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John Snow, William Farr and the 1849 Outbreak of Cholera That Affected London: a Reworking of the Data Highlights the Importance of the Water Supply

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John Snow, William Farr and the 1849 Outbreak of Cholera That Affected London: a Reworking of the Data Highlights the Importance of the Water Supply Public Health (2004) 118, 387–394 John Snow, William Farr and the 1849 outbreak of cholera that affected London: a reworking of the data highlights the importance of the water supply P. Binghama,*, N.Q. Verlanderb, M.J. Cheala aIsle of Wight Primary Care Trust, Whitecroft, Sandy Lane, Newport, I.O.W PO30 3ED, UK bPHLS Statistics Unit, Colindale, UK Received 11 August 2003; received in revised form 8 January 2004; accepted 24 May 2004 KEYWORDS Summary Objectives. This paper examines why Snow’s contention that cholera was John Snow; William Farr; principally spread by water was not accepted in the 1850s by the medical elite. Cholera; Logistic The consequence of rejection was that hundreds in the UK continued to die. regression Methods. Logistic regression was used to re-analyse data, first published in 1852 by William Farr, consisting of the 1849 mortality rate from cholera and eight potential explanatory variables for the 38 registration districts of London. Results. Logistic regression does not support Farr’s original conclusion that a district’s elevation above high water was the most important explanatory variable. Elevation above high water, water supply and poor rate each have an independent significant effect on district cholera mortality rate, but in terms of size of effect, it can be argued that water supply most strongly ‘invited’ further consideration. Conclusions. The science of epidemiology, that Farr helped to found, has continued to advance. Had logistic regression been available to Farr, its application to his 1852 data set would have changed his conclusion. Q 2004 The Royal Institute of Public Health. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Introduction Farr, the dominant epidemiologist of the day, who had concluded that the available data not only Snow’s hypothesis that cholera could be spread in supported miasma (spread via atmospheric water, food or hand-to-mouth was not accepted in vapours) but also indicated that there was an the 1850s, arguably because Snow was not a underlying ‘natural law’ linking infection with 2 member of the medical elite. Although he gave cholera inversely to elevation above high water. chloroform to Queen Victoria for pain relief in child This paper re-analyses data that were contested birth, he was not one of the medical signatories on between Snow and Farr. the birth announcement for Prince Leopold.1 Instead, the medical fraternity supported William John Snow *Corresponding author. Tel.: þ44-1983-535409; fax: þ44- 1983-537140. Snow first published his hypothesis on the E-mail address: [email protected] causation of cholera in 1849, shortly after 0033-3506/$ - see front matter Q 2004 The Royal Institute of Public Health. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.puhe.2004.05.007 388 P. Bingham et al. elevation was the most important: ‘The elevation Table 1 Deaths from cholera in London, registered from 23 September 1848 to 25 August 1849. of the soil in London has a more constant relation with mortality from cholera than any other known Sectors Population Deaths Death rate element’.5 Farr accepted that there was of London in 1841 from per 1000 an association between mortality from cholera cholera inhabitants and a district’s water supply, and personally West 300,711 533 1.77 exhorted the water company to make 6 North 375,971 415 1.10 improvements. However, Farr also pointed out Central 373,605 920 2.46 that if registration districts were sorted into three East 392,444 1597 4.07 ‘water supply groups’ and then stratified accord- South 502,548 4001 7.96 Total 1,945,279 7466 3.84 ing to elevation, an elevation effect was still present (see Table 4). ‘While the effects of water Snow J. On the Mode of the Communication of Cholera. of the districts are apparent, they do not, in this London: John Churchill; 1849. analysis, conceal the effects of elevation’.5 Farr’s natural law the second outbreak had swept through England.3,4 In support of his hypothesis, initially Snow only had Farr progressed his concern with elevation anecdotal evidence and the data reproduced in by sorting registration districts into ‘terraces’, Table 1. 0–19-feet elevation, 20–39-feet elevation etc. Snow pointed out that more deaths had and calculated the average mortality for each occurred in the south districts of London than all terrace. Farr noted that if the ‘observed’ mor- the other districts put together (3465 deaths, tality of the 0–19-feet terrace (102 deaths per death rate 2.4 per 1000 inhabitants).3 He 10,000 population) was divided successively by 2, suggested that this was because water for the 3, 4, 5 and 6, the observed mortality of successive south districts was taken from the River Thames terraces was approximated (see Table 5). below Vauxhall Bridge, where the river was Farr concluded that this reflected a natural law polluted by sewage discharged into the Thames and went on to derive a formula that, he higher in its course. The other districts of London demonstrated, predicted observed mortality at either abstracted from the cleaner, high reaches subdistrict level.5 of the Thames or from its tributaries. Snow obtained his data from the Weekly Return of the Registrar-General that was published by William Farr, the Compiler of Abstracts to the General Data and methods Register Office. The data re-analysed in this paper, first published 5 William Farr by Farr in 1852, relate to deaths from cholera that were registered in London during 1849 (a total In 1852, Farr published additional data on deaths of 14,137 deaths, see Table 2). This was part of that had occurred from cholera in London during the second outbreak of cholera to affect the UK 1849, including eight potential explanatory and began on 22 September 1848 when a sailor variables for the 38 registration districts of London was diagnosed with the condition in Southwark. (see Table 2).5 Farr examined the association In total, 652 residents died from cholera in between death from cholera and the explanatory London in 1848. The outbreak continued until variables by ‘grouping’ the data (see Figs. 1–4), the end of 1849. and by comparing the death rate for the 19 districts with the highest values of the explanatory Explanatory variables variable with the 19 districts with the lowest values (see Table 3). Farr’s original study included eight explanatory Farr found an association between death from variables (see Table 2), as follows. cholera and all of the eight explanatory variables. However, on the basis of a more consistent Elevation relationship with elevation (see Fig. 1)and The elevation above the Trinity high-water mark the relatively large differential between the 19 of each registration district was estimated by most-elevated and 19 least-elevated districts Captain Dawson RE of the Tithe Commission. (1:3), he concluded that the association with Clearly a ‘mean’ elevation is of questionable The water supply and the 1849 cholera outbreak in London 389 Table 2 Deaths from cholera in London, registered in 1849 by registration district together with eight possible explanatory variables. District Deaths from Elevation Annual deaths Persons Persons per Average Annual Poor rate Water cholera in above high from all causes per acre inhabited annual value of precept supplya 1849 per water (feet) 1838–1844 house value of house per per pound 10,000 per 10,000 house (£) person (£) of house inhabitants inhabitants value Newington 144 22 232 101 5.8 22 3.788 0.075 1 Rotherhithe 205 0 277 19 5.8 23 4.238 0.143 1 Bermondsey 161 0 264 66 6.2 18 3.077 0.134 1 St George 164 0 267 181 7.0 22 3.318 0.089 1 Southwark St Olave 181 2 281 114 7.9 35 4.559 0.079 1 St Saviour 153 2 292 141 7.1 36 5.291 0.079 1 Westminster 68 2 260 70 8.8 36 4.189 0.076 1 Lambeth 120 3 233 34 6.5 28 4.389 0.039 1 Camberwell 97 4 197 12 5.8 25 4.508 0.072 1 Greenwich 75 8 238 18 6.8 22 3.379 0.038 2 Poplar 71 10 241 15 6.2 44 7.360 0.081 2 Chelsea 46 12 287 62 7.1 29 4.210 0.060 1 Hammersmith, 33 12 228 11 6.6 33 5.070 0.067 3 Brompton, Kensington and Fulham St George in 42 15 289 195 6.9 32 4.753 0.039 2 the East Stepney 47 16 242 85 6.3 20 3.319 0.080 2 Belgrave 28 19 194 65 8.0 67 8.875 0.066 1 Wandsworth 100 22 198 4 6.2 29 4.839 0.018 1 West London 96 28 302 212 9.7 65 7.454 0.072 2 Whitechapel 64 28 290 194 8.1 26 3.388 0.067 2 Lewisham 30 28 173 2 5.8 27 4.824 0.075 2 St Martin-in- 37 35 240 81 10.3 119 11.844 0.049 2 the-Fields Bethnal Green 90 36 239 115 6.3 9 1.480 0.039 2 London city 38 38 214 129 7.1 117 17.676 0.136 2 East London 45 42 259 284 8.3 38 4.823 0.056 2 St James 16 43 212 222 10.4 128 12.669 0.088 3 Westminster Shoreditch 76 48 251 161 6.6 20 3.103 0.023 2 St Luke 34 48 276 242 7.8 28 3.731 0.082 2 Hanover Square 8 49 179 57 9.5 153 16.754 0.081 3 and Mayfair Strand 35 50 242 254 10.1 66 7.374 0.018 2 Holborn 35 53 266 235 9.7 52 5.883 0.047 2 Hackney 25 55 197 14 5.9 25 4.397 0.034 2 Clerkenwell 19 63 242 202 8.2 33 4.138 0.074 2 St Giles 53 68 269 221 11.0 60 5.635 0.057 2 Paddington 8 76 197 32 7.3 64 9.349 0.052 3 St Pancras 22 80 222 59 8.8 41 4.871 0.039 2 Islington 22 88 200 28 6.6 35 5.494 0.042 2 Marylebone 17 100 227 102 9.8 71 7.586 0.030 3 Hampstead 8 350 202 5 7.2 40 5.804 0.043 3 Table sorted by district elevation above Trinity high-water mark.
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