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Islamic Political Thought Its Origins in the Desert

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Islamic Political Thought Its Origins in the Desert Islamic Political Thought its origins in the desert. Only tribes held together by group feeling (‘asabiyya ) can sur- N i c h o l a s T a m p i o vive the harsh climate and hostile enemies of bedouin life. One reason for the rise of Islam is Islamic political thought is a tradition of that Muhammad succeeded in converting conceptualizing human affairs that originates blood group feeling into religious group with the Prophet Muhammad (570–632 ce ) feeling. Ibn Khaldun instructs his readers that in seventh-century Arabia. In his lifetime royal authority and dynastic power ( dawla ) Muhammad recited the Qur’an and established presuppose strong group feeling and that civili- a precedent (sunna) that Muslims ever since zation (‘ umran ) must incorporate some qual- have taken as a guide for how to establish a just ities of desert life to survive. Ibn Khaldun community. In the following centuries Muslims counsels rule by one person, the political spread the Islamic way of life ( din ) across the enforcement of Sharia, and the avoidance of Middle East, North Africa, southern Europe, pluralism, because contending allegiances tend Iran, Central Asia, and India, until today to precipitate civil war. Like many medieval approximately one and half billion people, or Muslims, Ibn Khaldun desires a caliphate one fifth of humanity, identifies as Muslim. where a Muslim leader enforces religious law Islamic political thought has consistency in all affairs touching this world and the next. insofar as certain terms – such as community For Euro-American scholars such as Bernard (umma), justice (‘ adl ), and struggle (jihad) – Lewis (b. 1916) and Patricia Crone (b. 1945), recur throughout the Qur’an and Prophetic Ibn Khaldun encapsulates a worldview funda- narratives (hadith) and subsequent political mentally at odds with western civilization. On texts. Throughout its history, however, Islamic this account, the modern West sustains a dis- political thought has incorporated, as well as tinction between the secular and the religious, modified and challenged, Arab customs, Jewish regnum and sacerdotum , that originates in law, Persian statecraft, Hellenistic philosophy, Jesus’s statement: “Render unto Caesar the Christian theology, and European and things which are Caesar’s, and unto God the American culture. Muslims are currently things that are God’s” (Matthew 22: 21). This debating how to reconcile (or not) Islamic thesis needs to be qualified in at least three notions of community, justice, and struggle ways. Discursive traditions such as Islamic with concepts that first appeared in ancient political thought have sustained many kinds Greece or medieval Christendom, such as of reasoning, including ones that differentiate democracy, liberty, and secularism. This entry religious and worldly power and that protect provides a background to that debate by freedom of conscience (see Qur’an 2: 256: focusing on how leading Muslim thinkers “there is no compulsion in religion”). Scholars address questions of sovereignty and law, or of must attend to the material circumstances who ought to govern according to which inter- that englobe any expression of ideas: Ibn pretation of Sharia (divine law). Khaldun’s sociology is not of Islam per se, but Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406), a famous of Islam as lived in the fourteenth-century Mediter ranean scholar and Islamic judge Maghreb. And the task facing global citizens ( qadi ), offers an account of Islam’s political today is to negotiate differences gracefully, to character in the Muqaddima , an introduction participate in what Iranian President to a history of the world ( Kitab al-’Ibar ). Mohammad Khatami (r. 1997–2005) calls a According to Ibn Khaldun, Islam is colored by dialogue among civilizations. The Encyclopedia of Political Thought, First Edition. Edited by Michael T. Gibbons. © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. DOI: 10.1002/9781118474396.wbept0542 2 The Founding error, so stay with the collective, for whoever strays from it strays into an error.” Another is The most important text for Islamic political that “after me, there will be caliphs; and after thought is the Qur’an. Between 610 and 632, in the caliphs, amirs; and after the amirs, kings; rhyming verses that his companions memo- and after the kings, tyrants …” Yet another rized, wrote down, and codified in the decades states: “Those who entrust their affairs to a after his death, Muhammad recited what woman will never know prosperity!” Muslims consider to be the eternal word of Regardless of whether these hadith are God. In the early years of his prophecy, authentic or disputed – the subject matter of Muhammad espoused primarily cosmological its own Islamic science – these hadith encap- themes such as the unity ( tawhid ) of God and sulate medieval Muslim conceptions of right the Day of Judgment. After the migration and wrong governance. ( hijra ) to Medina in 622 – year one of the A third significant document from the Muslim calendar – Muhammad recited verses founding period is the Constitution of Medina about social and political affairs, including ( sahifat al-Madina ). In an early biography of relations between the believers (mu’minun ), the Prophet ( Sirat Rasul Allah ), Ibn Ishaq Jews ( yahud ), Christians ( nasara ), People of (704–67) reports that, shortly after the migra- the Book ( ahl al-kitab ), and hypocrites tion from Mecca to Medina, Muhammad ( munafiqun ). The Qur’an does not offer wrote a charter defining the relationships bet- detailed instructions about who or what insti- ween the emigrants ( muhajirun ) from Mecca, tutions ought to govern the Muslim the helpers (ansar ) in Medina, the tribes within community; instead it articulates concepts, Medina (the Khazraj and the Aws), and the themes, and narratives that are the building Jews. Although early Muslim jurists did not blocks of Islamic political thought. The Qur’an, cite the Constitution as a normative precedent, for instance, states that God appoints Adam, some recent scholars argue that the rather than the angels, as a viceroy ( khalifa ) in Constitution may lay the foundation for an the earth (Qur’an 2: 30) and that God makes Islamic theory of public law committed to the David a viceroy ( khalifa ) to judge fairly between ideal of religious pluralism. people (Qur’an 38: 26). From such materials – including the verse “Obey Allah, the Messenger Caliphates and Dynasties and those in authority” (Qur’an 4: 59) – Muslims have debated the origin, nature, and Who would replace Muhammad as leader of limits of political authority. the Muslim community? Shortly after the The second most important body of work in Prophet’s death, Muslims in Medina appointed Islamic political thought is the collected words as leader Abu Bakr, an early convert to Islam and sayings (hadith) of Muhammad. The and father of the Prophet’s wife Aisha. Abu Islamic declaration of faith ( shahada ) is: Bakr (r. 632–4) was followed by Umar b. “There is no God but God, and Muhammad is al-Khattab (r. 634–44), who called himself His Messenger.” Muslims believe that, as “Commander of the Faithful” (amir al- God’s Messenger, Muhammad disclosed the mu’minin ) and conquered Syria, Egypt, Iran, fundamental principles of prayer, economic and Iraq. On his deathbed in 644, Umar insti- transactions, family life, and legal punish- tuted a method of election ( shura ) whereby ment. In the early centuries of Islam, scholars leaders of the community – “those who loosen such as Bukhari (d. 870) and Muslim (d. 875) and bind” ( ahl al-hall wa-l-’aqd ) – chose his assembled hadith collections that form the successor: ‘Uthman b. ‘Affan (r. 644–56). In basis of Islamic jurisprudence. One such 656, delegates from Egypt and Iraq met with hadith is the principle of consensus: “God will ‘Uthman and killed him. Thereupon ‘Ali b. Abi never bring my community together on an Talib (r. 656–61), Muhammad’s cousin and 3 son-in-law, became leader of the Muslim Ibn al-Muqaffa‘ (ca. 720–56) was a Zoro- community. A civil war ( fitna ) broke out bet- astrian convert to Islam who translated into ween ‘Ali and Mu’awiya (620–80), the governor Arabic key Indo-Persian works on statecraft. In of Syria and blood relative of ‘Uthman. This translating the piece sometimes known as The war divided the early Muslim community into Ordinance of Ardashir , which was attributed to three constituencies. One group held that reli- Ardashir, the founder of the Sasanian Empire, gious unity was more important than right or in the epic Khoday Namah – a late Sasanian governance; another held that Muslims ought chronicle that was to inspire Ferdowsi’s famous to have fought for the right of ‘Ali’s family to Epic of Kings ( Shah Namah ) – Ibn al-Muqaffa‘ rule; and a third asserted that “there is no rule used indirect speech to import Persian ideals but God’s” and that ‘Ali made a mistake by into Islamic political thought. According to agreeing to arbitration with Mu’awiya. These him, a sacral king ought to govern with the aid groupings – now known as Sunnis, Shiis, and of elite administrators over a docile political Kharijis – continue to divide the worldwide body. Ibn al-Muqaffa‘ advised the caliph to Muslim community. Sunnis compose the police thought by distributing handbooks of majority of the world’s Muslims, Shiis predom- correct doctrine and by instituting cultural inate in Iran and other sections of the Middle commissars to punish deviant opinion. If Ibn East, and, although there are few Kharijis, al-Muqaffa‘ had succeeded in convincing the revivalist movements share their aspiration to rulers of his time, then political authorities make God alone sovereign. rather than scholars and judges would have The Umayyad dynasty (661–750) and the held the center of gravity in Islamic political Abbasid dynasty (750–1258) followed what thought. As it was, Ibn al-Muqaffa‘ died a grue- Sunnis call the Rightly Guided Caliphs ( al- some death at the hands of a local governor khulafa al-rashidun ).
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