elements are presented and juxtaposcd detective dog who "takes a bite out of against one another.This requires an crime." McGruff functioned as a teacher examination of the basic structure of each who did not solve crime but taught people and what kind of meaning is developed by how to help themselves. Most often, he the viewer. These varying elements are was perceived to be totally trustworthy, assessed simultaneously. To establish never intimidating. He created intense meaning, cluster analysis examines the loyalty and believability, especially among structure of the PSAs to determine what children. As a result of audience targeting elements are associated with what other andconsistent dissemination, the elements.Cluster analysis asks, "What campaign has been deemed highly follows what?" and is concerned with the successful.In the process, McGruff, the examination of elements that are linked central figurc of most of the PSAs, has together by the producers of these PSAs. become one of thc most recognized and Cluster analysis establishes thc key ideas trusted public symbols of the 1980s. found in the PSAs and indicatcs the basic, clearly defined symbols along with the The high recognition of the McGruff connotative meanings of these symbols as figure raises the question of what kinds of theyareestablishedwithinthe images and themes are presented in the announcements themselves. 79 Information Campaigns 173

Cluster analysis consists of three these ads: real-life settings and situations, steps.The first is the selection of key clear action, and McGruff the Crime Dog. terms, or the importantelement used in the PSA. The key terms are selectedbecause Real-LifeSettingsand of their high frequency and/orhigh Situations. The real-life settings contain intensity of use. Frequency refers tohow visuals that emphasize the ordinary aspects often the term is repeated, andintensity of the individual's life.The rooms or refers to how significant the term appears neighborhood streets that are shown are to be in the announcement.Key terms in pleasant and orderly. Even the ordinary these PSAs refer to the words and tothe moving van used by the criminals in the design elements, such as color,form, "Gilstraps" (1981) ad implies how an value, line, and music. The second stepis ordinary settingcan unsuspectingly to identify what clustersaround, or what contain elements of crime.In the first ideas are associated with, each key term "Stop a Crime" (1980) announcements, each time it appears in a PSA. This is a the darkness of the traditional sitting room description of what elements are adjacenl in the home of an average middle-class to or in close radius to eachkey term. The citizen, is turned, literally as well as third step is the interpretation of the symbolically, to light with the arrival of clusters.In this step, each cluster is McGruff the Crime Dog. In "Mimi Marth" analyzed to determine what messages are (1981), suspicious actions occur in an included in the PSA. The interpretations everyday street and are halted by a typical of each clustei then are examined as a elderly woman who has been trained to wholetodetermineanoverall callthe police when she observes interpretation of the PSA or group of unsavory behavior. PSAs being examined. Action.Crime-prevention action, Mc Gruff Campaign Analysis such as this simple act presented in the "Mimi Marth" (1981) PSA, is a kcy Since Mc Gruff's inception in 1980, element in the home security/neighborhood PSAs have been developed that focus on watch series. The characteristics that varying themes.Three typical ones cluster around the actions in these public include (a) home security/neighborhood announcements tend to be primarily basic, watch, (b) crime prevention for a safer everyday activities, which can be followed community, and (c) children's drug abuse by any individual'. The print ad version of prevention. Each theme area includes a "Mimi Marth" (1981) emphasizes this. It is specific grouping of PSAs which will be a portrait of an average-lookingelderly discussed in turn below. woman phoning for help, a simple act preventing a major crime. The "Gilstraps" "Home Security/Neighborhood call the police in the televised PSA; again, Watch." Clusters and Interpretation a simple action to savetheir neighbor's home from being robbed.The print The home security/neighborhood version of this ad does not so clearly watch PSAs were distributed in 1980-81 indicate this.Only a small boy in the as the first of the McGruffseries. These middle-ground of the photograph messages appeared on televisionand intervenes in the burglary. He seems too radio, and in print in newspapers and small to assume this responsibility alone. magazines, and on billboards, transit In contrast, simple use of the telephone in cards, and posters. The messages were the video version empowers thc family so aimed at adults. The purpose of the ads that they are not acting alone but with a was to introduce and to encouragethe broader support system. Americanpopulationtoassume responsibility for protecting their homes, As these examples suggest, no and to join with neighbors in doing so. special courage, skill, or feat is required to There primary clusters are revealed in perform the actions advocated in this series io 174 Verbo-Visual Literacy of ads. These are not spectacular behaviors The purpose was to teach individuals to but are simple actions contained in protect not just their homes, but innocent everyday life, such as turning on lights, individuals when away from their homes. locking doors, using the telephone. And it They also advocated keeping streets free of is ordinary people who are performing crime, protection at the work sites, these routine tasks. prevention of vandaligm and arson. All df these stressed the role of crime prevention Mc Gruff. The items and ideas that in varying dimensions of community life. cluster around Mc Gruff the Crime Dog The PSAs were aimed predominantly at include his dissemination of information the adult audience. and community concern, along with his trench coat and security. Also included are Like the previous theme, the primary his presentation of positive, simple clusters of these ads were the settings, directions and his emphasis upon clear action, and McGruff the Crime Dog. individual responsibility for the prevention In addition, these ads emphasized varying of crime.This cartoon figure is the types of criminals and the citizens, detective who "takes a bite out of crime," a characterized by both empowerment and brief, but highly descriptive summary of vulnerability. the agenda for this campaign. His clear directives present him as a teacher, not so Setting. Once again, many of the much as a trench-coated sleuth and settings of the PSAs are ordinary everyday detective who is out to solve a specific elements. For example, the "Fred crime.In both the print and video ads, McGillicudy" print ad shows an easy Mc Gruff's trench-coated image makes him chair, dog, pipe, mounted fish, rug, a trusted investigator with solutions to slippers, and newspaper. These household problems about crime. His gentle features items are ordinary elements of everyday and his gravelly voice make him an life in America, and they represent the authority to be trusted and believed; he is safety and security of the traditional home. not intimidating, visually or verbally. These are transferred visually to the external environment by the placement of The clusters that appear in these ads these items literally on the street with street stress the significance of individual action light and "No Parking" sign. The visual in everyday circumstances and settings. statement is that the street is as safe and This suggests that the individual can play a secure as one's home. The result is a powerful role in the prevention of crime in sense of order and control over both the his or her life, home, and community. internaland external environments. Strength to the individual is imparted Similarly, the print ad for "The Philly through his or her actions which are based Story" depicts a common garden plant upon the recommendations of the crime- waiting to be planted, an ordinary plant prevention expert, Mc Gruff. and an ordinary task. It reflects thc simplicity of simple control over life. "Crime Prevention fora Safer Simple plant, simple action combats the Community."Clustersand confusion and darkness of crime which Interpretation results in a better community. The Crime Prevention for a Safer The settings for a number of PSAs in Community PSAs were distributed this category were night: "John Petross" throughout the ten years of the Mc Gruff (1982-83), "Most Criminals Prefer to Stay campaign, and constitute the most out of the Limelight" (1986), "He's pervasive of the campaign themes. They Moving to Your Neighborhood" (1989), appeared in print as early as 1981 and first and "Fred McGillicudy" (1989). Each appeared on television and radio in 1982. indicates the traditional symbol of New messages carrying this theme were darkness as depicting evil in our society. introduced each year from 1986 to 1991. With the darkness clusters concepts of 181 175 Information Campaigns helplessness and powerlessness, and, with MovingtoYour Neighborhood." thelight,clustersconceptsof Emphasis is on the criminal action, not on empowerment to overcome the evilforces the action of the citizen.In the print ad, as seen in the "JohnPetross" (1982-83) the photo catches the drama of a criminal frozen in the action of staking out an televised message. elderly woman who is walking alone. Action. Action here includes power Sitting in his automobile, he appears in through seeing and recognizing. "How to control of the situation as he sits, waiting Catch a Thief" (1981) teaches individual to pounce. The same problem appearsin responsibility by training the average the "To Fight Crime in Philly" PSA citizen to learn to look for and identify a presented in1989. In the televised thief.This print ad inits simple version, the action is transformation in presentation reflects the simplicity of just people'slivesasprideintheir seeing the suspicious, criminal activity and neighborhood returns and as they reclaim then reporting it to the police. A sccond the physical space in their neighborhood. print ad also emphasizes power through the act of recognition.You can gain What had once been vacant lots, power through your act ofrecognition. brokenwindows,andabandoned Having knowledgeisempowering. automobiles, now have been transformed Whether it is recognizing that arsonists are into gardens and well-lit, clean spaces. potential killers or recognizing a thief, as The print version emphasized the action of in the print ad "How to Catch a Thief," gardening with a modest plant waiting to you gain control by the actof recognizing be planted. The soil and a gardening tool them for what they are--"an arsonist is not seem to wait to be moved by theviewer of just an arsonist but potential killer" (1981 the ad. This print ad emphasizes a living print ad). plant growing in good soil, symbolic of a living human being, thriving in a safe While these print ads were direct and community.This contrasts with the informative, other print ads emphases in previous print ads which emphasized the the visual presentations were on the criminal action and the vulnerability of the criminal's action, not that of the citizen. elderly citizen. As a result, the visual's action in the print ads was fear created by the drama and McGruff. The clusters around the action of the criminal while the television McGruff figure contain the elements of a video stressed the action of the citizen. mentor likethoseinthe "Home For example in the John Petross print ad, Security/Neighborhood Watch" series the crook was shown beating down the described earlier.Clusters around the door. In the television version, the act of concept of credibility were added in this beating down the door was followed by theme. One of the clusters establishing John Petross' response and action of credibility is McGruff in the role of establishing a Neighborhood Watch celebrity, portrayed in the "Cavett" (1986- program. In just two years,this action 87) PSA. McGruff gains celebrity status was said to have causedcrime to drop and significance by association with the 55% and property values to double in that media figure Dick Cavett. Credibility is community. Yet the print ad did not stress establishednot only through this this in its visuals. It only painted a picture association,but by mimicking the of the negative action of the burglar. Only interview format, which is used to fear created the drama in the print ad, recognize important contributors to our while in thc televised version, action and culture. McGruff gains added credibility drama camc from John Petross' behavior through longevity in the anniversary in response to the violence. celebrations of the Crime Dog and his role in crime prevention of the last decade This emphasis on the negative and ("Anniversary: Working Together: This fear is repeated in the 1989 print ad, "He's is Your Life, 1990 televised PSA, etc.).

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Criminals. Thc early ads defined Vulnerability also shown in the 1988 the criminal specifically, such as in 1981 "Want to Cut Down Crime? Mind your thieves and arsonists were listed.The own Business"print ad. Here the ideas clustering around these print ads individuals are not faceless statistics or were criminals who are weasels, sneaky, casualties of crime, but real people with and potential killers.According to the realsignatures,photographs, and 1986 "Most Criminals Prefer to Stay out company logos on their employee of the Limelight" print ad, the words identification cards. These are not isolated clustering around the criminals are shady individuals, but real people who are part of characters who like the dark. The results a collective whole and who play a vital role are"feelingsof helplessness and in the function of the organization. In this resentment" ("To Fight Crime in Phi Ily," PSA, the employee identification cards are 1989). ordinary, everyday items that stand for real-life, vulnerable human beings. Citizens. The descriptions of citizensfoundinthisseriesof Vulnerability is also found in the announcements fall into two categories: (a) 1988 print ad to prevent vandalism. "All empowered, highly effective combatants dressed up with no place to go" describes of crime, and (b) vulnerable potential the couple set to attend their senior prom. victims. The ratio of PSAsthat Their formal dress contrasts with the empowered the individual versus depicting broken windows and graffiti of the stone human vulnerability is seven to five.At school building in the background. The points, this presented mixed messages, broken windows and lost dreams of the especially in the print ads.While the couple symbolize the brokenness and televised ads have the potential to vulnerability of human existence. Internal demonstrate both characteristics, i.e., a vulnerability js depicted not only in broken vulnerable victimtransformedto dreams, but also in human existence. For empowered combatant ("John Petross," example, failure to lock the car makes the 1982-83), the print ads depict one or the individual vulnerable to car theft through other. "How to Catch a Thief" (1981) and his or her own neglect ("You're Probably "Don't Let the Arsonist Get Away With Wondering Why Your Car Was Stolen," Murder" (1981) both empower the 1989 print ad). individual with knowledge. "Tucson Tip- Off" (1990) gives the individuals' names "Children's Drug Abuse and describes them as "sensitive, highly Prevention"Clusters and sophisticated surveillance equipment," Interpretation implying that these people are highly effective in the fight against crime. The children's drug abuse prevention PSAs were distributed in 1987-89. Four In contrast, others of the PSAs categories of PSAs relating to this theme stressed the vulnerability of being human. appeared on television and radio and in The 1989 "Most Criminals Prefer to Stay print.All four were aimed primarily at out of the Limelight" print ad depicts the children, with two of the four also geared neighborhood as not a safe place and for parents. The primary purpose of the indicates that the elderly woman walking announcements was to persuade children alone is vulnerable with no protection. As to say "no" to drugs and to alert parents to shc is watched by the thief in his the potential danger their children may be automobile,theelderly woman's in because of drug use and related vulnerability clearly supports the headline violence. The key elements of these that: "He's moving to your neighborhood messages were the setting, action, and because ofallitsadvantages: McGruff. unsupervised children, idle teenagers, the elderly alone, broken street lights, broken Setting.The settings in these wi ndows" (1989). PSAs are in two categories. The "Real 183 Information Campaigns 177

Situations" (1989, televised) series of Losers" (1987) ad is the emotive response announcements use real-life settings and to the music. In the "Masks" (1988), the situations to teach children to say no to children's action is again following the drugs. Most of these locations were in a emotive music, but also, by hiding behind school setting, outside the classroom, the fantasy world of masks, the children suggesting that drug use is a real problem may be able to carry out the action of "Just faced daily by children. The print ads in Saying No to Drugs." However, in the thisseries are non-threatening. The "Regina" (1988) PSA, the action shifts settings are simple: worried parents ("1 from Mc Gruff's plea to "Just Say No to out of 2 Teens in American Has Taken Drugs" to the singer's exaggerated style, Drugs," 1988) and telephone, writing pad, which stimulates the emotive experience of and binoculars ("Everything You Need to MTV for a younger audience. Close Down a Crackhouse," 1989). Clustered around these elements are Mc Gruff.In this series of ads, information about crime prevention and Mc Gruff has decreased in visual and drug abuse that is simple to read and verbal prominence in some of the print understand. versions. For example, in the "1 Out of 2 Teens in America Has Taken Drugs" Other settings in this series were not (1988) PSA, he has been relegated to a real-life settings or situations.For less significant position on the page and to example, in the print ad cartoon figures of a much smaller logo. In the others, he has children holding the Mc Gruff mask maintained his traditional role of teacher. ("Saying No Isn't Tough," 1988) are USW The primary difference now is that the instead of a photograph of real children. advice is much less specific. "Just say no" The "Winners Are Losers" ("Memphis," is a generic phrase that is much more 1987) televised spots juxtaposes an indoor nebulous and less easy to apply than item, a piano, in an outdoor setting of an simple acts, such as locking doors or open field. Children and adults follow the turning on lights. Mc Gruff seems to be sound of the music, reenacting the image closer to a light-hearted friend and of folklore of the Pied Piper.The musician. How well he functions as a "Masks" (1988) spot continues this theme mentor regarding crime prevention is as the children cluster around the piano difficult to assess. listening to Mc Gruff. The fantasy world can continue as the children hide behind Overall, this segment of the Mc Gruff their Mc Gruff masks. The setting of campaign begins to move away from "Regina" (1988) completes the move from everyday items and routine actions. While real-life settings and situations. Here the it is simple to "say no," an apparently clear set is composed of changing abstract directive, the problem is in the ambiguity images and a female singer dressed in a of the individual situations that a child contemporary, exaggerated style. faces. Thc situation may be as ambiguous as a cocked gun; it may or may not go off, Action.In the midst of routine just as a child may or may not have the actions and settings, school-aged children ability in that moment to say no. Overall, are interspersed with opportunities for the these messages move toward a fantasy children to use drugs. Each setting world of emotional and experiential presents the child with enough fortitude to settings. "Just say no" to drugs. The action is the act of saying "no" and walking away from Overall Interpretation of Primary the situation.Thc everyday routines Clusters in PSAs suggested how easy it was for students to participatcin druguse, and Overall, the PSAs arc visually simultaneously, how simple statements uncluttered and straightforward. The constitute action to effectively prevent drug verbal messages are presented in a concise abuse. The action in the "Winners Are conversational tone. A recurring idea 184 178 Verbo- Visual Literacy throughout many of the announcements is monitor their neighborhood. For the most a stamp of ownership--your door, your part, the criminals are presented as house, your child, your community. This opportunists--"all crime needsisa ownership establishes the individual's chance." They are looking for an easy identity and membership within the local way to invade the individual'shome or community.This identity within the attack a member of his or her family. For community is combined with personal the most part, they are persons who like action and responsibility to create a central the dark--"lights make burglars nervous." focus revealed through the primary themes They are persons who prefer uninhabited, ofthe major clusters--the settings, Lonely places and avoid communities and characters, and actions. homes that look "lived in." Setting.For the most part, the The major character of most of the clusters surrounding the settings present PSAs is Mc Gruff, the Crime Dog. the lifestyles with which traditional Wearing a detecdve's garb, this main American families can identify.The figure embodies two major concepts. The furnishings are comfortable and the first reflects the common understanding of decorations familiar. This familiarity also a dog as a person's "bestfriend" and creates a stamp of ownership.The "protector." He is fearless, courageous, lighting used in many of the settings and loyal. The dog's trench coat reminds switches from darkness to light.This the viewer of detectives who move from parallels visually the transition that can the world of light to the shadowy world of occur in communities as individuals follow crime seckng good for the community as the prescribed crime prevention behaviors he removes Lae potential for crime. Even so that their neighborhoods aredominated with such a Lii.:sion, Mc Gruff is always by light and goodness, not darkness and portrayed as being human. For example, crime. The light within the settings and in the "Stop a Crime" PSA (1980), the stamp of ownership, establishing the Mc Gruff's penchant for sweets and individual's or community's "territory" concern for gaining weight--"Fudge (e.g., "Mimi Marth," 1981), combined brownies! And me on a diet"--place a with the concepts of prevention so that the common personal concern against a overall settings are not those of fear, but broader, more threatening social concern those which remind individuals of their of crime.The result is a sense of control and power of the environment. identification between viewer and Mc Gruff. Characters. The characters presented in all the PSAs are defined The detective dog's roles are clearly clearly and consistently: The perpetrators defined as those of teacher and advisor, of crime who will destroy the viewer's or and Mc Gruff is the one who consistently 'stener's home, family,or community; provides important information about steps the mentor who is the detective-dog for protection behaviors. Mc Gruff is Mc Gruff; and the potential hero, the portrayed as a wise person who knows the average ,:itizen who is at risk.The ways of the world and who also advises perpetrators of crime are not always the audience in a gently chiding manner. shown in the PSAs, but they are always This authority figure has the characteristics alluded to. Whet shown in PSAs like the of an all-important mentor--one who "Gil straps" (198 ), they are portrayed as knows the answers, understands both normal workt.r r.toving furniture.In the sides, combats evil, and cares for those "John Petross Neighborhood Watch" PSA who he guides. (1982), they are portrayed in a more violent fashion. Thc violence is kept brief, The third group generally portrayed and the focus quickly shifts to the in the PSAs is the potential heroes. These cooperative action of members of the are the people who have within themthe community as they organize themselves to power to prevent crime. The potential

1 S 179 Information Campaigns heroes are portrayed as averagecitizens and instructions, the four categories of who are sometimes forgetful, "It's afunny actions work together to motivate citizens thing. A lot of people do that...they to pursue knowledge of crime prevention forget." The citizens live, for the most and enact them in their communities. part, in communities where they can trust, Primarily they function to raise awareness or learn to trust, theirneighbors and can of potential danger, the first category of have a common concern for clearing their action. They assert that by being aware of neighborhoods of crime. This is enacted potential crime, the individuals can begin through active neighborhood cooperation, to make changes that impact their society. not just passive acceptance of crime asthe Through specific actions, they can make accepted standard within the community. their families, homes, neighborhoods less susceptible to violence. Secondly, these In the PSAs, these citizens have the kinds of assumptions about the influence potential to act against crime if they believe of the individual encourage more positive in and follow the simple steps advocated attitudes toward the ability of citizens to be by McGruff. As they prevent crime in personally involved in the prevention of their own neighborhoods and lives, they crime.Thispositionstrengthens can become heroes. Thisgoal, to "take a individuals internally and empowers them bite out of crime," is a noble one that to act with confidence and hope. reflects the individuals' struggles to make their own communities better places to The third action entails specific live.The overall portrayal within the behaviors. A few of these simple, yet PSAs is that of a dominate mentor who effective actions, include "lock your provides sage advice for individuals. As a doors," "turn lights on and off," and result, they have the potential to control "don't use drugs." All behaviors presented what happens and improve the level of in the PSAs are clear and concise. In safety and security in their communities. addition, each PSA specifically encourages information-seeking action: "make it your Action.The clusters within the job to learn about crime prevention.. ." PSAs advocate four important categories and "write to. . .[address given]." of action:(a) increased awareness of crime prevention techniques; (b) changes These three actions culminate in in attitudes regarding crime prevention, community emphasis, the fourth category. personal involvement in and personal The announcements help create stronger responsibility for crime prevention; (c) community ties to protect the home and specific behaviors that can be implemented family. These may be addressed to prevent crime; and (d) creationof indirectly, as in the "Real Situations" stronger community ties to create healthier, (1989) PSA, or directly, as in "John crime-free neighborhoods. Petross, Neighborhood Watch" (1932- 83). The community involvement may be The recommendations regarding simple, such as asking a neighbor to "keep these categories of action are simple, an eye on your house" ("Stop aCrime," logical,easilyremember,and 1980), or more complex, suchas accomplished. For the most part, they are renovating old buildings and cleaning from an offensive position, except for the vacant lots ("McGruff Files, 1990). defensive behaviors portrayed in PSAs like "Mimi Marth" (1981) and "John The visual rhetoric of thc PSAs Petross"(1982-83). The underlying creates a world view that is simple and assumption is that if citizens will follow basic. The announcements show a rational the advised actions, they will gain control approach for organized actions in order to over their environments bypreventing slow down the creeping prevalence of crimes of convenience. crime within neighborhoods. This enhances self-responsibihty, a common Because of the clarity of information theme inthe idealism of America.

186 180 Verbo-Visual Literacy

Furthermore, the PSAs address a common audience beyond the realm of simply human desire to succeed. Success can be participating in the media process. Instead, achieved by following the advice provided the audience is encouraged to perform in theannouncements. These specificbehaviorswithin local recommended activities empower the neighborhoods. This shifts the relationship individual so that the average citizen can be between the sponsor and the audience the hero who successfully acts in his or from a potentially paternalistic one (i.e., her own territory, removing crime and one in which media experts and law replacing it with a safe haven for family enforcement agenciescarefora and friends. community) to one that is more fraternal (i.e., one in which community effort is The ideology of the Mc Gruff PSAs shared by media experts, law enforcement shape the audience, but how members of agencies, and local citizens). the audience selectively appropriate what they most want from the PSAs, i.e., how Conclusion the audience assumes the PSAs and interprets them, is more important. In this Overall, the McGruff "Take a Bite sense,the announcements become Out of Crime" PSAs appear as messages important resources of the populace. The to have communicated with their audiences most significant contribution of the PSAs in a fresh and Memorable way. The PSAs is that through them the audience can have met the first primary goal of reinterpret its history and reflect its own providing content to potentially increase social relationships. What becomes the awareness of crime prevention among important is how the individual interprets audience members. For example, the "Real his or her role in the community and Situations" (1989) allowed the audience to interprets the causes and methods of become aware of impending dangers to elimination of crime. children.PSAs like the introductory McGruff announcement in 1980 provided Simultaneously, creators of PSAs a basis for reinforcing existing behaviors, must always recognize that mass media such as locking doors and turning on ads serve not one audience, but several. lights.Motivation among viewers could Thesevarying constituencies are be encouraged by such PSAs as "John constantly adapting the mediated messages Petross" (1982-83). Here a member of thc to their specialized needs based upon the community actively fought against crime, individuals' interpretations of their own as he adapted and implemented a community histories and relationships. Neighborhood Watch program to meet his This will be reflected in how each local community needs. community enacts the recommended actions of the PSAs and assimilates the Specific aspects of the campaign that Crime Prevention programs to meet its would seem to aid in raising awareness, specific needs. Any changes, along with reinforcing existing behaviors, and the individuals' interpretations of their developing motivation among viewers roles in and histories of their communities, relied on two important elements: (a) will provide recommendations for changes emphasis on the individual and his or her in future crime-prevention campaigns. community and (b) audience identification with McGruff. The PSAs throughout all Intertwined with the recognition of fifteen phases of the campaign consistently the different constituencies isthe have emphasized the importance of thc understanding that the audience is an active individual by giving many of the messages participant in the mass communication personal tones such as You can help process. The Mc Gruff ads assume that the prevent crime.Your door, your house, audience is not passive; rathcr they yourchild,andyour community advocatepersonalactivitiesand established the viewer's sense of identity responsibilities.The PSAs push the with and ownership of their homes and

187 Information Campaigns 181 local communities. In the process, the In summary, this analysis provides viewers can gain a sense of identity with insight in the development of the campaign the creators of the crime prevention by outlining the varying visual and verbal messages. This identity can helpthem feel rhetoric found within the PSAs and how that "We--all levels of our society--are all they reinforce or detract from the overall in this together." Additionally, the PSAs goals for the McGruff effort. Specifically, have demonstrated an appreciation of the the interpretation reveals how the PSAs individual's concerns, fears, and problems may create public awareness; encourage regarding crime and crime prevention. public commitment to preventing crime Throughout most of the campaign, the d drug abuse, and building safe PSAs recognized viewers as competent -_ommunities; and motivate citizens to take individuals who wished to assume positive actions to strengthen social bonds responsibilityfor changing their and increase public pride intheir neighborhoods. community. The manifest content of the McGruff campaign aims to focus public In keeping with the concern for attention on the vital issues of crime developing crime prevention through prevention and mobilize the public to deal community efforts, the Mc Gruff campaign with those issues. Most of all, these has been based on the premise that as local announcements appeal to what is most neighborhoods build stronger ties, a new human in all of us, the desire to take care sense of community will emerge. In the of our own.This suggests that these process, it is intended that individuals will PSAs and their ensuing world views may feel they have some control over their be serving a ritual purpose as much an lives, as well as begin to care--about each informative one for the audience. other, about the neighborhood, about their schools, and other institutions.The References campaign reinforces that this sense of caring can serve as one of the best answers ABC. (1986a). Alcohol and drug-related to crime, suggesting that the solutions are public service announcements.New within the community and that by working York: Social Research Unit, ABC. together, individuals in the community can make a difference. Arnheim, R.(1971). Art and visual perception. Berkeley, CA: University The second important element has of California. been Mc Gruff. The Crime Dog was the central figure in the situational PSAs, and Bailey, R. W., Matejka, L., & Steiner, P. his personality created an important ethos ([19781 1980). The sign: Semiotics that was essential to the success of the around the world (reprint). Ann announcements. Over the years, he has Arbor: Slavic Publications. been described as "believable, credible, trusted," and he has been established as a Burke, K. (1954).Fact, inference, and "role model" with whom audience proof in the analysis of literary members could identify. He lighted the symbolism.In L. Bryson (Ed.), heavy, emotional topic of crime and crime Symbols and values: An initial study prevention.Hc reassured, encouraged, (pp. 283-306). New York: Harper & andsupportedindividualsand Brothers. communities.He was interesting and humorous, but at the same time always Burke, K. (1957). Philosophy of literary serious.But most of all, Mc Gruff was form (rev. ed.). New York: Vintage. always informative. Throughout, McGruff portrayed a sense of confidence as he Burke, K.(1964) On form.Hudson offered positive, simple information that Review, 17, 106. people could easily remember and steps that they could readily enact. Campbell, K. K. (1974). Criticism: 188 182 Verbo-Visual Li teracy

Ephemeral and enduring. Speech Morawsky, S. (1974). Inquiries into the Teacher, 23, 14. fundamentalsofaesthetics. Cambridge, MA:Massachusetts Dondis, D. (1974). A primer of visual Institute of Technology. literacy. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Mukarovsky, J.(1977).The word and Egbert, D. D. (1944). Foreign influences verbal art.J. Burbank & P. Steiner in American art.In D. F. Bowers (Eds.). New Haven: Yale University (Ed.), Foreign influences in American Press. Life: Essays and critical bibliographies (pp. 99-126). Princeton, NJ: Princeton O'Keefe, G. J.(1986). The "McGruff" University Press. national media campaign:Its public impact and future implications. In D. Foss, S. K., & Radich, A. J.(1980). Rosenbaum (Ed.), Community crime Theaestheticresponseto prevention: Does it work? Beverly nonrepresentational art: A suggested Hills, CA: Sage. model. Review of Research in Visual Arts Education, 12, 40-49. O'Keefe, G. J., & Reid, K. (1990). The uses and effects of service advertising. Gombrich, E. H.(1960). Art and In J. Grunig & L. Grunig (Eds.), illusion: A study in the psychology of Public Relations Research Annual, pictorial representation. New York: Vol. 2 (pp. 67-91).Hillsdale, NJ: Pantheon. Erlbaum. Grunig, L. A., & Grunig, J. E. (Eds.). Paisley, W. (1989). Public (1990). Public relations research communication campaigns: The annual (Vol.2). Hillsdale, NJ: American experience. In R. E. Rice & Erlbaum. C. K.Atkin(Eds.),Public communication campaigns (2nd. ed.), Hanneman, G. H., McEwen, W., & (pp. 15-38).Newbury Park, CA: Coyne, S.(1973).Public service Sage. advertising on television.Journal of Broadcasting, 17, 387-404. Rogers, E. M., & Storey, D.(1987). Communication campaigns.In C. Kleinbauer, W. E.(1971). Modern Berger & S.Chaffee(Eds.), perspectives in western art history. Handbook of communication science New York: Holt, Rinehart, & (pp. 817-846). Newbury Park, CA: Winston. Sage.

Lotman, Y.(1976).Analysis of the Salmon, C. T. (1989). Information poetic text.D. B. Johnson, (Ed.). campaigns: Managing the process of Ann Arbor: Ardis. social change.Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Lucid, D. P.(Ed.).(1977).Soviet semiotics. Baltimore, MD:John Sharf, B. F. (1979). Rhetorical analysis of Hopkins University Press. nonpublic discourse. Communication Quarterly, 21, 21-30. IMAGE MANIPULATION: THEN AND NOW by Ronald E.Sutton

Image Manipulation Then and Now the present day in the works of such artists examines the role of image trustworthiness as Jerry Uelsmann, Cindy Sherman, and in our 20th century society. The argument Nic Nicosea. The blending together in the is a simple one: Photographic imagery, studio and darkroom of images not found both still and motion, has always lied in actual scenes from life has been a (Goldsmith, 1991). The question in the regular feature of modern photography in age of digital cameras is whether the lies both art and advertising. can be detected. That is a difference--lying with a trace, and lying without a trace. Art Despite the weight of authenticity Curator William M. Ivins wrote "The 19th placed on them ("if it's a photograph, it century began by believing that what was must be true"), it is quite clear from reasonable was true, and it would end up observing the historical record that the by believing that what it saw photograph photographic record has been manipulated of was true" (Zelle & Sutton, 1991). At by those behind the camera or in the the close of the 20th century that belief darkroom. Alain Jaubert (1989), in this needs to be challenged. book "Making People Disappear:An Amazing Chronicle of Photographic The foundations of science, law, Deception," underscores howthis history, and anthropology are entwined manipulation of photographs for political with the "truth" of photography. As is propaganda reached its apex in the 20th pointed out in a number of scholarly century.In this excellent study Jaubert works (Barnouw, 1981; Jaubert, 1989; categorizes the favorite techniques of the Mast, 1984; Rosenblum, 1984), this is a photo manipulators: misplacedtrust. Theimagesof photography were manipulated almost Retouching from the moment of their discovery. The early technology of photography simply Using a brush and/or paint to remove could not accommodate the dark tones of an imperfection in the print and/or the land and the bright tones of the sky in negative. the same shot.This was solved in the darkroom by stripping two different Blocking photographs together.Sometimes the clouds or other details of the scene were Painting out figures or details from painted in on the print (Zelle & Sutton, the actual site of the photograph often to 1991). Also, what began as an attempt to idealize a figure or change a historical remove specks of dust, gelatin flakes, context. broken glass with paintbrush and paint soon gave way to erasing wrinkles, Cutouts/Collage/Montage blemishes, and ultimately unpopular people from historic photographs (Jaubert, Cutting out a figure from the 1989). background and placing it in a new setting or with a new group.Non-matching In thc hands of such photographers shadows often give this technique away. as Oscar G. Rejlander and Henry Peach Robinson, totally fabricated images wcre Recentering produced involving as many as twenty negatives (Zelle & Sutton, 1991).This Cropping or framing a picture in re- trend in photograph:c art has continued to photography or printing to exclude

190 184 Verbo-Visual Literacy unwanted figures or information at the choiceswith their forerunner,still sides and edges. photography. Perhaps they are even more illusionary for they evoke the sensation of Effacement watching motion, when in actuality they are merely the projection of successive still Slicing a figure or area out of the images. These occur rapidly enough so center of a picture, then joining the edges, that, thanks to the phenomenon of and retouching to smooth the seam or fill persistence of vision, the image of one in the blank. (Sometimes the blank is left picture blends with the next at a rate of to warn those who might challenge the some 24 frames a second to render a regime in power.) Difficult to do without convincing illusion of motion. leaving traces seen by the trained eye (Jaubert, 1989; Zelle & Sutton, 1991). From the beginning of motion pictures, special effects have also been This ca:«4e includes only those present to reshape the reality that we techniques that are used on an already watch. People appear and disappear by existing histoi ic photograph.It does not stopping and starting the camera; whole deal with the question of distortion that is towns and distant vistas are added to film built into the photographic choices used in via matte painting on glass; miniatures creating the photo in the first place. These made to scale, coupled with authentic include choices of: mechanicals, fool us into thinking that things are happening on screen that are subject, costume, make-up, impossible, from "King Kong"to "Jurassic Park" (Fielding, 1965). film stock, In the area of narrative fiction films thisis hardly a problem since few lens: wide angle, normal, questions of historicity are involved; telephoto, however, when we turntothe documentary film form, or educational angle: high, low, film, we come upon similar or parallel devices that are used to portray historic aperture/light, events. Many fiction film techniques such as reenactment to achieve matching action, shutter speed and shapes and directing, scripting, actors, etc., were used depth of field, in the documentary field up to roughly 1960, discarded for a decade or so, and type of shot, long, medium, now have found their way back into post close up, moderndocumentary production (Barnouw, 1981). framing of the subject. Traceable Fakery Many persons have a quite limited understanding of how these factors have Most of what has been discussed to shaped the historical photographic record this point can be identified by a trained and since the medium's invention in 1939. visually literate eye and mind. Books on the cinema (Cheshire, 1979; Giannetti, Motion Pictures 1987; Mast, 1984; Monaco, 1981) abound with information about how illusions are Similarly, since 1895, projected created in fiction film. The documentary motion pictures have shared with still field has also been revealed to the world photography the burden of appearing to be through scholarly work as well (Barnouw, an accurate record of actual events. 1993; Barsam, 1993; Ellis, 1989). However, they share all the above-listed 185 Image Manipulation

Even this quick overview (Zelle & them in three dimensions (Zelle Sutton, 1991) illustrates that eventhough & Sutton, 1991). the public may follow OliverWendell Holmes in viewing photography as a This started as a very high end "mirror with a memory" the publicneeds operation costing thousands of dollars and now to know thatthe mirror was always involving such names as Scitex, Hell, and cracked, the memory was faulty, selective, Crosfield. Now, it can all be done on and manipulated, a construct of whomever desk top personal computers, especially was holding the 'mirror.'The public Photoshop by Macintosh. needs to know this about the past, forthe present and future will demand even more The values to the entertainment, skepticism when it comes to trusting the advertising, and mass communication photographic image. industries are immeasurable in terms of efficiency, economy, and effect.Clearly Computerized Imagery there is much that is beneficial in this revolution that is still creating more With the advent of the computer and wonders for us to absorb each year. its related technologies the worldof photography has been revolutionized. But clearly there are dangers here as Whether reworking existing images, well.Some of these serious concerns creating new ones on program command, were addressed at a seminarsponsored by or capturing fresh imagesthrough a new The Annenberg Washington Program in breed of electronic cameras, there is little Communications Policy Studies of question that images have become even Northwestern University, held December more untrustworthy than ever. 10, 1991 in Washington, D.C.Don E. Tomlinson (1993) has created a significant This is all done through digitization. monograph entitled "Computer Manipula- This is a process in which the photograph tion and Creation of Images and Sounds: is scanned by machine and broken down Assessing the Impact" based on this into tiny picture elements called pixels. seminar. Each pixel is analyzed for information. (shape, rolor, brightness, etc.) and I quote at length from the Executive assigned a numerical code.Then the Summary of the seminar and monograph computer can make a number of changes because of the clear note of alarm it sounds before storing the final image on a and the probing questions it raises. magnetic disk: Technological changein mass retouch spots and scratches, communication is occurring so rapidly itis impossible to stay brighten or change color, completely abreast of even the most significant changes, much less their meanir g and possible ramifications. add new elements to the picture; Some of the changes may seem move or eliminateexisting evolutionary. Others, however, are material, revolutionary, such as the switch from analog to digital technology. extend backgrounds to fit page With the coming of the computer, the format, fill in new holes caused change simply was inevitable. by removals, This transition has two major and draw in shadows to make a interrelated facets. One has to do common light source, with the means of communication. The other, and perhaps more turn images in perspective or cast important, has to do with the content 192 186 Verbo-Visual Literacy

of what is to be communicated creators. Truthfulness and reliability may because digital technology makes enter into the equation but at a lower possible the easy, quick, and priority than many laypersons would undetectable manipulation of images realize. and sounds The task of the visual educator is to The potential effect on journalism is help leainers see these aspects, to help profound.How will our lives them to become visually literate.Being change when we can no longer trust skeptical about how images are created and the images and sounds provided to for what reasons they have been us by the news media? How will constructed should be a fundamental tenet our lives change when government of all modern curriculums in all fields, in and politicians and historians can all professions. manipulate the images and sounds we see and hear?. .. Some may quarrel with the term skepticism. That may not seem to be an The potential legal ramifications are appropriate element in helping the young also immense. Given the degree of understand their world. Should we make digital visual and aural manipulation young children skeptics from the start? that could occur, especially in the Can cynicism be far behind? I am afraid, news media, there are implications of for the time being, my answer is a the First Amendment.Copyright vigorous yes and the sooner the better. law as we know it today could prove Distinguished media scholar, Raymond to be wholly inadequate as a means Fielding (1987), who attended the of protecting ownership interests in Annenberg Seminar, puts the issue this images and sounds.Tort law way writing in "Newsfilm as a Scholarly implications arise in relation to libel, Resource: Opportunities and Hazards:" false light privacy invasion, product disparagement, and rightof The problem of editorial distortion publicity, among others. There will and misrepresentation is one with beconsiderablecontract-law which we have had to deal for many implications. Will images and years. However, a far more serious sounds continue to be admissible problemfacesusinour evidence once the product of technologically elegantfuture. recorded communication exists only Computer hardware and software inthedigital domain?. . . nowexistsfortheunlimited (Tomlinson, 1993) modification and digital retouching ofstillandmovingpicture The changes that Tomlinson outlines photographs and in a manner which are noteworthy and serious--an agenda for is undetectaule. educators of all types.However, what I have tried to point out, in the earlier pages It is the undetectable part that is of this paper (and in earlier publications chilling.This is related to the digital done with my colleague Ann Zelle) is that wizardry of the computer.In analog we should help people see that their faith copying and modifying the copy print in the simple veracity or trustworthiness of exhibits a generational loss from the image communication has always been original. In digital transfer no such loss is misplaced.In the terms of present day detectable.Here is the way Tomlinson analytical scholarship especially related to (1993) describes it: media literacy, it is important to assist all persons to understand that media images In digital videotape editing, there is are constructs.They are created for a absolutely no loss of quality from variety of reasons, one of which, in our generation to generation because the society, is to make money for their source signal is not being transferred

I .1t), Image Manipulation 187

to the resulting videotape, as is the Sounds Also Can Lie case with the analog technology. The resulting videotape, through the It is clear that sound reality is in digital process, receives binary every bit as much danger of modification computer information;itisa and invention as image reality. The same mathematical recreation, not a digital techniques can be used to alter, or transference. And since it is purely a sample or clip sound. While some sections mathematical process, the source of our society may care little when this image can be altered fundamentally remains a battle between record companies and undetectably before and/or over digitally sampling rap stars, the fact during the reproduction. (p. 10-11) that the President of the United States, or Yasser Arafat, and Yitzhak Rabin could be What this means is that there is no made to say something with their own original negative/print/tape against which voice which they actually never said is to compare the altered version. quite disturbing at this delicate point in the Middle East peace process. The possibilities for mischief, historical, political, legal, and cultural, are Reaction to Manipulation legion. Suddenly, a long hidden photograph showing Lee Harvey Oswald Moving to the area of application and meeting with Fidel Castro could become a implication itisinterestingand part of the historical record, lending encouraging to note the shock with which credence, if not proof, to that particularly news of digitilization of photographs is conspiracy theory about the Kennedy met when exposed to the public: assassination. Here is Tomlinson's (1993) well-chose scenario: TV Guide's gaffe in placing Oprah Winfrey's head on Ann The 1981 footage of the Reagan Margaret's body (Zelle & Sutton, assassination attempt, for example, 1991). might be amended as follows: T heNational Geographic's 1.afew representative frames rearrangement of the pyramids amended by the removal of the for its February 1982 cover other individuals from in front of (Becker,1991; Tomlinson, the President when he was shot; 1993; Zelle & Sutton, 1991).

2. additions ir those frames to The Time 1988 special issue on show what an unobstructed view the150thanniversary of of Reagan getting shot might photography that pledgedit have looked liked; and would never digitally manipulate a photograph, yet contained a 3.the computer then filling in what digitally manipulated image of the remaining frames would look Mary Decker on its cover and like given the human amending inside page (Tomlinson, 1993). already done. In both his writing and personal Once any such amendings were lectureandinterview,freelance completed, the human editor would -hotographer and journalism professor command the computer to review, Cony Kelly indicates that the profession is refine, and reform any frames that being hard-pressed to control the easy did not look photographically real. manipulation of images.When isit The entire process would take only a innocent--taking out the offending antenna few minutes. (pp. 12-13) that seems to spring from Mary Decker's

1 9 4 188 Verbo-Visual Literacy body, and when is it catastrophic--albeit Sony now has the ProMavica which amusing--when a picture of a swimming stands for Magnetic Video Camera. This pool was digitalized back to blue from red uses analog images not converted because the computer folks did not know it immediately to digital. This camera lists was to accompany a story in the Orange for $9,000 (Edwards, 1993). County Register about vandals dumping red dye in a local pool? (Becker, 1991; Kodak's DCS 100 and 200 digital Kelly, 1992). imaging camera uses a computer chip. Here is a consumer oriented blurb from Photojournalism at Risk Byte magazine (1993): Many fee! that photo journalistic The Kodak DCS 200ci shares a integrity and credibility may be at stake lineage with Kodak'soriginal (Tomlinson, 1993). electroniccamera,but some important advances distinguish it. If photographic reality were defined Its price comes in at under $10,000, by a consumer of photojournalism, yet it provides the same resolution the definition might be:the images and quality as its $25,000 stablemate presented accurately represent the in a smaller, consumer-oriented object of the photography as package. Pictures are stored on an recorded and subsequently internal hard drive and downloaded disseminated by mass communica- directly to a PC or a Mac. Operating tors. Because photographic reality in costs arevirtuallyeliminated: photojournalismtranslatesto There's no film to buy and no need credibility,itisanessential for a high-quality scanner. Results ingredientof any mainstream are almost instantaneous, and in an American journalistic enterprise. ecology-conscious world, there's no film or chemical wastes to worry Many scholars, including Tomlinson about. (1993),feelthat photo-journalistic credibility will be seriously challenged if An article by Howard Eglowstein not completely undermined by the new (1993) in this same edition of Byte gives digital revolution. an extensive test comparison of the Sony MVC 7000 and the above-mentioned One of the devices that may hasten Kodak DCS 200ci. They are both this decay is the electronic camera. evaluated as quick, efficient cameras that take instantly reviewable pictures without Electronic Cameras film but with lower resolution than film. Sony announced the Mavica in 1981. Tony Kelly (1993) explained that A working prototype was demonstrated they do not work well for full page glossy and Mr. Murita of Sony stated that this magazine work: "You can go up to three device would revolutionize photography column width but blowing them up (alwards, 1993; Becker, 1991). beyond that is a problem as to sharpness, resolution, and picture quality." Canon joined the field and developed its video still camera by 1986. It presently A final entry in this field is the Leaf markets this equipment actively (an ad for Digital Studio Camera. This is a camera the system was contained in the United back which attaches to conventional studio Airlines Flight Magazine I read on the way cameras such as Hasselblad, Sinar, to the Visual Literacy Symposium in Cambo, and Mamiya Rx-67 and fecds thc Delphi, Greece [Hemispheres,June images into a Mac computer. Developed 1993]), (Edwards, 1993). and connected to Scitex, Leaf is centered

3,r; Image Manipulation 189 intheBostonarea (Leaf, 1993; What is really needed is education of Schlowsky, 1992). the consumer in visual literacy and media literacy. Ray Fielding suggests some of This system is used primarily in those in the media might help with this studio work with advertising and I suspect vast educational task (Tomlinson, 1993): causes little problems due to thelow credibility rating of ad photography ...they should make some exciting historically. programs about the new technology itself so as to bring the audience into Conclusions the process; thereby making the. audience aware of the problems of What I have tried to argue is that the information communicator and of image manipulation is not something new. the historical communicator: In this It has been present since the birth of both way it is the audience who would in still and motion photography. The element the end decide what will be done that is tricky is the without a trace and the with this exciting new technology ease of accomplishment factors, bothof that has been made available to us which I have tried to highlight in my (Tomlinson, 1993, p. 57). presentation. We can use the media to teach about There is little question that there is a the media. We can use the media or let the need for broad, candid, and simple media use us. One of the tasks for thc information sharing, for education of the 21st century in the area of Visual Literacy most basic kind. There is also a need for istoteachpeople about Image more rigorous professional standards. Manipulation: Then and Now. Kelly (1991) speaks of this in the June 1991 edition of Editor and Publisher when References he quotes one of the protocols developed at the Poynter Seminar on Journalistic Barnouw, E.(1981).The magician and Ethics: the cinema. New York:Oxford University Press. Manipulation of (documentary and news) photographs, which alters the Barnouw, E.(1993). Documentary: A content or context, is unacceptable. history of the non-fiction film.New Electronic or manual methods should York: Oxford University Press. be used only to assure the highest reproductionqualityofthe Barsam, R. (1993). Non-fiction film: A photograph. Photo illustrations are criticalhistory (rv . ed.). conceptual images and should be Bloomington, IN: Indiana University (easily)distinguishable from Press. documentary photography. Becker, K. E.(1991) To control our Karin Becker's (1991) study of the image: Photojournalists and new pages of News Photographer, the official technology.Media, Culture, and monthly publication of the National Press Society.London, Newbury Park, & Photographers' Association, reflects the New Delhi. same concerns that the credibility of the press photograph be salvaged through Byte. (1993, January). 18(1). applied professional standards and guidelines.However, many feel this Cheshire, D. (1979). The book of movie simply will not work in a profession that, photography. New York: Alfred A. unlike Law and Medicine, is not a Knopf. profession with recognizable standards for cntry and ouster. Davis, D.(1985, June 3).Seeing isn't

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believing. Newsweek, 68-70. Kelly,T. (1992,November). Manipulating reality:From cave Edwards, E. (1993, July). Sony Office. images to digital voodoo.Lecture Telephone interview. given at The American University, Washington, DC. Ellis, .J.(1989). The documentary idea. Newark, NJ: Prentice Hall. Kelly, T. (1993, June 6). Telephone interview. Eglowstein,H. (1993,January). Photography by the numbers.Byte, Kelly, T. (1991, June 8).Manipulating 18(1), 241-244. reality. Editor and Publisher, 16-17. Fielding, R.(1987).Newsfilm as a Mast, G. (1984). A world of history of scholarly resource: Opportunities and photography.New York: Albeville hazards. lamhist, 7(1), 53. Press. Fielding, R.(1965).The techniques of Schlowsky, L. (1992, November). special effects cinematography. New Digital vision: The birth of a filmless York: Hastings. photography studio. Photo Electronic Imaging. Giannetti, L. (1987). Understanding movies (4th ed.). Newark, NJ: Tomlinson, D. E. (1993). Computer Prentice Hall. manipulation and creation of images and sounds: Assessing the impact. Goldsmith, A.(1991).Photos always The Annenberg Washington Program lied.Popular Photography, 98, 68- in Communications Policy Studies of 75. Northwestern University, Washington, DC. Jaubert, A.(1989).Making people disappear (English ed.). Washington, Zelle, A., & Sutton, R.(1991). Image DC: Pergaman-Brassey. manipulation: The Zelig phenomenon. Journal of Visual Literacy, I 1(1), 10- Kelly, T. (1993). Technology, interestare 37. forcing newspapers to be image- conscious. Chicago Journalist, 3(1) 1, 4, & 5. IN-SCHOOL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM AS A MEDIUM FOR MEDIA EDUCATION by YasuoTakakuwa

Review Educational Significance ofIn- School Communication System-- In Japan, economists were interested Pedagogical View in the instructional use of in-school communication systems (building-wide After the Second World War, PA system and CATV) after World War Japanese education turned to stressing on II. They began to discuss the educational children's autonomous study, for which virtues of it. Consequently, there has been the observations, study trips, experiments, a steady development in the number of surveys, and other activities in and out of hardware in schools.In spite of this campus were highly recommended as tendency, however, it is difficult to teaching methods. Using in-school evaluate the success and the extent of their communication systems was also among use in the educational purposes, though them. some pioneering schools launched the instructional utilization of these systems in On the other hand, using in-school their everyday practice. communication had its roots in school broadcast since before WW2 in the sense Even so, we need to review the of using receivers in the classrooms. whole picture of the use of in-school People thought, however, that the communication system to figure out the important nature of using in-school future development of media education in broadcast was a new way of autonomous this country. That is because in-school and active study for children. communication systems are quite useful when we intend to promote media The importance of in-school education in schools.It is a good communication system as an opportunity opportunity for children to learn how for children's autonomous and active various media work in society by study can be found in the following producing and disseminating their own points, they said: programs for other classes within the school. 1.. They need to find the topic they want to present to the audience. That is why this study was done. The problems and methods used are as 2. They have to collect and organize follows: the materials for the program. I. What is the significance of in- 3. Theymustdecidethe school communication system according to presentation format most suitable to the some theoretical literature? contcnt. 2. How is the accommodation with Secondly, administration of the in- the hardware inschools achieved, school communication system by children considered from the Ministry's survey? themselves can be seen as an effective way of developing their ability in cooperation 3. What is the present situation of and sociability.Main points are as the practices in elementary schools, by follows: observation of a questionnaire survey? 198 192 Verbo-Visual Literacy

I. Duringproductionand The supporting apparatus for in- dissemination of programs, they have to school communication system has grown take part in collecting materials, writing in number since the end of WW2. At the scenarios, various technical allotments and beginning, the Allied Forces put special announcements in order to pursue their effort on preparing schools with radio task cooperatively toward success. receivers to making use of school broadcast for their purpose of retraining of 2. In-school communication Japanese teachers. activities will be enriched by cooperation with local community and other schools. According to the survey administered by the Ministry of Education, Science, and Finally, in-school communication Culture since 1972 (1972, 1977, 1980, system can be seen as mass media within a and every three years thereafter), building- school. It is possible for children to wide PA systems were already installed in consider this as a chance to learn what almost every school as early as 1980, mass media is. Therefore, this is a place while CCTV has also grown very rapidly. for media education, because participation (See Table 1.) in production and dissemination makes children change their standpoint from Table 1. Diffusion of Rate of Apparatus listening-receiving to sending-creating. in Elementary Schools This shift of standpoint causes effective learning of media. PA CTR CCTVVCR V System cameta 1. Children canlearnvividly 7293.9% 54.2%10.5%16.7%12.9% through their own experiences how mass 7797.6 92.2 22.6 24.9 6.5 media works and how the information 8098.13 97.4031.49 53.7026.77 conveyed by mass media is formed by 8398.32 98.7443.60 80.0858.44 expressive and creative activity, and 8697.81 98.51 52.3291.1473.21 acquire the ability to perceive information 8998.24 97.49 59.22 96.11 80.67 accurately. 9298.59 97.47 63.0496.93 92.87 PA System: Building-wide PA system 2. T h c interchangeability of CTR: Cassette tape-recorder standpoints from receiving to creating and V camera: Video camera (Color), * including vice versa, and the close relationship B&W between the two gives them the chance to often discuss media and information with Moreover, tape recorders, VCRs, each other. This, again makes kids and video cameras have been growing in creators and active receivers at the same number, too. Video cameras, for example, time. experiencing upgrading in capability and model changes, reached to more than 90% As a matter of fact, the concept of in- in about 1990.It is easily seen that school communication system as one of Japanese schools are well-equipped with the opportunities for media education is enough hardware for making use of in- not yet widely understood. Even those school communication system. who are practicing in this way tend to develop only the technical ability in Present Situationof UsingIn- children. The only example of using in- School Communication System: A school communication system for media Survey educationisthc practiceat Seijo Elementary School in Tokyo which has We administered a questionnaire in kept its tradition since the late 1940s. January 1993 to disclose the present situationofusingin-school Growth of In-School Communica- communication system in elementary tion System in Elementary Schools schools in Japan. The results are shown 19!) In-School Communication 193 in Table 2. Concerned teachers feel the problems of in-school communication. They include Almost all schools are equipped with "mannerism makes kids dull towards it," audio and visual receiving apparatus.In- "teachers suffer from difficulty in sparing school communication practice is done their time to guiding children's activities" through these systems mostly during and "need for better apparatus."One recess between class periods. Programs teacher, however, stressed onthe consist of announcement and direction, necessity of considering how it would be music, signals, and other types mainly possible to develop children's appreciation proposed by teachers. However, some by abilitythroughusingin-school children are also included. communication system effectively.

In most schools local productions are Conclusion seen, half of them produced by the broadcast committee of the children's There exists a way of thinking where body. There are teacher's and children's in-school communication systemis groups for production and dissemination. considered as one of the media education In case of the children, the group is a part opportunities since its beginning in the of the pupils government. early postwar period, while quite a few schools have kept their progress ever since Efforts are placed on making in- in spite of the quantitative development of school communication system attractive to apparatus. Itis wident that some pupilsbyfamiliar programming, difficulties exist h pursuing practices programming for specific grades as creatively even at present. Nevertheless we targets, introducing attractive formats of can find some teachers, struggling towards presentation such asquizzes and making better use of the system for media interviews, and producing programs based education, who are aware of the upon questionnaires and requests. importance of it in the present social and educational circumstances.

Table2.Results of Questionnaire

% of in-school communication system use 100(nc20) % of audio receiving system use 100 % of visual receivineystem use 95 Contents of the Pro rams no=74 announcements and direction 17.6 story telling 16.2 music 13.5 news of the season 10.8 repeat of school broadcast programs 10.8 signals and signs 5.4 news topics 2.7 community report 2.7 drama ..2.7 teacher's speech 1.4 presentation of research results 1.4 opinion presentation 1.4 others 5.4 Sourcesof the Programs (no=34) broadcast programs 14.7 local production 55.9 prcwams on sale 29.4

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DisseminatinTime no=20 recess (before class, intermission, & after school) 95.0 class hours 5.0 Purpose of Dissemination (no=31) enrichment of instruction 32.3 opportunity of extracurricular activities 25.8 channel of infonnation offerings 41.9

Ways to Attract Pupils to In-School Communication pick up familiar topics programming by request and questionnaire specification of audience promoting children's activities variety of programs (quiz and interview) guiding mechanics operation utilizing school events Problems & Difficultin In-School Communication mannerism makes kids dull toward it teachers cannot afford time for guiding children guiding children to develop appreciation ability by production of programs tminiig of teachers for leaders consideration of suitable environment for autonomous management by children need for new equipment for better activities

, , ,,,:, (Ji BEST COPYAVAILABLE A HYPERMEDIA COMPUTER-AIDED PARASITOLOGY TUTORING SYSTEM by Georgios Theodoropoulos and Vassili Loumos Introduction no location restriction, and variety of presentations (Van Horn, 1991). The teaching of parasitology is a basic course to all life sciences curricula Various interactive computer-assisted and to date no computer-assisted tutoring tutoring systems have been developed in system has been developed for this the area of veterinary medicine (Angarano, purpose. By using Knowledge Pro®, an 1992; Eljack, 1992; Lalier & Beauchemin, object oriented software development tool, 1992; Kazacos, Roesel, & Harrington, a hypermedia tutoring system for teaching 1992). The operation of these systems is parasitology to college students was based on hypermedia technologies, while developed. the man machine communication is facilitated by a graphical user interface. Generally, a tutoring system contains a domain expert, a student model, a Hypermedia is an environment for pedagogical expert, and the user interface. handling text and graphic information In this project, particular emphasis was enabling the user to switch between given to the user interface design and the various topics in a non linear fashion by expert knowledge representation. following the paths defined by related ideas (Bielawski & Lewand, 1991). A The system allows access to the graphical user interface (GUI) makes educational material through hypermedia extended use of metaphors in a visual and indexing at the pace of the student. display in order to communicate graphical The hypermedia access is facilitated information (Laurel, 1990). through key words defined as hyper text and objects in pictures defined as hyper The teaching of parasitology is a areas. The indexing access is based on a basic course to all life sciences curricula list of parameters which refers to various but up to now no computer-assisted characteristics of the parasites, e.g., tutoring system has been developed for taxonomy, host, organ, etc.In addition, this purpose except a limited application of this indexing access can be used for testing Hypercard® for teaching parasite life the student's level of understanding. The cycles (Wharton, 1990). advantages of this system are its user friendliness, graphical interface, and its By using Knowledge Pro®, an ability to incorporate new educational object oriented software development tool, material in the area of parasitology. a hypermedia tutoring system for teaching parasitology to college students was Computer assisted instruction is a developed. This object oriented system recent development in the area of software can be u cd by the student not only as a engineering and refers to systems that can self-learning or auto-evaluation medi um, tutor humans. Their widespread use is but also as a reference tool by applying due to their advantages which are: Boolean search on indexed data. Boolean individualized and self-adjusted level of search is based on Boolean algebra material, remedial or accelerated process, (Lidsay & Norman, 1977), where key immediate feedback with explanations, words are used to establish a filter for consistency of teaching, updated material, search in text data.

20 -2 196 Verbo-Visual Literacy

Description of the Program arrangementallowstheinfinite incorporation of new educational material The program was developed by by fitting the new knowledge sets in the using Knowledge Pro®, an object oriented existing knowledge tree. software development tool and was dcsignedtomeet fourobjectives: Educational material in the form of Knowledge incorporation,tutoring, images is incorporated in the system as indexing of key words for Boolean search, compressed files created by a scanner and random generation of quiz questions (Hewlett Packard ScanJet IIc) using Aldus with instant scoring. Photo-Styler®. Image files are stored in BMP format (Rosenfeld & Kak, 1982) in Knowledge Incorporation order to be device independen:, that is their presentation will not be affected by the Educational material in the form of type of the monitor.These files and text is incorporated in the system as ASCII relevant text are linked to specific words in files. This material is divided in parts, thetext defined as hyper words. chapters, sub-chapters, and so on down to Activation of a hyper word leads to the the level of the parasite which is referred to presentation of the image and/or text linked hereasthe knowledge set. Each to it. knowledge set includes information on a given parasite arranged as a list of The educational material in the form parametersdescribing various of text and/or images with their relational characteristics of the parasite, e.g., hosts, linkages serve as the domain of the life cycle, pathogenesis, etc. The division system. of the educational material follows the taxonomic classification of the parasites, The Tutoring System e.g., phylum, subphylum. class, etc. (Kassai, Corder del Campillo, Euzeby, The tutoring system is addressed to Gaafar, Hiepe, & Himonas, 1988). students at the college level and contains a Therefore the knowledge of the system sophisticated graphical user interface consists of sets each of which has the which allows the student/user to access the same construction (parameters) regardless educational material in four different of the parasite. The knowledge sets are interactive modes. related with each other and these relationships correspond to the taxonomic The first mode is the Course Mode, classification of the parasites making an where the student/user requests from the inverse knowledge tree (Figure 1).This program to present the material in the

!PARASITES!

roilfothall -r !PARASITE 1! !PARASITE 21 1 r CHARACTERISTIC 1 text/image CHARACTERISTIC 2 text/image

CHARACTERISTIC n textlimage Figure1.Inverse Knowledge Tree Computer-Aided Tutoring System 197 hierarchical series of lectures given in the the correct answers. class during the semester. The quizzes along with the tutoring The second mode is the Review system supplement each other and Mode, where the student/user requests implement the student model. from the program to present a specific chapter from the whole material.

The third mode is the Reference IMPORT TEXT I Mode, where the student/user uses key words for Boolean searches in the entire material in order to locate specific IALPHABETTZEITEXT WORDS 4.4 information on a desired subject. SEND NEXT WORD FOR The fourth mode istheSelf- TESTING Evaluation Mode, where the student/user requests from the program a quiz on one ALL or more chapters in order to test his/her WORDS level of understanding of the material. TESTED

The above described tutoring system NO serves as the pedagogical expert. Indexing of Key Words Indexingofkey wordsis accomplished by using a program developed for this purpose which first alphabetizes all the words of the entire text material and then filters out common words (Figure 2). This process leads to ADD WORD TO the creation of an indexed key word COMMON WORDS database. This database is then used for FILE Boolean searches in the text material allowing the use of the system as a Figure 2.Key word/common word reference tool. identification and indexing Quiz Generation Sample Run Quizzes are generated randomly by The program starts by presenting the using a multiple-choice question and student-user with a window containing a answer database. Thisfeatis series of action buttons activating thc accomplished by using a program various interactive modes described above. developedforthis purpose which For each mode selected, a series of follow- randomly selects a set of questions from up windows are presented and lead the the database every time the student-user student-user through the educational wishes to evaluate him/her self. The material (Figure 3). At any point of thc student-user can select the quiz at the end program, the student-user can switch to of one or more chapters. For each quiz, a any other interactive mode. tcmporary database is created in order to keep the student's responses. Scoring of Conclusions the quiz is executed automatically by the program at the end of each session. Also, The easy accessibility and the new the program can present the questions with developments in hardware and software

2 0 4 198 Verbo-Visual Literacy

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ICoo. Moo. I Mafia Kari H onAttoC Onot modems lea lartall lcv rn; amok to Set0101100041C 0 Cysecercur ::11,thwe doiegenat mu; pig to, aLkii Num gat oto.4 cm 01.1.0 6prano to, ;mom moon:. Sat o4 zeptornootao t% 'no maw MOPGOAOTIA H saki 01 a.:C 22 wo TS "a CS oieottdC TIC fly. 2.1 a To wooc if* 10..1.41teq Ct 70 %ammo tiatottn ATM Wi 7'33 BIOA011X0I KYKAO ttode.i.Lov ot la woman* to, ono tat towat H arc auvecntk it aswonow tat ao couc Too,00tox ALS CBI In UWITI.,00r10; lev7.014.0 ,oClot,roa400not Iraniels, as Chtt a, owoot liar 005400 Figure 3.Seriesof follow-up windows

technologies make computers increasingly parasite identification (Theodoropoulos useful for various applications in the field 1988, 1989; Theodoropoulos & Loumos, of parasitologylike image analysis 1991, 1992), or tutoring (Wharton, 1990). (Kucera & Reznicky, 1991; Schall, 1989; Slomianny, 1990; Theodoropoulos & Generally, a tutoring system contains Theis, 1989, 1990), simulations (Barnes a domain expert, a student model, a & Dodson, 1990; Mount, Haile, Davey, & pedagogical expert, and the user interface Cookscy, 1991; Parry, Barratt, Jones, (Brown & Sleeman, 1982; Kearsley, McKee, & Murray, 1992; Plaisier, van 1987; Wegner, 1987).These concepts Oort, Remme, & Habbcma,1991), were used to develop an innovative

205 BEST COPY AVAILABLE Computer-Aided Tutoring System 199 computer-aided parasitology tutoring References system. Angarano, D. W. (1992, June). Use of The present program is based on computer assisted lessons to teach hypermedia andobjectoriented dermatology. Twelfth Veterinary technologies and serves as a parasitology Medical Education Symposium, Iowa tutoring system for college level students. State University, Ames, IA. The scope of this program covers all aspects of parasitology like hosts, life Barnes, E., H., & Dodson, R. J.(1990). cycle, pathogenesis, etc. The educational Populationdynamics of materialispresentedthrougha Trichostrongylus colubri formis in sophisticated GUI in the form of text sheep: Computer model to simulate and/or images. The main advantage of this grazing systems and the evolution of system is that it allows the student to anthelminthic resistance. International interact with the computer-tutor in his/her Journal for Parasitology, 20, 823-831. own pace for self-learning and auto- evaluation. Bielawski, L., & Lewand, R. (1991). Intelligent system design. New Yorlc The innovation of this system is its Wiley. reliance on object oriented structures between knowledge sets allowing Brown, J.S., & Sleeman, D. (1982). interactive learning for the student-users Intelligent tutoring systems.New and unlimited capacity for new knowledge York: Academic Press. incorporation. Eljack, A. H.(1992, June). The Another innovation of this system is ruminant stomach.A hypermedia its ability to present the material in various computer-based instructional program ways. The system can present series of using hyper-card-environment. lectures or specific topics for review. In Twelfth Veterinary Medical Education addition, the system can be used as a Symposium, Iowa State University, reference tool by presenting key words or Ames, IA. as a self-evaluation tool by generating quizzes with auto-scoring capacity. Kassai, T., Corder del Campillo, M., Euzeby, J., Gaafar, S., Hiepe, T., & A limitation of this program is its Himonas, C. A. (1 9 8 8). inability to support extended queries Standardized nomenclature of animal (SQL) due to its reliance on the built-in parasiticdiseases (SNOAPAD). facility of Knowledge Pro®. Veterinary Parasitology, 29, 299-326. A future improvement of this Kazacos, E. A., Roesel, 0.F., & program can be its integration with a Harrington, D. D. (1992, June). Use multimedia relational database for parasite of interactive videodisk programs in identification (Theodoropoulos & teaching pathology. Twelfth Loumos,1992)toserveasa VeterinaryMedicalEducation comprehensive expert parasitology Symposium, Iowa State University, system. Ames, IA. Hardware Requirements Kearsley, G. ( 1 98 7 ). Artificial intelligence and instruction: The use of the program requires the Applications and methods.Reading, availability of an IBM or compatible MA: Addison-Wesley. personal computer (80386, 2 Mbytes of RAM, VGA monitor and above) under Kucera, J., & Reznicky, M. (1991). MS-Windows 3-10. Differentiation of species of Eirneria

2 06 200 Verbo-Visual Literacy

from the fowl using a computerized Theodoropoulos, G. (1989). Computer- image-analysissystem. Fo lia assisted diagnosis of gastrointestinal Parasitologica, 38, 107-113. helminthsofdomesticand experimental animals. Computer Lalier, R., & Beauchemin, R.(1992, MethodsandPrograms in June). Multimedia for teaching Biomedicine, 30, 261-264. microbiology."Hyperlaboratoire et Hypermicrobiologie" Twelfth Theodoropoulos, G., & Loumos, V. VeterinaryMedicalEducation (1991). A compiled computer Symposium, Iowa State University, program for assisting the diagnosis of Ames, IA. gastrointestinal helminths of humans and animals. Computer Methods and Laurel, B.(1990).The art of human Programs in Biomedicine, 36, 237- computer interface. Reading, MA: 238. Addison-Wesley. Theodoropoulos, G., & Loumos, V. Lidsay, P., & Norman, D. A.(1977). (1992, November). A multimedia Human information processing. New relational database system for parasite York: Academic Press. identification. Acceptedfor publication in Computer Methods and Mount, G. A., Haile, D. G., Davey, R. Programs in Biomedicine. B., & Cooksey, L. M.(1991). Computer simulation of Boophilus Theodoropoulos, G., & Theis,J.H. cattle tick (Acari: Ixodidae) population (1989). Decrease of acid phosphatase dynamics. Journal of Medical activityinmurineperitoneal Entomology, 28, 223-240. macrophages infected with Leishmania donovani. International Journal for Parry, S., Barratt, M. E., Jones, S., Parasitology, 19, 813-816. McKee, S., & Murray, J. D. (1992). Modelling coccidial infection in Schall, J. J.(1989). The sex ratio of chickens: Emphasis on vaccination by Plasmodium gametocytes. in-feed delivery of oocysts. Journal of Parasitology, 98, 343-350. Theoretical Biology, 157, 407-425. Slomianny, C. (1990). Three-dimensional Plaisier, A. P., van Oort marssen, G. J., reconstruction of the feeding process Remme, J., & Habbema, J.D. of the malaria parasite. Blood Cells, (1991). The reproductive lifespan of 16, 369-370. Oncocerca volvulus in West African savanna. Acta Tropica, 48, 271-284. Van Horne, R. (1991). Advanced technology in education. Rosenfeld, A., & Kak, A. (1982). Brooks/Cole. Digital picture processing. Academic Press. Wegner, E. (1987).Artificial intelligence and tutoring systems. Los Altos, CA: Theodoropoulos, G.(1988). Computer Morgan Kaufmann. diagnosis of gastrointestinal helminths of domestic and experimental animals. Wharton, D. A.(1990).The use of Computer Methods and Programs in computer-aided learning for teaching Biomedicine, 26, 133-136. parasitelifecycles.International Journal for Parasitology, 20, 709-712. THREE-DIMENSIONAL MEDIA TECHNOLOGIES: POTENTIALS FOR STUDY IN VISUAL LITERACY by Hal Thwaites

Abstract Figure 1. The three dimensional representation of recuuyhassuffered from chronic misconceptions over the years. Presently, there is a wealth of renewed research in 3D being undertaken on a global scale. This paper presents a brief overview of three- dimensional media technologies (3Dmt) such as holography, 3D film, 3D video/TV, virtual realities, and computer imaging. Future issues and concerns Figure 1.Convergence of Media conclude the discussion. It is at the intersections that many Introduction new forms of media are developing. This merging is shaking things up (Leebaert, Our fascination with attempts to 1991). Many of the new 3D media create the third dimension is nothing new, technologies are the direct result of these extending from the time of early new interactions. The computer is now an stereoscopes, into the realm of virtual integral part of both the creation and realities.The notion of 3D has always 'display of stereoscopic images and spatial given reference to more realness,as sound, which was unheard of on the human perception functions in a 3D mode. present scale and sophistication, a decade Today we seek to heighten our mediated earlier. experiences with continued efforts toward perfecting spatial imaging systems. 3D is Impediments to which we have the buzz-word of the 1990's even though resigned ourselves are being smoothed, not all of the '3D' is factually stereoscopic and altogether new products and media are in nature. 3D computer graphics abound becoming possible. The way to figure out on television. 3D modeling is applied in what needs to be done is through many technical and scientific fields, 3D exploring the human sensory and cognitive concepts are used in spatial environment system and the ways that humans most design, while 3D medical imaging presents naturally interact (Brand, 1987). a more real look inside the body. The concept of 3D has even been extended to Three-dimensional media encompass the theory of human memory technologies (3Dmt) have always (Pribram, 1991). 3D as a mode of human presented a challenge to researchers in thinking, is indeed becoming ubiquitous. theiracceptance and widespread application as mass media. Throughout Current media their evolution they have been applied in situations where we seek to create a more In this last decade of the twentieth accurate representation of: reality, whereby century, new media are evolving from a 3D adds critical information to actual joint metamorphosis resulting from the images;meta-reality, where 3D merging of computing, communications, technologies make visible phenomena or and imaging technologies, exemplified by experiences which arc beyond what we 202 Verbo-Visual Literacy can naturally perceive; and more recently which was co-produced by the Imax in virtualreality, involving the creation of Corporation of Canada and Fujitsu of totally artificial environments which might Japan for the Osaka, EXPO'90 exhibition. not physically exist or exist only in our imaginations. Thirty-one thousand high resolution computer images (right-eye and left-eye Computer Imaging views) were created using Fujitsu's supercomputers over the period of twenty- Computer graphics (CG)are one months, in order to produce the ten particularly well suited to the creation of minutes of stereoscopic CG frames 3D images due to the high resolution and incorporated in the twenty minute Imax programmable nature of the current film. Echoes was the world's first IMAX displays. There are several proprietary 3D SOLIDOTM full color 3D wrap-around CG systems available in both the United motion picture which is projected on a States and Japan. Alternating frame spherical screen, totally eliminating the technology is most often employed to cut-off effect of the frame. The film shows present the vibwer with the appropriate how the process of photosynthesis (right and left eye), stereoscopic images converts the sun's energy into the energy which are then viewed with LC (Liquid stored in plants and then how this energy Crystal) shutter glasses, such as the is used by humans for motion of muscles. systems made by Tektronix and the This film also played to capacity audiences Stereographics Corporation (Robinson, at EXPO'92 in Seville, Spain (Naimark, 1990). A flat panel back-lit LC display, 1992), and is on permanent exhibit at the usingalenticularscreen for Futuroscope Complex in La Villette, autostereoscopic (glassless) viewing, has France in addition to a new SOLIDOTM beendevelopedbyDimension theatre recently built outside Tokyo, Technologies Inc. of New York.This Japan. system is full-colour, and can be interfaced with common PCs (Eichenlaub & Television and Video Martens, 1990). Applications of 3D in the CG field include the following: satellite Significant researchhas been mapping and cartography, CAD, medical undertaken in both conventional NTSC displays of CT and MRI images, scientific television and video display technology visualization, weather analysis, interactive and in specialized applications (Smith, modeling, simulation and the military 1989). Japanese researchers are working (Lipton, 1988). towards 3D TV systems which may ultimately find way into our homes. Computer graphics have also been Toshiba has marketed a consumer 3-D used in film making, where the images are Camcorder, using LC shutter glasses and a screened via conventional polarized conventional NTSC television monitor. projection techniques, after the initial The system provides an acceptable 3DTV creation of left-right views in a digital image, (with some flicker due to the low form.An example of the commercial framerate),forcertain consumer application of 3D computer graphics is the entertainment applications. Other NTSC award winning stereoscopic, animated video systems which operate at a higher shortfilmentitled "Knickknack" frame rate, to eliminate the image flicker, (Alspektor, 1989), produced by Pixar of have been applied in the medical and San Rafael, California. scientific fields. Even more important for the Research into autostereoscopic or advancement of 3D computer animation glassless 3DTV is being carried out on an was the overwhelming success of the new international scale (Hamasaki, 1990) 70mm. lmax format computer generated including work at the Institute of Industrial SOLIDOTM 3D film, "Echoes of the Sun," Science at the University of Tokyo, using 4 0 Three-Dimensional Media 203 the Braun tube technology and at the medium of the late 20th century. For Heinrich-Hertz Institute in Berlin using details and characteristics of the current 3D projection methods. NHK television in television systems, refer to Figure 2. Japan has made important steps toward autostereoscopic TV with the exhibition of Holography a 70-inch LC display at the recent NHK Science and Technical Research Labs 1993 Spatial imaging using the medium of Open House in Tokyo. The key holography hashadwidespread technologies supporting this stereoscopic recognition with the proliferation of display are 3D HDTV cameras, 1-11YIN holograms in our daily lives. However it laser videodisc players, high performance still remains much of a mystery to the HDTV liquid crystal (LCD) video general public. As a result of the work projectors with resolution totaling nine carried out at the MIT Media Lab, under million pixels, and a large size lenticular the direction of Dr. Stephen Benton, screen, for glassless viewing.This 3D holograms have progressed to encompass Hi-Vision display system has widespread full color, large scale size, and totally application in the fields of home 3D synthetic generation via the computer. HDTV, art museums, entertainment, medicine, education, robotics, and virtual Recent advances have been made in environment systems. real-time computer generated holography. Although the images are small, they are The HDTV'90 Colloquium in bright, have high resolution and exhibit all Ottawa, Canada, was the site for the North of the depth cues found in holography American premiere ofthe NHK (Hilaire, Benton, et al., 1990). These are stereoscopic Hi-Vision 3DTV system. the first steps towards what could be called This system uses a conventional polarized holographic video. We are still many years projection technique. The viewer wears away from having floating 3D images high quality polarizing glasses to view a beamed into our homes. Current projected image on a screen up to two applications of holographic imaging hundred diagonal inches in size (Yuyama, include large format displays, full colour 1991). The images are extremely stable, holograms, motion stereograms, medical flicker-free, bright and of high resolution, images from MRI data, satellite survey providing an excellent viewing experience data, and many others, ranging from for the audience, with none of the side entertainment to advertising. effects which were the typical complaints of older 3D video projection technologies. The human impact of holography lies Current programs range from recorded art in the fact that the image is perceptually treasures,travel scenes, underwater attached to the viewer's eyes.It demands sequences, medical images to complete a high level of involvement and interaction works of fiction for entertainment. since the virtual information space exists in the mind of the viewer (Malik & Thwaites, The rock group, The Rolling Stones 1990). This medium has a radically used the PullTimelm 3D technique (based different means of communication from on the Pulfrich effect, viewable with or 3D media presented on a flat surface. without the special glasses), designed by Here the existence of the screen or frame Gerald Marks of New York City, to create effect is removed and the absence of 3D effects for three of the songs in their spatial cues (except those presented within 1990 Steel Wheels concert video which the holographed object) cause the strongest was broadcast widely on cable music information impact on the viewer. channels throughout North America. Holography is governed more by the laws Altogether these developments represent a of scenography (the spatial organization concerted effort to bring three dimensional and orchestration of an event or medium), television to the largest possible audience, (Polieri, 1971), within the realization of since TV is the most pervasive mass the full 28 axis of a Necker Cube (sec

210 104 Verbo-Visual Literacy

4. These Dllmenellonag Tegovilallon SySg Srfit

System Key Eyeglass Viewable Delivery Comments Principle -Tech. Type Without System

Spatial Color- Red/green No TVbroadcast, Color not always Technology discriminatory anaglyphic videocassette natural, images anaglyphic lose sharpness

Color- Dark purple/ TV broadcast. Yes Needs motion within Nuoptix discriminatory pale green videocassetteimage for 3D effect. anaglyphic with lenses Halo around images Pu arch Effect seen without glasses.

Pull Time 3-0 Pulfnch Effect Clear/Dark Yes TV broadcast.Needs motion within lenses videocassetteimage for 30 effect.

3-0 TV Polarized plane Polanzed & No TV broadcast.Good colors. (Toshiba, etc.) discnminatory synchronized videocassette,excellent spatial LCD videodisc effects, marred by dimness & flicker

Vision Il Parallax & time None Yes TV broadcast, Very good texture. discnminatory. videocassette, depth enhancement, autostereoscopic videodisc, film full color.

Braun Tubs Autostereoscopic None Yes Closed circuit, Bright images. (Hamasaki Lab) Lenticular sheet real-time presently only monochromatic

3D Projection Autostereoscopc None Yes Closed circuit. Bright. wide-angle (Heinnch-Hertz Inst.) Lenticular screen, real-time motion parallax, projection monochromatic

30 Plasma Autostereoscopic None Yes Closed circuit Glassless. flat pane (Flat Panel) Lenticular screen monochromatic (NHK) plasma display

70" 3D HDTV Autostereosoopic Noce Yes TV broadcast, No glasses, (NHK & Sanyo) LCD, projection videocassette, large screen, lenticular screen videodisc full color, hi-resolution

180" High Definition 2 channel. INC TV broadcast. High-definition 3D Hi-Vision polarized, polarized videocassette, bright, wide-screen (NI-1K) video Projection plane videodisc digital sound discnminatory

Figure 2.Overview of3D television systems

Figure 3). Since the viewer is not rigidly the Paris International Exhibition of 1890. seated in a precise position, and is able to After experiencing two brief periods of a move through the holographic space, 3D film boom, the first in 1953 and the many of the spatial cues laboriously second in 1982, we find that today's 3D created on a 2D flat screen are not movies are far from conventional media necessary, since theviewer now experiences. Widespread public exposure experiences them in a spatial, hodologic to high-quality 3D films can be found in fashion. the Disney theme parks with films such as "Magic Journeys" and "Captain EO," and Film/Cinema at many other special venues and all recent international expositions. Three dimensional film technology has been in use for over one hundred Science North, outside of Sudbury years, extending from the first screening at Ontario, opened a 3-D 70mm film and Three-Dimensional MediaTechnologies 205 laser adventure entitled "Shooting Star" in importance allowing virtual realities to the summer of1990.Thisfilm become the 3D environment of the incorporates special in-theatre laser effects user/audience through which they can which arc synchronized with the 3-D film perform their own acts of creative scenes to create a totally unique viewing experience. experience. The theatreisspecially constructed to maximize the audio-visual Current systems being used for the experience for the audience. The story is creation of virtual realities consist of:a written around an ancient Indian legend wide-angle stereoscopic display unit which blends the high-tech 3-D imagery (LCD), glove-like devices for multiple into a mystical and involving tale. degrees-of-freedom tactile input, speech recognition technology, gesture tracking The Imax Corporation of Canada has devices, 3D auditory display and speech- been the world leader in ultra-large screen, synthesis technology, computer graphic 3D productions using IMAX 3D and the and video image generation equipment. new SOLIDO 3D system, which uses the When combined w magnetic head and domed screen (Naimark, 1992). These limb position tracking technology, the films are evidence of the meta-reality head-coupled display presents visual and aspect of 3D. Todays' 3D film experience auditory imagerythatappearsto takes us far beyond the reality of our completely surround the user in 3-space physical world, to totally new experiences (Fisher, 1990). through the use of the third dimension. There are currently four new 3D IMAX Even at this early stage, virtual films in production. It is certain that 3D realities are touching the realm of the very film technology in its many forms will private mindspace of the user, rendering continue to be a prominent form of mass the VR medium a welcome change from entertainment well into the next century. the information overload of today's mass communicationmedia.Computer NECKER CUBE technologies, combinedwiththe development of sophisticated software II. Orthogonal. programs and expert systems, gave early attempts to create virtual realities the insatiable breadth and depth of the human mind's fantasy. Now it is possible to realize 3D virtual realities outside the human brain as a non-separable and inclusive world that is entered and crossed III. Diagonalsint.nor IV. Diagonals( 2-"1 iterior Interior at the pace of the user, being co-created by them. A Biocybernetic Viewpoint on 3D Media Our research at the 3Dmt Center in Figure 3.Necker Cube Montreal has centered on a systemic approachto 3-D media,froma Virtual Reality/Simulation biocybernetic viewpoint. The field of biocybernetics is concerned with how the By the end of the 1980s virtual human sensory system respords to and reality was understood to be a surrogate or processes information, and the resulting metaphysical environment created by impact it has on us. Our main focus has communications and computing systems been with the individual, either observing (Wright,1990).Interactivityin or creating the three dimensional media communication media began to rise in program. This is an area of an information

2 I 206 Verbo- Visual Literacy process or information chain. By the term application of informationdesign information,I mean an energetic change methodologies to three dimensional media with a catalytic characteristic, which productionpractices; ande)the produces an impact on the viewer development of common standards and (Thwaites & Malik,1987). The methodologies for future international information chain in its simplest scheme, exchange of R&D in three dimensional has three parts as described in Figure 4. media technologies.

Information Transmission Responding Source--"'" Conditions Receiver/s The implications for the study of 3DTV. film room. cinema individual. visual literacy are to make the transition bantam. VR theater. exhibit group. audiences from conventional 2D visual images, into the realm of stereoscopic, true spatial Figure 4. imaging applications, whereby 3-space is Information Chain Scheme real and not merely represented or implied through traditional techniques. Each part of the 3D media event (the program itself, the room and means by There is a substantial difference which it is perceived, and the person(s) between technological, psychophysio- perceiving it), can contain parts of the final logical and semantic (content related) information. If any part of the information factors which are responsible for the chain is altered, the information itself is creation of 3D media technologies, changed. The incoming information acts artpieces or programs, and the factors as a catalyst to other mental processes which are responsible for the creation ofa which occur due to the processing and 3D media response (information impact) in storage of information in the viewer's the viewer. What sometimes amountsto a brain and can thus affect the overall small, or negligible cue from the point of impact. As 3D media become more view of the author (for example the sophisticated and interactive, respect for cinematographer, holographer), may be the information chain and information the paramount reason which causesa high, design of the software/hardware interfaces low, or even non-existent 3D information will be of utmost importance to their impact for the people, the receivers, who success (Malik & Thwaites, 1990). The are perceiving it. Therefore, the scale and increased time and budgetary constraints importance of the 3D cues from the that are often placed on 3D media projects viewpoint of the artist, producer,or leave little room for costly experiments and viewer, and the technological requirements wastedresources.Protocols and of each 3D medium,may result in a methodologies for information designare different hierarchyentirely.This included in the publication listed by the necessitates an information design author (Thwaites & Malik, 1987). approachwhenemploying 3D technologies in the production of media 3Dmt Outlook artworks. From a research standpoint, the An entirely new generation of author can identify the followingconcerns visually literateusers/receiversis for the future: a) The implementation of 3D beginning to emerge. Themore widely technologies and production practices in spread 3D media technologies become, the the media of film, television, computers, more exposure the general public will have virtual realities, sound, and dataspace to them (refer to Figure 5). Only through (numericalimaging of spacefor the exploration of the information impact researchers working predominantly with of true spatial imaging,can we, as numbers); b) research into spatial impact: concerned visual media researchers,be history,basics,biomctryand able to develop strategies to educate future biocybernetics, c) measurement of 3D media professionals. space inthc human mind; d)the 2 1 3 Three-Dimensional MediaTechnologies 207

etoMed lik Agog 110Mellane

Communication Packaged Presentations & Visual Digital Data T C Broadcasting Programs E xhibitions Databases Processing

Mass & Specific Mass Audience Mass & Specific Specific & Public Specialized Users R Audiences Audience/Users Users

Home-Theater Video Games Flight Simulation Gallery CAD/CAM & Sports Events Videodiscs Virtual Realities Museum Architecture Collections Is Still Pictures Electronic Public Displays Auto Design Cinema Catalogues Computer Education Satellite Graphics Movies International data imaging Environmental Treasures Multi-vision Images Medical Imaging

Advertising ,

Figure 5: Potential and current applications of 3D media technologies (IS=Information Source, TC=Transmission Conditions, R=Receiver)

Conclusion References As 3D media become more pervasive Alspektor, R. (1989,October). in society, and the fixed perceptual RenderMan. Breathes lifeinto stereotypes of the general public weaken, modeling. Microcad News, 14-18. the role of the 3D information designer will become one of increasing importance Brand, S.(1987). The media lab. New as we shift toward the media of the next York: Viking Press. decade. Perhaps in the distant future, someone will look back on the history of Eichenlaub, J., & Martens, A. (1990, the twentieth century and find, like the May). Stereo display without glasses. fourteenth,thatit marked a great Advanced Imaging. transition. We now sit on the cusp between the old and new media. Maybe it Fisher,S. S. (1990).Virtual ushers in a period of a 3D media environments, personal simulation and renaissance. telepresence.In H. Thwaites (Ed), Three dimensional media technology. Acknowledgments Montreal, Canada: 3Dmt Center. The author would like to express his Gainsborough, J. (1990, July). Letter thanks to Dr. NiKOS Metallinos, Chair of from Japan. Image Technology, 244- the IVLA'93 for his kind invitation to 249. participate in this Symposium. Ialso express my thanks to all researchers in Hamasaki, J. (1990). 3D imaging and three-dimensional mediafortheir television, state of the art in Japan. contributions to the advancement of this Journal of 3D Images, 4(4). rapidly developing field. For further information on companies or systems or Hilaire, P., Benton, S., et al. (1990). for updates to information in this paper, Electronicdisplaysystemfor please contact the author. computational holography. SP1E, 1212(20).

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Leebaert, D. (1991). Media 2001: The figural processing.Hillsdale, NJ: futureofcomputingand Lawrence Erlbaum. communications. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Robinson, P. (1990, June). Stereo 3D. Computer Graphics World, 68-74. Lipton, L. (1988, March). Displays gain depth. Computer Graphics World. Smith, C. W. (1989, Junc). The present status of 3-D processes. Image Malik, M., & Thwaites, H. (1990). A Technology, 224-227. biocybernetic viewofspatial information impact.In H. Thwaites Thwaites, H., & Malik, M. (1987). (Ed),Three dimensional media Biocyberne tic communication technology (pp. 75-88).Montreal, research. Montreal, Canada: Canada: 3Dmt Research Center. Concordia University Printing. Naimark, M. (1992). Expo'92 Seville. Wright, K. (1990). The road to the global Presence, 1(3), 364-369. Cambridge, village. Scientific American, 262(3), MA: MIT Press. 83-94. Polieri,J.(1971).Scénographie, Yuyama,I.(1991). 3-D HDTV. sémiographie. Paris: Denoel/Gonthier. Proceedings of the international joins session of ITEC'91 and 3Dmt research Pribram, K.H.(1991).Brain & (pp. 627-630). Tokyo & Montreal: perception: Holonomy and structure in ITE and 3Dmt.

4 .h.;.1 Jr / I irk i... .s-/R .1 ri:d ii:s 'xi) ivi;A' ISTIt' I 'r- 71.R TS THE ROLE OF INTERPRETATION IN COMMUNICATION THEORY by James A. Anderson In American baseball, there are there signifying potential, the character of the positions on the crucial issue of umpiring semiotic object and the nature of the balls and strikes: relationship that mediates sign and signifies as well as the possibility and its "I call them as they are." extent of our control over that relationship. "I call them as I see them." These questions are raised at both points "They aren't anything until I call them." of focus within communication, the realm of symbol production or the move from Scholars working the fields of the cognitive interior to the semiotic export communication theory and research have and the realm of symbol interpretation or variously ignored or problematized the the move from the exterior sign to some relationship between sign and meaning. It conscious or performative understanding. is, of course, the fundamental relationship upon which all such theory and research In the realm of production, the findings must rest.As with most questions are generally these: What is the fundamentalnotionsitremains unformed resource, for example, of the characteristically unsettled (Sheriff, 1989). words on this page? Who is the meaning Philosophers of science are generally maker? What is the site of the work of harsh in their appraisal of an early encoding? What are the resources of resolution. W. V. 0. Quine (1953) argues meaning making? How are those that we can hardly know "what we are resources made available to the meaning talking about" and Roth (1987) declares maker? What is the necessity of intent? that there is no proof of meaning. What is the formulation of an intent to Nonetheless both write, a performance mean? What is the recognition of the which offers at least tacit agreement that resources to accomplish that intent? How something can both be said and read. is its satisfaction accomplished (encoded in sign choice)? And where is its realization? Sign and Meaning In the realm of interpretation, the This paper is an attempt to break into questions might begin with: How is the the relationship between sign and sign recognized as a sign? What are the meaning, not with any intent at a structural/genetic/learned/idiopathic com- resolution, but to catalogue the different ponents in that recognition and subsequent positions taken and to investigate the work interpretation?Who is the meaning that gets done from these positions.It is maker? What is the site of interpretation? Peirce's notion of the triadic nature of the What role does production intentionality sign which begins our difficulty.Peirce play in sign recognition and sense making? sees the semiotic nature of the sign being What is the character and moment of filled by its (a) material trace (the physical semiosis?How are the resources of work, symbol, icon, etc.), (b) semiotic semiosis engaged? What is the nature of object, and (c) the relationship and its the product of scmiosis? What is the recognition between the trace and its conclusion of the interpretive event or object. task?

Questions are raised as to the manner in which material facts produce a

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Communities of Answers remains the obvious restatement of the primacy of the stimulus. Many studies in There are, of course, extensive communication, particularly effects and literatures on nearly everyone of these literacy studies, reflect the behaviorist questions, and we will do no more than tradition 2..nd are conducted "as if the brute touch the surface of each.One way to sense d:tta position were true" while the begin this analysis is to describe the central authors would probably demur that "of points along the range of positions from course it's not." which answers have been developed. These centroids (if you will) can be plotted The "as if" portion of that claim is across the degree of determinacy in sign upheld by any study which (a) holds that character, encoding, decoding, and content has a definitive meaning, (b) treats interpretation. (Comparisons of this sort content as the delivery system of that can be found in Outhwaite, 1987; meaning, (c) declares content to be the Teichman, 1988; and Terwee, 1990, agent of some consequence in an audience, among many others.) and (d) treats the audience as a reactant. Such studies have adopted an "as if" OntheFarRight:Naive stance on the physicalist's site.The Empiricism and Brute Sense Data researcher first asserts both an ontological and praxeological claim by declaring We might begin atthe most contentto be something--violent, determinant position, one that has been pornographic,scary,informative, dubbed the"brute sense data" or persuasive--to someone else. The physicalist position. This position echoes subsequent behavior of the someone else the naive empiricism of Bacon, Locke, and is attributed to the content exposure. Hume in that phenomenal world is a set of Examples of these "as if" studies would natural signs which represents a set of true include the classic Berkowitz (e.g., 1963) conditions (Teichman [1988] provides a and Bandura and respective colleagues fair review of this argument).In this (1961, 1963) studies as well very recent position, the character of the sign is ones by Phillips (1983), Rosenthal wholly reputable and is responsible for (1986), Wilson (1991), and Zillmann and encoding, decoding, and interpretation. Bryant (1982). Language and other constructed signs can be literally true. Something can be meant Breaking the Connection: and encoded without error given an act of The Introduction of Perception nature or the proper level of competence. Semiosisisthe"natural" decoding By the close of the nineteenth operation of thc sentient instrument which century,the general belief inthe is a trustworthy observer of the sign and unmediated character of sense data gave its encoded meaning. Interpretation is an way to the recognition that human elaborated understanding of the sign in its understanding required a perceptual setting and the purposes we have for it.It process to intervene between sensation and is directed by right reasoning. cognition. Continuous sensory data had to be perceptually organized for us to We can recognize this physicalist experience the world's phenomena. position from the close of the sixteenth Encoding was no longer wholly dependent century, and clearly see it as a fundamental on the character of the sign and there was argument of empirical science yet today. It slippage between encoding and decoding, has resisted efforts to tear it down but its so that the sign and its interpretation were erosion has been in earnest since the no longer one.Perceptions were (and partitioning of the mind by Freud and Jung generally are) nonetheless considered to be and the partitioning of reality by American authoritative representations of actual pragmatists and continental scholars. phenomena although error and bias can Nonetheless, behaviorism was and occur.

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There arose a large class of studies which one message (andresultant which examine the perceptual processthe understandings) is to form the basis of the whole Gestalt school, for example. These perceptionofsome subsequent studies hold perception to be an orderly, presentation (see Donohue, Henke, & reliable process with predictable failures Meyer, 1983). Such studies are extensions (any of the bent line perceptual tricks) and of the forewarned is forearmed principle. problem areas. (As an aside it should be For example, children who had the noted that any declared failure has to be opportunity to handle real earthworms judged against a more privileged prior to their exposure to a film clip which perception. A line, therefore, is straight to depicted a giant earthworm monster had the ruler but bent to the eye and the choice reduced fear responses (Weiss, et al., in of which one is true is conventionAly press). The prior exposure was seen as made.) directing the effect of the film. Perception has also been used to The precept that perception is a indicate a subjective response. Studies of requirement of human understanding has this sort have titles like "Perceived fright general acceptance among the scientific values of horror films by 8 year olds" or community.Its application, however, "Perceivedattributionsof gender varies widely. differentiated characters by adult males" (for an actual example see David [1992]). In the majority of effects studies, its The implied argument is that there are operation is either ignored or considered to either real fright values/attributions (e.g., be a constant across all respondents. This the classic "knife in the hand" study) or transparent perceptualprocessis that there is no objective basis for claiming effectively a return to brute sense data. particular fright values or attributions, and When perception appears in effects consequently the ones expressed by the studies, it is often used as a marker of respondent groups is a characteristic of respondent typification by class, gender, their taxonomy (for an example, see Frost race, education, and the like (e.g., Zemach & Stauffer, 1987). & Cohen, 1986). These typifications arc accomplished by differentiated responses The subjective is further developed to material which in itself is considered in studies which use "relevance triggers." perceptually neutral across these categories These studies (e.g., Inyengar, 1979) of influence. The operation of perception, attribute differences in outcomes to devices then, is considered a constant across type. which serve to position the respondent (usually by reminding them of some In some studies, the issue of doctrinal stance). perceptual error or bias is inserted (e.g., Vidmar & Rokeach, 1974).Perceptual Both are arguments that one's vision bias must necessarily imply some ofrealityismarked bysocial alternative non-biased position from which conditioning', but at the same time, it can be viewed. Usually this position is because the researcher can determining the that of common sense (held by the real or the objective such markings can be researcher). resisted by the well trained.That this good training can be extended to others is Relevance triggers and intervention one of the principal tenets of media studies offer a more complex application education (Anderson, 1980).It is seen in arguing that perception can be shaped at training efforts to produce the skills that the moment of reception of the focal result in the right perception of deceptive message. The step beyond these studies is or otherwise inappropriate media fare. the argument that perception must be shaped (and is, therefore, in each and Perceptual processes are also the every case somehow shaped) at any underlying support for interventions in moment of perception. Nonetheless, the

2 214 Verbo-Visual Literacy potential of that step shows perception to (1988) speaks of a "figure" which be the social science equivalent to the becomes the number 13 when placed in a deconstructionist subjectivity--the sequence of numbers and the letter B when relevance trigger as interpellation. placed in a sequence of letters. It, however, pre-exists as a figure before it is Perception puts the character of the perceived as a letter or a number. message at the point of reception in play. Beyond the rules of competent production, The theoreticalbreak between the perceptionist has little to say about the material and semiotic objects comes with message as encoded. In most perceptual the claim that the figure's existence as a analyses, that encoding is fully justified by figure is also a perception.Indeed, all authorial intent (it is a different community objects are the product of the sign. The which introduces polysemy). material facts of their existence are the bounded persistences of reflection, The legacy of naive empiricism is refraction, absorption, and the like. Those clearly seen in the loose and friendly way boundaried persistences become what can in which perception offers its presence to be known when they are coalesced into a research.It imposes no requirement too semiotic object.(A relationship of account for its operation, but one can use it persistences becomes a chair only in the if desired.Researchers are free both to presence of a mind, although the hold to perceptual processes and to relationship continues even in the mind's presume that they have no effect, that absence.) treatment messages can change perceptions but research protocols will not, that others This move changes the phenomenal are subjective but researchers are not, that world from a world of material objects to a the untrained are biased and the trained are polysemic world of material semiotic true. A more difficult presence would potentials.In this latter world, there are require,at the least, researchers to material foundations for what is seen, but abandon any claim of what a message is what is seen is always the product of the prior to its interpretation by a target mind (Gibson [1966] and Sacks [1993] audience and would compel the analysis of call this the creation of a perceptual self). that interpretation in any study of effect. While images of Berkelcyism and Perception remains, at this writing, a trees falling in the forest may dance in our theoretical device to solve anomalies which heads, there are positions inthis have arisen in testing the central empirical phenomenological constructionism which claimofa generally unmediated work in the same way as the physicalist's engagement of phenomena, material, and brute sense data. One need only to posit semiotic. There is little evidence as to universal rules governing the relationship material operation. As Bolles (1990, p. between material potentials and resultant xi) notes, "Not only do we not know how semiotic objects to return us to the perception works but we haven't a clue as beginning. We start to move toward the to how it might work."Its character in wonderland of Lewis Carroll when we theory and method is firmly in our own release the semiotic object from the hands. universal sentience (or at. least universal human sentience) of Peirce and Husserl Creating the Semiotic Object and (a) cultural processes enter in the equation, so that the same material In most perception studies, we are foundations are used to produce culturally looking at the perception of something. different semiotic objects (culturally Theres is a material, factual object with a different boundaries of color is the usual reality independent of the perception per example); (b) the semiotic object is greater se.This is the independent character of than the material foundation can warrant the signified.For example, Pettersson (pictures might be an example);(c) the Communication Theory 215 material foundation is itself a set of human boundaries. practices which must be understood semiotically (the idea of justice). The Final Deconstruction: Attacking the Character of the Sign We move closer to the Red Queen when by defining the semiotic object as the Remembering that the Peircean sign set of socially determined understandings is composed of a material trace (natural or in play for some material foundation (what composed), the object for which it stands Crapanzano, 1992 calls "centering") in andtheacknowledged relationship some cultural era or, more radically in ketween the two (Noth, 1992), our work some community of understanding. By ..0 this point has been to consider the putting what is signified in play, we affirm manner in which the material trace is the social construction of reality and open recognized in perceptual processes and the the door to different ways of thinking methods of social construction by which across generations and communities. The the semiotic object is formed. Throughout result is that collectives of the same those two analyses, once the material trace ostensible language group use the same is grasped in perception, its object material resources of semiosis to achieve (however achieved) is presented in a in their well-practiced and naturalized reliable relationship. I have called this methods different worlds of everyday life trustworthiness of the sign. I believe it (Morely's [1980, 1986] work in caste reasonably represents,along with based understandings of soap operas a perception and social construction, a good example). The sign remains reliable significant boundary among different (within limits of perception ) within a theoretical communities. We are about to community but not across communities. cross that boundary. The question remains as to the size, scope, quality, and character of reality defining Our philosophic guides are the likes collectives. Were one finds an answer in of Schleiermacher, Dilthey, Kierkegaard, this liberation of the jointly-held mind to Husserl, Heidigger, Gadamer, and of create the reality of its understanding is the course Derrida, but we also gain direction definingpointoftheoretic and from American pragmatists, social methodological ontology. interactionists, and interpretive sociologists. In crossing the boundary we Whatever one's ontological position, abandon any transcendent relationship the constructionists ferrying of objectivity between sign and meaning.Instead we from the phenomenal world into the realm focus our efforts on understanding how a of collectively governed cognition changes sign is always in the process of becoming a number of fundamental tenets (a good meaningful, always in the process of development of these is in Seung [1982]): creating the relationship between what can Reality is no longer universal and is be recognized as the possibility of determinate only within community understanding and what canbe boundaries (even ifthe boundaries understood. encompass us all). The individual is no longer the measure; the collective stands From Derrida,("Speech and in that place. We no longer perceive a Phenomena," 1972) to Barthes ("Pleasure preexisting object but create a perception of the Text," 1975) Eco ("Semiotics and out of possibilities. The adjudication of the Philosophy of Language," 1984) to error is no longer from a standard Caputo ("Radical Hermeneutics," 1987) independent of the researcher. In sum, the the hermeneutic position--this position of trustworthiness of the sign as well as its the other side--argues that signs are the ability to drive an interpretation are contingent means of managing the flux of reduced to collective boundaries, and the present.Signs rather than being encoding and decoding arevolatile referential are encyclopedic. They reach practices as they migrate across those out in every direction in an infinite

221 216 Verbo-Visual Literacy potential which can bc but partially realized 1989; Huck, 1993; Grossberg, 1984) and in any instance. Signs are the command to performance based interpretive ethno- make meaninginacollectively graphy (Anderson & Goodall, in press; recognizable, local performance of sense Anderson & Meyer, 1988; Goodall, 1991; making. Rose, 1990). What something means, therefore, is When scholars abandonthe answerable only in the present, only at the trustworthiness of the sign, they are faced site of considerable efforts which provide with the continuous study of the methods for its construction and must be answered of the production of collective resources, anew at the next asking. That answer will of one's access to them, of the subjectivity have to take into account the tension of agency, of the authority of action, and between collective efforts to sustain of the voice of its extension. All the while meaning(throughpersistentand they are called to realize that they are the overlapping performances) and the authors of this knowledge and subject to necessity of its local and partial expression the same analysis. As in "Fatal Attraction" by some agent2 of that collective. These nothing is finally submerged, but, knife in requirements in no way deny that retinas hand, rises again and again. respond to light energy in predictable ways, that brains reliably recognize the An aside: To put a fine point to it: stimuli of their perceptions, and that minds For the latter day hermeneut, were Herb arc shaped by culture and the practices of Zettl to make a claim about the meaning of socialization. They simply claim that visual vectors, he would be making a retinas, brains, and minds are not enough claim of what ought to be rather than what to understand meaning. One must also it is. His writing and scholarly life would understand action for it is in action that go about the work of making it so (even to meaning may become. speak from the mountains of Delphi). Claims of meaning are the unending work Now before we all drift out of sight, of claims to authority. the methodological consequences for this theoretical stance are (a) to establish the An Overview of Positions framework of on-going effort which permits mcaning construction as the target We have looked at four more or less for our methods; (b) to nominate methods separate positions from which to compose which reveal on-site the material practices answers which might address the of that effort; and (c) to recognize that the questions posed at the start of this facts revealed arc themselves the product discussion.They are the physicalist, of some othcr framework. Using collective perceptionist,constructionist, and resources, thc agent meaning maker hermeneuticist arguments. The physicalist achieves some local understanding. That view is one of an organic machine reliably localunderstanding can be repeated responding to independent empirical elsewhere and by others but that repetition phenomena which drive isomorphic is its Own work. representationsofconsciousness. Language is a genetically based system of Hermeneuticists have divided along representation of phenomena and pre- twolines:One,followingthe existing categories and the extensions of phenomenological trail, has held to the both. primacy of language in constituting consciousness.The other,more The perceptionist can occupy a broad existentialist, has held to action as thc region, at one end very close to the means by which thc self appears.This physicalist,notingonlycertain theoretical division has shown itself in thc discrepanciesinthe reception and practice of scholarship by the appearance interpretation of sensory information, at of textual based critical analysis (Carey, the other, speculating on perceptual

(.0:4000 Communication Theory 217 realities only loosely connected to The Tables provide short references to the sensation. Language remains a genetically questions and rather cryptic answers based systemof representation of which allow us to see the points of phenomena and preexisting categories but difference but do grave injustice to even a can be enlivened (or corrupted) as well by marginal articulation of these complex perceptual variation. issues.This injustice is somewhat rectified in the sections that follow which The constructionist draws the enlarge the answers provided. conclusion which the perceptionist resists: I f perception intervenes between The Realm of Symbolic Production understanding and the phenomenal world, then we must be active participants in co- Unformed Resources constructing the world we believe in. Language has physical foundations and The major contrast is between the formal structures, but its system of physicalist/perceptionist pair and the representation is a practical human constructionist/hermeneutist pair over achievement--a given in which we all enter what's prior to the semiotic. For both the physicalist and the perceptionist, the and contribute. semiotically unformed resource of The hermeneuticist takes the step understanding is a verifying phenomenal beyond metaphysics and puts it all in play world which can be engaged in an as the struggle for meaning is the work of objective fashion. Signs have meanings everyday life. The placement of meaning independent of their creation. The is the successful expression of power. shadings between the two deal with the Language is physical, structural, and degree of mediation involved in the representational but its meaningfulness is engagement of this objective reality. notingenetics,structures,or representations (any combination of signs For both the constructionist and can be made meaningful) but in its material hermeneutist there is nothing prior to presence in action. semiotics in understanding (see Wertsch's 1985 overview of Vygotsky and Bakhtin). A Collection of Answers What we know of the phenomenal world, we know semiotically.Meaning is a Tables 1 and 2 present our initial cultural production. The differences questions concerning the relationship between this pair have to do with the between sign and meaning in reals of sign security of meanings. For the hermeneut production and interpretation respectively. meaning is never secure but always open

Questions: Physicalist Perceptionist Constructionist Hentoneutist Prior ResourceEmpirical RealityPerceived RealitySemiotic Collective AnIdavements Achievements , Meaning blikerAutomonous Perceiving SubjectSituated SubjectActing Subject Rktinnality Encoding Site Individual Individual Ideological Agent in Collective Collective . Intent Required Revdred Utilized Part of the Not Retuind Action Resources Genetic Genetic KUZMA As Available end Cultural Accomplishmentsin Action Intent Proper Encoding Perceptually Rhetorically Coherent Action Accomplished Encoded Encoded , Intent RealizedProper DecodingPerceptually Rhetorically Local Utility Decoded _Decoded Table I. In the Realm of Production 218 Verbo-Visual Literacy to innovation, opposition, and resistance. and the "right meaning" for the text as well as the basis for judgment concerning Meaning Maker the proper encoding and decoding. This position requires a belief that intent is Answers to this question show a prior to the text and extractable from the steady decomposition of the monadic text (for an extended discussion of the self.From the universal representor to necessity of intent, see Avramides, the nominated, contingently acting [1989]). subject, the meaning maker becomes more and more collectivized and requires Intent need serve no validating morc and more description to understand purpose in domains of the constructionist that instrument of sense-making.For and hermeneutist. For the encoder, intent example, while it is true that a person may well arise after the symbolic product wrote these words, the question remains has been formed and may subsequently astowhetherhewasacting be revealed in the on-going action. For autonomously or as a cultural agent or as the decoder, intent is a device used to a tool of collection action. advance a particular claim of meaning or to execute some interpretive performance. Encoding Site In both cases, intent is an invention not a determinant. Again our pairs split, this time over the primacy of the individual and the The Realm of Interpretation collective. The right hand holds encoding to bc the creative act of the intending Sign Recognition individual.The left holds that the encoder is a clerk of the collective whose In the first two categories sign invention is wholly derivative. recognition is a function of the incoming information. The concept of an adequate The Questions of Intent stimulus is one which excites the sensory nerve. It is that excitation which is The rolc of intcnt for the physicalist recognized anditsobject source and perceptionist in symbolic production reproduced or perceived. is to establish the motive for production Table 2.In the Realmof Interpretation

Questions: Physicalist Perceptionist Constructionist Herm eneutist Sign Adequate Adequate Difference Difftreace Recognition Stimulus Stimulus Boundaries Boundaries 13411. Hut villa Hord raid. Soft- Practical Actional Interpretation ware combos AccomplishmentsAccomplishments Meaning MakerSensory SystemPerceiving Situated Acting Subject Ovidect Subject Site of haildwa, Socialized Ideological SocW Interpretation Individual Collective Action Semiosis Sensory Perceived Ideological Action Engagement Stimulus Engagement Engagement Semiosis Lintinal Cogni.tion Collectively As Initiated Engaged Stimulus Initiate& Managed in Action Authorial Directs Directs Point of As Required Intent Interpretation Interpretation Comparison by Action Semiotic Isomorphic Perceive& Positioned Contigent Product Re pre senlation Representelion Representntion Interpretttion Interpretation Moment of Cognitive Enactment EniXtment Conclusion Sensntion Recognition. of Subjectivityof Acting Subject

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In the latter two categories the which is strongly dependent on the incoming informationhastobe individual as the acting unit. Our second punctuatedto be recognized. sees semiosis as a collective process in Objectificationisfirststepof which the individual participates but interpretation, provided for and driven by cannot achieve on its own. collective resources. Semiosis Engaged Sign Interpretation The physicalist defines semiosis Signinterpretation shows a engagement as the moment a gate passing decomposition similar to that of the stimulus is presented. That is insufficient meaning maker. We move from the for the perceptionist, as cognitive universal electro-chemical operations of structures (variously called values, neurons (which is the singular definition attitudes, schemata) must be brought into of literal meaning) to an increasing play. Therefore it is the implication of differentiation and collective implication these structures which signals the of the interpretive performance as a local engagement (and for some the terms) of and partial product of the acting agent. semiosis. Both of those definitions are far to interior for many constructionists Meaning Maker and certainly hermeneutists who want to emphasis the "out front,"material As in the production realm, the practices of the collective requirements physicalist is clearly separate from the and directives of what we can come to rest on this question as that position understand. works for system rather than subject answers. The remaining positions will Authorial Intent necessarily construct a responding subject,self-contained forthe True decoding in the physicalist and perceptionist, collectively invoked for the perceptionist camp must follow the constructionist, and implicated in social requirements of authorial intent be it action for the hermeneutist. natural or human. Decodings accounting for intent in the remaining two are simple Site of Interpretation variants of the possible with no particular veridical standing. An inside/outside split characterizes the difference between the right and left Semiotic Product pairs. For thefirst,interpretation "happens" in the individual in sensory or We divide our pairs on the issue of cognitive processes. For the second pair, representation versus interpretation. (An interpretation is collective achievement interesting discussion of representation prior to the individual whose role is meaning can be found in Gillet, 1992.) evocation or enactment. Nei the r constructionistsnor hermenuetists may innocently claim Semiosis representation.There is, for neither, nothing independent of the semiotic to Semiosis--that moment of semiotic represent. A sign is the interpretation of understandingoccurs for the physicalist another sign. Any representation, then, at the moment of neural response, for the is a practical accomplishment of semiotic perceptionist at the formation of a maneuvering. perception, for the constructionist at the moment the signisideologically Physicalists gave up the little of positioned, and for the henneneutist at the representation they were going to with moment of becoming in action. Our first Kant's priors and perceptionists generally pair offers a "behind the eyes" definition hold that there is always an independent

2213 220 Verbo-Visual Literacy factual(albeitsometimestrivial) 2The word agent is used in both expression availableto reconcile senses of the term:Agent as a perceptual differences. participating cause in its Own right and agent as a representative, here of The Conclusion of Interpretation collective interests. Interpretation concludes at a References definable moment for the first pair. This moment is defined as that of sensation Anderson, J. A. (1980). The theoretical and of cognition respectively.The lineages of critical viewing curricula. definitive character of the moment is a Journal of Communication, 30, 64- significant division for at its conclusion 71. the interpretation passes from consequent to antecedent. As an antecedent it is the Anderson, J. A. (1992). On the ethics motive for subsequent behavior. It is this of research in a socially constructed theoretical moment upon which the whole reality. Journal of Broadcasting and effect literature hangs. ElectronicMedia, 36, 353-357. There is no such moment for most Anderson, J. A., & Goodall, H. L., Jr. or the remaining theorists. Interpretation (inpress). Probing the body is an emerging process not an instant.Its ethnographic: From an anatomy of activity certainly subsides but need never inquiry to a poetics of expression. end. Interpretations are not the Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. independent cause of some subsequent action rather they are accommodated Anderson, J. A., & Meyer, T.P. within the larger performances of (1988). Mediated communication: A ideology or everyday life.(Under this social action perspective.Newbury rubric, one does not stop at a traffic light Park, CA: Sage. because it is red, but because one is driving). Avramides, A. (1989). Meaning and the mind. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. A Subsidence Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. A nexploration of theorizing (1961). Transmission of aggression communities runs a number of risks not through imitation of aggressive the least of which is the fundamental lie models.Journal of Abnormal and that there are necessarily centers to be Social Psychology, 63, 575-582. explored. I recognize my own esscntializing moves here, nonetheless, Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. interpretation stands as a significant issue (1963).Imitation of film mediated across which substantial divisions can be aggressive models. Journal of traced. We as a community of scholars Abnormal and Social Psychology, (and as an Association) do stand divided 66, 3-11. in practical ways which affect our ability to normalize our scholarship.Perhaps Barthes, R. (1975). Pleasure of the text that is a happy conclusion. (R. Miller, Trans.). New York: Hill & Wang. Footnotes Berkowitz, L, & Rawlings, E.(1963). 'And sometimes more darkly by Effects of film violence on inhibitions racial characteristics.See Anderson, againstsubsequent aggression. (1992). Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 66, 405-412. 2,C Communication Theory 221

Bolles, E. B. (1991). A second way of rock n roll mystery. Carbondale, IL: knowing. New York: Prentice Hall Southern Illinois University Press. Press. Grossberg, L.(1984).Strategies of Carey, J. W. (1989). Comtnunication as Marxistcultural interpretation. culture: Essays on media and society. CriticalStudies in Mass Boston, MA: Unwin Hyman. Communication, 1, 392-421.

Caputo,J.D. (1987). Radkal Huck, K. (1993). The arsenal on fire: hermeneutics. Bloomington, IN: The reader in the riot, 1943. Critical Indiana University Press. Studies in Mass Communication, 10, 23-48. Crapanzano, V. (1992). Hermes' dilemma and Hamlet'sdesire. Inyengar, S.(1979).Television news Cambridge, MA: Harvard University and issue salience: A reexamination Press. of the agenda setting hypothesis. Journal of Communication, 31, 395- David, P.(1992). Accuracy of visual 416. perception of quantitative graphics. Journalism Quarterly, 69, 273-292. Morley, D.(1980).The nationwide audience: Structure and decoding. Derrida,J. (1972). Speech and London, England:British Film phenomena (D. Allison, Trans.). Institute. Evanston,IL: Northwestern University Press. Morley, D.(1986). Family television: Cultural power and domestic leisure. Donohue, T. R., Henke, L.L., & London, England: Comedia. Meyer, T. P.(1983).Learning about television commercials: The Noth, W. (1990). Handbook of impact of instructional units on Semiotics. Bloomington,IN: children's perceptions of motive and Indiana University Press. intent. Journal of Broadcasting, 27, 251-261. Outhwaite, W. (1987). New philosophies of social science.New Eco, U.(1984).Semiotics and the York: St. Martin's Press. philosophyoflanguage. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Pettersson, R. (1988). Visuals for Press. information. Stockholm, Sweden: Esselte Forlag. Frost, R., & Stauffer, J.(1987). The effects of social class, gender, and Phillips, D. P.(1983). The impact of personalityonphysiological mass media violence onU.S. responses to filmed violence. Journal homicides.American Sociological of Communication, 32, 29-45. Review, 50, 364-371.

Gibson, J.J. (1966). The senses Quine, W. V. 0. (1953). From a logical considered as perceptual systems. point of view: Ninelogico- Boston, MA: Houghton-Mifflin. philosophical essays. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Gillet, G. (1992). Representation, meaning, and thought. Oxford: Rose, D. (1990). Living the Clarendon Press. ethnographic life. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Goodall, H. L. Jr. (1991). Living in the

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Rosenthal, R. (1986). Media violence, selective perception and exposure. antisocial behavior, and the social Journal of Communication, 24, 36- consequences of smalleffects. 47. Journal of Social Issues, 42, 141- 154. Weiss, A. J., Imrich, D. J., & Wilson, B. J.(in press).Prior exposure to Roth, P. A.(1987).Meaning and creatures from a horror film: Live vs. method in the social sciences: A case photographic representations. for methodological pluralism. Ithaca, Human Communication Research. NY: Condi University Press. Wertsch, J. V.(1985). The semiotic Sacks, 0.(1993).A neurologists mediation of mental life:L. S. notebook: To see and not see.The Vygotsky and M. M. Bakhtin. In E. New Yorker, 69, 59-73. Mertz & R. J. Parmentier (Eds.), Semiotic mediation:Sociocultural Seung, T. K.(1982).Semiotics and and psychological perspectives (pp. thematics in hermeneutics. New 49-71). New York: Academic Press. York: Columbia University Press. Wilson, B. (1991). Children's reaction Sherrif, J. K.(1989).The fate of to dreams conveyed in mass media meaning.Princeton, NJ:Princeton programming. Communication University Press. Research, 18, 283-305. Zemach, T., & Cohen, A. (1986). Teichman, J.(1988).Philosophy and Perception of gender equality on the mind. Oxford: Blackwell. television and social reality. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Terwee, S. J. S.(1990). Hermeneutics Media, 30, 345-358. in psychology and psychoanalysis. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. Zillmann, D., & Bryant, J.(1982). Pornography, sexual callousness, and Vidmar, N., & Rokeach, M.(1974). the trivialization of rape. Journal of Archie Bunker's bigotry: A study in Communication, 32, 1021.

2,- THE ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY by Penelope Calliabetsou This paper deals with certain ways of living, habits, everyday life, fundamental questions which I will try to tradition, etc. answer briefly. 2. Which research reports or In a United Europe, the teaching of educational productions are suitable for multiform foreign languages ina comparative studies in the classroom and multicultural United Europe can not could be implemented through a distinguish between instruction of culture collaboration of various agencies from and instruction of speech, which is the different European countries? most authentic form of its expression as well as the best vehicle of study research, Consider, for instance, foreign contact, and proximity. languages departments of universities, pedagogical institutes, technological According to anthropologists, culture institutes, educational radio-television, and includes the total expression of a people's others. ways of living, its social hermitage transmitted to individuals through the As further examples, I mention: process of socialization, and kinds of behavior, habits, and characteristics which Electronic banks of intercultural compose the uniqueness of specific elements that serve the needs of people. foreign languages instructors.

In this paper, the terms interculture Prod uctionofintercultural and intercultural are used to refer to the dossierswithprintedand group of European culture instead of a audiovisual material focussed on particular national culture. issues such as:the working motherinGreece, France, By the term interculturalapproach in England, etc. foreign language instruction I simply mean the comparative study of cultural elements Movie adaptations of literary between native language and one or more texts. foreign languages. Audio-visual expositions 1. What objects of study (groups, designed to encourage contact issues, etc.) should be included in foreign with different countries. language intercultural instruction which modern Educational Technology is called 3. Which production of comparative to support? studies could be realized through collective processes among different classes of The variety of available programs foreign languages students in different can become a trap for researchers European countries? throughout Europe: Ibelieve that we should set a list of priorities on issues Studies and research conducted which may become educational objectives by groups of students from three in European countries.Issues rekied to or more countries of basic socialization, which are suitable for stereotypeswhich often comparative studies, should be given a disorientate higher priority. As an example, consider studentsfrom

3., 9 0 1. 224 Verbo-Visual Literacy

cultural reality.Videotapes are 5. Which networks of modern quite suitable for production and technology best transmit and instruct educational processing of such European interculture? data. Computers Round-table television and radio programs which include foreign As it is known, there exist data bases students and focus on a variety allowing students to become acquainted of issues, such as: How do you with other countries and peoples. These feelaboutforeign words data bases are usually accompanied by borrowed by your native material bases that can be used in language? Are they elements of educationalactivitiespromoting threat or enrichment? judgmental analysis and data processing.

Various publications and journals Such activities include games, which could be issued by questionnaires, etc. Let me mention, here, fraternity classesi ndifferent some productions:Countries of the European countries. World, European History Series, Revolutions, Correct Behavior, The And, finally, newspapers issued French Way. by students with a European outlook under such titles as Peripheral Audiovisual Means Europe is Yours, Good Morning Youth of Europe, etc. They include a relatively new type of educational technology that offers new 4. What kind of new educational prospectsto language and culture support material would be required to instruction.I am referring to Video implement interculture in conjunction with Interactive. This is an electronic system traditional books: Books on civilization, combining videodisc, computer, and a various elements incorporated in text new type of memory. books, ctc. We could indicate, for instance, the following: Video interactive application in schools of different European countries Linguistic and social behavior has greatly contributed to the students grammar accompanied by familiarization with foreign cultures. In videotapes and audiotapes. For many countries, students themselves have example: What wishes are started producing videodiscs to assist in exchanged in Greece, England, foreign language and culture instruction. and Italy on the occasion of a An example of this is Videodisque Siville, birthday celebration. a production by British students who are learning French through a lecture on Video dictionaries on cultural French Commerce. concepts of basic, everyday vocabulariesofforeign An Electronic mail or telematics, is languages. another peripheral audiovisual network thatsecures authentic intercultural European intercultural video communication between classesof collections: Present Yourself, in different countries. all European Languages, Say it, in all Mediterranean Languages, Electronic mail has existed for Greet, in all European several years in many countries.For Languages, etc. example, British and German networks are connected to DIALCOM, an international electronic mail network. In addition, the Educational Technology 225

French network MINITEL has extended this passepartouteducational material its communication network into schoolsin overcomes the differencesbetween a Great Britain and France. As it isknown, student in Athens and one on a small the authenticity of the message always forgotten island, and promotes free access stimulates students' interest, enhances (democratization) of knowledge. imagination, activates productivity, and promotes dreams for the explorationof In several European countries, mass new situations. media follow a production track which will quickly lead to the establishment of a The European Council promotes the second, parallel school of foreign introduction of Educational Technology in languages and cultures. At this point I will the teaching of foreign languages and refer to certain specific television stations culture. It further encourages and which have already taken such initiatives: supports co-production of multimedia The first international French television programs to assist instruction ofEuropean station, TV5 Europe, broadcasts programs languages. Such programs are positive in 23 countries. A large number of these steps towards the direction of mutual programs, which are being used to instruct understanding and respect of the European french language and culture in various and national cultural mosaics. countries, are particularly addressed to youth. The Important Role of Mass Media The French television station FR3 Thecon ti nuoustechnological broadcasts Eurojournalevery morning changes in mass media have brought (8:00 am to 9:00 am) and consists of 15 continuous renewal in the pedagogical and minute programs in English, German, methodological approaches to language Spanish, and Italian.Subtitles are used, and cultureinstruction. Knowledge and students c?1 review the text of the storage devices, like tape recorders and program in their MINITEL screen via especially magnetoscopes, allow for a real network EURIDICO. Teachers use such revolution in the area of language and broadcasts to teach foreign languages or culture instruction. Magnetoscopes allow comparative cultural studies, depending on image freezing, selective storage of the program content. educational material (instead of just the projection of images), and is further Television station SEPT broadcasts capable of replacing us when and where multilingual European programs which arc we want it (at home, school, etc.),through European co-productions.Finally, there simple programming. are a British and a Germantelevision station offering such services. The robotization--if you allow me to use this expression--enablesinstructors Based on thesestill growing and students to use television material initiatives we could expect seeing in the according to their educational objectives near future a multilingual and intercultural and needs. They can choose between live trend which might create a new transmission and transmission of stored relationship among school and television. materials. An instructor alone or with his Why not?There is one issueI am students can now choose multiform personally in favor of: Mass Media and authentic educational material by using not travelthroughout Europe without only the traditional foreign languages book boundaries will create new opportunities in but television as well.In this context, foreign language learning. television plays a double role:It is a transmitter and a producer of educational Educational Satellite Olympus material. Olympus isthefirst European At this point I would like to add that educational satellite of long-distance

23 226 Verbo-Visual Literacy multilingual education. It started operating of intercultural communication within the experimentally in 1989. classroom and various European classes. All countries participating in this The road to European interculture is project broadcast their educational and exciting but long, and difficult.It is this cultural programs. Therefore, the risk of road our youth will walk through. Our monolingual and cultural monologue in great responsibility and duty is to create Europe can be avoided. the appropriate conditions which will allow them to live together in a peaceful Within the framework of the Europe and in an environment of European educational policy, the idea and continuous intercultural dialogue. application of long-distance educational programs will be a must from now on for References every developed country. Bowers, C. A. (1988). The cultural In audio-visual European landscape, dimensions of educational computing. where national television stations in certain New York: Teachers College Press. countries broadcast quite a few educational programs, it is reasonable to conclude that Calliabetsou, P.(1992).Linguistique thc future of Educational Television appliquee a la didactique du FLE: Vers belongs to educational satellite television. une etude critique des methodes et des theories d'apprentissage connexes. Educational Radio-Television Athens, Greece: University of Athens.

Educational radio-television stations Charadeau, P.(1990).L'interculturel in several European countries broadcast entre mythe et realité.In LFM foreign language lessons either locally or Hachette, Paris. nationally. Cullingford, C. (1984). Children and television. New York:St. Martin's The variety of types of technology as Press. I have tried to briefly describe above, through speech and image authenticity can Le Francais dans le Monde no special. promote national and European objectives (1989). Nouvelle Technologies Hachette Paris.

9 2 USING VISUAL MEDIA TECHNOLOGIES TO INVESTIGATE COGNITIVE REPRESENTATION OF TECHNICAL DIAGRAMS by Richard Lowe

This paper describes a selection of accessible to us for the purposes of study ways that visual media technologies have (unlike the outcomes of a diagram-based been used to support various aspects of instructional task)andso i ts research into the way technical diagrams characterization presents a considerable are represented in people's minds. Its research challenge. As a result, the purpose is to demonstrate how such methodologies involved in such diagram technologies can address some of the research of necessity rely on indirect difficulties inherent in conducting research approaches that aim to provide fine- in this area. The research programme for grained data from which inferences can be which the techniques described here were made about mental representation. This devisedhasthebroadgoalof requires that these approaches are not only understanding how learners deal with robust and powerful, but also that they are instructional diagrams. appropriate to use with pictorial material. While illustrations in general can be A fundamental consideration in included in instructional materials for a designing research methodologies for this range of different purposes (Levie & area arises from the nature of the materials Lentz, 1982), a central role of diagrams of to be investigated. Diagrams and similar the type used in technical domains is to explanatory visual materials typically are explain some aspect of the subject matter used because they are considered better (Levin, Anglin & Carney, 1987; Lowe, suited to the presentation of the subject 1993).To date, much investigation of matter than verbal formats (written or expository illustrations such as diagrams spoken text).It now seems clear that has focussed upon their instructional aspects of the information structure of outcomes, rather than upon the processes diagrams can provide them with cognitive by which these outcomes are generated. processing advantages over text (Glenberg However, theriseof information & Langston, 1992; Larkin & Simon, processing approaches to the study of 1987; Winn & Li, 1989). However, the thinking and learning in recent years has great majority of research into the way highlighted the need to understand mental people mentally represent information processesintryingtoimprove involves the use of verbal materials and instructional outcomes. With this has come verbally-oriented methodologies. There an increasing interest in the mental has been considerable development in the processes involved in the comprehension collection of detailed verbal data in recent of pictorial materials such as diagrams years and approaches to analysis such as (e.g. Winn, 1991). Fundamental to these those discussed by Ericsson and Simon mental processes is the way in which the (1984) are well established. However, the information upon which they operate is direct adoption of such methodologies for represented in our minds. Consequently, the investigation of the way people deal before we can fully understand how with visual materials would require visual- diagrams are processed, we need to know to-verbal translations, so compromising about the mental representation that people their intrinsic visual character. In othcr develop for the graphic elements which are words, collecting verbal data about the thefabricofthosediagrams. processing of visual material (for example, Unfortunately, aperson'smental think-aloud protocols generated by a representation of a diagram is not directly subject performing a diagram processing

2 33 228 Verbo-Visual Literacy task) would be of dubious value On its 6. Deal with static and dynamic Own (although it may be a valuable source components of the investigation. of supplementary data). What is required instead are approaches that properly As will be illustrated below, a acknowledge the yisual nature of these suitable combination of the capacities of materials and deal with them without the video and computer technology can need for any translation. So for an address these types of needs in a variety of investigation of the way people deal with ways. In addition, the capacity of these diagrams, it is not sufficient to confine the technologies for dealing with dynamic data visual aspect of the procedure to the gives them a distinct advantage over more stimulus materials. It is important that the conventional (static) approaches to the outputs that subjects produce should also reporting of results from this type of bc visual as should any intervening investigation. manipulations of the materials they perform. The need to use a consistently Diagrams and Subjects visual approach across the various aspects of investigation guided the development of All the methodologies described here thc methodologies described in this paper. were applied to the study of how weather This development was informed by the map diagrams are mental:y represented. approaches used by. researchers in the However, it should be noted that weather investigation of cognitive aspects of maps were used purely as illustrative various visually-oriented domains such as examples of the type of diagram chess(Chase & Simon,1973), commonly used for instructional purposes architectural drawings (Akin, 1986), and (there was no interest in the investigation electronic circuit diagrams (Egan & of weather maps per se). A discussion of Schwartz, 1979). the advantages of using weather maps for this purpose appears elsewhere (Lowe, Before dealing with specific aspects 1990). In principle, the methodologies are of the methodologies that have been applicable to a variety of diagram types developed for thc current research from a wide range of technical disciplines. program, some general considerations The two groups of subjects who regarding this type of research will be participatedinthis research were discussed. For a methodology to be useful individuals with either a high or a low for finc-grained investigation of the way level of expertise in the domain of people interact with diagrams, it needs to meteorology, specifically professional be able to: meteorologists and non-meteorologists. Because it involved comparison of two I. Displaythe diagrammatic groups with greatly differing levels of material effectively to the research domain expertise, this research approach subjects, can loosely be described as fitting within the "expert-novice" paradigm (Chi, 2. Provide appropriate ways for the Glaser, & Farr, 1988). However, because subject to interact with the diagram, the meteorologists were competent practitioners rather than acknowledged 3. Capturc detailed information expert performers in their domain, the about subject-diagram interactions, expert-novice characterization should be treated with some caution. 4. Characterize thesesubject- diagram interactions with appropriate Data Collection measures, In thc following sections, the use of 5. Permit generated data to be twogeneraltypesvisualmedia analyzed in a meaningful way, technologies (computers and video) for the investigation of the mental representation Visual Media Technologies 229 of diagrams will be discussed. Although through the required interactions by these approaches were specifically appropriate instructions provided in a side developed for use with very abstract bar on the screen. To reveal what was diagrams of a technical nature, there is no under a particular square, the subject reason in principle why they could not be moved the computer's mouse pointer onto adapted for various other types of that square and clicked once, upon which graphically-simple pictorial materials that the square turned black to signal that it had are used as instructional illustrations. been selected. The subject was then able to either confirm the selection with a second Computer Technology click on the blackened square, or select a different square by clicking on it instead. The computer-based methodology The second (confirmatory) click on a described here is an adaption and square caused the hidden meteorological extension of an earlier manual technique markings on that part of the weather map that has been reported in detail elsewhere to be revealed. For any square exposed in (Lowe, 1989).In general terms, the this way the background was changed methodology was used to investigate a from white to grey so that the subject subject's mental representation for weather could easily tell that it had already been map diagrams by monitoring the way the revealed (this was necessary since not all subject explored an unfamiliar example of of square segments comprising the map such a diagram which was initially hidden actually contained weather map markings). from view. This monitoring relied on the As this revelation process continued, the diagram having been segmented so that the instruction side bar gave the subject subject's exploration across individual updated information about how many of regionscouldbefollowed. A the quota of 10 squares remained available superimposed 6 x 5 grid divided the for selection. Once all 10 of the allowed weather map into 30 square pieces (the squares had been revealed, the subject's diagram consisted of a map outline and its map showing the exposed meteorological meteorological markings). When a subject markings was printed off. The subject then began the experimental task, the display attempted to complete the whole weather was completely covered with squares that map by drawinginanyfurther were blank except for the map outline meteorological markings that were thought (i.e.,nometeorological markings). to exist in the remaining 20 grid squares. During the task, the subject gradually revealed parts of the display by removing Becausetheinteractions just the covering squares from the display one described are somewhat involved, each at a time. This allowed determination of subject was trained in the necessary the order in which the selected regions of operational processes before moving on to the display were inspected. However a the experimental task. The sequence of condition of the task was that the subject presentation was as follows. After an was permitted to expose a total of only one introduction to basic processes such as third of the whole display (10 of the grid moving and clicking the mouse, the squares) and told that from this limited subject was given preliminary training in amount of information, she/he would later the technique of revealing information by be required to complete the display. clicking on squares. This was done using a simple four-square grid (Figure 1). In the computer implementation of this technique, the experimental task Next, these skills were appli(xl to a involved the subject interacting with a graphic display of a familiar scene (a screen depicting a blank weather map of simple house and its surroundings) Australia and divided into 30 squares by a following the same procedures that would grid as described above (thelnap and grid berequiredforperformingthe were drawninblack on a white experimental task with the weather map. background). The subject was prompted The subject began with a bare outline of

2 3 5 230 Verbo-Visual Literacy the house divided by a grid of 30 squares for hidden details of the animal's digestive (Figure 2) then by using the procedure system studied. Similarly, in the area of described above for the experimental task, electronics, subjects could search for clicked On 10 squares in sequence to reveal information about the components present one third of the house's details (windows, in a hidden section of a circuit diagram. doors, etc.). Video Technology For this practice task, the subject's response was not printed off for The methodology described here was completion. After this practice, the subject developed to obtain finer details about the carried out the experimental (weather map) mental representation of weather map task with weather map. During the diagrams than could be obtained from the experimental task, the computer program technique described above. In addition, its recorded the identity of the squares chosen basic approach to data collection was and the sequence in which they were fundamentally different, thus providing the selected. Finally, a screen dump of the opportunity for triangulation. A video subject's partly completed map (showing recorder was used to capture the sequence the 10 revealed squares) was printed off of actions performed by subjects in for thc subject to complete (Figure 3). carrying out tasks involving a previously unseen Australian weather map. A major This computer version of the original part of the process involved subjects manual method was developedin drawinga copyofthemap's Hypercard so that it was able to run on meteorological markings onto a blank even low-end black and white Macintosh map. However, the weather map they computers, thus making it suitable for use were to copy was not continuously visible. in a wider range of situations. Although Instead, subjects could only view the some aspects of the methodology (such as stimulus map while they were pressing a the training segment) were altered to make button with their drawing hand. This thc technique less dependent on the meant that they could either take a look at experimenter,thecourse ofthe the stimulus map or draw markings onto experimental task remained fundamentally the blank map but not continuously view unaltered. The computer-based version has and draw at the same time. Hence, a number of benefits over the original subjects were forced to alternate viewing procedure such as the automatic collection and drawing in a succession of discrete of data regarding which squares were actions. An indicator light was switched chosen by a subject and their order of on when the viewing button was pressed selection. It also has the potential to be and remained illuminated for the duration used for displays other than weather maps of each viewing period (i.e., as long as the as will now be explained. In the weather viewing button was depressed). map version described above, the map outline constitutes one level of information Thesubjectcarriedoutthe (provided for the subject) and the set of experimentaltasksat a specially markingsthatdepict meteorological constructed table that had a glass window information constitutes another (to be inserted into its top with a mirror set provided by the subject). However, since beneath the window at an angle of 45 the computer program is essentially a shell degrees. A video recorder aimed at the into which a particular display is fitted, the mirror allowed each subject's drawing method could easily be adapted for behavior to be recorded from below investigating thc way subjects search other without obstruction (the response sheet diagrams that can be characterized in terms containing the blank map was made from of two levels of information. For example, tracing paper so that the subject's drawing in the arca of bioloo, subjects could be was visible from below). The viewing presented with an outline of an unfamiliar indicator light was positioned so that it animal's body and thc way they searched could be included in the area being

'Th Visual Media Technologies 231 recorded by the video and the camera was fitted with a counter that marked each frame with elapsed time. Thus in addition A tc.-, recording the subject's drawing of each meteorological marking, the length of each viewing period was automatically recorded on videotape. As well as drawing a copy of the weather map, subjects later drew what they could recall of the map's %otite kow its gone black markings. Video records of this process to show you clicked on it. were also made to enable comparison of Now click it a second time. the intake of diagram information (during copying) with its output (during recall). Figure 1. Grid used for training subjects in procedure for Data Analysis selecting squares (black indicates square 'A' has been clicked once; a further click would reveal Two main types of data are collected what was under this square). by the techniques that have been described. The first are process data witch WIN come from the actions subjects perform 10 to during an .nvestigation as they work go. through a task. Of particular interest here Click are the temporal order in which the on a meteorological markings are processed, PPM the location of those markings, and the to durations of various stages that comprise select the processing. The second type are it. product data such as the outcomes (drawings) of copying, recalling, or completing a weather map. 111 Analyzing each type of data presents Figure 2. its own challenges, some of which Practice task graphic showing outline within 30 concern practicalities such as how to carry square grid. Note instructions to subject in side out particular measurements while others column. concern more fundamental theoretical issues involving the choice, treatment, and interpretation of those measurements. ..,,go. Some examples of the way process and Ileffilliffflioto product data were handled during analysis rg Click will now be presented. MAE

ISifiliFtselte.ct Process Data MIMap A number of assumptions were made ItropMCE here.First,it was assumed that the temporal order in which the meteorological markings were processed was in some respects influenced by the nature of the Figure 3. mental representation of the weather map Screen dump showing markings on a subject's 10 information. This assumption parallels that selected squares. Subject would next attempt to made by Taylor and Tversky (1992) in complete the map' markings. thcirinvestigationof themental organizations of environments. As these 237 231 Media Technologies authors have observed, one of the research subject's processing sequence to be used difficulties in using drawings as data is to identify subsets within the complete set how to score them. Taylor and Tversky of graphic elements comprising the used the order in which elements of a map diagram. By examining the constitution of are drawn as an index of organization on these subsets, inferences could be made the assumption that the clustering of items about inter-element relations that might be in a recall sequence occurs because those involvedinthesubject'smental items are closely related in some way. In representation of the diagram as a whole. thcvideo-basedweathermap For example, it appeared that the non- investigations referred to in the present meteorologists structured the mental paper, this type of clustering assumption representation of information inthe was made about the sequences produced diagram on the basis of relations involving during the copying of items as well as the visuospatial characteristics of the during their recall. In the computer-based markings themselves whereasthe investigationmentionedearlier, meteorologists' structuring was based assumptions about clustering were made upon relationsthatreflectedthe from the order in which the 10 squares meteorological significance of these were selected for revelation. Depending on markings. the particulartask a subject was performing, the structure of these A major disadvantage of the process sequences may provide an indication of aspect of the video-based investigation matters such as the effects of established was the time consuming and labour- habits of perceiving and drawing, the intensive nature of the data transcription extent of visual impact (in perceptual required. The raw data consisted of a terms) of different types of markings, the videotape record of each subject's viewing tendency of subjects to group thc markings a:id drawing behavior in which each because of similarities in their visuospatial videotape frame was marked with the time characteristics, the ease with which elapsed since the start of the task. In markings of different types were addition, the videotape of the copying task processed or the relative meteorological also contained records of the periods importance attached to different markings. during which the viewing indicator light was switched on and switched off. The second assumption was that the Transcription of the videotape involved relative durations of particular aspects of locating precise frames at which (a) the processing (such as thc lengths of viewing viewing indicator light was switched on or periods) were of significance. In the was switched off and (b) the subject's current context, this assumption concerns pencil just began to draw a mark or just onlythevideo-basedinv2stigation finished drawing that mark. The elapsed described above.On most,--occasions time for each of these frames was during the copying task, subjects viewed transferred manually to build up a table thc stimulus diagram using a series of that set out each subject's viewing and relatively short glimpses. After each drawing behavior. In addition, each of the glimpse, a subject typically drew one or marks drawn on the map was labelled with more marks. However, at various stages itsposition inthe overall drawing during thc process of copying the stimulus sequence. In contrast to the video-based diagram, the subject would spend a much investigation,thecomputer-based longer time gazing at the diagram before investigationdescribedearlier changing to drawing. These longer automatically collected process data about viewing periods were interpreted as the identity of the 10 squares that a subjcct indicating the start of a ncw phase of revealed and the order in which they were processing in which the subject's attention selected. These data required no pre- shifted to a different group (or chunk) of treatment after collection and were ready graphic elements within the stimulus for immediate transfer to a statistical diagram. This interpretation permitted each analysisprogram.However,the Visual Media Technologies 233 computer-based approach did not offer the entities because pilot studies showed that same opportunities for collecting the subtle these different components were drawn by types of data that can be captured by the subjects as a number of separate use of video. Clearly an integration of the subgroups (in the case of a cold front, a capacity of video technology to collect line plus a group of triangular barbs). detailed visual data and the automatic data collection capacity of computer technology Once individual graphic entities have would be the ideal combination. been defined, the next problem is in making measurements of the position, Product Data size, shape, and orientation of each entity. Recent developments in image analysis Map markings drawn by subjects computer software have greatly simplified and the larger graphic structures formed by this measurement task. These programs the conjunction of drawn and existing process an image that has been converted markings can be characterized by various to digital form and then use various measures. These measures allow a range algorithms to characterize properties of the of comparisons to be made including those image. In the case of the weather map between (a) the markings on the stimulus diagrams used for the research referred to materials and those produced in the here, the image was captured by means of subjects' responses, (b) different classes a flatbed scanner to form a disc file (in a of subject (such as experts and novices) format such as PICT). Some preliminary and (c) products generated at4ifferent treatment using image enhancement stages of an investigation (such as copied software was usually necessary to clean up and recalled markings). Measures of the scanned image and to prepare it for position, size, shape, and orientation are analysis. For example, regions bounded useful to characterize the properties of by particular sets of lines might be filled individual markings both in terms of their with "paint" to isolate them so that the basis visuospatial properties and in terms image analysis program can later identify of the meteorological significznce of those them as distinct features to be measured markings. For example, the sizes and (each such region is typically described as relative positions of markings in of a set of a "blob"). Once the prepared image is concentric closed isobars that together loaded into the analysis program, the user constitute a cyclone not only show the can then specify the desired measurements physical extent of that feature, they also and select the blobs of interest. Simple indicate its likely severity. As well as measures of distance (such as length or making measurements of each marking on perimeter) and area are made by counting its own, it is important to characterize pixels which are then converted into more larger composite structures made up of familiar units. The position of a blob is two or more markings which constitute based upon its center of gravity while a meteorologically significant assemblies. variety of measures such as symmetry, roundness, and the ratio of the axes of the A fundamental matter to be resolved best fitting ellipse help to characterize its in developing an analysis procedure is the shape. For orientation, a measure of the definition of what constitutes a discrete inclination of the longest axis of the best entity for the purpose of analysis. In cases fitting ellipse can be used. Data from these where a marking consisted of a single measurements arc readily transferred to graphic stroke or a set of physically statistics packages for further processing. connected strokes, this generally did not constitute a problem sincc it was usually Reporting Results quite clear that a single entity was intended. However, for other markings A combination of thc capacities of such as a cold front symbol, physically computer and video technologies has connected but geometrically distinct enabled thc findings obtained from the markings were considered as separate types of investigations described above to

239 234 Media Technologies bc displayed in a manner that is more The strength of video technology is that it appropriate than conventional methods. provides for the capture of highly detailed This is particularly well demonstrated in visual data. However, it also presents the case of results obtained from analysis problems with the time-consuming nature of the process data where the nature of the of some aspects of transcribing the subjects' performance over time was of generated data into a form suitable for special interest. For example, a computer statistical analysis. In contrast, computer animation program was used to produce technology can directly monitor some dynamic summaries ofessential aspects of a subject's performance and differences in how thoseinthe save the generated data in files that are meteorologist andnon-meteorologist suitable for analysis by a statistical subject groups built up the meteorological package without further processing. markings as they copied a weather map. Unfortunately, it is not currently capable These summaries collapsed the individual of directly providing (for reasonable cost marking sequences produced by subjects and effort) the type of facilities for dealing within these tWo groups into an overall with visual data that are available with sequence for each group as a whole. In video. However, the recent merging of addition, thc animation greatly compressed video and computer technologies with the thc time scale so that the broad temporal advent of digital video opens up exciting patterns present in the sequence became possibilities for developing a whole range much more apparent. Once prepared, the of new research tools that can be used to animated sequence for each of the subject increase our understanding of the way groups was transferred to videotape for people deal with visual information. easy presentation and distribution. This animated form of the results captures References process aspectsofthesubjects' performance far more faithfully than is Akin, 0. (1986). Psychology of possible in a static figure of the type architecturaldesign. London: Pion. typically used to report the findings of an investigation. Further, complex results of Chase, W.G., & Simon, H. A. (1973). thc type generated in this investigation Perception inchess.Cognitive appear to bc considerably more accessible Psychology, 4, 55-81. if presented in an animated format than if presented in a more conventional manner. Chi, M. T. H., Glaser, R., & Farr, M. J. (1988). The nature of expertise. Conclusion Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. This paper has dealt with several Egan, D. E., & Schwartz, B. J. (1979). illustrative examples of how video and Chunking in recall of symbolic computer technology can be used to drawings. Memory & Cognition,7, support basic research into thc way 149-158. diagrams arc represented in people's minds. Thc approaches that have been Ericsson, K. A., & Simon, H. A. (1984). developed can address a variety of Protocol analysis.Cambridge, MA: challenges that face the researcher in this MIT Press. field, ranging from those of presenting the initial stimulus material to subjects through Glenberg, A. M., & Langston, W. E. to reporting thc research findings in an (1992). Comprehension of illustrated appropriate manner. In common with other text:Pictures help to build mental research methodologies, in order to makc models.Journal of Memory and use of these approaches effective, Language, 31, 129-151. sufficient attcntion must be given to theoretically significant aspects of data Larkin, J. H., & Simon, H. A. (1987). collection, analysis, and interpretation. Why a diagram is (sometimes) worth

K", U Visual Media Technologies 235

ten thousand words. Cognitive memory: Explaining the role of skill Science, 11, 65-99. and experience. Research in Science Education, 20, 191-199. Levie, W. H., & Lentz,R.(1982). Effects of text illustrations: A review Lowe,R.K.(1993).Succes.sful o f research. Educational instructional diagrams. London: Communication and Technology Kogan Page. Journal, 30, 195-232. Taylor, H. A., & Tversky, B.(1992). Levin, J. R., Anglin, G. J., & Carney, R. Descriptions and depictions of N. (1987). On empirically validating environments. Memory & Cognition, functions of pictures in prose. In D. 20(5), 483-496. M. Willows, & H.A. Houghton (Eds.), The psychology of illustration: Winn, W. (1991). Learning from maps Vol. 1. Basic research.New York: and diagrams. Educational P.sychology Springer-Verlag. Review, 3, 211-247. Lowe, R. K.(1989).Search strategies Winn, W. D., & Li, T-Z. (1989, April). and inference in the exploration of Do diagrams permit more rapid and scientific diagrams. Educational accurate problem solving than text? Psychology, 9(1), 27-44. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Lowe,R.K.(1990). Diagram Association, San Francisco, CA. information and its organization in PRIVACY IN THE COMPUTER AGE: PERCEPTIONS AND REALITIES by Barbara Moans One aspect of visual literacy is economy, he notes the central role of computer literacy.As more and more computers and information.Toff ler people become computer-literate, issues of (1981) also places the computer at the privacy are being raised more often. center of his vision of "electronic These issues involve individual rights, cottages," the workplace of the twenty- nationalconcerns, and international first century.Dutton, Blum ler, and cooperation. This paper begins with the Kraemer (1986) identify the "wired city" identification of major privacy issues at the to describe ways in which households and individual, national, and international businesses in urban areas will benefit from levels. The issues identified in the first theincreasinguseofinformation part of thc paper provide the basis for the technology.Thus, regardless of the second part of the paper, which is a report specific application of technology, of a survey in which subjects were asked consensus has been reached on the to indicate whether they felt the issue was increasing impact of information significant in general, and the extent to technology in all areas of life. which they personally felt affected by the issue.The paper concludes with a Computer literacyis also an discussion of results arid implications for important area within the general topic of further sriidy. visual literacy.Compaine (1988) links these two areas when he notes that skills in Almost everyone in contemporary information technology will be required in society has somc contact with information order to function in society.He also technology. From computers that generate argues that this form of literacy will utility bills and digital switching devices supplement rather than supplant other on long distance telephone calls to sensors definitions of literacy. He further on traffic lights that control traffic flow, compares traditional definitions of literacy, computers are occupying a central role in in which he includes devices such as the our lives.In addition, ample evidence printing press and the steam engine, with exists that information technology will changes in the way in which people think continue to expand in the years ahead. about conceptualizing and processing information as a result ef information Theoretical Perspective technology.In other words, to be computer-literate, one must be a computer Several researchers have identified user, but not a computer programmer. areas in which information technology will continue to have an impact on everyday Education is one area in which the live. Williams (1984), for instancc, growth of information technology has had identifies the following: the growth of the a great impact. From preschoolers who "information business;" transportation; are introduced to computers, to research governance and politics; health care; work; universities with the availability of leisure;education;andnational supercomputing, computers are being development and world order.In his integrated into education more and more. analysis, Bell (1973) focuses on the Estes and Williams (1988) cite four changing character of work inthe reasons for this. First is thc demand from information economy.Citing the shift parents, school boards, and citizens for from an industrial-based to a service-based computer instruction in the classroom. Computer Age 237

Secondly, decreasing costs for personal more recent study, Gandy (1989) warns computers have resulted in greater about the increasing use of automated numbers of p.c.s. ben purchased by methods of surveillance devices as educational institutions.Thirdly is the potential sources of threatstothe ease of interactivity of this technology with individual.Although Gandy is most otherforms,includingprinters, concerned about privacy at the individual videodiscs, videotapes, etc.Finally, the level, concerns occur at the national and instructional processitself can be international levels as well. improvedthrough individualized instructions, which has become more At the individual level, questions feasible with the growth of information continue to be raised about the safeguards technology. In short, computers are being to the individual's right of privacy in a used by more students at all levels. For technological age. Recognizing that many many students facing the workplace of the Western governments have acknowledged twenty-first century, familiarity with and established rights to privacy in their information technology will be a necessity political and/or judicial systems, these in order to compete in the global market. researchers cite the protection of privacy as a fundamental issues.While agreement These information technologies, seems to exist on the need for data however, do not exist in a vacuum. They acquisition, privacy concerns generally are are being developed and integrated within raised on rights to access to the data once it existing political, economic, and social has been gathered (Schirmacher, 1986). concerns and issues (Gillespie & Robins, Such concerns range from information in 1989). One of the most commonly-cited data banks, which might be used by areas of concern is privacy. Although the business or government, to information role of privacy in the computer age in which a "hacker" might discover on an general has been widely-studied, specific individual's personal computer. privacy issues or threats to privacy are continually being raised. Mendes (1988) At the national level, privacy issues guides readers through a myriad of are most closely related to the issues of definitions of privacy, ranging from security.Different nations in the world constitutional, common-law, and statutory communityhavetakendifferent definitions, to five major types of privacy approaches to these questions.In the concerns.She modifies Westin's 1967 United States, for instance, many early definition of privacy to arrive at the technologicaladvances have been following definition:"a condition in developed for strategic/military purposes, which individuals, groups, or institutions or matters of national security or national can determine for themselves, when, how, defense. At these initial stages, funding and to what extent private information has come primarily or exclusively from thc about them is communicated to others." In federal government. As the technological accepting this definition for privacy, this innovation expands beyond its defense- author believes that such conditions can be relatedapplications,subsequent either real (occurring in the external world) development shifts from government to or perceptual (people believe them to be business and industry. On the other hand, real, even without external verification). the governments of several European Definitions of privacy that include both nations have taken a more central role in real and perceptual dimensions is not information technology development. without foundation.In 1984, a study Although policies and practices vary, in conducted by Louis Harris and associates general, the role of government in (1983) found that people in the United information technology has been more States not only believedthatthe direct in Europe (Monfils & Monfils, centralization of information from many 1991). In Japan, too, direct governmental sources is possible with computers, but it involvement has been clear and significant. is also a threat to personal privacy.In a

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At the international level, issues of 3. Do relationships exist between privacy become even more complex. They the amount of technology use and level of include not only the validity of information concern of privacy at the individual, being transmitted across international national, and/or international levels? boundaries, but also its ownership. Concerns have also been raised as to the 4.Is the perception that computers rights, responsibilities, and protections are likely to invade, or have already that people have in trans-border data flow. invaded, personal privacy related to For instance, do law enforcement agencies concerns over specific types of privacy in One country have the right to share issues--i.e., individual, national, and information with their counterparts in other international concerns? countries, or does this violate the individual's right to privacy?What To an5wer these questions, a survey accountability exists with the way in which was distributed to 145 university students thc receiving agency uses this information? in the Midwest in the U.S.In order to Does the individual have a right to be maketh sample more broadly notified? What about issues that are in the representaave, questionnaires were common interest,such as sharing distributed to students at all levels in their information about possible terrorist groups university studies, ranging from freshmen or organizations? These issues are far to graduate students, and to students in from being settled (Monfils & Monfils, day and evening classes. Moreover, they 1991). were distributed to students on two different university campuses, one Thus, a synthesis of research has led primarily a resident campus and one in to the identification of privacy concerns at which more than half of the students do the individual, national, and international not live on campus. Data collected from levels. These concerns relate to rights to these surveys was analyzed using Release privacY, protection from access by 4.1 of SPSS (Statistical Package from the unauthorized persons or agencies, national Social Sciences). In this questionnaire, defense, and international laws and students were asked to indicate how often cooperation. To what extent these they used several forms of information concerns are actually being perceived by technology, ranging from programming a individuals is the focus of this research VCR to using a personal computer. These study. questions formed the basis of a "Uses" subscale. They were also asked to indicate Method if they owned a personal computer or had taken a course with hands-on computer As computers arc introduced more training. They were then asked to indicate and more into education, students become how much of a concern they felt on thc beneficiaries of these technological invasion of privacy by computers in advances.As students become more general, and on twenty specific privacy- experiencedusersofinformation related issucs. Responses were based on a technology, they should understand the scale from "not likely at all to happen" to limits of technology in regard to privacy. "has already occurred." These questions This study was done in order to provide becamethe"Concerns" subscale. answerstothefollowing research Demographic information on gender, age, questions: major, and year in college was also gathered. Alpha coefficients were I. Are university students using computed for the entire instrument and for computers on a regular basis? the Uses and Concerns subscales of the questionnaire, with scores of .67, .78, 2.If so, what concerns regarding and .93, respectively. privacy do university students have? Results of this survey confirmed that

2 4 Computer Age 239 most university students use computer agencies. On the other side, 47 percent technology regularly, i.e., at least once a said it was likely to happen or has already month. Forty-one per cent said they happened that the government has excess played computer games regularly, while information on them, 5 2 percent eighty-three per cent said they used a responded similarly about the IRS, and 46 personal computer for purposes other than percent said national security agencies playing games at least once a month. either have or were likely to have Forty-seven per cent said they used the excessive information. mainframe university computer regularly, and thirty-six percent regularly used a Respondents were also asked to mainframe computer at work.Forty indicate how likely it was to happen that percent of those surveyed said they owned international governments ar d international a p.c., and one-half said they'd taken or law enforcement agencies can learn were taking a computer course with hands- information aboutthemthrough on training.Thus, in this study, most information technology. Responses students use personal computer on a ranged from 30 percent as not at all likely regular basis. or unlikely to happen to 36 percent who viewed this as likely to happen or already Students were than asked to indicate happening in reference to international to what extent they felt concerned about governments. When asked about certainissuesrelatedtoprivacy. international law enforcement agencies, 29 Questions were asked relating to concerns percent said it was not at all likely or attheindividual,national,and unlikely, while 48 percent said it was very international levels. Specific applications likely or had already happened.Thus, included banking, telephone services, students expressed concerns on issues grades, insurance, employment screening, related to privacy at the individual, law enforcement, and airline reservations. national, and international level, with some issues at the individual level being For concerns at the individual level, perceived as more likely to happen than the question receiving the highest number others. of responses as being very likely to happen or has already happened was the Pearson product-momcnt correlation question of access by law enforcement coefficients were computed to assess agencies (87%), followed by insurance relationships betweenamountof companies (71%), access to academic technology use and concern over privacy records (52%), driving records (51%), issues. This was assessed in two ways: and access to credit card numbers by by individual uses of computers and by a unauthorized persons (50%).Students combined category called general use. The showed the least level of concern that a general use category was determined by computer hacker could learn things about combining four types of computer use-- them (7%). game-playing, p.c. use, or mainframe usc, either at the university or at work. Three questions were used to assess Statistically significant relationships were level of concern in regard to privacy on a found in many categories. national level--the government, the Internal Revenue Service, and national security For instance, a significant direct agencies. Respondents split fairly evenly relationship was found between those who on both sides of these three questions, regularly play computer games and the with 27 per cent expressing little or no concern over access by law enforcement concern about the government's having agencies (r = .165; p = .05). A excessive information on them, 23 per significant inverse relationship occurred cent expressing little or no concern about between those who regularly use a the IRS, and 30 percent expressing similar personal computer for purposes othcr than sentiments about nationalsecurity game-playing and concern over access by

245 240 Verbo-Visual Literacy law enforcement agencies (r = -.265;p Thc fourth research question was = .0 I).Similar concerns were seen whether relationships existed between among those who regularly use a perceptions of invasion of privacy by mainframe at work (r = -.207;p = computer technology and specific privacy .05). Non game-playing regular users of concerns. Pearson correlations were personal computers were also found to computed between responses to the item, have a significant inverse relationship "My personal privacy is invaded by with the concern over access to high computer technology," and each of the school or university grades (r = -.218; twenty specific concerns.Statistically p = .0 1), while work-related mainframe significant direct correlations were found use inversely correlated with concerns for all twenty applications. over records in data banks (r = -.235;p = .0 1). The same inverse relationship Results are as follows: was seen between those who regularly use a mainframe at the university and concern concern over. access to driving records (r over records in data banks (r = -.189;p = .398;p = .01); unauthorized access = .05) and the concern of unauthorized to grades (r = .343; p = .01); changing of scores on computer games (r unauthorized access to bank records (r = =-.17 0; p=.0 5). Direct .341;p = .01); unauthorized access to relationships were established between the telephone calling card number (r = .303; combined category of general computer p = .0 1); unauthorized access to credit use and concerns over access by law card number (r = .246; p = .01); enforcement agencies (r = .1951;p = insurance companies (r = .326; p = .0 5) and records kept in data banks (r = .0 1); prospective employers (r = .331; .1932; p =.05). An inverse p = .05); law enforcement agencies (r = relationship was detected among general .213;p = .05); computer hackers (r = uses and concerns that others could learn .269; p = .0 1); computer's keeping telephone calling card numbers (r= track of who and when phone calls are -.1817;p = .05). On the other hand, made (r = .194; p = .0 1); records kept no statistically significant correlations on computer data banks (r = .406;p = were found between ownership of a .0 1); unauthorized alteration of scores on personal computer and privacy concerns. computer games (r = .190;p = .05); Inverserelationships were found unknown people know a lot about me bctwccn taking a class with hands-on because of computer data banks (r = computer training and the following two .338; p= .0 5); unauthorized concerns: law enforcement agencies (r = withdrawal of funds from bank account (r -.182;p = .05) and computer hackers = .323;p = .01); the Government (r = (r = -.168;p =.05). Direct .278;p = .01); The Internal Revenue correlations were found between levels of Service (r = .274; p = .01); national computer anxiety and the following security agencies (r = .290;p = .0 1); concerns: unauthorized access to driving international governments (r = .261;p records (r= .234; p=.01); = .0 1); international law enforcement unauthorized access to grades (r = .237; agencies (r = .272;p = .01); and p = .05); unauthorized access to bank airlines (r = .370;p = .01). records (r= .201; p=.05); unauthorized access to credit card numbers Discussion (r = .190; p =.0 5); insurance companies (r = .253; p =.05); Thisstudyrevealedseveral unauthorized withdrawal of funds from significant aspects. First, university bank accounts (r = .207; p = .05); students in this study were shown to be international governments (r = .196; p high users of computer technology, = .05); and international law enforcement whether for relaxation, school, or work. agencies (r = .235;p = .05). Secondly, students expressed concerns about privacy issuesatalllevels, Computer Age 241 individual, national, and international. information technology. Norwood: While hands-on computer training may Ablex. lower concerns about computer hackers and computers that keep track of phone DeLoughry, T. J.(1993, April 28).2 calls,as level of computer anxiety researchers say lechnophobia' may increases, so, too, do concerns over afflict millions of students. Chronicle driving records, grades, banking records, of Higher Education, 39(34). insurance, international governments and international law enforcement agencies. Dutton, W., Blumler, J., & Kraemer, K. However, the most revealing aspect of this L. (1986). Wired cities; Shaping the study was the extent to which general future of communication. Boston, perceptions of invasion of personal MA: Hall. privacy by computer technology have a significant,directrelationshipto Estes, N., & Williams, V. (1988). individual, national, and international Computers in Texas schools:Key concerns. issues for education in the information age. In F. Williams (Ed.), Measuring This study, however, is limited by the inforrnation society. Newbury certain factors. University students in this Park: Sage. study regularly use computers to a greater extent than in several other studies, which Feigenbaum, E. A., & McCorduck, P. suggest that many university students do (1983). The fifth generation: Artificial not regularly use computers.Similarly, intelligence and Japan's computer reported levels of computer anxiety in this challenge to the world. Reading: study were less than other studies, some Addison-Wesley. of which suggest that up to one-third of university students may be computer- Gandy, 0.H.Jr. (1989). The phobic (DeLoughry, 1993).In addition, surveillance society: Information this study used self-reports of anxiety technology and bureaucratic social level, rather than applying other forms of control.Journal of Communication, measurement. Thus, the generalization of 39(3), 61-76. results from this study may be limited. Gillespie, A., & Robins, K.(1989). The relationships between computer Geographical inequalities: The spatial literacy and ethics have yet to be fully bias of the new communications documented. This study confirms technologies. Journalof research that significant relationships do Communication, 39(3), 7-18. exist between computer use and concerns over privacy issues. It is a topic that bears Harris, L., & Associates. (1983, not only watching, but also assessing, as December). The road after 1984: The information technology continues to impact of technology on society. expand into the everyday life. Study conducted for the Southern New England Telephone for presentation at References theEighth Annual Smithsonian Symposium. Bell, D.(1973).The coming of post- industrial society: A venture in social Mendes, M. W.(1988).Privacy and forecasting. New York: Basic Books. computer-based information systems. In B. M. Compaine (Ed.), Issues in Compaine, B. M.(1988). Information new information technology. technology and culturalchange: Toward a new literacy.In B. M. Monfils, B. S., & Monfils, L. D. (1991, Compaine (Ed.), Issues in new July).You, me, and the government: Issues in software technology transfer. 247 142 Verbo-Visual Literacy

PaperpresentedtotheWorld Toff ler, A.(1981).The third wave. Communication Association Biennial London: Pan. Conference, Helsinki, Finland. Williams,F.(1984).T he new Schirmacher, W. (1986). Privacy as an communications. Belmont, CA: ethical problem in the computer Wadsworth. society. In C. Mitchan & A. Huning (Eds.), Philosophy and technology II. Dordrecht: D. Reidel. COMPREHENSIBILITY by Rune Pettersson

Some people are continuously in the comprehensible, otherwise they will have process of creating documentssuch as no effect. PMs, messages, instructions, reports, descriptions, and course literature. Some Communication of these documents are meant only for distribution within limited groups, while Communication takes place when a others will be spread to many different sender wants to convey one or more readers both inside and outside the messages to one or more receivers. The company. However, because anyauthor's sender transfers the messages to the intended message may be interpreted in receivers with the help of different media. different ways by different readers, A medium and its contents (the message) problems arise. In some cases, readers do constitute a representation. not understand the documentation at all. In this report,Ishall focus on Itisdifficultto create easily formulating the message. As the reader understood information. On the other will see,thediscussionof hand, it is simple enough to require ease of co m pre hen si bi 1 i ty i s fundamentally comprehension. But what is actually applicable to all media. implied when we say that a message is comprehensible?. On occasi on, unfortunately, communication does not seem to function. Tosomeoneworkingwith This may depend on insufficient information, it is not sufficient that a information, but it may also be because we message be produced and transmitted, as have difficulty reaching each other. By in radio and television, nor is it sufficient way of example, the following title is cited that a message be produced, transmitted, as a warning in "The Technical Writer's and received by an audience. The act of Handbook" by Matt Young (1989): communicating is not complete until our "Conditional symbolic modified single- message has been both received and digit arithmetic using optical content- understood by the audience.In other addressable memory logic elements: words, our messages must always be Conditional symbolic modified signed- digit arithmetic operators" (p. 206).

Representation

Message

Communication. A representation is a medium with a specific message. The sender transfers his message to the receiver with the help of a medium.

249 144 Verbo-Visual Literacy

Esoteric and impenetrable jargon like Good documentation implies very this can be perceived as incoinprehensible good comprehensibility and low cost, as by the uninitiated. Since readers who do well as ready accessibility when itis not know the code are left out, its use needed--and only then, in fact.Poor poses therisk of "one-way only" comprehensibility causes the receiver's communication, and has no value outside confidence in the sender to diminish, and of initiated circles. We find it unsettling heightens the risk of unsound decisions when experts speak down to us; it puts us being made. Many good suggestions may into a defensive frame of mind, and may be rejected because those whose job it is to even cause us to become obstinate. determine their practical merit simply do Interaction analysts describe this as a not understand what the suggestions call "You're OK, I'm not OK" reaction. for. However, what we should be striving for is a "You're OK, I'm OK" situation. Comprehending means understanding the immediate or fundamental When a document is to be read and meaning of something. A message is understood by several people, there is comprehensible if it can be grasped ample reason to expend effort on achieving without difficulty. Whether a message-- a good quality of information. When this for example, a technical report--can be isachieved, we can discern the understood or not is dependent on many information'sesthetic,informative, different factors, of which some relate to pedagogical, and technical qualities, and the sender, others relate to the message or sometimes even its entertainment value. representation, and still others relate to the Good information quality can be defined receiver (see the picture on the next page). as thc degree of congruity between the sender's and the receiver's subjective Speaking and writing are language- perceptions of the information, as well as related activities performed by the sender. of the reality that the information These activities are influenced by the represents.By investing resources in sender's earlier observations, as well as by improving the quality of information, we his terminology and the language he uses. can achieve better product and project Besides being active, the sender is in quality, while at the same time making charge of encoding the message, i.e., its large cost savings. production and distribution. It seems as though arcane, abstruse Listening and reading are language- texts have become a global problem in related activities performed by the receiver. technical and scientific documentation. As is the case with the sender, the Kirkman (1992) opens the first chapter of receiver's activities are influenced by his his book "Good Style" with the following earlier observations, as well as by his two paragraphs: terminology and the language he uses. Besides being relatively passive,the It is surely axiomatic that the aim of receiver is in charge of acception and technical writing isto transmit decoding the message. information accurately, quickly and economically from one person to The picture on the following page another.Then why do so many shows a model of comprehensibility with a scientists and engineers make their graphic verbo-visual message as an writing so heavily unreadable? example. This model is also applicable to Obviously, their subject matter is oral communication and communication sometimes complex and conceptually via audio-visual media. difficult; butfrequentlythc 'unreadability' stems from the use of The readability, legibility, and a style that makes the reader's task reading value of the graphic message are much heavier than it need be. (p. 2) of decisive importance to the recver's Comprehensibility 245 abilityto understandit.(Audibility, reading process. distinctness, and listening value are of similar importance to th:. ,Inderstanding of Therefore, we shall attempt here to oral texts.)Moreover, these factors-- show the relation of readability, legibility, besides being influenced by the writing and reading value, as well as credibility process--are all prerequisites for the and esthetics, to the message rather than to

Earlier experiences

Sender's Linguistic writing quality process

Production and distribution

Reading Reada- value bility Credibility Message Esthetics

Legibility

Message received

Receiver's Terminology reading process

earlier experiences

Comprehensibility.Our ability to understand a verbo-visual message (for example, a technical report) is dependent upon its readability, its legibility, and its reading value. Comprehensibility is influenced by the message's credibility and esthetics, by the sender's writing process and the receiver's reading process.

25 146 Verbo-Visual Literacy the sender or the receiver. By proceeding impressions of reality. Our deeper from the writing process (i.e.,the understanding of a text is influenced by the terminology of the message, as well as its schemata that we bring to the fore when credibility and linguistic value), we shall we read. try to analyze how we can achieve greater comprehensibility. A few brief glances at a picture are enough for us to recognize it again among It is clear that we must help those other pictures. Shopping in a department who work wi th documentation, store, for example, we are passively information, and training to become better conscious, i.e., we know, that there are a writers themselves, a goal that will also great many advertisements in the form of require the help of professional technical pictures and text--and usually background instructors, translators, graphics experts music as well--all around us, even though and designers.By developing explicit it all fuses into something our senses terminology, we can make things easier perceive as noise.It is plausible that we for writers as well as for their readers. process most of these stimuli at a superficial level: We see and hear, but we Experiences do not look or listen. To examine this more closely, let us imagine five cognitive Texts and pictures may be either easy mental levels arranged like the steps of a or difficult to interpret.The degree to staircase (Pettersson, 1989): which they are one or the other can depend on several different factors. If,for creating example, a reader lacks the background text, pictures, knowledge in a given field that is required music in order for him to interpret a text, then there is no chance that he will understand analysingtext, it, no matter how diligently the writers, pictures, music instructors,graphicsexperts, and designers exert themselves. The same will reading text and pictures, bc truc if the reader's command of the listening to music language used is poor. looking at text and pictures, Everyone learns to read words, but hearing music we must learn to read pictures (Pettersson, 1989)aswell.Therefore, pictorial being aware of the presence of text, language must be adapted to the viewer's pictures, music. capacity forinterpreting it. Communication can be said to function Looking at a picture expends more successfully between the picture-maker mental energy and demands a higher and the viewer if the viewer understands, cognitive level than merely seeing that a to the fullest extent, what the picture- picture is there.Similarly, listening to maker wants the picture to say, and if the music requires more concentration than message conveyed is unambiguous. hearing background music. These impressions, on being received, are Gunnarsson (1982) discusses conveyed from the sensory memory to the specific reader characteristics from the short-term or working memory. Some of perspective of the schemata theory, which the information proceeds on through the is based on the premise that wc store our filtering system and becomes consciously impressions of our surroundings in the perceptible to the receiver. However, after form of schemata. The thcory postulates a short while, most of this information that we have different partial impressions, disappears. such as general knowledge about different types of text, as well as different whole (.71 ..) 2 Comprehensibility 247

When we study, we take an active energy trying to make sense out of part in the contents of the material. We uninteresting information. read texts, we listen to music, we read pictures. This consciously perceived Because they influence us in an information is processed, sorted, and emotional way, pictures have an enormous stored in certain parts of our long-term impact. Children, for example, can be memory. In the case of a picture, we may easily frightened by violent action on need to focus on different portions of it a television, but they are not upset by number of times (so-called eye fixations) reading about violent action in a book. to be able to describe it later on. This is in part because what we see seems more tangible to us than what we read, but Conscious analysis of verbal it is also because reading a text requires a messagesrequiresevengreater higher cognitive level than viewing a expenditure of mental energy and demands picture does. Several researchers, among a still higher cognitive level.Most them TrOger (1963) and Noble (1975), demanding of all are the creative processes have demonstrated that very small children that make it possible to create texts, music, are incapable of taking an active part in the and pictures.Authors, composers, and content, or understanding the context, of artists all bear witness to the mental strain material shown on a television screen. that can be a part of the creative process. Most parents with toddlers have made the The cognitive model with its five levels, as same observation. shown above, presupposes a dynamic mental process in which we change There are no fixed or distinct borders cognitive levels both consciously and between the five levels of our cognitive unconsciously. model. Depending on cultural, social, and intellectual factors, there may be great Our sensory organs react to changes differences between various persons' in our surroundings. Normally, we can ways of conforming to the model. Then perceive changes (in spatial properties, for too, mood, health, surroundings, and a example) that are greater than about two number of other circumstances can cause percent. On the other hand, we adapt one and the same individual to react very ourselves to slow, gradual changes, so differently at different times. However, that we barely notice them at all.Our what the model reveals is that there is in normal condition, therefore, is a state of fact a great difference between the mental repose that affords us the capacity concepts of seeing--looking--reading and f o r sudden,rapidactivity. hearing--listening. Correspondingly, we cannot keep ourselves at the highest cognitive levels for Actively taking part in a linguistic more than a limited time; the effort would message that consists of text, sound or require too much energy and would pictures, either together or separately, probably induce some kind of mental always implies the exertion of effort, i.e., cramp. Like a pike lurking among reeds, work.Reading or listening taxes our or a cat spying outside a mouse's hole, we faculties; sooner or later we become tired. know what our surroundings look like. If Furthermore, material that is poorly something happens to change some constructed and/or presented strikes us as familiar element in our milieu, we can react dull, and not only causes our interest in the swiftly and decisively, impelled by a rush subject to wane, but leaves us exhausted. of mental and physical energy. Sometimes things turn out fine: The pike gets his This applies irrespective of whether a minnow, the cat gets her field mouse, and message is meant to impart information, wc find the information we are looking instruction, or entertainment.It also for.But things can turn into a muddle, applies irrespective of the medium of too:The predators fail to capture their conveyance, except insofar as different prey, and we end up wasting time and media have entirely different capacities for

253 148 Verbo-Visual Literacy conveying a message from a sender to a gather and sort our material, as well as receiver. plan and outline our presentation. We need to choose the type-face, graphical form, Stromquist (1991) points out that we and medium. It may be possible to use all have proficiency in, and insight into, fixed writing patterns and established the labours of writing. We all know how models. writing is done. We know that the writing process consists of more than simply When we have formulated the text, committing words to paper; indeed, it we shall need to process it and adapt it, so presupposes long-term memory and that it will suit our target group. We may familiarity with the things that have to do have to rewrite the text as many as ten with writing. In other words, writing is an times before it is right. Although it may be extensive, time-consuming, dynamic, true that even the most complicated texts gradual,cognitive,andstrenuous can be presented in a comprehensible business. form, all writers need practice, practice, and still more practice.Liljestrand and The Writing Process Arwidson (1979) assert the following:

The section Writing Advice contains Complicated texts are often defended concrete instructions, i.e., rules of thumb, on the grounds that their subject on how to write so that your text will be matter is complicated. In reality, understandable. however, the more difficult the subject is, the more one must attempt The physical act of writing down to express it in a comprehensible one's thoughts with the help of a pen or a way. It is surely more reasonable to keyboard does not usually require a great expect that someone who is writing deal of time.It generally takes longer to for several people expend effort on think what the tcxt should consist of than the writing of his text, than that the to formulate it. Thus, the writing process various receivers be obliged, each on encompasses much more than merely hisown,toexpendeffort writing, and it is relatively independent of interpreting it! (p. 15) thc language used. We work more or less the same way when we write English as Also Stromquist (1991)) maintains when we write Swedish or any other that everyone must practice writing to language. become good at it.Writing is a skill that we can learn. She says the following (in Before we begin writing, we need to translation): "It is only by writing oneself identify the subject and define the purpose that one can fully understand the of thc message. This always requires complicated writing process; it is only by analysis of the target group or receiver. writing oneself that one discovers where Receiver analysis might contain evaluation the problem lies" (p. 35). of the receiver's basic understanding of the subject, his trade knowledge, experiences, Texts may need to be augmented by skills, comprehensive capacity, attitudes, the addition of pictures, for example, prejudices,motivation, linguistic photographs or schematic diagrams. I competence, social background and often begin the work of writing by making vocation, as well as his agc and the groups a comprehensive picture, which sometimes he belongs to or identifies with. Because develops into a short suite of pictures all of these factors influence how the before I begin work on the text. Bergquist receiver takes in and understands a (1991) gives textbook authors five terse, message, they arc decisive to how we shall vigorous instructions in the form of formulate thc text. commandments (in translation): To begin with, we shall need to Comprehensibility 249

The first commandment: Don't Phonologyisthe study of write! Even if the author's first phonemes, i.e., the smallest impulse is to start writing at units of semantic differentiation once, itis essential to start found in spoken language, and writing at once, it is essential to combinations of these units. The begin with an outline. smallest written unit that fills a sem a n ti cally differentiating The second commandment: Use function is called a grapheme. pictures!Get a picture to illustrate each section; wait with Morphology, the study of form your text. or structure, deals with how words are formed and inflected. The third commandment: Write captions for each picture! Each Syntax is the study of the rules picture should have a relevant for combining words into text, which may even have a grammatical phrases, clauses, heading. sentences, and paragraphs. The fourth commandment: Talk Style is the way of expressing to your editor!Together, the thought in writing or speaking by writer and the editor can expand selecting and arranging words a factual outline into a detailed for clarity, effectiveness, and outline for each layout. The ease of reading. outline contains room for both text and pictures. Pragmatics is, in linguistics, the study of the causal and other The fifth commandment: Write relations between words and in a structured manner! The text how we connect words to should complement the pictures. express ourselves correctly. Therefore, write in the space between the pictures. The editor Infology is the study of how provides the author with exact verbo-visual informationis data about the number of strokes presented and read. each line of text may fill. The way in which good quality of The actual process of designing and language is defined is, to some extent, creatingintegratedverbo-visual dependent upon the purpose of the text. information is called infography.When Technical writers, for example, are more text,picture, and graphic form are consciously concentrated on getting results integrated into a fully delimited, structure than other writers.Because technical surface (a functioning whole), the result is language must be capable of effectively a graphical information entity,usually conveying as much information as known as information graphics, that can possible to a certain group of readers, it is be interwoven with texts and pictures in a characterized in its ideal form by brevity, information layout. clarity, and precision (see the section on Technology). Quality of Language AccordingtoMelin (1992), Thereareseveraldifferent comprehensibility in a text is largely subheadings under the general heading dependent upon perspective, abstraction, quality of language,among them, context, complexity, and redundancy. As phonology, morphology, syntax, style, it is, these qualities are themselves difficult pragmatics, and infology. to describe; small wonder, then, that the 250 Verbo-Visual Literacy comprehensibilityoftextdefies character index offers more thorough assessment. information about a text than the readability index does. In an experiment, Kirkman (1992) allowed a group of people to rate six The nominal quotient gives the total different versions of four technical and number of nouns, prepositions, and scientific texts.In terms of content, the participles divided by the total number of texts were equal to each other, but they pronouns, verbs, and adverbs. A good varied in their style of language. All told, information text has a quotient of slightly somc three thousand people took part in more than 1.0. Text with a lower nominal the experiment.In the case of all four quotient seems chatty, whereas text with a texts, the test group rated the versions that higher nominal quotient is cumbersome. were written in an active, direct, and personal style as being the most easy to Research into readability has been read and understand. Contrarily, the directed towards finding the characteristics versions written in a passive, indirect, and that make texts easy or difficult to neutral style, with complicated sentence understand.Gunnarsson (1982) points structure, were judged by the test group as out that the psychological equivalent to being the most difficult to read and readability ismerelysuperficial understand. understanding. Therefore, she prefers to use comprehensibility as the term for To describe the properties of text, the characteristics that are related to deeper, linguist works with advanced text specific text understanding. Gunnarsson's analysis. However, it ivelatively easy to theory of comprehensibility is based partly describe a text's readability by using a on the correlation between the level of readability index, a character index, and a understanding and the level of the text, and nominal quotient. partly on the premise that what is read influences the reading process. The premises on which the readability and character indexes are based It is also possible to calculate the is that long words and sentences make a readability of pictures (Pettersson, 1989) text difficult to read. The readability index by using the picture-readability index, isthe sum of two calculations: the which takes into account a picture's percentage proportion of long words functional properties and expresses how (consisting of--depending on the language easy or difficult the picture is to read. A in question--the number of !etters or picture that we are unable to understand syllables in a given word), and the average cannot communicate anyfactual number of words per sentence. The information. The easier it is to read a readabilityindex,whileusually picture,the betterit can convey corresponding rather well both to people's information. subjective experience of a text's readability and to their results in comprehension tests, In the USA, there is an increasing has received strong criticism because incidence of lawsuits being brought varied sentence length actually contributes against manufacturers. These suits claim to case of reading. damages as a result of accidents occurring or products breaking because of poor The character index can be looked on quality in the language of instruction as a visualization of the readability index. manuals (Helyar, 1992). The courts are Each sentence is analyzed and noted on a demanding that technical manuals, chart depicting a systcm of coordinates, in brochures, information sheets, labels, etc., which the y axis represents the number of be written in comprehensible language, long words and the x axis the numbcr of and that descriptions and instructions be words per second. Thus, by graphically readable andlegible.Everywhere, providing more than a single mean, the plaintiffs'counselsaresearching

25G Comprehensibility 251 frenetically for sections of text and parts of might be sufficient to set the type between pictures that might be interpreted in nine and twelve points, although on a . conflicting ways. If a manufacturer's display screen, the text should be at least technical documentation is difficult to three to five times as large. The text on a understand, he can lose a lawsuit. poster meant to be read from some distance may need to be ten times greater The Message in size. The message is the link between the Legibility in the written word is sender and the receiver.The sender comparable to audibility in the spoken designs the message and sends it off. The word. receiver receives it, and tries to understand it. Readability Teleman (1991) points out that the The readability of the message systems of rules that govern spoken and involves the reader's ability to understand written language are similar in many ways. its text and pictures (compare the earlier Originally, writing was a way of depicting section on the readability and character speech, but the two coded systems later indexes and the nominal quotient). went their separate ways. The most Readability is determined by the content tangible feature of the rules for written and its presentation, and depends upon the language is their standardization. In most degree to which it is adapted to the western countries, the written language is receiver's capacity to understand it.The comprehensible throughout the country writer and the picture-maker need to take and does not reflect differences in dialect. into account the reader's knowledge, interests, and needs in order to compile, An essential difference between the sort, and structure the material. This is spoken arid the written message is the time also true with regard to the formulation of available for transmitting them. The texts and pictures. production of speech must take place in the here and now; the speaker and his listener Readability in the written word is communicate in real time. On the other comparable to distinctness in the spoken hand, the writer and his reader can take all word. the time they need. Reading value In the written message, legibility, readability, and reading value are vitally The message's reading value is the importantto the message's receiver's subjective evaluation of the comprehensibility. content of the text and pictures. What is interesting to one person can be deemed Legibility dull by another. We must therefore adapt text as well as pictures to be palatable to The graphical message's legibility is any given target group. determined by the technical design of the text and the picture, i.e., their clarity. Reading value in the written word is Legibility can be measured rather comparable to listening value in the spoken objectively, and its quality is assessable word. whether we understand its content or not. As far as the text is concerned, we should Pictures avoid unusual type-face, as well as type- face that is too small or too large. Whenproducing informative material, the sender always has a reason We read each word in a text as a for adapting his message so that the picture, not letter by letter. In a book it receiver understands it.Pettersson (1989) 25 7 252 Verbo-Visual Literacy reports on a number of experiments in We are able to differentiate which altogether 4,350 people described between immediate and analytical how they interpreted thc contents of understanding of pictures. different pictures. The experiments clearly showed that: We create a pre-understanding of how apicture should be How a picture is understood is a interpreted based on the context relative thing. Different people in which the picture is shown. understand and describe the same picture in different ways. Media Even simple pictures need plain As a rule, the content of films and captions in order for the contents television programs is presented in a andpresentationtobe preordained fashion, which tends to conveyable in verbal form. encourage relative passivity in viewers. The same is true of prepared oral Pictures of abstract subjects are presentations. understood in considerably more varied ways than pictures with The reader of a book digests textual concrete subjects. and pictorial information at his own pace. If the information presented in the book Abstract subjects are described in has a structured surface, i.e., one in which concrete terms. the information is integrated into a single context, the reader can focus his attention Thc same intended theme or relatively freely. The experience is akin to subject can be expressed through the way we take in information in real-life many different pictures. situations.

Texts and pictures are completely Interactive video programs make it differentlanguages that possible to combine sound and moving complement each other. pictures;thus,theycanarouse considerable activity and commitment in The possibilities for combining the user.Because an interactive video texts and pictures are virtually program can stimulate the user to perform at a high cognitive level, it has the potential unlimited. to function well, both as a conveyor of information and as a teaching aid. There is not likely to be just one but several equally good options Credibility and Esthetics availabl e for achieving satisfactory communication. For a message to be effective, it needs not only to be credible but to merit Pictures that will be used for credibility as well. First, its content must information purposes should be correct and the quality of its text and always be given captions that pictures beyond reproach.Convincing confirm the interpretation that is arguments, proper references, and relevant mast relevant in the context. examples are other requirements, as is presentation of the message in concreteas The interplay between text, opposed to abstract--terms.Credi bi I i ty picture, and graphic form needs can also be influenced with the help of to be studied thoroughly before typography and layout. optimal combinations can be found. The National Swedish Psychological 0 :7 s',) c Comprehensibility 253

Defence Planning Committee has carried vocational fields. In technical reports, for out comprehensive studies of various example, one finds far more detail and media's credibility (Arvidson, 1981; uncommon wording than in the language Tornqvist,1974). Receivers of at large. information evaluate credibility according to how theyperceive the Terminology, the study of terms, straightforwardness, the factual content, encompasses terms, concepts, idioms, and the comprehensibility of the message. definitions,references, conceptual systems, and semantics. A term is a word Thus far in these tests, ether media or expression for a particular concept have always won the greatest credibility. found in a given field of work, in which it At the end of the 60s, television was has a specific and carefully determined considered superior in credibility, although meaning.A concept is an idea of by the beginning of the 70s, radio was something formed by mentally combining considered most credible. During the 80s, all its characteristics or particulars. An radio and television were felt to be equal in idiomisa fixed expression whose credibility; fully 80% of those questioned meaning is not discernible from the were in accord with this.However, it definitions of the individual words of does not seem as though people in Sweden which the expression is made up. A trust the information found in newspapers. definition is a description of a concept In the autumn of 1981, slightly more than rendered in words. A referent is an object, 10% judged the morning papers to be most abstract or concrete, for which a name or credible, while only 1-2% made that designation stands. A conceptual system, assessment of the evening papers' or a conceptual hierarchy, is a systematic information. description of the relations between the various concepts in a particular area of It is primarily the younger generation thought.Semantics is the study of the who have the most faith in television. The meaning of verbal expressions and the older we are, the more credible we find the implications of combinations of words. morning papers. Furthermore, trust in the morning papers is greater the higher our The subjectslexicology and level of education is. lexicography also belong to this area. Lexicology is the science that deals with Material with a (sufficiently) pleasing the structure of vocabulary. Lexicography esthetic form has greater potential for is both the study of how dictionaries are conveying a particular message than does compiled and the actual process of unaesthetic material (Pettersson, 1989). compiling and writing them. The sender's choice of graphical form will generate either positive or negative The Reading Process expectations in the receiver, while the choice of typography and layout can often Both the reading and the listening give the reader a pre-understanding of the processes require decoding of symbols, message's content. pre-understanding of words, phrases, and pictures, and, finally, comprehension of In other words, it is important that a thecontentoftheinformation. visual message exhibit good legibility, or, Furthermore, as we mentioned before, the it it is a spoken message, distinctness. The legibility, readability, and reading valur if message may be esthetically pleasing, but the written message influence the reading its content is more important than its form. process. In the case of the spoken message,th,'message'saudibility, Terminology distinctness, and listening value influence the hearing process. Therc arc as many different varieties of shop-talk, i.e., trade jargon, as there are As far as the receiver of the message

5 9 254 Verbo-Visual literacy is concerned, the following are some of a visual memory of the text's the factors that greatly influence his intake surface. of information: In registration of the text's Earlierexperiencesand content as such, the objective is observations. tounderstand the written message'sstructuraland Perception. conventional importance.

Learning. In comprehension of the sender's descriptionof reality,the Memory. objective is to understand what the sender means by the text. The reading objective. In integration of the text into The reading procedure. one's perception of one's own surroundings, the objective is to integrate the text into one's own Pre-understanding. earlierexperiencesand Memory observations. Reading texts and pictures, and In direct, action-related compre- actively listening, are dependent on our hension, the objective is to know short-term memory, as is all mental how one should behave in activity. Only a certain limited amount of different situations, based on information can be contained in the short- what the text says. term memory at any time. New information crowds out information that is The first objective involves reading older than about a second, and the older in order to recognize each word and information easily disappears if we are not memorize the text surface, while the prepared to store it in ouy long-term second requires us to read and understand mcmory. If we repeat the information a the words in the text.With objectives few times, wc increase our chances of three to five, reading is directed towards remembering it.Long, complex words in individual sentences, parts, and the whole tcxt arc not immediately apparent to us, of the text, and other proficiencies and Ourshort-term memory becomes ideas are brought to bear on the material. overloaded with long chains of words that Objective three, for example, obliges the cannot be directly put into a meaningful reader to interpret the text in terms of the context. sender's situation.Objectives four and five require that he interpret the text in The Reason for Taking inthe terms of his own surroundings and world Information view. Gunnarsson (1982) discusses five Moijer (1987) states that we read in different categories of reading objectives. different ways depending on what purpose What differentiates them is the kind of our reading serves. We read intensively, stored knowledge that must be invoked in every word and line, when our purpose order for understanding to take place. Of demands it. We skim if we only wish to course these categories are not sharply quickly get some idea of the material. We delimited, but overlap. read to orient ourselves if we want to know where in a text some particular In memorization of the textual information ifound. We read to inform surface, the objective is to create ourselves when we need certain limited

260 Comprehensibility 255 information. In each of these cases, we tables all have important functions to fill. leave out anything that does not directly satisfy the purpose of our reading. Television producers are usually good at showing what their programs are Differentreadingobjectives about. In countries with a great many (Gunnarsson, 1982) or purposes (Moijer, television channels, it has been noted that 1987) attached to reading give rise, viewers switch rapidly between different therefore, to different reading purposes. channels until they findprogram that These purposes differ in terms of the level awakes their interest. Sometimes a viewer of text on which the reader focuses, and in will make up his mind within the space of terms of how the material is processed. a couple of seconds (Matsushita, 1988). The Reading Procedure Language that is rich in similes and metaphors makes it easier for the reader to According to Gunnarsson (1982), paint his own inner pictures.A well the reading procedureis of great constructed text with clear, distinct importance to the reader's capacity for arrangement andlucid paragraph understanding a text.In normal reading, disposition,organized under well we direct our attention towards how we formulated headings and captions, affords shall interpret the meaning of a sentence. the best reading experience. Studying the syntax becomes subordinate to orienting our thoughts amid the Costs semantic and pragmatic relations that form the text's warp and woof. When we read When a great many people arc long continuous texts, we process separate requiredtoread and understand sentences with an eye to their integration information during working hours, the into the material's entirety.This takes cost incurred is great. It can be expensive place gradually, with the text that we have to produce information, but it costs even already read providing the framework. more to store, find, and use it. The greater Text comprehension is a constructive number of individuals who must partake process, in which the reader builds up his of certain information, the greater the cost perception of the whole by integrating the will be. The cost of reading is determined text with his own experiences. by the type of documents that will be read, as well as by the groups that will read Pre-Understanding them. Thus, presenting information in a suitable way offers great.opportunities for An important step in the reading saving money. In the handbook called process is pre-understanding (Pettersson, "Plain Talk from the Cabinet Office," that 1989). AsI mentioned before, the is provided for use by members of that graphical form of atextcreates body, Ehrenberg-Sundin (1982) states that expectations in the reader regarding its judicious planning of texts can save content.We expect certain types of millions.She writes as follows (in documents to look a particular way; translation): contrarily, when we see a document of a certain type we expect a particular type of It is expensive to read texts! The text and pictures to accompany it. Thus, it cost of reading is often many times is in the light of these expectations that we greater than the cost of writing and activate the cognitive processes needed to printing the material. Besides, if interpret the message. readers do not understand the text, or if they interpret it incorrectly, it The reader develops his own becomes VERY expensive!This methods for predicting what a text will bc problem can be solved by planning about. Introductions, abstracts, tables of text better. It should have a purpose contents, summaries, illustrations, and and the selection of its content must 61 156 Verbo-Visual Literacy

agree with that purpose. Thus, wc work on thc text represented only two can avoid the greatest reading percent of the total cost. expenses.If we help the reader further by writing comprehensible Writing Advice language and giving the text a sensible presentation as well as an Against the background of the arrangement that is logical to him, previousdiscussions (regarding we shall have saved still more time comprehensibility, communication, and money. experiences, the writing process, quality of language, message clarity, credibility Thecostofreading and and esthetics, terminology, the reading understanding text is in most cases many process, and costs), it is possible to give times greater than the cost of producing it. some concrete advice, or rules of thumb, Ehrenberg-Sundin (1982) offers an on good writing strategy as the key to estimate: good comprehensibility. These rules of thumb, besides being written so that any For a report that has cost SEK writer can easily follow them, are divided 80,(X)0 to print and just as much to into the following sections: Analysis, writc (four months' salary for a preparation, writing, using pictures, and committee secretary), the cost of doing the final touching-up.In some reading it will be SEK 1,600,000 if places, references to relevant literature are 1,000 persons spend eight working given, if you want to penetrate the material hours each (at SEK 200 per hour) to more deeply. read and understand it. The greater the number of people Analysis who are meant to read a text, the greater the incentive is to expend Investigate who will read your extra effort on making it easy to text. read! What characteristics do the In private companies, thc cost per readers have? hour is usually reckoned at SEK 400 or more, instead of SEK 200. (Since 1982 What is the purpose of your these costs have increased considerably message?Do you want to due to inflation; however, the rations inform, give instructions, or rcmain the same.) Thus, in industry, influence your readers? savings in this area can be still greater than they might be in the public sector. Are thc readers positively or negatively disposed to your Mc lin (1986), and others refer to a message? What aretheir cost estimate that was carricd out at thc expectations? Swedish Telecommunications Administration (Televerket). The total cost of a 20-page technical report was estimated How will you convey your in SEK per page as follows: message to the readers? What medium or media will you use? Writing 5.60 Printing 1.40 What financial conditions or Storage 25.00 limitations apply to your work? Reading 225.00 What externalfactors can In otherwords, thc cost of reading influence how the readers will thc repmt wasmany times greater than all interpret your message? the other costsput together. The author's

2 Comprehensibility 257

Preparation presented in a similar way. A well-thought-out graphical form When you create a message, contributestothereaders' always proceed from what you understanding. yourself know about the readers. What is the readers' level of Writing text knowledge? General Draw up a preliminary plan for your writing.Allot sufficient Let your writing be simple, clear, time for it. and concise. Express yourself in specific rather than unspecific Gather material, for example, by terms. reading, interviewing people, makingobservations,and Use a style that is natural for performing experiments. you. Avoid both colloquial language and excessively formal Colleca the pictorial material (see constructions. Using Pictures below). Analyze,argue,describe, Sort out the material that will be compare,refer, make included with your text. Proceed associations, spin a tale, all from what you know about the according to what you think is rcaders'potential for needed. understanding it.Focus on the most important aspects. Try not to insinuate subjective values into your text. If is is your Structure your material. Make an own opinion you are expressing, outline of your subject; it can make this plain. later be refined and given more detail. A technical report should Avoid writing in a style that is to have a title, a table of contents, laconic or sterile, but don't allow an abstract or summary, an yourself to become chatty. introduction, description, an Sentences that are too dense, analysis, a conclusion (including i.e., sentences in which too your own viewpoints), and a list many ideas are concentrated, will of sources or references. Avoid make your text tedious reading. footnotes and appendices, as they are seldom read. Use aids, such as dictionaries and encyclopedias. For a guide There are different types of to English writing, see the outlines, for example, narrative Economist (1991) "Style Guide," and logical outlines. Do not "Good Style" by Kirkman switch between different types in (1992), and "The Elements of the same document. Style" by Strunk and White (1979). Write an interesting title and, if you like, a subtitle. Words Choose a graphical form that Avoidlong,polysyllabic, suits the material.It will make complicated words. things easier for the readers if information of the same kind is Avoid buzz-words, slang, and

262 25g Verbo-Visual Literacy

expert jargon. "moreprofitableuseof resources," besides being neutral Use defined, established rather than negative in effect, terminology. If you are obliged have no logical relation to each to use abbreviations, define them other, nor do they tell why the in full the first time they appear project was terminated. The in text. sentence should read: "The project was terminated due in Sentences part to project costs being calculated as excessive, and in Try to have your sentences say part to the necessity of putting one thing at a time, don't cram resources to more profitable them with ideas. In general, try use." to vary the length of your sentences to increase reading The Entire Piece case, but avoid sentences that are too short or too long. There should be a red thread running through the text. Try to Avoid complicated word order find a unifying principle. Clearly and subordinated clauses. Be show what it is that you want to particularly carefulin your express. placement of modifiers. Avoid thc passive voice ("The B If the subject is on a high plane process is affected by A"); write of abstraction, use concrete active sentences ("A affects the B examples that illustrate the process"). Use verbs instead of principles. nouns and gerunds. Use similes and metaphors. They Paragraphs make it possible for readers to paint an inner picture. Let every paragraph encompass a single unit of content.Avoid If the text shows a high degree of long, convoluted paragraphs that specification and examines a meander in all directions. great many separate details, you should summarize every now Link sentences and paragraphs and then, and draw conclusions. with conjunctions and/or adverbs (and, nevertheless, moreover, Sometimes you may findit because,but,however, necessarytowriteyour therefore, although, because, foreword, introduction, and since, or even, thus), making summary after the body of the sure at the same time that the piece is written. things linked together bear a logical relation to each other. In List your references clearly. the sentence "the project was terminated duc to calculated UsingPictures project costs and more profitable usc of re3ources, the phrase Use pictures to make it easy for terminated duc to" implies that the reader to understand your whatever is to follow will have message. had a negative effect On the project's progress.However, Any pictures you use should be "calculated project costs" and clear and easily read. Pictures 0 0 f Comprehensibility 259

should always have captions. some cases, functions in your word processing program can Pictures and text must interact to help you with this. produce a seamless unity. Check your references and other Place texts and pictures that formal aspects of your paper. belong together as close to each other as possible. Refine the typography and layout so that the headings, tables, and Do not change the content of a pictures are presented in a lucid, picture by using different forms esthetically pleasing graphical of computer manipulation. This form. Make optimal use of the practice is often unlawful, and possibilities that typography always unethical. offers.

Never try to pass off unauthentic References pictures as being true depictions of reality. Arvidson, P. (1981). Tror vi pa vara massmedier?Psykologiskt forsvar. The source of any borrowed 109. Beredskapsnämndenfor pictures should be identified. psykologiskt forsvar: Stockholm. For a guide to visual language Bergquist, L. (1991). Rationellt forfattarskap.In S. Selander, L. see "Visuals for Information. Olsson, R. Pettersson & E. Romare Research and Practice" laromedel. (Pettersson, 1989). (Eds.). Specialnummer: E t t utbildningsmaterial om pedagogiska texter. Spov 14115, 17- Doing the Touching-Up 18. Let your text rest for a week or Ehrenberg-Sundin, B. (1982). Bättre so, then read it from the reader's planerade texter sparar miljoner pointof view. Make the kroner. Klarsprikfraan SB, necessary amendments. Spreikspalter i Klara Posten, 1982- Check that the finished text 1985. corresponds to the text as you Gunnarsson, B-L. (1982). Lagtexters had planned it. begriplighet.En sprdkfunktionell studie av medbesteimmandelagen. Edit your text!Polish it. Trim Liber FOrlag: Stockholm. away any unnecessary bulk. Iron out inconsistencies. Simplify the Helyar, P. S.(1992). Products liability: language. Cleanupthe Meeting legal standards for adequate punctuation.Every sentence instructions.Journal of Technical should be easy to read! Writing and Communication, 22(2), 125-147. Check style and grammar. Discrepancies in grammar and Kirkman, .1. (1992). Good style. style hinder the reader's progress Writing for science and technology. and make the writer less credible London: E & FN Spon. in his eyes. Checkspelling and word division at the end of lines.In 2 260 Verbo- V i sual Literacy

Liljestrand, B., & Arwidson, M. (1979). Strunk, W., & White, E. B. (1979). The Skrivstrategi. Esselte Studi um: elements of style. New York: Stockholm. Macmillan. Matsushita, K. (1988).A summary Stromquist, S. (1991). Skrivprocess och version of the comprehensive report on skrivundervisning. In G. Malmgren & Hi-OVIS PROJECT Jul '78 Mar. C. Sandqvist (Eds.), Skrivpedagogik '86. Tokyo: New Media (pp. 27-50). Studentlitteratur. Development. Teleman, U. (1991). Vad kan man nar Melin, L., Melin, S., & Eriksson, D. man kan skriva? In G. Malmgren & (1986). Effektiv svenska for tekniker. C. Sandqvist (Eds.), Skrivpedagogik. Natur & Kultur: Stockholm. (pp. 11-26). Studentlitteratur.

Melin, L.(1992). Lein eller swirl.Ett The Economist.(1991).Style guide. kompendium om begriplighet i text. London: The Economist Books. Stockhoms Universitet. Institutionen for Nordiska sprfik. Troger, W. (1963). Der Film und die Antwort derErziehung. MOijer, K.(1987). Skapa Skriva.Att Mfinchen/Basel: Reinhardt. vaa i spriiket.Stockholm:Esselte Studium. Tornqvist, K. (1974). FOrtroendet till massmedierna. E n Noble, G.(1975).Children in front of opinionsundersokning inovember- the small screen. Beverly Hills, CA: december 1973. Psykologiskt forsvar, Sage. 63. BeredskapsnAmndenfor psykologiskt fOrsvar. Stockholm. Pettersson, R. (1989). Visuals for information: Research and practice. Young, M. (1989). The technical writer's Englewood Cliffs, NJ:Educational handbook. MillValley, CA: Technology Publications. University Science Books.

6 6 C.A.I. AS A MEANS FOREDUCATIONAL JUSTICE IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS: A GREEKEXPERIENCE by Nicos Raptis Inequalities in Education and the seems that the computers used in Use of Computers education in the developing countries are not only much fewer, but also the Inequalities in the Capacity of capability of access to them is even more Access to Computers unequal than in the developed countries (Abass,1981; Bustamante,1987; The social implications of the use of Marinho, 1987). modern technology, and particularly computers, as a means of minimizing the Criteria for the Determination of inequalities in education is inadequately Disadvantageous Target Groups researched ground (Langouet, 1982; Lee, Regarding the Study of The Effect of Computer-Assisted Instruction 1989). (C.A.I.) on the Inequalities in Literature has always been more Education concerned with the established fact of the unequaldistribution of computers Physicaland Emotional (CE.R.I.1986; Dubois & Schubert, Criteria 1986). In research carried out into the According to Dubois and Schubert effects of CAI on the inequalities in (1986), there are1.3times more education, several peer groups have been computers in the prosperous areas in the looked into by the standard judgement of USA .than in the less prosperous areas. physical and emotional disadvantages. Authors like Lepper (1986) had In a meta-analysis of twenty-six written that thc inequalities we notice in studies dealing with the use of CAI on the capability of access to computer children with special needs, Schmidt, hardware as well as in the quality of the Weinstein,Niemic,& Walberg software being used. may potentially (1985/86), showed that the use of CAI is, have an aggravating effect on the factors in general, positively connected with the already generating inequalities in improvement in school achievement of education and, thus, "make the rich richer children with special needs. and the poor poorer" (p. 14). Social Criteria Other authors like Martin and Hearne (1989) report these inequalities Regarding the studies dealing with arc "to take advantage of the moregifted the effects of CAI on children of different children" even regarding the duration of social or educational backgrounds, those time spent on school computers, where of Suppes and Morningstar (1972) and avai !able. Osin (1981) showed that CAI mostly favours less privileged children. Inequalities in the capacity of access to computers can also be noticed between Osin (1981) reports that, owing to different countries. CAI, children performance in Arithmetic improved at rates ranging from 55% to Despite the lack of adequate data, it 193%.

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The argument that CAI mostly groups did not do as well as the stronger favourschildrenwhoseschool groups and, on the other hand, the gap achievements arc below standard, has kept going wilder as the teacherprocess been buttressed also in the meta-analysis became more complicated" (p. 16). of Jamison, Suppcs, & Wells (1974), Kulik, Bangert, & Williams (1983), Bancert-Drowns, Kulik, & Kulik (1985) and in studies such as those of Burmester and Lawson reported by Langouet (1982) and Charp (1977). a CAI andtheInequalitiesin Education:The 'Optimistic' and 1 the 'Pessimistic' Scenarios On the basis of the observations of authors such as Langouct (1982) and propagation of computers Stonier (1981), we could makeup two scenarios, an optimistic one and a Figure 1. pessimisfic one, as far as the social implications of CAI are concerned. Here Langouet formulates a connection between the complexity of The Optimistic Scenario educational process and the equalizing outcome to teaching, making up a Stonier (1981) claims that: pessimistic scenario regarding the equalizing effect of such methods as CAI As the state takes on further on the inequalities in education. responsibilities in education, and as education evolves into the number The Question. The Hypotheses one industry of post-industrial economies, all homes will be The question we looked into during provided with advanced electronic the academic year 1988/1989was education/information systems. whether CAI would lessen or augment This will cause the gaps between the inequalities in education as these various social groups to narrow appear among children of less privileged substantially, perhaps disappear. backgrounds. Thehypotheses (p. 854) formulated were: Reckoning that the trend toward Hypothesis 1:CAI will improve cheaper, more powerful, and user- the school achievement of children ofa friendly computers will continue, Stonier favoured background (F). connectstheinvariable increasing propagation of computers withan Hypothesis 2:CAI will improve increasing equalizing outcome in the school achievement of children ofa education (Figure 1). favoured background (f). The Pessimistic Scenario Hypothesis 3:CAI will improve the performance of children ofa less In a study of his with which thc privileged background more than that of effects of educational technologyon the children of a privileged background. inequalities in education, as theseappcar whcn using different media is examined, The Experiment Langouet (1982) reports:"We have observed that, on the one hand, weaker In order to substantiate anyone of

266 Educational Justice in Primary Schools 263 the hypotheses, wc taught, by way of design of the behavioristic type was experiment, the lesson of "Researching selected for three reasons: the Natural World," which deals with the natural sciences to 116 children going to 1.It satisfied the need for the the fifth level of Greek primary school simple and very easy use of the computer (aged from 9;6 to 10;6). The subjects of by the subjects. the experimental groups went to two different public schools of Thessaloniki, Indeed, the subjects only needed to one of which was in a privileged area(in perform nine simple and similar to each the center of the city), and the other one other operations in order to make use of in a less privileged area (Ampelokipi). the software. The operations involved, for example, pressing any key (so that the The subjects had eight (8) CAI subject co, Ad see the next page in some sessions throughout the academic year. program of data display), pressing keys In each session, one particular unit was /, 2, or 3, and then, possibly, the Return taught, the way it is determined by the key (so that the subject could answer a most rigorous, obligatory national multiple-choice question). syllabus which is found in the official coursebook. It is worth mentioning that the subjects of the CAI groups only needed The units taught by CAI were one 45 minute introductory session of carefully selected in order that: (a) They computer familiarization before they were almost equally allocated throughout could continue. the academic year, and (b) they were not the easiest units in the syllabus. 2.It satisfied the need for specified time controlled CAI process, since each In each school the subjects were unit had to be thoroughly taught within divided into two groups of 24 up to 34 45 minutes. pupils. In each school the subjects of the first group had CAI sessions (Group A), 3.It had been established that the while the subjects of the other group major control of CAI process by the (Group B) were taught all the units in the computer which istypical of the traditional "talk and chalk" way (TW). behavioristic type educational software, favourspupilsof lower school Throughout the CAI session, which achievement (Dépover, 1987; Lee, 1989). lasted for 45 minutes, the subjects came into contact only with the computer and The use of the Peters and Johnson the other members of their own CAI- evaluation scale showed thatthe user's sub-group (which consisted of 2 educational software used in all eight up to 4 subjects). The subjectshad no sessions were academically equal. previous experience of using a computer in class, and neither school was equipped The subject's achievement was with computers before the experiment. assessed by using five tests which were made up to meet the requirements of the Thc computers usedinthe experiment and referred to five chapters experiment were Apple 11c, while the of the coursebook (Thermal and Light educational software were specially Phenomena, Mechanical Phenomena, developed for thc experiment, in the Electric and Magnetic Phenomena, Applesoft Basiclanguage.The Biological Phenomena-Living behaviouristic-type programmes involved Organisms, Mechanical Phenomena in data display, questions, simulations, and Liquids). games and made usc of pictures and animation.The educational software The t-test was used in ordcr to look 264 Verbo-Visual Literacy into the effect of CAI on the subjects' +8 school achievement. +7 6.31? The Results 3.11" 3.6E41 4.0 The results indicated that the q +3 subjects at the less privileged (p) school u +2 a +4 profited more by CAL The subjects' 0.9 1.1 1 performances on the units they were cid ers taught by CAI was 51.17% higher at thc OTV *expressed. p-school while at the privileged (P) by/ rats school it remained the same (fell by 0.77%). Figure 3 Regarding the subjects at the school in the less-privileged area, Group B (who At this school, the performance of did not have any CAI sessions) did better the Group who had CAI sessions does than Group A (who had CAI sessions), not present significant differentiations, in as far as the units taught in the traditional comparison to that of the Group who did way (TW) arc concerned.However, not have CAI sessions, either in the units when it comes to the units which were taught by computer, or in the units taught taught using CAI, it was Group A who in the traditional way.The only demonstrated better results. This conduct exception is the chapters Thermal and is uniform in all five chapters (Figure 2). Light Phenomena and Electric and Magnetic Phenomena, where, asit seems, the use of CAI had a negative 6.30 6 effect on the subjects' achievements 5 (Figure 4). 4 3.7 2.6 + 3 3.1

0.7 0.50 +22.0 chirtrs 1040.11 0. 0.3 1 2.0 2.1 + 1 0.60 * 2 OTV**xpressed a 3 IIICA.1 byl rats 0.110.2i 1 cho.ers 00 0.300.3 Figure 2. OTV **Rresse1 * IICAI by t rues 1.1 Likewise, we get corresponding results when comparing the two groups Figure 4 who had CAI sessions at both schools (P and p).In the units taught under CAI Conclusion/Discussion conditions, thc Inequality Index, as it is expressed by the rate of the t test, falls The results of the study indicate that dramatically and in a uniform way, in children of less favoured backgrounds relation to the rates it has in the units profit with by the standard CAI of natural taught to both groups in the traditional sciences more than those children of way (Figure 3). favoured backgrounds. This appears to be a uniform result and itisnot Contrary to what seems to be the influenced by the content of the lesson case of the p-school, CAI does not seem which is taught with the aid ofa to inlluence the subject's performance at computer. thc privileged P-school.

270 Educational Justice in Primary Schools 265

I n an attempt to interpret these not allow for investments in educational findings, we believe that: software, while, at the same time, the transfer of software which is in the Children of less-favoured English and French languages is hindered backgrounds arc more easily motivated because of lingual, educational, and into taking up something new, which will political reasons. probably act as a spur to creative work. A lot more research still needs to be A less prosperous/privileged area carried out before we acquire reliable data attracts less experienced teachers, with on whether the use of computers little interest in their work; teachers who presented in this study is cost-effective in will probably want to live and work there applications such as the use of CAI in on a less permanent basis; less efficient small rural schools, or an increase in the teachers who tend to avoid using any number of pupils per class so that the teaching aids available (Plowden Report, need for new school buildingsis 1966). This situation renders even the minimized and the afternoon and evening relatively poor educational software shifts in certain schools are abolished. particularly effective in the less privileged areas. Summary Naturally, much more research After an overview of the literature needs to be carried out: concerning the effect of CAI on educationalinequalities,here we Regarding the role of educational presented a research that shows the> software design in the lessening or effectiveness of a low-cost, behaviorist- augmentation of inequalities in education. designed CAI as a means for educational justice in primary Greek education. Regarding the effect of the computer propagation rates on the eferences increase or not of the interest that children take in computers: Abass, 0. (1981). Problems of education and training in informatics Does the similarity of the computer in some African countries.InR. "to the archetype and symbol of mass Lewis, & D. Tagg (Eds.), Computers culture" (CERI, 1986, p. 111) television, in education.Amsterdam:North favour the development of children's Holland. interest in it or not? Bancert-Drowns, R. L., Kulik, J. A., & Doesthenon-existence of Kulik, C. L.(1985).Effectiveness computers in the surrounding (school, of computer-based education in home, recreation area) of many children secondary schools. Journal of in large areas of Greece and other semi- Computer-Based Instruction,12(3), peripheral countries, favour or not the 59-68. development of the children's interest in using computers? Bustamante, J.(1987).A realistic program of computer literacy for all Could we regard the interest in Mexican children. Microcomputer computers and the level of familiarity applications in education and training with it as opposing or collaborating for developing countries.Westview elements? special studies in science, technology, and public policy, pp. 197-221. The questions above are of particular importance in countries where CE. R.I. (1986). Les nouvelles the bleak situation of the economy does technologies de l'information. Un

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de'fi pour reducation. 0.C.D.E. Marinho, S. P. P.(1987). The use of microcomputers in the training of Charp, S. (1977, October). A statement science teachers. Microcomputer on behalf of computers in the learning Applications in Education and society. Paper submitted to the Training for Developing countries. Committeeon -Scienceand Westview special studies in science, Technology. technology, and public policy, pp. 97-111. DCpover, C. (1987). L'ordinateur media d'enseignetnent. Un cadre Martin, B., & Hearne, J. D.(1989). conceptuel. De Boeck-Wesmael s.a., Computer equity in education. Editions Universitaires. EducationalTechnology, 9, 47-50. DuBois, P. A., & Schubert, J. G. Osin, L.(1981).Computer-assisted (1986).Do your school policies instruction in arithmetic in Israeli provide equal access to computers? disadvantaged elementary schools. In Areyousure? Educational R. Lewis, & D. Tagg, (Eds.), Leadership, 41-44. Computers in education (pp. 469-

475). Amsterdam: North Holland. Jamison, D., Suppes, P. & Wells, S. Publishing Company. (1974). The effectiveness of alternative instructional media: A Plowden Report. (1967).Children and survey. Review of Educational their primary schools, HMSO, Vol. Research, 44, 1-61. 1. London: Central Advisory Council for Education. Kulik, J.A.,Bangert,R.L., & Williams, 0. W. (1983). Effects of Schmidt, M., Weinstein, T., Niemic, R., computer-basedteachingon & Wal berg, H.J. (1985/86). secondary school students.Journal Computer-assisted instruction with qf Educational Psychology,75(1), exceptional children. The Journal of 19-26. Special Education, 19(4), 493-501. Langouct, G.(1982). Technologie de Stonier, T. (1981). Thc social reducation et democratisation de consequences of computersin renseignement. PUF-Pedagogie education. In R. Lewis, & D. Tagg d'aujourd'hui. (Eds.), Computers in education (p. 854). Amsterdam: North Holland. Lec, W. W.(1989).Questions and answers about computer-assisted Suppes, P., & Morningstar M. (1972). instruction for children with learning Computer-assisted instruction in disabilities. EducationalThchnology, Stanford, 1966-1968: Data, models, XXIX(8), 29-31. and evaluation of the arithmetic program..New York:Amdemic Lepper, M. R. (1985). Microcomputers Press. in education: Motivational and social issues. American Psychologists, 40, 1-18.

r)!14) 1 4 THE ROLE OF IMAGERY IN LEARNING BIOLOGY SCIENCE THROUGH TELEVISION by Ora Silverstein and Pillchas Tamir

Theoretical Background beOls, in which the child sees the world through fas representation by symbols. The Information Age and the Role of Pictorial Representation Norman (1980)statesthat environmental stimuli are the main source Telecommunication is becoming a of human perception.He suggests a main source of stimuli, perception, and model of the human cognitive system knowledge. It has been stated that visual which includes sensual perception, communication is taking over verbal memory processes, motivation, thinking, communication and that pictures have emotions, and motor functioning. He calls become the main method of transmitting these complex cognitive processes information (Gombrich, 1972). It has also information processing. Memory been declared that television is the main processes are important in the complex of source of knowledge in our civilization cognition and modern theories explain the (Metal linos, 1985; Pettersson, 1989). forming of memory, the ability of Television enables viewers to perceive recognition, and the dynamics of the living creatures and natural phenomena in process of conceptualization. Experiments thc macro and microcosmos. Therefore, it have proved that memory recording begins is important in acquiring a knowledge of with sensual memory. The impressions of thc natural sciences outside the scope of sensations accumulated in the sensual the school.Although there has been memory are called images.Images pass progress in research on learning through into the short term memory and later television, the learning of scientific become accumulated into the long term concepts from television has hardly been memory. The representation of an object studied. Our research (Silverstein & or creature, say a certain animal, plant, or Tamir, 1991) is concerned with this microorganism, is a result of a sensory act subject and studies the perception of comprising the perception of sight, smell, symbol systems that represent concepts in voice, and its name (word). Therefore, thc biology.It compares two different stimulus data from our environment comc television symbolsystems:Slory from objects and living things and also animation and documentary, representing from symbol systems.Gregory (1978) the same biological concepts. studiedtherecordingofvisual impressions. According to him, the eyes According to Howard (1987), supplythebrainwith information Bruncr identifies certain stages in child transformed into a code of nerve activity. developmentstartingfromvisual Gregory's and others' research allow for experiences and progressing to abstract the existence of nervous centers in which thinking. The development starts from the impressions are recorded and stored in the enactive stage in which the child sees the brain. The symbol systems perceived by world by means of action. At the end of the senses are called codes. Since the first year hc/shc proceeds to the iconic television experience involves the senses stage, in which comprehension of thc of both sight and hearing, the impressions world is through pictures, and the child of television are transferred to memoryas acquires a mental image of his concepts. images. From thc age of seven thc symbolic stage 268 Verbo-Visual Literacy

Learning, Conceptualization, and PerCeption and Imagery Symbol Systems Perception is explained as a process Today's literature, concerned with taking place in two stages. The first stage the psychology of learning, points out that is sensation. In the second stage the intelligent learning is a formation of stimuli become meaningful and then they concept structures communicated and develop into units of knowledge. manipulated by means of symbols. Wartopsky (1976) states that: "The world perceived by the organism is a map or an According to Olson (1974), a image of its activities" (pp. 27-28).He symbol is any sign, event, or phenomenon explains that sight is not merely a result of that can be used in a referential way and the operation of the biological tool that which can potentially be organized into developed by evolution--the human eye. systems. Symbol systems are discussed in philosophy, cognitive psychology, and In his opinion the self creates a new the theory of art and semiotics. There are different world--that is,a cognitive different visual symbol systems. An icon construction--and the representations is a picture similar to its object; painted created become models and theories in pictures or photographs are icons.A science and pictures in at*. According to cartoon is a picture that gives information cognitive psychology, an image is a sketch about the object, person, or situation of a sensation that is stored in the sensual represented in an exaggerated way. The memory and as such itis a mental still cartoon and animation that gives the representation of anything no longer sense of life and motion are symbol available to the senses. A visual image in systems that imitate their references using the brain is parallel to the optical image of exaggeration for emphasis in contrast to an object produced by an optical system, icons that resemble their references more for example, the image produced by a realistically. Icons are the type of pictures camera. As images are pictures of reality, shown in a documentary movie. the act of imagining is the manipulation of mental pictures as opposed to the From Vision Through Perception to manipulation of concrete objects. Conceptualization Perceptionalism and Intentionalism In order to understand human cognition, itis best to consider two The perception of pictures is a complementary sources. The firstis response to basic forms according to the perception as a neurobiological process laws of Gestalt theory; the basic unit of connected to the function of the central understanding in visual think'ng is the nervous system, and the second is the percept (Arnheim, 1974; Olson, 1974). influence of science and art on perception. How does the perception from pictures The discussion of one of. these without the occur? Perceptionalism and intentionalism other will give an incomplete picture. summarize the philosophical semiotic and There is no argument about the recent psychological schools of thought on this findings (Gregory, 1978; etc.) from subject. ncurophysiological studies about the anatomy and function of the eye, retina, Perceptionalism is an approach based optic nerve, and brain vision.However, on Gombrich (1960) and Gregory (1978); thcrc is a controversy about thc influence they say that thc picture does not have its of both general and personal prior own meaning but the viewer creates for knowledge on perception and visual himself a unique meaning based on his imagery which will be discussed here. prior observations, experience, and expectations.

274 Science Thro%h Television 269

Intentionalism (Goodman, 1976) is between the groups with regard to based on a semiotic approach which says animistic versus causal thinking.The that in any picture there is an inherent theories of cognitive psychology about meaning and the viewer is meant to reveal visual thinking and the empirical results of it. The meaning of a picture is determined our research lead to the acceptance of by the artist, and as such it has its own Gombrich and Blich, and thus to the essence which does not depend on the rejection of the existence of an innocent individual viewer. eye. A famous example, the well known picture of Jestrow, is given.by Gombrich In Goodman's (1976) opinion, (1972): presentation of symbols in science and the arts is based on convention and is thus valid by a semiotic or social agreement. Goodman also distinguishes between a realistic representation and a representation that has a dissimilarity to reality.Our research deals with the perception of biological concepts intwo symbol What do you see in the picture? (a systems, realistic--the documentary code-- rabbit or a duck?) and non-realistic--the story animation code. Plato, in his writings, demanded that There are two images merged into a picture be similar to reality. In the one and seeing the rabbit or duck depends communication systems that serve us on the viewer's ability to discern from the today pictorial representations are either picture one of the two images. realistic or they represent reality. From Percept to Concept Gombrich (1972) who is of the same opinion as Gregory, does not agree that According to cognitive psychologist there is an innocent eye. He explains that Howard (1987), the structures that are the perception in the brain of the image used to build perception are existina produced by the visual field is a function schema, images, and symbols.The of both the pictorial representation and schema is a sketch that represents the other aspects such as history, culture, and outstalding components of its reference. psychology. Most pictures do not For e) ample: represent simple objects but ideas that are conceptual schemata (abstract Schema of a face: generalizations of an object or a group of objects) kept in people's brains. The assumption of this approach, also agreed by Goodman and Wartofsky, is that visual thinkingisdonebycognitive representation systems comprised of visual Howard states that the schema is images.The same process works for associated with different stimuli and that otherrepresentation systemslike its action is like a filter, it enables only part linguistics and music. Reality and of the information to pass through. The imagination relate to the way a person image it: more complicated than the tends to represent the stimulus data to schema. An image of a face is a detailed himself in his schemata.Blich (1989) picture of someone that we remember very adds that there are two groups in each well. The symbol is an abstract way of audience.The first one relees to the referring to the particular image. pictorial as if it were thc real world. Thc secondgroupknowsthatthis Howard (1987) asserts that reality is representation is not real.In our research experienced after it has been filtered this was evidenced by the differentiation through the categories or the concepts.

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According to Howard a category is a class Our study examined the learning of into which stimuli are placed according 16 biology by means of unguided viewing of some similarities and a concept is a mental the medium of television using two representation of a category. different codes.The perception of the biological concepts in the two subjects: Every stimulus can be placed in one The Cell and Birth was represented in both of many different categories. A house can story animation and documentary form. In be a place to live, obstacle, burden, the course of the study a content analysis investment, or home. Ausubel, Novak, & of the dual-coded broadcasts was made. Hanesian (1978) had used the example of Broadcast content analysis was done a house to show that when someone refers before; Erdman (1991) did a formal to house he refers to his personal analysis of the format and message of the projection of it.Personal experiences teaching film. However, in the broadcast cause the idiosyncratic character of the content analysis, instead of a shot-by-shot concept to be built. They claim that analysis of the visual and audio track that experience undergoes the procedures of were used by Erdman, in our study selectivity, abstraction, and schematization broadcast scripts and videos in French, to form the concept, and thus the concept English, and Hebrew were used at is not a direct representation of sense data. different stages of the study. The scripts thatwereusedprovideafull The Ongoing Change of Human documentation of the verbal audio track. Perception Analysis of the broadcasts, preparation of the tools, the launching of the study, and McLuhan (1964)statesthat analysis of the findings gave rise to a television has components that are growing familiarity with two visual analogous to comics and cartoons. In the systems of symbols, each with its own cartoon there is an exaggeration of an unique advantages. aspect that causes dissimilarity to its object. Television images are unrefined, The Story Animation Code consists like those of the comics. In the three of strange and complex illustrations that media, television, animated cartoons, and are unusual and novel. These are artistic comics the viewer participates in a fill-in symbols representing the content of and do-it-yourself activity. McLuhan uses biological concepts that are usually the concept television image and describes represented inpictures or scientific itscharacteristic as a raw image. symbols. According to McLuhan there has been a fundamental change in human perception The Documentary Code is made up andcognitioncaused by the of scientific symbolsmodels, schematic communication media and in his opinion drawings, and other drawings used in the there is no one approach that fits this teaching of science. cnormous change. There is still no unified theory that explains this phenomenon. Figure 1 gives examples of a few biological concepts represented differently The Main Goal in the two codes. The verbal symbols in the table represent the scientific concept in The main purpose of the research words and the pictures represent the visual was: To study thc learning and natural- symbol s. sciences by means of unguided viewing of television. Tables 1 and 2 show the distribution of concepts included in the broadcasts Methods which were investigated in the research. Study of Broadcast Content The questions dealing with cells, organclls, and substances are used to test 276 Science Through Television 271

Figure 1.Examples of Visual Representations of a few Biological Concepts Examined in the Research.

THE VERBAL SYMBOLS , DOCUMENTARY CODE STORY ANIMATION CODE

Red blood corpuscles

Chromosomes

DNA segment

Viruses

Mt. Germs

concepts, the perception of which is based scores. on the schemata, categories, and images of these subjects. The questions that deal Gain was calculated by post test with the understanding of processes test a minus pretest scores. Comparison higher cognitive level based on a concept between the groups was done by F tests set that is basically visual. For example, and T tests in dependent samples and images of DNA and chromosome structure independent samples. The influence of help to understand the genetic code. independent variables was estimated and expressed by effect sin.Frequency This paper focuses on learning of distributionswerecalculate.dfor biological concepts. Table 2 presents the background and attitudes. tests used for evaluation and thcir range of 277 272 Verbo-Visual Literacy

Table 1. The Biological Concepts as Represented by Items in the Knowledge Test

SUBJECTS CONCEPTS TESTS & ITEMS TES T 1 TEST 2 TEST 3

SUBJECT THE CELL

Processes & conceptsNutrition, digestion 1 6 The living cell 2,4 4 1,9 Genetic code 7,8 11,12 8 Cell proportions 10 3 Breathing 8 Substances Oxygen 10 3,7 Enzyme 9 1,4 Protein 3 2,9,10 Sugar 10 Fat 10 Cells Red blood corpuscles 3 White blood corpuscles 5 Organells Chromosomes 8 Cell nucleus 5 7 Mitocondria 15 4 Cell membrane 6 Difficult concepts Energy 1,5,7,8 1,6 Permeability 3,13,1,4

SUBJECT BIRTH

Processes & conceptsThe living cell 2,4 4 Cell division 4 Genetic code 7,8 11,12 5,7,9 DNA duplication 8,11,12 Cell mitosis 6,11 Pregnancy 5 Sex determination 9 Birth 4,8 10 Cells, tissues, organs 2 4 13 Cell proportions 10 3 Cells Ovum 3 Fertilized ovum 4 Sperm cell 3 Red blood corpuscles 3,5,7 Organells Chromosomes 8 4,6 Substances Proteins 2 2,9,10 DNA 8 Enzymes 1 Oxygen 10

".,1 .) gl;6(,) Science Through Television 273

Data Analysis Table 2.Tests Used for Knowledge Gain Measurement

TestAbbreviatedType of Test No. Evaluation of Open Maximum No. Name of ItemsQuestions Score 1 STK Open questions 10 According to 6 categories 50 2 MCT Individual report 16 5 categories 80 3 ATQ--cell Multiple choice 9 correct answers 9 4 ATQ--birth Multiple choice 13 correct answers 13

Titles of the Tests--Key to Abbreviations

STK State of Knowledge Test MCT Misconception Test ATQ Anthrepornorphic Teleologic Questionnaire ATQ-cell ATQ subject: The Cell ATQ-birthATQ subject: Birth Summary of Research Findings Birth, an increase was registered in the number of causal statements following the This summary covers the findings of screening of the story animation code. both qualitative and statistical analysis that were carried out. The results present a Discussion promising picture of the educational potential of television in out of school The process of visual cognition may situations. be seen as a set of stages in information processing:visual object or symbol -> I. Viewing television broadcasts visual stimulus -> attention -> perception presenting biological concepts resulted in a -> image -> memory -> visual thinking -> significant improvement in the knowledge. solution (formation of the concept) -> reaction.Preceding the solution stage, 2. Gain was found in both codes other cognitive processes from verbal examined, namely the documentary code sources merge and only then the reaction and the story animation code. begins. Attention depends on motivation which is based on prior knowledge and 3. T hestudents/subjects were personal factors, as well as factors equally sympathetic to the two codes arousing interest and curiosity that are examined. embedded in the stimulus such as the novelty of the stimulus or an inconsistency 4. The two student groups differed between the stimulus and its context. in knowledge gain and attitudes; among the technological students there was The results of our study, namely the greater knowledge gain and even more exhibiting of knowledge gain following positive attitudes towards the story the viewing of the story animation code, animation code. support the perception approach of Gombrich (1972) and Gregory (1978) 5. Gain was accompanied by which claims that perception of the visual misconceptions. There was a relative field does not depend merely on sight- decrease in causal explanations in favor of related factors. In certain respects we see anthropomorphism andteleology what we believe. Our research results following the screening of the story substantiate Gombrich's claim of the non- animation in the topic of the living cell. No existence of an innocent eye. Even when such effect occurred in the subject Birth. no visual similarity exists between the On the other hand, regarding the subject pictorial representation and reality, a series

2 7 9 274 Verbo-Visual Literacy of inferences can still be drawn from the study examined knowledge gain and picture by using the information it contains attitudes derived from the imagery about itself. potential of the subject. The focus was on scientific symbols and the creation of their The notion in our study of pictorial scientific images. Schemata and images representation regarding the biological based on conventional scientific symbols terminology goes beyond sight itself and are used in deciphering.According to must be attributed to the viewer's prior Howard (1987), schemata serve as a filter conceptual knowledge. Furthermore, the and only part of the information is passed findings of this study affirm McLuhan's through them. Consider, for example, a (1964) claim that the television image student who knows that the living cell is leaves room for filling-in by the viewer. the smallest living unit of structure and Any television image is unprocessed and activity that exists.His schema of the unrefined, like that in comic books single cell appears to be like this: (McLuhan, 1964). Since the broadcasting of the story animation is a kind of televised Schema code of comics, the viewer needs to do a of a Cell doublefill-inutilizinghisprior knowledge. This means that the story animation code portrays biological concepts using symbols, and it appears that viewers perceive the visual message employing schemata and images that exist in their memory. Identification of the animated shapes using the conceptual system is a The students see in the story proccss of translation of the coded animation broadcast what they believe, or television message. The term decoding rather know about the cell, and rely on the (rather than the more novel translating) image of the already existing concept. The bestsdescribesthisprocessof animation code, it should be recalled, identification which iscarried out, contains symbols that arouse curiosity, are according to Blich (1989), by way of: stimulating and motivating, and encourage positive attitudes. The information 1.Projection of the viewer's prior presented in the broadcast is filtered and knowledge on the visual message. accumulates in the viewer's mind, and there is educational value in bringing the 2.Filling-in of the picture being concept to the center of cognitive activity. viewed using prior knowledge and This activity is important in securing and preconception. enriching the memory of the conceptual system of the visual images. A person Schemata and pre-existent images are viewing the story-animation code is forced employed in the decoding process for the to draw a comparison between the identification of visual symbols. conceptual image for the given concept that exists in his memory and the symbols The notion of scientific symbols as inthe broadcast. This comparative visual symbols was examined for the first examination appearshelpfulin time ever in this study. Two codes were internalization of concepts. For example: examined:The documentary code in 111LIMPIMPAPaik which biological concepts are presented as Rea Blood Corpuscles scientific symbols, and the story animation code in which the same concepts are presented andportrayedasartistic symbols. Thc questions proposed in this Science Through Television 275

Globin, Hemo, & Globus BroadcastingPolicy and Production ofScienceRelated Subjects The screening of a large and varied number of television broadcasts in the sciences will encourage and intensify the acquisition of knowledge. Accordingly, the more television time alotted to the screening of broadcasts in the sciences, As the viewer of the documentary especially popular programsthat code adds to the treasury of visual incorporate scientific concepts, the more symbols related to this conceptual system positive will be the attitudes of the viewers of the subject being viewed, his science regarding the sciences, and the greater will imaging ability improves.While an be the knowledge gain about televised individual who uses exclusively verbal concepts among the viewing public. channels of reading and hearing learns only certain facts about the circulatory Considering the immense popularity system; someone who, on the other hand, of the animated story code, it is highly views the same thing in a documentary recommended to continue producing broadcast hears the terms verbally and sees television series in this code. However, the scientific symbols. The viewer of the nsideration should be given to the documentary code is provided with images cont:`, interpretation of the symbol system for the red and white blood corpuscles, the of the medium of television. heart, and the blood vessels. The symbols projected on the screen will be recalled as Improving Production of schemata or images and comprise the Broadcasts in Sciences visual basis for the viewer's conceptual system of this subject. The theoretical Misconceptions,says Howard foundations of these references are found (1987), are the unavoidable results of the in the fields of the psychology of learning learning process. This was confirmed by and semiotics. Nevertheless, they warrant our research into the two codes. In order further research with the intention of to minimize, as much as possible, the focusing on the scientific concept, how it formation of misconceptions resulting is received by the senses, and how it is from the television viewing of broadcasts stored in the memory. in biology and the sciences, special attention should be given to sensible Recommendations production of these broadcasts. Since this medium is auto-didactic, the television Given that we live in the era of screen itself can be used to guide the communication media, it is imperative that viewer in the direction of the desired we give more thought to how technology outcome.It would be most advisable to ;nfluences learning. The results of this implant in the broadcast itself an exact study support the conclusion that concepts explanation of the concepts to be taught in in the 3ciences may be learned by means of both picture and sound. By incorporating unguiledtelevisionviewing. The such an explanation into the beginning of a rcccni.nendations of this study are broadcast, the explanation becomes the intended for policy makers in television basis for continued viewing of the broadcasting stations, writers, and broadcast. Good broadcasts in the producers of programs for the sciences sciences targeted for viewing by children and people involved in supervision, and teenagers do exist today, and they instruction, and research in the teaching of employ a mixture of several genres, in thc sciences. which discrete concepts are explained in a number of codes.The result is that 281 276 Verbo-Visual Literacy documentary film, acting, and animation Howard, R. W. (1987). Concepts and merge and interact in the same broadcast. schemata: An introduction.Cassell Education. References McLuhan, M.(1964).Understanding Arnheim, R. (1974). Virtues and vices of media: The extensions of man. New the visual media.In D. R. Olson York: McGraw-Hill. (Ed.), Media and symbols. The form of expression, communication, and Metallinos, N. (1985). The idiosyncrasies education. The 73rd NSSE Yearbook of television:An overall view. (pp. 180-210). University of Chicago Journal of Visual Verbal Languaging, Press. 5(1), 43-51.

Ausubel, D.P., Novak, J.D., & Norman, D. A. (1980). Twelve issues for Hanesian, H.(1978). Educational cognitive science. Cognitive Science, psychology: A cognitive view.New 4(1), 1-32. York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston. Olson, D. R. (Ed.). (1974). Introduction Blich, B. (1989). Pictorial representation to media and symbols. The form of and its cognitive status. Visual Arts expression,communication, and Research, 15(1), 29, 68-75. education. The 73rd NSSE Yearbook (pp. 1-24).University of Chicago Goodman, N. (1976). Languages of art: Press. An approach to the study of symbols. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett. Pettersson,R.(1989). Visuals for information: Research and practice. Gombrich, E. H.(1960).Art and Englewood Cliffs, NJ:Educational illusion: A study in the psychology of Technology Publication. pictorial representation. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Silverstein, 0., & Tamir, P.(1991).In J. Clark-Baca, D. G. Beauchamp, & Gombrich, E. H.(1972). The visual R. A. Braden (Eds.), The perception image. Scienttfic American, 227, 82- of biological concepts through the 96. story animated movies. Selected readings from the 23rd annual Geisscr, M. J.(1991). In J. Clark-Baca, conference of the InternationalVisual D. G. Beauchamp, & R. A. Braden, Literacy Association, (pp. 127-139). (Eds.), Logical reasoning:Without Blacksburg, VA: The International pictures, not without words. Selected Visual Literacy Association readings from the 23rd annual conference of the InternationalVisual Wartofsky, M. W. (1976).Perception, Literacy Association(pp. 173-182). representation, and the forms of action: Blacksburg, VA: International Visual Towards a historical epistemology. Literacy Association Ajatus (36), 19-43. Gregory, R. L.(1978).Eye and brain (3rd. cd). Ncw York: McGraw-Hill.