Keywords to resources. of access restricted spatially the to justify found been has No evidence management. sector for the (n=179). by questionnaires socioeconomically R described is sector The catches. top of spearfishing atthe is species, avulnerable not such 45.72 Sparisoma respectively. cretense intrínseca, nivel trófico, Sparisoma trófico, cretense nivel intrínseca, Palabras clave submarina. pesca la de recursos alos actuales espaciales restricciones las justificar para científicas evidencias sector. No encontraron del se gestión ala ayudar que puede base (n=179). estudio un cuestionarios de representan resultados utilización Los la mediante socioeconómicamente descrito es sector El submarina. pesca por la capturada más especie la es vulnerable, poco y medio trófico nivel rápido, un con crecimiento de pez un Sparisoma y45,72 3,24 de cretense es respectivamente. intrínseca vulnerabilidad de índice el y medio trófico nivel El profesional. sector del 41.7de descargas siendo las de t, 0.28% 39 de estima una en resulta Esto *hora. 390 de g/pescador captura de media una mar, con el en año al 6 días de es pescador por pesquero esfuerzo de media La reales. capturas de información utilizando actividad esta de impactos e presiones las cuantificar de que trata Canarias islas las en ción empírica investiga la primera es estudio Este vulnerables. altamente y de lentocrecimiento trófica, posición alta una con reproductores, grandes por capturar conocida es submarina pesca La R Sparisoma cretense level, trophic vulnerability, A landings. (41.7 catch sector annual of 0.28% professional t) being atotal and atsea annum per of 39 estimate an outcome figures of These 390 g/fisher*hour. yield mean witha , at annum per days 6 is fisher by effort The mean information. catch I Canary The in research empirical first the is study This vulnerable. highly and slow-growing are that position trophic a top with species of spawners catching as recognized traditionally is Spearfishing A bstract esumen verage and I and level trophic verage : R R I evista Scientia I Scientia evista S T SPE ecreational , , infralittoral , intrinsic intrinsic ecosystems, infralittoral management, fisheries fisheries, ecreational : Pesca recreativa, gestión pesquera, ecosistema infralitoral, vulnerabilidad vulnerabilidad infralitoral, ecosistema pesquera, gestión recreativa, : Pesca HE D HE AR Pesca submarina en las I las en submarina Pesca ¿ F E s el león tan fiero como lo p lo como fiero tan león s el I slands quantifying this activity’s and impact with real real with impact and pressure activity’s this quantifying slands EV DOI SH nsularum Spanish I Spanish I : https://doi.org/10.25145/j.S: I L A NG I 700 días de pesca al año en el mar y una captura anual total total anual captura yuna mar el en año al pesca de días 700 Pablo Martín-Sosa* S BL ntrinsic Vulnerability I Vulnerability ntrinsic , 2; diciembre 2019, I diciembre , 2; pp. 9-36; nstitute of O nstitute , a fast growing , with a mid trophic level and trophic level mid a with fish, growing , afast N T A . CK A CK HE C HE . esults represent a baseline and foundation foundation and abaseline represent esults ceanography SEEMS TO BE? SEEMS S IT A slas C slas N I .2019.02.01 AR anarias: Y I ndex in the catch are 3.24 and and 3.24 are catch the in ndex intan? SSN: e-2659-6644 SSN: SL A N

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Revista Scientia Insularum, 2; 2019, pp. 9-36 9 Revista Scientia Insularum, 2; 2019, pp. 9-36 10 et al et (Martín-Sosa catch the in sizes their about and information species with catches contests the spearfishing evaluating study a also Thereis interviews. O Canary off The communities infralittoral on of spearfishing impact the tackling studies of empirical 2012),them. among many of being one However, absence thereis a total spearfishing gear and damage to habitat (Smith and Nakaya 2002). to habitat (Smith Nakaya and damage and gear as bait, , loss of such methods of other fishing impacts without negative the size and species the target can , and selective to shallow very is restricted is diver a because sustainable ecologically is spearfishing that argue other hand, the Coleman pa of shallow infralittoral communities. Finally, through a questionnaire, we draw a we draw aquestionnaire, Finally, communities. through infralittoral of shallow the affects cluesabout us the activity gives howmay This species. target a Canary The in communities infralittoral shallow on of spearfishing impact the evaluates activity touristic and maritime leisure activities ( overcrowded dependent highly and is on archipelago of this world, coastline the by to law about of coastline. 20% the restricted licences), (0.3%andis spatially fishing population, recreational of 7% total of total ( species trophic vulnerable level higher Freireand 2014, 2016; al Lloret et (Pita reefs coral and bottoms rocky inhabitshallow that communities fish benthic al et (Lloret effort fishing of levels high peopleandof numbers large spearfishing), and (e.g. world-wide, methods shore-fishing boat-fishing, several involving areas coastal amount of annual catches (), catch. the catches in catch-per-unit-effort ofamount and annual sizes the with together archipelago, this in levels effort spearfishing the understanding the equilibrium of the ecosystems ( of ecosystems the equilibrium the Cowx 2004). Cowx al et al et habitat deterioration (Lewin marine ofcause major anthropogenic as a identified have been activities, recreational Mar, 22, 22, Mar, [email protected] ddition, the present work analyses the trophic level and vulnerability of spearfishing of spearfishing vulnerability trophic and level the ddition, present the work analyses . 2006), and the overexploitation the and (Coleman al et . 2006), of resources ffic rticular, spearfishing has been repeatedly reported as a main cause of impact to the impact to of cause main as a reported been repeatedly has spearfishing rticular, . 2008; Cowx 2002; Pitcher and Hollingworth 2002; Westera 2002; al et Pitcher 2002; Hollingworth and Cowx . 2008; et al et (Castro-Hernández e D Spearfishing is practiced in the Canary Canary the in is practiced Spearfishing This is the first time that a study based on analysis of real catches from catches routine real of analysis based on study that a time first the is This T anish anish *

á et al et h Sp rsena Pesquera, 38180 Santa Cruz de de 38180 Cruz Pesquera, Santa rsena e different modalities of fishing all around the world, the around including all of fishing modalities e different et al et Lewin . 2004; R e I I I creational fishing is one of the most common leisure activities in is onethecommon activities most of leisure fishing creational s n s lands, apart from a technical report to Canary to report Canary from atechnical apart lands, lands. The results constitute an important breakthrough in breakthrough important an constitute The results lands. stitute of stitute . O c eanography, Canary Canary eanography, C rod I . N 2018) opinions out situ of in on spearfishers based . 2006; Pita Freire and 2014).. 2006; on Very studies, few . 2008), thus lowering abundance and biomass of biomass and . 2008), lowering abundance thus T A g D Coleman 2000; ardy i R ogo and Pereira and ogo 2014; McPhee al et U 2006; McPhee . 2006; T i era e nerife, Spain. Corresponding author’s e-mail: author’s e-mail: Corresponding Spain. nerife, T I et al et s IO lands lands I s A lands by more than 6,500 people 6,500 by more than lands N . 2016; Fernández Pascual s m O c any other islands across the the across other islands any eanographic Centre, C/ Farola del Farola C/ Centre, eanographic et al et et al et . 2002), on impact . 2004; Cooke and and Cooke . 2004; . et et Lewin 2004; I s lands Fishery lands . . 2018). . 2003). . 2002; 2002; . et al et I I n n .

the current spatial restriction of the activity as a management measure. amanagement as of activity the restriction spatial current the as as well discussed, are the studies of compared outcomesto previous differences I Canary the in practitioners of spearfishing the picture socioeconomical et al et (Hernández andecosystems habitatsnumerous different development and morphology, of occurrence the allows coastal diverse and rich the O populations. marine fragile about brings fact This quite unfertile. islands the oligotrophic and shelf make A and (Barton oligotrophic of open waters the A of northwest waters the cold rich the A of North the (Mitchel surface land to the compared area 100 in 0 and limited m depth) are between located bottoms gentleof slope platforms theisland (shallow thus slope, have a significant 1,501 is archipelago D km. 27º-29º 14º-18º Nand al et W(Hernández area Study during 2017during taken 2018. and of were 958 entries analyzed, Atotal catch reported study. present the in used are results these and a web catches, app members for to their report their Catch and effort data effort and Catch collection Data al et I Canary of the interest in stocks general in although are heterogeneous, areas the populations productive ofof conditions state fish and al conditions et to (Yanes sea adverse by exposure of year the part great during restricted naturally also are of islands the north at the Zones population spots. coastal main fromaway far and/orland fromare access have adifficult of areas the 1). represented. Some are bottoms (Figure sandy byzones and island rocky Both open access several in divided coastline, of 20% total around in questionnaires–), workthis fromunder fish –results 25 m capacity, of depth of cannot 90% them representing 13% of the total number of spearfishing licenses. licenses. 13%representing number of spearfishing of total the I Canary the in association spearfishers main A Canarian . 2015). The Canary I Canary The The members reporting information used belongs to fishing days performed performed days fishing belongs to used information The members reporting The The fishers without apnea than restriction depth permitted, is (other Spearfishing et al et ssociation forssociation R Asociación Canaria de Pescadores Submarinos Responsables 2002). The waters of the archipelago are situated on the eastern limit limit eastern theare situated on . 2002). archipelago the watersThe of tlantic subtropical gyre, occupying an intermediate position between intermediate position an between occupying gyre, subtropical tlantic slands (Figure 1) are located in the Northeast A 1) Northeast (Figure the in located slands are M AT ue to the volcanic nature of the islands, their edifices edifices their of islands, the nature volcanic ue to the esponsible Spearfishers, translated to English) is the is English) to translated esponsible Spearfishers, E n the other hand, the lengthy coastline, along with with along coastline, lengthy the other hand, n the RIA L A N D ME . 2013).the of length coastline The total slands, with just above just 850 with members, slands, T H frican and the warm and and warm the and coast frican rístegui 2004). Limited island island 2004). Limited rístegui OD slands are overfished (Castro overfished (Castro are slands S . 2013). A CPESU tlantic, between between tlantic, ( . 2006). The . 2006). ACPESU slands. The slands. designed R designed R , ,

Revista Scientia Insularum, 2; 2019, pp. 9-36 11 Revista Scientia Insularum, 2; 2019, pp. 9-36 12 Intrinsic vulnerability and trophic level data level trophic and Intrinsic vulnerability calculated. was and fishing, hour of spearfisher per catch T shown in are relationships b from these unpublished data). aand Sosa, Parameters I Canary from every entries reporting catch are there although reporting, represented catch the better in and Canaria Gran Fuerteventura, 5 entries. than less made 25 5and have Most entries. of rest the between have made reporting catch the in part taking fishers 90% the of made by days, spearfishers. 104 from 623 fishing spearfishing contests made by Spanish I made contestsby Spanish spearfishing out at carried of sampling the or results from literature the the in available analysis. the from excluded were without and aphotographsize identification sample years species to check two (including aphotograph reference). ametric with individuals the from these Entries cephalopods) of each of of case the in length mantle and dorsal for length size the and (total effortcaught (in catch,species hours), zero of fishing cause the Cheung considered most appropriate the genus was of same to used. be the species similar I used. was vulnerability or family genus intrinsic (2015) the not available, was information species the When used. was Cheung weighted by its catch volume.weighted by its catch taxa, for value each arithmetic mean the calculating index, vulnerability intrinsic with than manner same the in we proceeded catch the trophic in level average 2000). T Christensen (Pauly and ecosystem marine web of local the the food within Pauly 2003).position a an trophic organism expresses The of level ( by fished spearfishers of species atrophic the to level each to assign used was catch volume. catch weighted by their species of index each vulnerability of intrinsic mean arithmetic the brought is about of catch by value the calculating vulnerability intrinsic average (mode=80), (mode=60),high high moderate (mode=40) low and (mode=20). The T able of 1.as unit per effort of (CPUE), catch Finally,expressed mean the able 1). (Froese and FishBase Some through of were trophic levels the available The intrinsic vulnerability of each fish species ( species fish each of vulnerability intrinsic The The biomass of the catch was calculated using weight-lengthusing relationships calculated was catch the The of biomass A et al et et al et vailable information on trophic levels from the literature of the taxa in the the in of taxa on the literature information from the trophic levels vailable . (2005) categorized fishes by their intrinsic vulnerability value in very in very value vulnerability intrinsic their by fishes . (2005) categorized . (2007). I sland. I sland. n the case of cephalopods, the work of Meissa and Gascuel work the Gascuel of and Meissa of cephalopods, case n the nformation reported consisted of date, island, zone, of island, date, consisted reported nformation n some cases, the index of an ecologically very very ecologically of index an the n some cases, nstitute ofnstitute O ceanography (S ceanography T able 1) from obtained was T enerife enerife IO I o estimate o estimate ) (Martín- slands are are slands of cephalopods ( cephalopods of two species including also but fishes, majority being the to 24 families, belonging family with 14 with O species. family demersal and 14 and O demersal -associated. data yield and effort Fishing Canary I Canary theabout think they especially,and what poaching, surveillance, resources, fishery sector, the state of fishing professional the modalities, other recreational measures, management fisheries the requested: also is Their matters opinion these other of theiractivity.about think spearfishers what of describing aim the of with questions section a with finishes questionnaire the and catch normally they about species the is applied,when, muchwhere, effort asked Theyhow, were fish. they evenandwhy I Canary the in spearfishing who to practice know was of questionnaire the 8 months, from July of was period 2018 ofanswering 2019. to February goal main The present the in study. The of amount were 179 gathered. Atotal questionnaires valid were used membersfor data to complete their web site, these on association and the D. cervinus D. leaving size, second due the to its larger actually is of Seriola biomass, terms in dumerili , although cervinus Diplodus is species abundant 35% 2, respectively). (Figure catch biomass of Thesecondand 20% total and most Socieconomic data Socieconomic catch. spearfishing I Canary the within individuals of immature percentage the to check used and A Scientific Minimum (MS on knowledge biological based size catch aminimum establishing thus species, ofahundred the conservation scientificfor in a proposal resulted effort I Canary the in species target themain of fishery about biology and the cephalopods).for length mantle ofor dorsal fishes, case the in length of cm total in ( species regulated for those gathered was size catch photograph reference. Minimum ametric including attached an with data Size A Sparisoma cretense A González A slands spatially restricted access to resources for spearfishing. to resources access restricted spatially slands CPESU CPESU total of 45 species have been reported to be fished by spearfishers ( of 45 total to have reported fished by be been spearfishers species and Sepia officinalis and vulgaris Loligo R members also includes the size of each individual individual of each size includes the also reporting R members catch et al et , with the advice and collaboration of S collaboration and advice the , with dvised Length). These sizes have also been listed at T listed been also have sizes These Length). dvised . (2012) information available the all attempted to gather nly 2 species are pelagic, while 15 while 13 pelagic, benthopelagic, are are 2species nly is the top target species, both in terms of abundance of abundance terms in both species, top the target is ne diadromic fish ( fish ne diadromic R T ESUL T able 1, MLL: Minimum Legal Length Length Legal able 1, Minimum MLL: S ). Sparidae is the best represented best the ). is Sparidae Chelon labrosus Chelon IO , designed a questionnaire aquestionnaire , designed in third place. third in ) was caught. ) was slands. This This slands. slands, how slands, T able 1), able 1, slands slands A L: L:

Revista Scientia Insularum, 2; 2019, pp. 9-36 13 Revista Scientia Insularum, 2; 2019, pp. 9-36 14 Moreover, I to highly vulnerable species (fishes as Tylosurus (fishes species vulnerable to acus highly catches ranges from above just 2( ranges catches border black circles). T (highlighted biomass and of abundance represented terms attentionbetter in species to those special paying catch, the within ( D. cervinus D. and their biological characteristics. I characteristics. biological their 2008).extent (González O I Canary the of species fish coastal demersal general, I not is uniform. catch the in Moreover, of taxa the catalogues. vulnerability protected species national and regional the in none listed catch, the are of species the fusca augusti 5). (Figure present catch of Seriolaare the specimens There in dumerili I 212 to of the Fuerteventura Gomera g/h I of 480 La the g/h from range a with ostensible see differences, can we islands, different the in yield tons 42 respectively. and sea I Canary the in licenses thenumber of spearfishing total to catch results and effort day.fishing per fisher per 1 specimen I and catch kg of andoverperjust 1 year, a fisher per mean kg 6.3 and individuals 6.6 states thestudythat present means weight This andof kg. a total 327 fished 52 terms, reported fishers of a annual 311total with specimens 345 journeys fishing I catch. any have to failed which of half almost journeys, fishing 623 fished during of the individuals in the catch under MS catch the in of individuals the under MS also are catch the in individuals under MS are catch the in of specimens the totality Length (MS Length T (MLL, Length Legal 1%Pauly Minimum sizes, under the 2003). is of catch the to small With regard Sparisoma cretense higher in summer months and November. months and summer in higher being varies, catch the throughout year, the although fairly consistent is effort The day,per hours fishing perand days month 1.48permonths year. 1.82 mean mean T slands, the total estimated spearfishing annual effort and catch is catch and effort 39,700 at days annual spearfishing estimated total the slands, mpact on infralittoral assemblages mpact on infralittoral L) were represented together (Figure 6) to show the range of these two variables variables two of these L) to show range were 6) the represented (Figure together and Pomatomus saltatrix and , A I Spearfishing in the Canary I Canary the in Spearfishing O mean spend a 2.57 3. isSpearfishers in depicted Figure effort fishing Mean Dentex dentex Dentex n terms of yield, 390 grams per fishing hour is the mean. I the mean. is hour fishing per of 390 yield, n terms grams lthough lthough ver the 2 year period, the total reported catch is 654 691 is catch reported kg, total the period, specimens, ver 2year the V A is wide ranging, from less vulnerable (as squid vulgaris Loligo the vulnerable from less ranging, wide I is L, T L, . able 1) and 10% are under the Minimum Scientifically A able 1) Scientifically 10% and Minimum under the are that have sizes closer to the Maximum Length (Lmax, Froese and Froese and (Lmax, Length Maximum to closer the have sizes that Balistes capriscus et al et able 1, González , Pseudocaranx dentex deserve a special mention, aspecial the since deserve auriga Pagrus and verfishing does not affect all species equally; it dependson equally; allspecies affect notdoes verfishing are listed as vulnerable in the I the in vulnerable as listed are ntrinsic Vulnerability I Vulnerability ntrinsic Sarpa salpa Sarpa , Bodianus scrofa Bodianus slands targets a wide range of sizes of the taxa of taxa the of sizes range awide targets slands f we make an extrapolation of this study’s of this extrapolation an f we make A . 2012), to immature. be expected thus, Phycis phycis Phycis L are A , Sepia officinalis L. O L. , the only herbivorous, the species) to 4.5. ther species with more than half half more with than species ther , or Spondyliosoma cantharus or A D. dentex D. slands are overfished someto overfished are slands Mycteroperca fusca of 90% Mycteroperca L. ndex ( , , UCN R UCN sland (Figure 4). (Figure sland I Sarpa salpa Sarpa Diplodus cervinus Diplodus V , I rophic the in level E. marginatus E. ) and trophic level ) and f we look at the ed List, among among List, ed , , dentex D. Muraena dvised dvised , and and ). ). M. M. n n ) systems are good or very good fishing measures. Three quarters think temporal temporal think quarters Three measures. fishing good or good very are systems (97%) (89%). swimmers divers and with relationship good orgood very majority have a great the bad; or bad very rest the good, or good very is think 60% or boat), (land recreational 63% fishers, professional good; this: or good very like sector. R of extractive the rest the capacity, but responsible charge also only factor uploaded for apotential ecosystem is the not forthe spearfishing licenses that of number believe clearly overfished. 70% I Canary the in that believe them half of while insufficient, is surveillance science. 70% with activity, think to 35%the collaborate good is think about to know for good society is catches reporting that of 49% information. think by The A regulations, 75% about More informed fishing well catch. than the consider themselves selling 72% regulation, don’t catch size aminimum spearfisher any eyes know good with A T have awide though, not to reporting catches to the A to the catches not to reporting themajority. for costs of therange is day fishing per ayear, euro 20-30€ athousand 75% than economic almost less terms, invest I shorter journeys. an making 8% and for a time, longer fishing day, usually 20% A days. fishing the they don’t 40% up to of that say third anything another catch journeys, fishing O 2kg. 1and between and day kg a 3-4 17% day,fish they per fishing while 25%think 3 kilos 2 and for important householdis economy. spearfishing conviction that 95% aclear has fish. to eat desire and commitments conditions, work family climate timetable, this order, fish or they in favourableare: not, whether influencing aspects important below a 20m. depthcapable of The most 4 fishing are of 10% of spearfishers the the summer.theandin O 30% around year, only all fish 60% annually. times 30 theboat. by rest 66% from land, enter thesea areaccompanied; 75% spearfishes modality; recreational another of practice them of 20. approximate Half age at an I Canary the in spearfishers that suggests which 7) Figure 41-45 and (age =26-30 bimodal =5-10 old, of experience time years >20 and years, Socioeconomics 45.72 respectively. volume, weighted by its 3.24 catch is and taxa, for value each arithmetic mean the 6). tofrom 30 50 I (Figure ssociation is advantageous. A advantageous. is ssociation I biomass, and of terms abundance in represented catches the better Species in Concerning spearfishers thoughts and social behaviour, 48%them andadmit social of thoughts spearfishers Concerning between catch theperceptionthey is fishers 40% of of to effort, With respect and 20 annually,between mostly andtimes between fish 10 majorityThe 70 both are questionnaires the in distribution experience Fishermen and age n terms of fishing restrictions, most of them think T think them most of restrictions, of fishing n terms lmost 3 quarters of the sector spend 3-4 hours fishing each fishing fishing each fishing hours spend of sector 3-4 the 3quarters lmost ssociation, internet and friends, being the three main sources sources main three the being ssociation, friends, internet and L range, but 90% of them are within a narrow I anarrow within but of are 90% them L range, ne third declares that they do not fish anything 20% of the 20% of anything do not they fish that declares ne third n fact, average T average n fact, lmost 90% have never been sanctioned, 97% see have sanctioned, never been 90% lmost CPESU elationship with other sectors can be summarized summarized be can other sectors with elationship web platform although 99% think the the think 99% R web although platform L and I L and V in the catches, calculated by calculated catches, the I in slands begin spearfishing spearfishing begin slands slands sea resources are are resources sea slands otal A otal llowable Catch V variation, I variation, nly nly n

Revista Scientia Insularum, 2; 2019, pp. 9-36 15 Revista Scientia Insularum, 2; 2019, pp. 9-36 16 empirical research to assess the impact of spearfishing in the Canary Canary the in of spearfishing impact the to assess research empirical I Canary absent the in totally being impact, this assess al data has been collected, including a picture of every single catch integrated in the the in integrated catch single of every apicture including collected, been has data way The results. to the of uncertainty degree of acertain confer error which or bias and sources not does fact thepreclude workdifferent from activity.constraints This ( al et (Martín-Sosa results al et Fernández more reliable data. themselves. fishermen to the most exposure) of year,current the according (too bottoms of sea the and/or sandy tooquality deep) conditions sea ( and and to residence, proximity to do with having others, the more are zones than visited of spearfishing on several coastal areas (Pita and(Pita 2014,Freire areas coastal 2016; several on Lloret of spearfishing A 2008; 2008; al et beyond also doubt(Lloret is effect, detrimental reported world, contributing to this the around zones coastal in activities fishing impact 2004).of The recreational McPhee al et 2006; al et (Lewin scientific ofworks many so results unquestionable is species after or dumerili Seriola marginatus, Epinephelus fusca, as species more trophic the vulnerable level mid-high desirable getting not are they people think several ago, years than species same the catching are still up to 15catch A species. different they that fishermenaredeclaring There reported. catch real it’s to the similar very from home. 25 50 km and between 25%and at adistance residence, 45% 10-25to their area permitted away from closest home, have the km able be to fish closer majoritylike great to would The zones. favour of in no take are T closures. about the same spatial think them of buthalf beneficial, only are closures et al about et topic reliable information the obtain (Castro-Hernández to method the available as only polls use particular in spearfishing and general in I Canary fishers the as of professional spots, landing web of controlled official of an and A o be more specific, 75% are against marine reserves of fishing interest, 80% but fishing of reserves marine moreo be against 75% specific, are lthough there are some works concluding the high and pernicious effect specifically specifically effect pernicious and some high the concluding are there works lthough 2006), there are very few studies using real catch data from routine activity to from routine activity data catch real using studies few very are there . 2006), CPESU 2008; Lloret and Font Lloret and . 2008; 2013) bias where from contests, rules catches or real . 2008; Cowx 2002; Pitcher and Hollingworth 2002; Westera 2002; al et Pitcher 2002; Hollingworth and Cowx 2008; D Asociación Canaria de Pescadores Submarinos Responsables Submarinos Pescadores de Canaria Asociación with Collaboration I Fishing as a major worldwide cause of impact on habitats, ecosystems and and a major on of worldwide ecosystems as habitats, impact Fishing cause R quite is information reliable, since catch, they what it to comes saying When iogo and Pereiraiogo and 2014; McPhee t is very difficult to monitor of any kind (Pascual (Pascual kind any of tofishing monitor difficult recreational very t is slands have. Most of the studies assessing impacts of recreational fishing fishing of recreational impacts assessing have. Most of studies the slands egarding the spatial distribution of effort (Figure (Figure some of island distribution effort 1),every spatial in the egarding R et al et ) has allowed us access to more reliable information concerning routine to more concerning reliable information access us allowed ) has . 2012), catches their of due obligation lack of to the to fishers register 2002; A . 2002; . 2018; D et al et Coleman 2000; gardy DISCUSS lthough most than a half of the fishers think they they think of fishers the ahalf most than lthough armanin and Vella and 2018;armanin al et Boada et al et IO 2002; Coleman Coleman . 2002; N Pseudocaranx dentex slands. This study is the first first the is study This slands. 2004; Cooke and Cowx Cowx and Cooke . 2004; et al et . 2004; Lewin Lewin 2004; . Mycteroperca anymore. I 2018; Lloret slands with with slands . 2017). 2003). . 2003). et al et et et . .

by the al I Canary day, 3.7Lloret fishing per hours al (data et from surveys, places other in detected those than are lower found figures effort of activity. Fishing the Sparisoma species, cretense single O I Canary sector (official fishing of artisanal landings 0.3% of annual al et by Castro-Hernández estimated I Canary the in licenses of spearfishing number total to study’s the results of this catch extrapolation an tons, making 42 catch of annual comm.). spearfishing pers. estimated The total (Pascual-Fernández, archipelago. T in focused study andhabitats. families from different species quiteis with long diverse, and species target list of The species. trophic vulnerable level high on afew just focused fact. this influenced by catch is theprofile so webs, food natural modified and habitats disturbed ecosystems, unbalanced environment, with overfished already an on pressure putting is activity the that we have to understand results, interpret these T terms. real in place takes that picture of real the average an as We results the estimation. assume bea could probableThis under of catch. source their reporting spearfishers by those registered being is journeys of fishing the about percentage of what knowledge lack in general at Canary I at Canary general in impact and pressure activity’s the when it to wholecomes assess from the archipelago information of using to 210 importance Fuerteventura the Gomera) La highlight in D disparities. the therefore,the for is, most plausible explanation This tend them. to overestimate they catches, theirabout asked are they when that fishers, same by the data catch D polls. (2018), Fernández at Pascual 542 (3.3 study) 390 previous hour gper at and al the (654 et at Castro-Hernández al et of Castro-Hernández that and study this between comparisons results yield and Catch expected. than yields higher questionnaires), study therefore having this ofthe results to (according more spearfishers with experienced islands western productive. T collaboration. and willingness it impossible depend is of on to assessment, monitor when methods poaching I of sustainability. most aware the of sector.most the responsible evidently Moreover, part are catches reporting those the be must 13% the spearfishers into that account ofwe associated have to take Nevertheless, and sizes. identification about species avoids uncertainty analysis, . 2018).are more4),influenced that in Figure grey in (shaded islands Eastern The ffice data from landing spots registering system). The importance of spearfishing system). spearfishing of importance The registering spots landing from data ffice . (2018)study’s This trend. are follow same outputsday the 1.1fishing per kg A R A ata from questionnaires used in this study tell us, comparing to reporting to reporting comparing us, tell study this in used from questionnaires ata et et day, 3.3 fishing per Castro-Hernández hours (data from surveys, slands frican coastal upwelling (Valdés González- and upwelling coastal frican esults tell us spearfishing in the Canary I Canary the in spearfishing us tell esults nother source of bias when it comes to quantify the activity’s pressure is the the is activity’s pressure the nother of when source it bias to comes quantify I enerife and La Palma I Palma La and enerife n fact, authors are about to implement the poll all over the 8 islands about authors over to are implement 8 islands n fact, the all poll the o end with those questions which need to be taken into to account to need taken be which questions those o end with ifferences in the average yield among islands (from 480 g/h in g/h (fromamong480 islands yield the average in ifferences enerife, and cannot be used to assess the activity in the whole the in activity the to assess used be cannot and enerife, slands. A slands. , the parrotfish, features prominently in a great part part great prominentlyin a features parrotfish, , the et al et Pascual-Fernández example, s an t is true that any time an activity is the subject the is activity an time any that true t is et al et . (2018). evennot means estimate catch This slands, although being less fruitful, are two two are fruitful, less being although slands, slands, is clearly below the around 800 tons 800 below around the clearly is slands, . (2012)). on based cited are studies Both slands is not an activity specially specially activity not is an slands D éniz 2015),éniz more are . 2008) or in the or. 2008) the in slands Fishery Fishery slands . (2012) a is O ne .

Revista Scientia Insularum, 2; 2019, pp. 9-36 17 Revista Scientia Insularum, 2; 2019, pp. 9-36 18 A Scientifically A Scientifically under Minimum are catch the in of individuals the half , more cervinus than Diplodus such as Epinephelus as such marginatus perspective ecological from an of species some important but case catch, to the the in large highly fecund specimens. specimens. fecund highly large on of focusing danger the of unaware are buttotally individuals, size small fishing I Canary the in spearfishers noted been that has fisherrecognition. isthere where I no modalities fishing caught by other are fish al et Sbragaglia as depths, to greater escape and and speafishers to recognize capacity and great mobility is their due to This specimens. large catch to forspearfishers aconsequence of difficulties the as but also of , because reasons: two be could there catches, the not in are abundant these but attractive, specimens large find spearfishers Since of species. spawners any I Canary the in conclude spearfishing that unable are to expertise. We higher level of at a trained specifically are participants I Canary the in at contests catches with happens butsame The only for results, our catches. isolated in seen be can Sullivan 1998;Sullivan A al et (Lloret species of certain individuals on one large as focusing fisheries. volume (in number of units) of artisanal professional html www.gobiernodecanarias.org/agricultura/pesca/temas/pesca_recreativa/licencias. I (Canary licences number of 90,000 atotal with I sector. this with directly competing fishers, artisanal professional as resources same studies around the world the around ( studies other in case is the This not fisheries. of artisanal professional to that compared is not significant extraction biomass total estimated the of spearfishing, case the al et Fernández (Pascual fisheries of recreational of modalities Font and (Lloret Spain 2013). in to other places the rest with happens same The I Canary the in fisheries artisanal and professional spearfishing study. for performed this been it has as sampling catch of real amethodology with 2008, R HierroMarine El the in land-fishers by recreational study).this A of the in questionnaires catches fishers opinion the their and on reported catch real the between comparison the with checked be (as it can or interviews surveys polls, in catches amounttheirtheabout asked of when ofexaggerate fishermen to of world al the et (Passley parts I not Canary the only in research, differentthose of to previous are totally results These limited. certainly is extraction, sector fishing of total the to that compared terms, biomass extracted in t is a sector technically better equipped, developed with no kind of monitoring, no equipped, developed kind and with better a sector technically t is lthough it is true that illegal sizes in the catch are rare, both in the contests (Martín- contests the in both rare, are catch the in sizes illegal that itlthough true is , 45 recreational licences per 1,000 per people),, 45 licences the recreational times ahundred more than T R The effect of spearfishing on the size of specimens is remarkable. I remarkable. is sizespecimens of the on spearfishing of effect The aking a look to the species composition, the direct competence between a look composition, competence between species to the direct the aking egarding small sizes, the results of this study are worrying, not in general not general in worrying, are study of this results the sizes, small egarding verage yield found in this study is very similar to that carried out carried to that similar very is study this found yield in verage dvised Length (MS Length dvised et al et ssis . 2017; al et Mann et al et (Castro-Hernández slands R et al et ocklin . 2010). A , Mycteroperca fusca Mycteroperca or auriga Pagrus A L, cm of cm T L, et al et (Martín-Sosa slands . gain, the reason can be the usual tendency usual the be can reason the gain, 2011). R . slands nowadays is focusing on large on large focusing is nowadays slands 1997; al et Harper otal Length or D Length otal . (2018) have proved.large These ecreational fisheries still aim the aim still fisheries ecreational slands are aware of the harm of of harm the aware are slands slands Government data, http:// Government data, slands et al et Martín-Sosa in eserve . 2018) other in but also . 2018), though even orsal Mantle Length). Length). Mantle orsal . 2012). However, in slands is clear, akin clear, is akin slands 2000). This effect effect . 2000). This 2008; Sluka and and Sluka . 2008; . I n the case of case n the t is referred referred t is t . growing levels of partnership thanks to the existence of A existence to the thanks of levels partnership growing I Canary the in routine activity. their I during expenditure high who belongdo the not have class to lowerandmiddle generally are young Spearfishers incentive. important expected is a than moresource as a food fishing although those appropriateare activity, catch andto a leisure of effort sector. Levels recreational recreational fisheries catches all over the world; the Canary I theover all world; Canary the catches fisheries recreational and profile of today’sartisanal vulnerability trophic and the swaying is grounds, 2015; Watson Pauly and fishing 2005).in current overfished situation, normal This and Palomares 2005; D 2005; Palomares and food webs”marine (Pauly the down as “fishing known is This process overfishing. of effects the undergo mainly species most vulnerable and trophic levels highest The species. vulnerable of predominant subsistence the less with trophic levels, in lowered results This food webs. marine affected in results prove overfishing that I Canary the of status over fishing generalized and asevere to certify 2008 in used I Canary the in experts of majority of the fishery knowledge expert the provide, with together studies few these information partial and disperse scattered, inconsistent. and The are isolated efforts existing The fisheries. to assess program I Canary the in Nevertheless, species. of target rest the than biomass and abundance greater aclearly with catches Canary from the typical fish, trophic midvulnerable notlevel growing so Moreover, fast a pyramid. parrotfish, trophic the in high not placed very species carnivorous to amoderately vulnerable predators. O apex vulnerable slow growing I level ( level I Canary the in do not on matter the exist studies much to closer MS MLL with most of cases in more the and includes many species which regulation MLL a new study, of this Canary process the the D species. for certain worrying is catch the in specimens presence of immature the although catches themajority of spearfishing legal make facts two These species. number of regulated noticeable scarce the is to MLL referring limitation legal gross other The a consequence of fishing. as ratios sex imbalanced about highly bringing hermaphroditism sequential of their because fusca Mycteroperca or auriga Pagrus notif MS account the results of other studies in the Mediterranean (Lloret (Lloret Mediterranean the in of other studies results the account et al et Gonzalez of on findings work the based to MS to a closer size should changed be and species the Length or Length of cm T (MLL, length legal Minimum species, of some target case the in that Sosa slands fishery resources (González 2008). haveto performed been Some studies (González resources fishery slands V of 3.24 and 45.72 respectively are not describing a catch mainly consisting in in I of consisting 45.72 3.24 and mainly not acatch are describing respectively et al et T L) I and Spearfishers as a sector in the Canary I Canary the in sector as a Spearfishers R . eferring to the biological characteristics of spearfishing catch, taking into taking catch, of spearfishing characteristics biological to the eferring 2018) concludes, study it remarkable is routine this activity, during as and A D L itself. TheMS L itself. orsal Mantle Length) is set not relying on notinformation set scientific on is relying Length) Mantle orsal ntrinsic Vulnerability I Vulnerability ntrinsic slands is a sector fairly concerned about marine sustainability, with with sustainability, concerned about marine fairly asector is slands e Lope A e Lope I slands rocky coastal habitats, is at the top of spearfishing top at the is of habitats, spearfishing coastal rocky slands A A L is large for species like Epinephelus like for marginatus species large L is slands there is a total lack of recurring scientific of recurring lack atotal is there slands L, following the advice given by the author of this author given by the of advice this the following L, et al et rias I slands Fishery Fishery slands ndex ( . 2016; Gascuel Stergiou and Meissa 2005; n the other hand, the averages belong averages the other hand, n the I . (2012). V slands meet a theoretical image of a image atheoretical meet slands n socioeconomic terms spearfishing n socioeconomic spearfishing terms I ) was expected. A expected. ) was slands), trophic average agreater O ffice has taken steps towards stepstaken towards has ffice A L (González L (González CPESU slands are no exception. are slands et al et n average T n average . R 2008) (previous (previous 2008) , aresponsible et al et slands were slands . 2012), 2012), L and L and uring uring otal otal ,

Revista Scientia Insularum, 2; 2019, pp. 9-36 19 Revista Scientia Insularum, 2; 2019, pp. 9-36 20 between MLL and MS and MLL between weight for abig divergence some with species minimum contests to modify and habits, responsible activity, to the about educate fishing some unacquired yet assess of sector. the I future to the edge leading the gives scientists overexploitation of some rocky coastal demersal resources solely to spearfishing. solely to spearfishing. resources demersal overexploitation coastal of some rocky attribute the and to decline fisheries artisanal the for spearfishing to blame daring I Canary the in resources fishing publicall shouldto nothavefavourable opinion access the in of spearfishers, that, body fishers, a artisanal with theprofessional relationship affecting devil black A to restaurants. of catch sell direct illegal especially,and coast, access closed at over are quota, fishing that A most ( visited the are factors three into these account conditions productive taking remote and better little with The zones. ones exposed, P3. capital, Finally, to the closest T the of O year. the half closed also I the visited. only onealmost as zone G2 GomeraLa marks zonein of G1 spearfishing exposure of degree high zones. the The all among visits ofdistribution spearfishing Hernández Hernández day. fishing Castro- person per and by 5kg limited activity an when it already is I Canary the in activity Wefishing evidence. the only being don’t reason spearfishing for scientific a find first option doesn’t The effort. any by justified scientific seem to be spearfishing but disperse moreincreased an about would latter The bring open access. alternative an in practice or system putting access spearfishing current the of maintaining I Canary the in I Canary the and purpose this for useful study be should This fisheries. coastal manage and evaluate to better institutions, research relevant governments and from stakeholders, economic), and participation approaches social active (biological, assessment with I 2017). (Pavlowich Kapuscinski points for and management leverage identify and interactions social-ecological understand researchers help fisheries can perspective zones of the island. I of island. zones the more frequently, 4 the among only one the is exposure since protected from wind visitzone F2 spearfishers of Fuerteventura ). dominant half NE More than Hierro of I 2zones El from the R for spearfishers. nightmare the a zones: of quality bad and access aredifficult remoteness, activity. These the predetermine totally the resources access to The barriers coastline. open access of non100% achieving protected goal: aroundmain a association, built spearfishers in zones of the Canary I of Canary zones the in richness species higher show significant censuses, visual with of activity the impact n La Palma, the most unexposed zone is far away from the capital and most of and it is capital away from the zone far is most unexposed the Palma, n La et al n Lloret et s in other coastal activities, poaching exists to some extent, with fishing journeys journeys to fishing some with extent, exists poaching activities, other coastal s in We understand existence of A We existence understand slands and Spanish governments, who share the management of fisheries of fisheries management the governments, who share Spanish and slands et al et . (2016), different to integrate it it concluded necessary is is that . (2018), I Canary the in only study the slands, must take note. Managers must assess the consequences consequences the assess must note. Managers take must slands, n Gran Canaria and Lanzarote I Lanzarote and Canaria n Gran A slands where spearfishing is allowed and no significant size size and no allowed significant is where spearfishing slands slands with restricted access zones to available resources, resources, to zones available access restricted with slands L. D L. slands. With the results of this study in hand it seems too it seems hand in study of this results With the slands. s a consequence, spearfishing has gained the image of a image the gained has spearfishing s aconsequence, egarding the spatial distribution of effort (Figure (Figure of distribution effort 1), spatial the egarding econstructing the process of fishing from the fishers’thefrom of fishing process the econstructing f among the other 3 zones, the most (60%) visited the other 3zones, the f among is sland, H2 is the most visited (H1 is very exposed to exposed most (H1 visited the is very is H2 sland, CPESU enerife, with 9 fishing zones, is a mixture of mixture is a zones, 9fishing with enerife, is beneficial, and the partnership with with thepartnership and beneficial, R is T 9, T slands there is an equitable an is there slands slands trying to assess the the to assess trying slands t is away to monitort is and 2 and T 2 and 5, in this order).5, this in contributions considered A have been in I appreciate Mooney’s Catherine corrections. help English with Monterrey Gustavo analysis. and for help data with Martín Laura and editing map for Barreiro Santiago Pérez, Monterrey. Héctor Gustavo de and Paz thank Ialso study, to O this information to in special reporting spearfishers the to all ( principle applicationthe becomes. of precautionary the thecrucial informationis, more the scarcer The fisheries. to manage information I Canary the up would in set be open whereby access total ascenario in extraction biomass composition. R and community fish populations on of spearfishing impact conclude or nil limited al et or Boada Pita Freire and like of (2016) Spain, rest the in other studies as Galicia in results, controland zones conclusions these These ones. our support between differences A CPESU Asociación Canaria de Pescadores Submarinos Responsables Submarinos Pescadores de Canaria Asociación to thank I would like T slands. I slands. he author only responsible the is for whole the paper. Some little R , http://asociacioncanariapescadoressubmarinosresponsables.com/) and . (2017) on contest which information, based both Catalonia, in esearch should be carried out on the potential increase of spearfishing of spearfishing out increase on potential the should carried be esearch t is vital, finally, to stress the importance of having scientific reliable reliable scientific having of importance the finally, stress to vital, t is A U A T CKN HOR O S C S WLE R O cknowledgements Section. cknowledgements ecibido N D TRI GEMEN : marzo de 2019; de aceptado : marzo BU TIO TS N : abril de 2019 de : abril vidio vidio

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Table 1. List of taxa present in the catch, ordered by catch volume (W, kg) Species Family N a b W (kg) HT Diet TROPH MLL MSAL IVI Sparisoma cretense Scaridae 253 1,05E-05 3,07 140,93 RA O 2,9 22 22 48 Seriola dumerili Carangidae 8 0,0423 2,75 84,97 RA C 4,5 50 Diplodus cervinus Sparidae 51 7,54013E-05 2,76 44,91 B O 2,69 33 50 Sarda sarda Scombridae 11 0,0028 3,32 39,43 P C 4,5 40 48 Pseudocaranx dentex Carangidae 16 1,29672E-05 3,00 36,51 RA C 3,9 40 47 Sphyraena viridensis Sphyraenidae 23 3,62394E-06 3,00 33,87 RA C 4,4 62 Balistes capriscus Balistidae 41 6,67313E-05 2,76 27,99 RA C 3,39 23 28 Chelon labrosus Mugilidae 15 1,12331E-05 3,00 22,73 Di O 2,23 49 Diplodus cadenati Sparidae 35 0,000023 2,96 22,36 De O 2,69 22 22 35 TA Dicentrarchus labrax Moronidae 15 1,17231E-05 3,00 19,66 De C 3,98 36 42 42 Muraena augusti Muraenidae 12 0,000000198 3,37 19,59 RA C 4,27 56 56 53 BLE Pomatomus saltatrix Pomatomidae 5 0,0595 2,51 16,43 B C 3,6 55 Umbrina canariensis Scianenidae 7 0,0128 3,00 15,76 De C 3,51 41 Mullus surmuletus Mullidae 46 0,00743 3,18 15,15 De C 3,28 15 17 44 Mycteroperca fusca Serranidae 7 1,49013E-05 3,00 11,74 De C 4,3 35 48 60 Dentex dentex Sparidae 3 0,011 3,06 9,15 B C 4,5 50 52 Epinephelus marginatus Serranidae 4 0,0091 3,12 8,61 RA C 4,13 45 98 62 Bodianus scrofa Labridae 7 0,01 3,13 8,48 RA C 3,3 50 Heteropriacanthus cruentatus Priacanthidae 25 0,0263 2,87 7,79 RA C 3,89 28 Muraena helena Muraenidae 3 0,000000062 3,52 7,33 RA C 4,27 76 53 Tylosurus acus Belonidae 6 1,42683E-06 3,00 6,84 P C 4,5 67 Serranus atricauda Serranidae 16 0,0056 3,25 5,08 De C 3,37 19 20 32 Plectorhinchus mediterraneus Haemulidae 2 0,02 2,94 4,44 De C 3,5 61 Gymnothorax unicolor Muraenidae 4 0,00000005 3,54 4,22 RA C 4,27 57 57 53 Dentex gibbosus Sparidae 4 0,000022 2,90 4,07 B C 4,5 35 39 52 Enchelycore anatina Muraenidae 2 0,000000285 3,22 3,96 RA C 4,27 53 Pagrus auriga Sparidae 7 0,0086 3,01 3,88 B C 3,31 35 56 41 Diplodus puntazzo Sparidae 5 0,026 2,82 3,70 B O 2,69 30 34 Parapristipoma octolineatum Haemulidae 9 0,00937 3,09 3,39 De C 2,91 43 Scorpaena porcus Scorpaenidae 7 0,000007 3,18 3,15 De C 3,44 61 Solea solea Soleidae 5 0,00781 3,08 2,96 De O 3,2 45 Phycis phycis Phycidae 5 4,4013E-06 3,17 2,73 B C 4,09 37 49 Caranx lugubris Carangidae 2 0,0187 2,90 2,19 B C 4,3 57 Sarpa salpa Sparidae 6 0,0000134 3,01 1,99 B H 2,06 24 30 50 Spondyliosoma cantharus Sparidae 3 0,00732 3,25 1,82 B C 3,29 19 23 63 Lithognathus mormyrus Sparidae 2 0,0000275 2,91 1,26 B C 3,3 25 53 Sepia officinalis Sepiidae 3 0,347 2,64 1,23 De C 3,75 15 30 Boops boops Sparidae 4 0,00000427 3,17 1,20 De O 2,53 11 14 45 Pagellus erythrinus Sparidae 2 0,01279 3,01 0,80 B C 3,55 22 24 51 Oblada melanura Sparidae 1 0,00322 3,40 0,48 B C 3,1 33 Pagellus acarne Sparidae 2 0,007231 3,21 0,45 B C 3,65 12 20 45 Stephanolepis hispidus Monacanthidae 4 0,000066 2,69 0,39 RA O 2,62 15 32 Holocentrus adscensionis Holocentridae 1 0,0213 2,78 0,35 RA C 3,47 28 Sparus aurata Sparidae 1 0,0167 2,96 0,32 De C 3,42 19 34 41 Loligo vulgaris Loliginidae 1 0,00067 2,37 0,29 B C 3,2 22 19 N: Number of individuals in the catch; a and b: Weight-Length relationship parameters; HT: Habitat type (RA: Reef associated, B: Benthopelagic, P: Pelagic, Di: Diadromic, De: Demersal); O: Omnivo- rous, C: Carnivorous, H: Herbivorous; TROPH: Trophic level; MLL: Minimum legal length (cm of TL or DML); MSAL: Minimum Scientifically Advised Length (cm of TL or DML); TL: Total Length; DML: Dorsal Mantle Length; IVI: Intrinsic Vulnerability Index.

Revista Scientia Insularum, 2; 2019, pp. 9-36 31 Revista Scientia Insularum, 2; 2019, pp. 9-36 32 Figure 1. Map of the study area. Spearfishing open access zones for each island are light shaded shaded light are island each for zones access open Spearfishing area. study 1. of the Map Figure when the management is R is management the when egional Government, dark shaded when is Central Government. Central is when shaded dark Government, egional F IGU R ES Figure 2. Species abundance ( abundance Species 2. Figure A , in number) and biomass (B, in kg) in spearfishing catches. spearfishing in kg) in (B, biomass and number) , in

Revista Scientia Insularum, 2; 2019, pp. 9-36 33 Revista Scientia Insularum, 2; 2019, pp. 9-36 34 Figure 3. R Figure B) Number of fishing days per month and C) Number of fishing months per year. per months fishing of C) and Number month per days of fishing B) Number eported spearfishing effort in the Canary I Canary the in effort spearfishing eported slands: A slands: ) Number of fishing hours per day, per hours of fishing ) Number Figure 5. Mean length (marker, T (marker, length 5. Mean Figure cephalopods) of the different species in the catch. Size range is represented by the black bar. the black by represented is range Size catch. the in species different of the cephalopods) deviation Standard island. by of spearfishing (g/h) yield Mean 4. Figure is represented. N=number of catch reporting. of catch N=number represented. is otal Length in cm for fishes, D fishes, for cm in Length otal orsal Mantle Length in cm for for cm in Length Mantle orsal

Revista Scientia Insularum, 2; 2019, pp. 9-36 35 Revista Scientia Insularum, 2; 2019, pp. 9-36 36 Figure 6. I 6. Figure black with highlighted are biomass, and of abundance terms in represented, better Species herbivorous, represent fillings grey dark and grey light White, circles. border ntrinsic Vulnerability I Vulnerability ntrinsic Figure 7. Number of fishers in the questionnaire by age ( age by the questionnaire 7.in Figure of fishers Number omnivorous and carnivorous species respectively. species carnivorous and omnivorous and by time of experience (B, years). (B, of experience bytime and ndex ( ndex I V I ) and T ) and rophic Level ( Level rophic T catches. the in L) of species A , years)