City Research Online City, University of London Institutional Repository Citation: Shaw, Hannah (2014). Work, trauma and identity: A perspective from counselling psychology. (Unpublished Doctoral thesis, City University London) This is the unspecified version of the paper. This version of the publication may differ from the final published version. Permanent repository link: https://openaccess.city.ac.uk/id/eprint/3069/ Link to published version: Copyright: City Research Online aims to make research outputs of City, University of London available to a wider audience. Copyright and Moral Rights remain with the author(s) and/or copyright holders. URLs from City Research Online may be freely distributed and linked to. Reuse: Copies of full items can be used for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-profit purposes without prior permission or charge. Provided that the authors, title and full bibliographic details are credited, a hyperlink and/or URL is given for the original metadata page and the content is not changed in any way. City Research Online: http://openaccess.city.ac.uk/ [email protected] Work, Trauma and Identity: A Perspective from Counselling Psychology Hannah Shaw This thesis is submitted in fulfilment of the Professional Doctorate in Counselling Psychology (Dpsych) City University London Department of Psychology January 2014 Table of Contents Acknowledgements 8 Declaration 9 Section A: Preface 10 Section B: Doctoral Research - Experiences of psychological ill-health 16 following being bullied in the workplace: An interpretative phenomenological analysis. Abstract 17 Chapter One: Introduction 18 Introduction to workplace bullying 18 What is workplace bullying? 19 The prevalence of workplace bullying 21 The psychological consequences of workplace bullying 21 Explaining the effects 31 Counselling the targets 36 The present study 40 Project rationale 40 Research aims and questions 41 Chapter Two: Methodology 43 Rationale for adopting a qualitative approach 43 Introduction to Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) 44 Rationale for adopting IPA 47 IPA as opposed to other qualitative methodologies 48 Limitations of IPA 49 Epistemological position 51 Research strategy 54 2 Pilot interview 54 Sampling and participants 55 Recruitment 55 Interviews 58 Transcription 60 Analytical strategy 61 Ethics 63 Personal reflexivity 64 Evaluating the research 67 Chapter Three: Results 72 Outline of chapter 72 Overview of themes 74 Superordinate theme one: Bullying as a Powerful Experience 78 Feeling Isolated 78 Feeling Powerless 84 Living in Fear and Dread 90 Trying to Make Sense 96 Superordinate theme two: Psychological Consequences of Workplace Bullying 100 Shock and Disbelief 101 Excessive and Ruminative Thinking 104 Experiencing Depression 108 Experiencing Stress 114 Becoming Fearful of Returning to Work 117 Positive Psychological Effects 121 Superordinate theme three: Impact of Workplace Bullying on Identity 126 Impact on Self Concept: A Destroyed Self 127 Experiencing the Loss of a Valued and Expected Self 135 3 Rebuilding a Sense of Self 139 Superordinate theme four: Coping with the Experience of Being Bullied 143 Experiences of Support: Lack of Support 143 Experiences of Support: The Importance of Validation 149 Concentrating on Other Aspects of Life 154 Having a Corrective Experience 157 Summary 162 Chapter Four: Discussion 165 Discussion of theme one: Bullying as a Powerful Experience 165 Discussion of theme two: Psychological Consequences of Workplace Bullying 170 Discussion of theme three: Impact of Workplace Bullying on Identity 176 Discussion of theme four: Coping with the Experience of Being Bullied 182 Evaluation of the research 186 Further research 189 Implications for clinical practice 190 Summary 194 References 195 Appendices 216 Appendix A: Advertisement for Research Participants 216 Appendix B: Information Sheet for Participants 217 Appendix C: Demographic Questionnaire 219 Appendix D: Participant Demographics 221 Appendix E: Consent Form 222 Appendix F: Interview Schedule 223 Appendix G: Debrief 225 4 Appendix H: Audit trail 226 Appendix I: Ethics Release Form 236 Section D: Paper for publication - The impact of workplace bullying 243 upon identity: An interpretative phenomenological analysis. Abstract 244 Introduction to workplace bullying 244 Psychological consequences of workplace bullying 245 Workplace bullying and identity 245 Rationale for the current study 247 Methodology 247 Sampling and participants 248 Recruitment 248 Interviews 248 Analytical Strategy 249 Results 250 Subordinate theme 1: Impact on Self-Concept: A Destroyed Self 250 Subordinate theme 2: Experiencing the Loss of a Valued and Expected Self 252 Subordinate theme 3: Rebuilding a Sense of Self 253 Discussion 255 Evaluation of the research 258 Further research 259 Implications for practice 259 References 260 5 List of tables and figures Section B: Doctoral Research Table 1. Table of themes 76 Table 2. Participant characteristics 77 6 7 Acknowledgements I would sincerely like to thank the nine participants who took part in the pilot interview and main study. Their contributions to this research and willingness to share their time and personal experiences have been greatly appreciated. I would like to thank my research supervisor Dr Courtney Raspin for her invaluable inspiration, support, encouragement and understanding throughout the whole of the Dpsych. My heartfelt thanks go to my family, especially my parents. Without their support, faith and generosity, none of this would be possible. Special thanks also go to Michael and Agi for always being there for me and for motivating, sustaining and encouraging me throughout the process of conducting the research. 8 City University Declaration I grant powers of discretion to the University Librarian to allow this thesis to be copied in whole or in part without further reference to me. This permission covers only single copies made for study purposes, subject to normal conditions of acknowledgement. 9 Section A: Preface The preface will introduce and provide an overview of the main components of the Doctoral Thesis Portfolio. The overarching theme of the portfolio is the importance of work to psychological health and identity and how this might be disrupted by traumatic experiences. This piece of work is timely given the increasing recognition of the role of work in promoting mental well-being. Work has been described as providing the opportunity for a sense of fulfilment and social interaction and is an important determinant of self-esteem and identity (NICE, 2009). Research has highlighted the salience of work to how people define themselves (Du Gay, 1996; Dutton, Roberts & Bednar, 2010; Pratt, Rockmann, & Kaufmann, 2006), along with the ability to provide for oneself and the security of financial and physical safety (Lutgen-Sandvik, Tracy & Alberts, 2007). Gaining employment as a source of income is necessary for most people and threats to livelihood can have devastating effects on well-being (Lovell & lee, 2011). However, recent research commissioned by the mental health charity Mind (2013) revealed that work is fast becoming the biggest cause of stress in people’s lives, having larger effects than debt or financial problems and negatively impacting upon mental and physical health. This portfolio aims to increase awareness among clinicians of the need to be mindful of workplace issues when working with clients, taking into account the impact of traumatic experiences which affect the individual’s work life upon psychological health and identity. The portfolio urges practitioners to take a broader perspective on what constitutes a traumatic event given the demonstrated traumatic impact of experiences such as workplace bullying and physical injury which affect the individual’s work life. The portfolio thus focuses in different ways on three areas related to the topic of work, trauma and identity relevant to the practice of counselling psychology. Section B comprises an exploratory piece of research focusing on the experience of psychological difficulty as a result of being bullied in the workplace. Section D presents a paper for publication which explores further the impact of workplace bullying upon identity. The following section presents an overview of each of these sections and their objectives. The preface concludes with a reflection on the personal journey I have undertaken throughout my training and the learning that has resulted. 10 Section B: Doctoral research This section consists of an original piece of qualitative research that aims to explore in-depth the experience of psychological difficulty following being bullied in the workplace. My interest in conducting research in the area of workplace bullying stems from a personal and professional interest in the topic. An initial interest in the long-term psychological consequences of childhood bullying that persist into adulthood developed into a curiosity to understand what the psychological experience of bullying in adult life might be like. Having conducted a review of the literature in this area and found evidence of a link between workplace bullying and psychological difficulties, I was inspired to alter the focus of my research to explore how targets of workplace bullying might experience psychological effects. Additionally, I wanted to look at how this might have been overcome as this could offer implications for practice for professionals working with clients who have been affected by workplace bullying.