general article
Artistic Production Following Brain a b s t r a c t We know little about the Damage: A Study of Three Artists neurologic bases of art produc- tion. The idea that the right brain hemisphere is the “artistic brain” is widely held, despite the lack of evidence for this claim. Anjan Chatterjee, Artists with brain damage can offer insight into these laterality Bianca Bromberger, questions. The authors used an instrument called the Assess- ment of Art Attributes to exam- William B. Smith II, ine the work of two individuals with left-brain damage and one Rebecca Sternschein with right-hemisphere damage. In each case, their art became and Page Widick more abstract and distorted and less realistic. They also painted with looser strokes, less depth and more vibrant colors. No unique pattern was observed following right-brain damage. he cognitive neuroscience of aesthetics is in our ability to talk, move, recognize However, art produced after T left-brain damage also became its infancy. Only recently has neuroscience joined a tradition objects, apprehend emotions and more symbolic. These results of empirical aesthetics that dates back to Fechner in the 19th make logical decisions. By contrast, show that the neural basis of art century [1]. With rare exceptions, it is not clear that neurosci- while diseases of the brain can cer- production is distributed across entists consider aesthetics worthy of inquiry. Conversely, some tainly alter the ability to produce both hemispheres in the human aestheticians probably consider neuroscientific inquiry into art, the alterations are sometimes brain. aesthetics an abomination. considered improvements. Cases of In this paper, we explore a specific domain within neuro- improved artistic abilities fall into aesthetics: the effects of brain damage on artistic production a general class of paradoxical func- [2,3]. Neuropsychology has been instrumental in advancing tional facilitations produced by brain damage [6]. our knowledge of various complex systems, such as perception, In the clinical experience of author Chatterjee, relatively few memory and language, but its impact on the study of aesthetics visual artists continue to produce art after brain damage, ren- has thus far been relatively minimal. The limited data from dering it difficult to find many pre- and post-morbid works of which one might draw inferences on the subject are most often art for empirical study. However, several case studies of artists found in book chapters rather than in on-line journal articles, who experienced neurological disorders do consider changes hindering their availability. Beyond the constraints of limited in their artwork in the context of the location and extent of data and impediments to its access, fundamental questions neural damage [7,8]. When such cases are examined, the about proper methods within the field remain unanswered analyses of post-morbid stylistic differences, although often [4]. Finally, a deep underlying concern is that perhaps the detailed, generally lack quantitative and blind approaches in entire effort is misguided. Art, by its very nature, might resist assessing changes produced by brain injury [9]. How can one the kind of reduction insisted upon by science. Alternatively, be certain about changes in artistic production rendered by once filtered through the lens of science, art might lose the brain damage without a measure of the artwork itself? Claims very qualities that make it a special human endeavor. about changes in art after brain damage are typically made How might we make best use of the experiences of artists post hoc. These claims are then supported by one or two il- who have suffered brain damage in order to better understand lustrative examples. the effects of brain damage on artistic production? One strat- An instrument for assessment of artistic change is desper- egy is to examine instances in which brain damage produces ately needed. We have argued elsewhere [10] that such an a change in artistic output [5]. The effect of brain damage on instrument should be componential—it should assess different the capacity to produce visual art contrasts sharply with that on components of artwork—and it should be quantitative, so that many other human capacities. Diseases of the brain can impair hypotheses can be tested formally. To address this need, we re- cently developed the Assessment of Art Attributes (AAA) [11].
Anjan Chatterjee (neurologist, cognitive neuroscientist), Department of Neurology, The AAA assesses 12 descriptive attributes applicable to any University of Pennsylvania, 2 West Gates, 3400 Spruce Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104, piece of visual art: six attributes refer to formal/stylistic prop- U.S.A. E-mail:
©2011 ISAST LEONARDO, Vol. 44, No. 5, pp. 405–410, 2011 405
Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/LEON_a_00240 by guest on 24 September 2021 Fig. 1. Left: Katherine Sherwood, Test Sites, mixed media on canvas, 203 × 183 cm, 1992. (© Katherine Sherwood) Right: Katherine Sherwood, Cart before the Horse, mixed media on canvas, 208 × 274 cm, 2003–2004. (© Katherine Sherwood) Examples of paintings by Katherine Sherwood completed before her stroke (left) and afterward (right).
made the same ratings. These works were Zlatio Boiyadjiev deformities on the left side of the canvas. presented in random order, and the par- Zlatio Boiyadjiev (1903–1976) was a Alfred Kuhn, a contemporary of Corinth, ticipants were not made aware of which highly regarded Bulgarian painter. In provided the following observations just paintings were created before and which 1951 he also had a large left-hemisphere after Corinth’s stroke regarding his post- after the artists’ neurological injuries. Be- stroke, which led to aphasia and right- morbid work: low we give brief descriptions of the three sided weakness [17]. Like Sherwood, artists under consideration. he learned to paint with his left hand. The contours disappear, the bodies are often as if ripped asunder, deformed, Pre-morbidly, Boiyadjiev’s work has been disappeared into textures . . . also the described as using deep earth tones and faithfulness of portraits had ceased al- Study Subjects containing large solid figures. His style most entirely . . . all detailed execution Katherine Sherwood was considered natural and pictorial [18]. came to nothing. With wide stripes the Katherine Sherwood is a practicing artist After the stroke, Brown [19] described person is captured in essence. Character- ization is now exaggerated, indeed, often and professor at the University of Califor- Boiyadjiev’s work as fantastic and some- to caricature [21]. nia at Berkeley. She describes her pre- times bizarre, similar to dream cognition. morbid work as highly cerebral [12]. She The post-morbid work was described as More recently, Blanke [22] described integrated images such as transvestites, richer, more colorful and dazzling, with Corinth’s paintings after his stroke as medieval Solomon’s seals, spy photos and fluid, energetic lines, displaying vigor having broader brush strokes as well as bingo cards, incorporating themes such and inventiveness. An example of Zlatio less depth and spatial detail. Bäzner and as sexual identity, militarism and luck. Boiyadjiev’s pre-morbid paintings can be Hennerici analyzed shifts in Corinth’s In 1997 she suffered a left-hemisphere seen at
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Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/LEON_a_00240 by guest on 24 September 2021 As some functions are lateralized to ei- larly. If there are consistent changes seen but their most commonly depicted works ther the right or the left hemisphere, in Sherwood’s and Boiyadjiev’s paintings, were excluded (Table 1). Paintings were a unilateral stroke will differentially af- are these changes specifically a conse- selected to cover considerable range in fect certain abilities. Typically, the right quence of left-brain damage or a conse- the six formal/perceptual and six con- hemisphere is thought to be dominant quence of brain damage in general? tent/representational attributes of inter- for visual and spatial processing and the est. The six formal-perceptual attributes left for language processing. In terms (Table 2) were: balance (more/less), of aesthetics, the notion that the right Methods color saturation (calm/vibrant), color tem- hemisphere is responsible for creativity Sixty participants (37 men, 23 women) perature (warm/cool), depth (flat/deep has led to the common belief that this assessed the work of Zlatio Boiyadjiev perspective), complexity (simple/com- hemisphere harbors artistic abilities and Katherine Sherwood, and 30 (28 plex) and stroke style (controlled/loose). [24,25]. Alternatively, if art is thought of men, 2 women) assessed the work of Lo- The six conceptual-representational at- as a medium of communication akin to vis Corinth. Fifteen subjects participated tributes (Table 3) were: abstractness (ab- language, one might expect left hemi- in both groups. The average participant stract/representational), animacy (less/ sphere damage to be severely disruptive. ages were 21.0 years and 20.2 years, re- more), emotionality (less/more), realism With this study, we hope to explore the spectively, for the two groups. All partici- (less/more), representational accuracy (ac- question of hemispheric contributions pants were given a questionnaire before curate/distorted) and symbolism (literal/ to art production by examining the work testing that gauged their experience with metaphoric). of established artists who continued to visual art. Questions asked included num- All participants saw a training slide paint after experiencing either a right- or ber of studio art and art history classes providing a description of each attribute left-hemisphere stroke. taken, time spent making and looking at and a hand-drawn pictorial training slide We examine Sherwood’s and Boiyad- visual art and frequency of visits to art demonstrating the extremes for that attri- jiev’s work to learn if there are consisten- museums and galleries. Despite the fact bute. They were given verbal instructions cies in how their art changed following that two different groups of participants on how to proceed through the battery similar left-hemisphere brain damage. rated the work of the three artists, all par- and were allowed to ask questions. After One would infer that a combination ticipants had similar degrees of familiar- viewing training slides for each attribute, of left-hemisphere deficits and a right ity with and knowledge of visual art. participants rated each of the 24 paint- hemisphere released from constraints The AAA is briefly described here ings on a 5-point Likert scale displayed at imposed by the left hemisphere renders [26]: Participants were shown 24 paint- the bottom of the screen. No time limits these changes. To further limit infer- ings from the Western canon, presented were imposed in either trial. ences about laterality drawn from their in random order. These paintings were Participants took the preliminary work, we investigate Corinth’s work simi- created by well-known Western artists AAA before looking at the artwork of
Fig. 2. Left: Lovis Corinth, Portrait of Professor Eduard Meyer, oil on canvas, 140 × 180 cm, 1910–1911. (Image in public domain. Image source:
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Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/LEON_a_00240 by guest on 24 September 2021 1 Vermeer, The Letter Balance Visual harmony or visual “rightness” 2 Pollock, Number One Calm (more pastel) or vibrant Color Saturation (Tone) 3 Cassatt, Self Portrait (brighter) color palate Warm (reds, oranges, yellows) or cool 4 Kahlo, Two Fridas Color Temperature (Hue) (blues, purples) color palate 5 Cassatt, On the Balcony During Carnival Flat (two-dimensional) or deep (sense 6 Cezanne, Depth (Perspective) Still Life with Kettle of three dimensions) 7 Buoninsegna, Virgin and Child Enthroned Simpler (contained fewer elements) Complexity 8 Dewing, The Piano or more complex 9 Holbein, Portrait of Dirk Tybis Loose or tightly controlled brush Stroke 10 Henri, Laughing Child strokes Heda, Still Life With Oysters, Rum Glass, and Table 2. Six Formal-Perceptual Attributes. 11 Silver Cup 12 Dalí, Gala and Tigers 13 Matisse, The Blue Room 14 Rothko, Red and Orange 15 Picasso, Reclining Nude 16 Eakins, The Gross Clinic Abstract or concrete (representational) Abstractness 17 Hopper, The Gas Station images 18 Garsia, Apocalypse of Saint-Sever Animacy More or less sense of the objects being alive 19 Brueghel, Netherlandish Proverbs Emotion More or less emotional expressivity Realistic or fantastic images (e.g., horse 20 Newman, Eve Realism (Fantasy) versus unicorn) 21 Van Eyck, Man in a Turban Degree of depictive realism (likeness to a Objective Accuracy 22 De Kooning, Woman photograph) 23 Pissaro, Landscape with Flooded Fields Literal or symbolic content (e.g. a set of Symbolism (Allegory) 24 Matisse, Seated Riffian bones vs. skull and crossbones) Table 1. 24 Paintings from the Western Canon Used in Table 3. Six Conceptual-Representational Attributes. the AAA.
the artists under consideration for two paintings averaged 11 years after injury. judged as being less balanced, more vi- reasons. First, we wanted to familiarize For Corinth, we included 20 paintings, brant and warmer, having less depth participants with the attributes before half of which were produced before his and using looser strokes. They were also they looked at Sherwood’s, Boiyadjiev’s 1911 stroke. The paintings produced judged as more abstract, symbolic and or Corinth’s artwork. Second, if an in- pre-morbidly averaged 2.5 years before distorted as well as less realistic. Similarly, dividual was an outlier in judging a spe- the injury, and the post-morbid paintings Boiyadjiev’s paintings were judged to be cific attribute (i.e. > 2 standard deviations were produced an average of 2.0 years less balanced and more vibrant, having from the group mean), that individual’s after injury. less depth and using looser strokes. They judgment on that attribute was excluded To test the hypothesis that these art- were also judged as more abstract, dis- from the subsequent group analyses. ists’ artwork changed in specific attri- torted and symbolic as well as less realis- Thus, if a participant was an outlier on butes, we obtained average ratings for tic and less animate. Corinth’s paintings judging balance in the AAA, we assumed each painting. Then the average ratings were judged as having less depth and that his or her judgments of balance in for all the pre- and post-morbid paintings using looser strokes. They were also con- any of the brain-damaged artists’ work were obtained from each participant for sidered more abstract and distorted and could not be relied upon. each artist. We compared these ratings less realistic. For Sherwood we included 16 paint- using paired t-tests to test the hypothesis ings, 8 produced before her 1997 stroke that the aggregate ratings on any given and 8 produced after. The paintings pro- attribute changed in the paintings from Discussion duced pre-morbidly had average dates before to after the artist had the stroke. Can we learn anything about the biologic of 9.8 years before the injury, and the To correct for multiple comparisons (the bases of artistic production from study- post-morbid paintings were produced 12 attributes), we used a threshold for ing the works of artists with neurologic an average of 5.8 years after injury. For significance of p < 0.004. injury? [27] While such artists sometimes Boiyadjiev, we used 18 paintings, half of produce striking works, these observa- which were completed before his 1951 tions have not been used effectively in stroke. The paintings produced pre- Results research. Here we present our attempts morbidly averaged 8.4 years before the Results are shown in Table 4. Sherwood’s to bring structure to anecdotal obser- injury, and the post-morbidly produced paintings following her brain injury were vations by using the AAA. Importantly,
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Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/LEON_a_00240 by guest on 24 September 2021 participants judged artworks while blind stract, more symbolic, less realistic and morbid work characterized by “increased to whether particular works of art were more distorted as well as having a looser abstraction [and] symbolism,” while the produced before or after the artists suf- stroke style. They also found his work to second artist’s post-stroke work, although fered their brain damage. be flatter and less animate, changes not more detail oriented, was characterized At the outset, we should point out mentioned by critics previously. by the use of “bolder colors” [31]. Are that the popular idea that the right An important point can be made re- these changes rendered by a combina- hemisphere is the artistic hemisphere is garding the changes in Sherwood’s and tion of left-hemisphere deficits and right- wrong. Clearly, both hemispheres partici- Boiyadjiev’s work following their left- hemisphere predispositions no longer pate in artistic production, as evidenced hemisphere strokes. A priori, one might fettered by left-hemisphere inhibitions? by the fact that the art of these artists be pessimistic about the prospects of The right hemisphere is thought to en- changed regardless of which hemisphere identifying systematic effects of brain code meaning with a looser structure as was damaged. The question is not: Which damage on art production. After all, compared to the left hemisphere’s predi- is the artistic hemisphere? as much as: artistic styles and content are so varied lection for making fine distinctions [32]. How does each hemisphere contribute across different artists that one might be Thus, one might reasonably hypothesize to art? In what follows, we describe our comparing changes in qualitatively dif- that more abstract, symbolic and less findings from assessing the works of ferent kinds of objects. Our observations realistic depictions are an expression of Sherwood, Boiyadjiev and Corinth, dis- of Sherwood’s and Boiyadjiev’s art sug- the right hemisphere’s predisposition cuss hemispheric laterality in art produc- gest that this pessimism is not warranted. to organize ideas with looser boundar- tion and consider ways forward in such a Sherwood and Boiyadjiev’s artistic styles ies. To test this hypothesis, we examine program of research. are quite different from each other. For Corinth’s work. Sherwood describes her pre-morbid example, Sherwood’s paintings started Corinth’s paintings after his stroke approach to her work as highly cerebral out being substantially flatter than Boiy- were described as “deformed,” with at- [28]. She expresses the sense that post- adjiev’s paintings. Critically, both artists’ tempts at producing faithful portraits morbidly the images flow from her more paintings were judged as becoming flat- having “ceased almost entirely” [33]. easily. Her work has been described as ter following their strokes, despite the Blanke [34] describes a broadening of rawer, more visceral and less intellectual. fact that Sherwood’s paintings before her brush strokes, a lack of depth, less spatial In concordance with such descriptions, stroke were more similar to Boiyadjiev’s detail and several deformities on the left our raters found her work following paintings after his stroke in depicting side of his self-portraits. Our raters found brain injury to be more abstract, more depth. Thus, it is not the case that indi- Corinth’s paintings to be more abstract, symbolic, more distorted, more vibrant, viduals with left-brain damage produce more distorted and less realistic and also less realistic and depicted with looser a prototypic style of painting. Rather, it is to exhibit looser strokes and a flatter per- strokes. Our raters also found her work more likely that left-brain damage pro- spective. to be flatter and to have warmer colors, duces a prototypic shift in style of painting. One point to consider is the effect of changes not usually mentioned by critics Sherwood’s and Boiyadjiev’s paintings focal brain injury on motor skills, specifi- describing her work. became more abstract, symbolic and dis- cally for Sherwood and Boiyadjiev, two Boiyadjiev’s work has been described torted, as well as less realistic, and were right-handed artists who after left-hemi- as having become fantastic and some- painted with looser strokes, more vibrant sphere strokes began to paint with their times bizarre, with richer, more colorful colors and less depth. Correspondingly, left hands. The left-hemisphere stroke forms and fluid, energetic lines [29,30]. Annoni et al. provide an account of two did affect Sherwood’s and Boiyadjiev’s Consistent with these descriptions, our artists who experienced left-hemisphere motor skills on the right side. Could sys- raters found his work to be more ab- strokes, one of whom produced post- tematic shifts in their artistic styles be ac- counted for solely by the shift to painting with the left hand? From these data, we are agnostic about whether some picto- Table 4. Ratings of paintings on each of the 12 attributes of the AAA. Those attributes in rial aspects of the artwork, such as man- which the change was significantly different (p < 0.004) are shown in bold. ner of brushstroke, occurred because of hemispheric brain damage or because Sherwood Boiyadjiev Corinth of their use of the left hand. However, Attribute Before After Before After Before After such a shift is unlikely to explain the use Depth 2.0 1.7 3.3 2.5 3.0 2.8 of increasingly vibrant colors or changes Stroke 2.5 3.6 2.5 3.5 2.8 3.5 in conceptual attributes of their artwork, such as greater symbolism or abstraction. Saturation 2.5 3.1 2.8 3.1 3.0 3.2 When Sherwood’s, Boiyadjiev’s and Hue (warm) 3.3 2.9 2.9 3.3 2.9 3.0 Corinth’s paintings are considered to- Simplicity 3.0 3.2 3.0 3.0 3.1 3.1 gether, we find the following changes were found in all three artists. Their Balance 2.1 3.3 2.8 2.3 2.7 2.8 paintings became more abstract and Abstractness 3.1 2.0 3.6 3.1 3.7 3.2 distorted and less realistic and accurate. Realism 3.1 1.6 3.8 3.1 3.6 3.3 They were also rendered with looser strokes, less depth and slightly more Accuracy 3.1 4.2 2.6 3.3 2.8 3.3 vibrant colors. Thus, none of these Animacy 2.6 2.3 3.1 2.8 2.9 3.0 changes can be ascribed to laterality of Emotion 2.1 2.4 2.5 2.5 2.7 2.7 brain function. Also, their paintings did not change in complexity or emotional- Symbolism 3.0 3.8 2.3 3.0 2.7 2.8 ity. It remains to be seen whether these
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Downloaded from http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1162/LEON_a_00240 by guest on 24 September 2021 attributes would be susceptible to change 3. Dahlia Zaidel, Neuropsychology of Art (New York: Corinth’s self portraits,” International Review of with other kinds of neurological illness. Psychology Press, 2005). Neurobiology, Vol. 74, pp. 193–214 (2006). All the changes observed in Corinth’s 4. Anjan Chatterjee, “Prospects for a neuropsychol- 23. Hansjörg Bäzner and Michael Hennerici, “Lo- paintings were also observed in those of ogy of art” in M. Skov and O. Vartanian (eds.), Neuro- vis Corinth: Integrating Hemineglect and Spatial aesthetics (Amityville, New York: Baywood Publishing Distortions” in Julien Bogousslavsky and Michael G Sherwood and Boiyadjiev. Thus, we do Company, 2009) pp. 131–143. Hennerici (eds.), Neurological Disorders in Famous Art- not have any evidence that chronic right- ists, Frontiers in Neurological Neuroscience, Part II, 5. Anjan Chatterjee, “The neuropsychology of visual pp. 30–43 (Basel: Karger, 2007). hemisphere damage produces specific art: Conferring capacity,” International Review of patterns of change in artistic production. Neurobiology, Vol. 74, pp. 39–49 (2006). 24. J.E. Bogen and G.M. Bogen, “The other side of the brain III: The corpus callosum and creativity,” By contrast, both Sherwood’s and Boiy- 6. Narinder Kapur, “Paradoxical functional facilita- Bulletin of the Los Angeles Neurological Societies, adjiev’s paintings became more symbolic. tion in brain-behavior research,” Brain, Vol. 119, pp. Vol. 34, pp. 191–203 (1969). 1775–1790 (1996). The hypothesis that artists with left-brain 25. Paul Torrance, “Hemisphericity and Creative damage, because of an unfettered right 7. Julien Bogousslavsky and Michael G Hennerici Functioning,” Journal of Research and Development hemisphere, would engage meaning (eds.), Neurological Disorders in Famous Artists, Fron- in Education, Vol. 15, pp. 29–37 (1982). tiers in Neurological Neuroscience, Parts I, II, & III more loosely, was confirmed, specifically (Basel: Karger, 2007). 26. See Chatterjee et al. [11] pp. 207–222 for details. in the use of symbolism. 8. J.M. Annoni, G. Devuyst, A. Carota, L. Bruggi- 27. Chatterjee [4] pp. 131–143. Our approach points to ways in which mann, and J. Bogousslavsky, “Changes in artistic style 28. Waldman [12]. research in the neuropsychology of art after minor posterior stroke,” Journal of Neurology, production might progress. Using the Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, Vol. 76, pp. 797–803 29. Brown [18]. (2004). AAA it is possible to describe artistic 30. K. Zaimov, D. Kitov and N. Kolev, “Aphasie chez change quantitatively and componen- 9. Chatterjee [4] pp. 131–143. un peintre,” Encephale, Vol. 58, pp. 377–417 (1969). tially and to have the artwork assessed 10. Chatterjee [4] pp. 131–143. 31. Annoni et al. [8] pp. 797–803. in a blinded fashion. Individuals with 11. Anjan Chatterjee, Page Widick, Rebecca Stern- 32. Mark Jung-Beeman, “Bilateral brain processes for degenerative neurologic disease can schein, William B. Smith II and Bianca Bromberger, comprehending natural language,” Trends in Cogni- also have changes in their artistic styles “The assessment of art attributes,” Empirical Studies tive Sciences, Vol. 9, 11, 512–518 (2005). of the Arts, Vol. 28(2), pp. 207–222 (2010). [35,36]. Most famously, de Kooning’s 33. Blanke [22] pp. 193–214. painting after the onset of Alzheimer’s 12. P. Waldman, “Master stroke: A tragedy transforms a right-handed artist into a lefty—and a star,” Wall 34. Blanke [22] pp. 193–214. disease was considered to have become Street Journal (12 May 2000). simplified [37]. The work of the artists 35. B. Miller and C. Hou, “Portraits of artists: Emer- 13. Anjan Chatterjee, Apoplexy and personhood in Kath- gence of visual creativity in dementia,” Archives of with focal brain damage studied here erine Sherwood’s Paintings (National Academy of Sci- Neurology, Vol. 61, pp. 842–844 (2004). did not change in complexity. If art by ences Exhibition Catalogue, 2008) pp. 44–52. 36. B. Miller, J. Cummings, F. Mishkin, K. Boone, F. individuals with Alzheimer’s disease is 14. Chatterjee [13] pp. 44–52. Prince, M. Ponton and C. Cotman, “Emergence of demonstrably simplified [38], one could artistic talent in frontotemporal dementia,” Neurol- use our methods to contrast the effects 15. Waldman [12]. ogy, Vol. 51, pp. 978–982 (1998). of degenerative disease (diffuse neuro- 16. Quoted in Waldman [12]. 37. Robert Storr, At last light (Minneapolis: San Fran- cisco Museum of Modern Art and Walker Arts Cen- nal dysfunction) and stroke (focal brain 17. Hansjörg Bäzner and Michael Hennerici, “Stroke ter, 1995) pp. 37–79. damage) on artistic production. We are in painters,” International Review of Neurobiology, optimistic that our method can be used Vol. 74, pp. 165–191 (2006). 38. Chatterjee [2] pp. 1568–1583. to systematically investigate the biologi- 18. Jason Brown, Mind, Brain, and Consciousness. The Manuscript received 3 February 2010. cal basis of art production. Neuropsychology of Cognition (New York: Academic Press, 1977). Anjan Chatterjee is a neurologist and cogni- 19. Brown [18]. References tive neuroscientist at the University of Penn- 20. Anjan Chatterjee, “Neglect. A disorder of spa- sylvania. He received the Norman Geschwind Unedited references as provided by the authors. tial attention” in Mark D’Esposito (ed.), Neurological Award for Research in Behavioral and Cog- foundations of cognitive neuroscience (Cambridge, MA: 1. Guztav Fechner, Vorschule der Aesthetik (Leipzig: The MIT Press, 2003) pp. 1–26. nitive Neurology from the American Academy Breitkopf & Hartel, 1876). of Neurology and is the associate director of 21. Allred Kuhn, Lovis Corinth (Berlin: Propyläen, Penn’s Center for Neuroscience and Society 2. Anjan Chatterjee, “The neuropsychology of visual 1925). artists,” Neuropsychologia, Vol. 42, pp. 1568–1583 and is on the Board of Directors of the Inter- (2004). 22. Olaf Blanke, “Visuo spatial neglect in Lovis national Association of Empirical Aesthetics.
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