A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF COLLEGE ENTRANCE EXAMINATIONS (CEES): SAT AND ACT IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA AND GAOKAO IN THE PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF CHINA A Thesis Presented to The Graduate Faculty of The University of Akron In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts Ruike Zhu December, 2014 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF COLLEGE ENTRANCE EXAMINATIONS (CEES): SAT AND ACT IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA AND GAOKAO IN THE PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF CHINA Ruike Zhu Thesis Approved: Accepted: Advisor Interim Dean of the College Dr. Suzanne Mac Donald Dr. Susan G. Clark Committee Member Interim Dean of the Graduate School Dr. Huey-Li Li Dr. Rex Ramsier Committee Member Date Dr. Lynn A. Smolen Department Chair Dr. Peggy McCann ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………………………v LIST OF FIGURES…………………………………………………………………vi CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………….1 Background……………………………………………………………………1 Research Problem……………………………………………………………4 Research Questions……………………………………………………………5 Research Purpose and Significance…………………………………………..6 Organization of the Thesis……………………………………………………7 II. LITERATURE REVIEW……………………………………………………9 College Entrance Examination………………………………………………9 A Historical Review on Admission to Higher Education in the U.S.………………………………………10 A Historical Review on College Entrance Examination in China………………………………………………………………14 Comparative studies of SAT and ACT in the U.S. and Gaokao in China……………………………………………………19 III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY……………………………………………25 iii Bereday’s Four-Step Method of Comparative Analysis in Education………………………………………………………………25 Research Method……………………………………………………………29 IV. COMPARASON OF THE CEES IN THE U.S. AND CHINA………………33 Administration of the College Entrance Examinations………………………33 Standards of Determining CEE Test-takers’ Qualification for Higher Education………………………………………………………46 The Issue of Inequality of the CEEs…………………………………………54 V. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS……………………………67 Main Findings of the Study…………………………………………………67 Recommendations……………………………………………………………69 Eliminate Humanities/Science Division in Gaokao ……………………69 Increasing the Proportion of Aptitude Questions………………………70 Expanding Universities’ Autonomous Admission………………………71 Adopting Multiple Admission Standards………………………………71 Limitations and Suggestions………………………………………………72 REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………..74 iv LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1.1 Factors contributing to differences in College Entrance Examinations’ administration systems in the U.S. and China…………………………………41 1.2 Purposes of the College Entrance Examinations in the U.S. and China…………54 v LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1.1 The structure of Gaokao system in China (1952 - present)…………………36 1.2 Numbers and types of higher institutions in the U.S. and China in 2011………………………………………………………40 vi CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Background The United States of America (USA) is considered to have one of the most advanced economic and political structures globally, and the People’s Republic of China (PRC, hereinafter referred to as China) is becoming one of the USA’s most formidable competitors. In the 21st century, higher education plays a key role in shaping economic development among nations. In China, the number of new entrants to higher education institutions increased from 2 million in 1997 to 7.3 million in 2006 (Yao et al., 2010). Mazurek & Winzer (2006) stated that “higher education institutions are crucially important; they train high-level personnel capable of competing with the educated elites of other countries” (p. 79). In China, the National College Entrance Examination (NCEE) (referred to as “Gaokao” in Chinese) determines whether students from secondary schools are qualified to be admitted to higher education. According to Li (2012), the NCEE in China is “a big issue that concerns the interests of people of all the classes in the society; it is not only the reallocation of the resources of higher education of one country, but also the reallocation of the whole social interests” (p. 165). 1 All secondary school students in China must take Gaokao in order to be admitted to full-time ordinary institutions of higher education (referred to as “quanrizhi putong gaoxiao” in Chinese). Students who enter higher education without taking Gaokao are all part-time and non-degree seeking students and such higher institutions usually include adult colleges, night universities, and distance learning. Gaokao is a nationally standardized exam that aims to attracting high school graduates who want to go to full-time higher education institutions to seek a degree. On June 7 - 8, 2013, over 9,120,000 students took the exam (CRI English, 2013). It is believed that earning a college degree will lead to greater job options and a better quality of life; as such, all students, parents and teachers attach a great deal of importance to the exam. As a result of difficulties in admissions, the Chinese people considered the threshold of higher education as a dragon gate, a metaphor from a Chinese legend: a humble carp fish jumps over the gate and becomes a sacred dragon (Liu, 2012). Because of its importance, Gaokao, which takes place on the 7th and 8th of every June, is considered as a momentous event in China. Personnel in both the private and public sectors all work together on the days of the exam to ensure that test-taking conditions are most conducive to the success of test candidates. For example, traffic patterns are orchestrated so that all traffic routes to the test taking sites remain clear. It is even a common occurrence for cabbies to reduce the cab fare for candidates who are headed to take the exam, the whole nation’s attention is on 2 the examination. The topic of the Chinese language writing section of the exam often becomes the subject of discussion in the news and around dinner tables. Since the late 1990s, higher education in China has developed rapidly, the gross enrollment rate rose from 7% to 22% in that time (Yao et al., 2010). The enrollment percentage has increased steadily from 4.8% in 1977 to 74.86% in 2012 (China Education and Research Network, 2013). Although the expansion of higher education in China makes it much easier for the candidates to access higher education than in the past, this does not address the fact that the study load for the high school students is still very demanding. One very important reason that could explain this is the national-wide College Entrance Examination (CEE). Chinese students have to study very hard on certain subjects to achieve high scores on the test, which is the only way for candidates to receive higher education. The subjects include the Chinese language, Mathematics, English, Political Science, History, Geography, Physics, Chemistry, and Biology. The CEE system in the U.S. mainly includes two tests: Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT) and American College Testing (ACT). In general, applicants of higher education institutions are required to take either the SAT or ACT when applying for admission to higher education institutions. Different from Gaokao in China, students in the U.S. can take SAT or ACT more than once before applying for colleges. In addition, higher education institutions also consider other admission standards such as high school Grade Point Average (GPA). 3 Berger (2012), Li & Chang (2008), Li (2012), Li (2008), Luo (2009), Yang (1993), and Zeng (2010) point out that Gaokao in China is more knowledge-based while the SAT and ACT in the U.S. are more aptitude-based. Reading, Writing, and Mathematics are the main contents included in both SAT and ACT. Although no specific questions concerning History, Biology, Chemistry or any other subjects appear on the exams, the content of reading section is very inclusive. Test-takers’ ability and critical thinking skills are key factors to gain high scores in the exams (Berger, 2012; Li, 2008). Compared to the CEEs in the U.S., Gaokao in China aims to evaluate students’ academic achievements in high school. Most exam questions require rote learning in Gaokao. CEEs play an important role in higher education in both nations. Given its importance, I, educated in China, a participant of the national entrance examination for both college and postgraduate, and now pursuing master’s degree in the United States, find great interest in comparing the CEEs in these two countries, namely SAT and ACT in the U..S. and Gaokao in China. Research Problem CEEs in the U.S. and China have been studied and compared by some Chinese educators and researchers in recent years. Content and method of the exam and the admission standards are the most widely discussed topics in the research (Berger, 2012; Li & Chang, 2008; Li, 2008; Li, 2012; Liu, 2012; Liu, 2013; Long & Li, 2008; Luo, 2009; Yang, 1993; Zeng, 2010). In addition, researchers also attend to 4 management and functions of the exam (Feng, 1999; Hawkins, 2000; Li & Chang, 2008; Zhang, 2010). However, most studies did not situate the CEEs in their larger social contexts. Pertinent educational issues are not isolated; they are instead related to every aspect of the society in which they are embedded and have their own social, cultural, historical, political, and economic foundations to support them. Consistent with O’Brien’s (2006) statement that “the ways in which we make sense of our worlds cannot be separated from the context in which we operate; context always matters; any attempts at change must consider local conditions, norms, and goals” (p. 10). To make sense of the various factors effecting education, one should