Locating African Agency in Africa-China Relations
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Beyond Fuelling The Dragon: Locating African Agency in Africa-China Relations by Isaac Odoom A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Political Science University of Alberta © Isaac Odoom, 2016 Abstract The growing presence and influence of China across the African continent has attracted considerable local and international attention and even controversy. On the one hand, the burgeoning ‘China in Africa’ literature tends to focus on pessimistic assertions about the exploitative aspects of the engagement, and China is frequently represented as a twenty-first century (neo)colonial power that is plundering Africa's natural resources while corrupt, or at best passive, African leaders fuel the metaphorical dragon. On the other hand, more optimistic claims about China’s engagement focus on notions of mutual benefits, lack of explicit and burdensome conditionalities, and the economic development opportunities presented by such engagement. What such polarising representations often ignore are questions of African agency and, specifically, the diverse factors that account for the growth in African state interactions with China, and how diverse African actors respond to Chinese engagement. Drawing on a critical African political economy perspective placed into productive engagement with postcolonial approaches and subaltern studies, I investigate the intensification of Africa-China linkages and focus on African agency in Africa-China relations. Specifically, this dissertation draws on the case of Ghana to interrogate the factors that drive Ghana’s growing economic relations with China. It explores ways in which Ghanaian actors and institutions engage, shape, negotiate, accommodate, and resist Chinese actors’ involvement in Ghana. Data for this project were collected during extensive fieldwork in Ghana and China. Interviews were conducted with state and non-state actors including government officials, civil society organisations, traders, chiefs, and community opinion leaders. As well, the dissertation draws on archival research and critical discourse analysis of key ii policy documents, speeches and media reports on Africa-China and Ghana-China relations. These data provide insights into the historical and contemporary dynamics of China’s presence in Ghana’s economy and the agentic responses it has engendered. The study finds that the intensifying engagements with China can be attributed to complex factors and motivations. The study also finds that Ghanaian state and non-state actors are often willing partners to Chinese actors and exhibit considerable autonomy and influence in their engagement with China. This finding challenges the popular view of Chinese dominance in engagement with African actors. Drawing on the concept of African agency, the dissertation uncovers how both Ghanaian state and non-state actors attempt to shape and influence their relations with China for their own economic and political ends. Through an examination of the labour politics of Chinese projects and Ghanaian workers, the politics of parliamentary scrutiny, oppositional activities of traders’ associations and other civil society actors, the study shows how Ghanaian actors exert agency. Findings from these case studies suggest that Chinese corporate behaviour often is met with assertive local and national responses, which often minimise potentially negative impacts of Chinese enterprises and state interests in Ghana. This finding challenges the dominant view of a ‘China’ and Chinese entities that are always capable of imposing themselves on African actors who wield no autonomy, influence or leverage. Instead of domination and imposition, the case studies show dynamic interactions, influence, resistance and different forces that shape the terms of Ghanaian and Chinese interactions. Finally, through an investigation of how marginalised local communities attempt to resist the appropriation of their lands by transnational Chinese actors, the study shows iii how local resistance elicits state response to deal with perceived threats to the environment, safety and security. While negotiations and resistance in Ghana point to evidence of agency, they also point to much more. They reflect real oppositional politics borne out of struggle against marginalisation, inequality and injustice embedded in historical, local and global context of dispossession and accumulation, domination and exploitation, and poverty in the midst of wealth. iv Preface This dissertation is an original work by Isaac Odoom. The research project, of which this thesis is a part, received research ethics approval from the University of Alberta Research Ethics Board under the Project Name “The Political Economy of Ghana-China Development and Energy Relations”, and ID: Pro00031303 on June 15, 2012. A revised version of Chapter Four of this dissertation has been published as Isaac Odoom, “Dam in, Cocoa Out; Pipes in, Oil Out: China’s involvement in Ghana’s energy Sector”, Journal of Asian and African Studies, (2015) 1–23 DOI: 0021909615599419. I was the sole author. v Dedication For Gifty and Joy Ayeko Odoom vi Acknowledgement This is the Lord’s doing; it is marvelous in our eyes. This is the day the Lord has made; we will rejoice and be glad in it (Psalm 118: 23-24). I am very grateful to the many individuals and institutions whose support and encouragement have facilitated the successful completion of this phase of my academic journey. My special thanks go to my family. I am grateful to my wife (Gifty) for standing behind and beside me throughout this journey. Gifty always tells me ‘God’s time is the best’. Her patience, prayers and love throughout these years have been my anchor. My thanks also go to my daughter, Joy Ayeko. There were hours and days she wouldn’t see me at home. Sometimes when I my pick my bag to go to the library she will ask: “Daddy, are you going again?” I thank her for ‘understanding’ to let me go and come back home. I am eternally grateful to my mum Antie Bea, and my father J.K Odoom. My journey started with them. I wish to express my sincere thanks to my co-supervisor Dr Malinda S. Smith. Dr Smith’s mentorship, advice, guidance and her interest and commitment to my work is unparalleled. Her contribution to my scholarly training will never be forgotten. She was available whenever I needed her assistance and she went out of her way to support me beyond my dissertation whenever possible. I couldn’t have done this without her push. I also owe deep appreciation to my co-supervisor, Dr Wenran Jiang for his encouragement, advice, support and mentorship throughout my program. My thanks also go to Dr. Temitope Oriola, my supervisory committee member, for his diligence, commitment and series of advice. I will like to acknowledge Dr Mojtaba Mahdavi for accepting to be my internal examiner on a short notice. I am most grateful to Dr Peter Arthur of Dalhousie University for serving as my external examiner. I thank members of my candidacy committee including Dr Andy W. Knight, Dr Tom Keating and Dr Isabel Altamirano- Jimenez and Dr Ali Abdi for their guidance. As well, I appreciate the academic support from faculties such as Dr Janine Brodie, Dr. Lois Harder, Dr Rob Aitken, and Dr Siobhan Byrne. My sincere appreciation goes to Dr Korbla Puplampu for the instrumental role he played in getting me this far. I will forever be grateful to him for his support and attention throughout my program of study. I thank Mr George Ortsin whose special support vii brought me to Canada for graduate studies. My special thanks go to Ms. Christina Mattey and her family who took me as one of their own. I am also grateful to the Atta-Mensah family for their incredible support and for being there for my family in Edmonton. I also wish to express my appreciation to the University of Alberta’s department of Political Science which granted me teaching/research assistantships and sessional lectureships that gave me great teaching experience and also provided financial stability during my studies. Special thanks go to Donna Coombs-Montrose for her invaluable support all these years. I also thank Caroline and Cindy for their support throughout my program. I am very grateful to CIGI for providing the funds for my field trip to Ghana; the Faculty of Art/Chinese Academy of Social Science Exchange Mobility Program for sponsoring my trips to China; and the China Institute of the University of Alberta for supporting the dissemination of my research. I wish to thank officials at the Bui Power Authority, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ghana Gas Company, Danquah Institute, IMANI, GIPC, and GUTA in Ghana who provided valuable information that assisted me to complete this study. I am indebted to many families and groups in Edmonton including Pastor Lashley and family, Dr Ben-Awuah and family, Lordlin Owusu-Dwomoh and family, Dr Dzivenu and family, The Edmonton Free Methodist Church and the Wesley Methodist Church for their spiritual, emotional and material support throughout my program. I thank my friends and colleagues in Ghana, Canada and around the world for their friendship and support over the years. Friends and colleagues such as Ebo, Bro Kofi, Patrick, Buabeng, Lord, Eddie, Nathan, Andrews, Eben, Mike, Owuraku, and Julius, just to name a few, have been part of this success. Above all, I am very grateful to Ewuradze Nyankopon (God Almighty) who has been so faithful to me and my family and to whom all the glory for all my success rightly belongs.