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Miocene–Recent evolution of the western Basin and its linkage with the Isparta Angle, eastern Mediterranean

Article in Marine Geology · March 2014 DOI: 10.2015/j.margeo.2013.12.009

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Miocene–Recent evolution of the western Antalya Basin and its linkage with the Isparta Angle, eastern Mediterranean

J. Hall a,⁎, A.E. Aksu a, H. King a, A. Gogacz a,C.Yaltırak b, G. Çifçi c a Department of Earth Sciences, Centre for Earth Resources Research, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, Newfoundland A1B 3X5, Canada b Department of Geological Engineering, Faculty of Mines Istanbul Technical University, Ayazağa, Istanbul 34426, c Institute of Marine Sciences and Technology, Dokuz Eylül University, Haydar Aliyev Caddesi No: 10, İnciraltı, İzmir 35340, Turkey article info abstract

Article history: Interpretation of ~9500 km of multichannel seismic reflection profiles showed the presence of two major tectonic Received 26 July 2013 histories in western Antalya Basin, spanning from the Miocene (or older) to the Pliocene–Quaternary. A prominent Received in revised form 11 December 2013 fold–thrust belt affects the Miocene succession in the offshore. The thrusts swing from a NW–SE strike, with SW Accepted 16 December 2013 vergence, in the northeast of the mapped area to a more northerly strike, with westerly vergence at the western Available online 31 December 2013 shelf edge of the deep basin. The Miocene deformation appears to continue offshore from the westerly-directed Communicated by: D.J.W. Piper thrusting seen onshore that characterizes the eastern edge of the Isparta Angle. The contraction is consistent with the counterclockwise Miocene rotation of the western side of the Isparta Angle determined from paleomag- Keywords: netic studies. The thrust belt forms the western extremity of the wider regional Aksu–Kyrenia–Misis oroclinal eastern Mediterranean culmination. The tectonic activity experienced a period of relative quiescence across the western Antalya Basin western Antalya Basin during the Messinian. A major kinematic change occurred in the Pliocene, when the regional strain was partitioned Neogene tectonics into three spatially localized tectonic domains: an extensional domain confined to the Pliocene–Quaternary Unit 1, basin evolution occupied the northeastern portion of the study area, a predominantly extensional domain with a few re-activated Isparta Angle pre-existing Miocene contractional structures occupied the southern and central portion of the study area, and an extensional and/or transtensional domain occupied the continental shelf and slope in the westernmost Antalya Basin. These complexities relate to strike-slip motions as the crustal block within the Isparta Angle moved north- wards relative to the blocks to the north. © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction presence of a Benioff zone below the western Antalya Basin, but only diffuse seismicity farther east as evidence for the tearing of the Orogenesis is one of the most fundamental of Earth processes and is subducting African Plate. Biryol et al. (2011) suggest that slab break responsible for most of the relief that we see in the World today, includ- off has also occurred here, detaching the remnants from the still- ing the Alps, the Rocky Mountains and the Appalachian Mountains subducting slab below the Hellenic Arc along a Subduction Transform (Moores and Twiss, 1995). Similarly, deep arcuate oceanic trenches Edge Propagator (‘STEP’)fault(Govers and Wortel, 2005). As such, observed today adjacent to island arcs and continents are also products the study area is an excellent modern laboratory for the understanding of orogenesis, where one oceanic lithospheric plate is forced to plunge of the processes that govern the deformation during the early stages of beneath the continental or oceanic lithosphere of another plate, slab break off and the ultimate transition to continent to continent depressing or uplifting the overriding plate edge. This study focuses collision, which is largely hidden in ancient orogenic belts, such as the on the geologically recent evolution of an orogen, being caused by the Appalachian Mountains of eastern North America. During the last collision between the African and the Eurasian continental plates and ~20–25 Ma, the forearc experienced profound tectonic changes when the squeezing and shuffling of the smaller microplates and continental former marine basins, such as the Aksu, Köprüçay and Manavgat basins, fragments in the eastern Mediterranean. Specifically, it is focused on were uplifted to become nestled on the foothills of the evolving Central the Miocene to Recent tectonic and sedimentary evolution of the and Western , while the deep Antalya Basin experi- western Antalya Basin, which in a larger plate tectonic context, is a enced complementary subsidence and marine sedimentation. forearc basin north of the African Plate–Aegean–Anatolian microplate The main focus of this paper is the interpretation of high-resolution boundary (Şengör et al., 1985; Dewey et al., 1986). Here the subduction multichannel seismic reflection profiles collected during four Memorial has possibly ceased. Papazachos and Papaioannou (1999) showed the University of Newfoundland–Dokuz Eylül University research cruises in 1992, 2001, 2008 and 2010 from the Antalya Basin and environs in the ⁎ Corresponding author. Fax: +1 709 864 2589. eastern Mediterranean, complemented by industry seismic reflection E-mail address: [email protected] (J. Hall). profiles. The primary scientific objectives of this paper are: (i) to establish

0025-3227/$ – see front matter © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.margeo.2013.12.009 2 J. Hall et al. / Marine Geology 349 (2014) 1–23 a seismic stratigraphic framework for the Miocene to Recent successions contraction in a forearc setting, related to northward subduction of observed in the seismic reflection profiles, and a chronostratigraphy the African Plate with ensuing collision of the Eratosthenes Seamount for these successions using correlations with the litho- and/or bio- (Fig. 1; Ben Avraham et al., 1995; Robertson, 1998). The northeast- stratigraphic data from an exploration well from the onland Manavgat trending eastern segment is in sinistral transtension along strands of Basin; (ii) to delineate and map the structural elements affecting the seis- the East Anatolian Transform Fault, facilitating the westward escape of mic stratigraphic units and to determine the age of the deformation using the Anatolian microplate (Şengör et al., 1985; Kempler and Garfunkel, growth stratal architecture and progressive syn-tectonic unconformities 1994). The Neogene marine Antalya and onland Aksu, Köprüçay and observed in the seismic reflection profiles; (iii) to relate the large-scale Manavgat basins are situated inboard of the Arc (Fig. 1). During tectonic elements mapped within the marine Antalya Basin with their the Miocene, these basins developed in a broad foredeep south and east counterparts in the Isparta Angle and Beydağları and Antalya Complex of the evolving Central and Western Taurus Mountains. In the late regions of southwestern Turkey and the Kyrenia Mountains of northern Miocene, the Aksu, Köprüçay and Manavgat basins experienced a Cyprus and (iv) to develop a tectonic and kinematic model for the protracted uplift, while the marine Antalya Basin experienced consider- Miocene to Recent structures of the western Antalya Basin that explains able subsidence. A large crustal-scale culmination developed during the the evolution of the region within the context of the greater eastern Pliocene–Quaternary, extending from the Aksu thrust system onland Mediterranean. toward the southeast into the Kyrenia Range of northern Cyprus (Fig. 1; Işler et al., 2005). 1.1. Tectonic framework of the eastern Mediterranean Recent studies showed that subduction has ceased along the Florence Rise–Cyprus Arc, but is continuing along the Hellenic Arc in the west The Cyprus Arc is a large south convex structure in the eastern (Woodside et al., 2002; Govers and Wortel, 2005). Several studies Mediterranean (Fig. 1). The western segment of the arc terminates suggested that a dextral wrench developed along the Florence Rise, against a broad transform fault zone which includes three prominent associated with the cessation of subduction along the Cyprus Arc, but sinistral strike-slip faults, known as the Ptolemy, Pliny and Strabo that the contractional deformation continued throughout the Pliocene– trenches (Mascle et al., 1986). This transform fault zone (a Subduction Quaternary (Zitter et al., 2003). In this region the relative motion be- Transform Edge Propagator fault, Govers and Wortel, 2005) links the tweentheAfricanPlateandtheAegean–Anatolian microplate has nearly Cyprus Arc to the Hellenic Arc, below which subduction continues as come to a halt and the subduction of the northern fringes of the African the arc rolls back (e.g., Jolivet and Brun, 2010). The Anaximander Moun- Plate along the Hellenic Arc is accompanied by slab roll-back (Govers tains (Zitter et al., 2003; Aksu et al., 2009) are enigmatic underwater and Wortel, 2005). In such land-locked basins the overriding plate highs that are situated at or near the junction between the Hellenic shows back-arc extension in response to the movement of the trench, Arc and the Cyprus Arc (Fig. 1). The Florence Rise–Cyprus Arc–Tartus such as the north–south extension seen in the western segment of the Ridge defines the eastern segment of the oblique convergent boundary Aegean–Anatolian microplate (Robertson, 1998). Another consequence between the African Plate and the Aegean–Anatolian microplate of subduction along the Hellenic Arc and no subduction along the (Fig. 1). Subduction along this boundary was initiated in the Late Creta- Cyprus Arc is the tearing of the lithosphere along transform-parallel ceous as evidenced today by an ophiolitic suture. In the west, the suture zones. The tearing transform segment along the present-day Ptolemy– includes the ophiolites of the Antalya Complex and Isparta Angle, Pliny–Strabo trenches (van Hinsbergen and Schmid, 2012) is referred whereas in the east it includes the ophiolites of the Hatay, Kızıldağ, to as a Subduction-Transform Edge Propagator, or STEP fault (Govers Baër–Bassit, and Troodos complexes (Fig. 1; Biju-Duval et al., 1978). and Wortel, 2005). Subsequent events in the Eocene and late Miocene shaped an arcuate Thus, the Antalya Basin is situated north of this broad conver- fold–thrust belt with major culminations centered on re-imbricated gence zone delineating the boundary between the African Plate and elements of the ophiolitic suture (Yılmaz, 1993; Hall et al., 2005a,b; the Aegean–Anatolian microplate (Fig. 1). In fact, the zone of deforma- Faccenna et al., 2006; van Hinsbergen et al., 2010). At present, the tion associated with the convergence is very wide, extending in the east-trending southern segment of the margin is characterized by marine areas at least, from the Florence Rise–Cyprus Arc–Tartus Ridge,

Fig. 1. Simplified plate tectonic map of the eastern and surrounding regions, showing major plate/microplate boundaries, ophiolitic rocks (green fill: ac = Antalya com- plex, bb = Baër-Bassit complex, hk = Hatay and Kızıldağ complexes, tc = Troodos complex) and major tectonic elements. Ab = Antalya Basin, AKMB = Aksu, Köprüçay, Manavgat ba- sins, IB = Iskenderun Basin. Half arrows indicate transform/strike-slip faults. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.) J. Hall et al. / Marine Geology 349 (2014) 1–23 3 approximately 300 km toward the north (e.g., Aksu et al., 2005a,b; Calon 1.3. Marine Miocene basins in the northeastern Mediterranean et al., 2005a,b; Hall et al., 2005a,b; Işler et al., 2005). This broad deforma- tion zone is characterized by three prominent south-convex arcuate The geology of the Isparta Angle and its surroundings is dominated zones, which parallel the trend of the Florence Rise–Cyprus Arc–Tartus by the predominantly carbonate successions of Mesozoic age and the Ridge: the Amanos–Larnaka and Misis–Kyrenia–Aksu zones and the ophiolitic remnants of the last vestiges of the Neo-Tethys Ocean, such Central Taurus Mountains (Fig. 1). Within this backdrop, the Antalya as the Lycian nappes and the Antalya Complex in the west and the Basin emerges as an arcuate forearc basin that appears to curve towards Hadim, Bolkar, Bozkır and Beyşehir nappes in the east (Fig. 3). Between (i.e., strike into) the onland Isparta Angle. The latter has an extensive his- Late Cretaceous (Campanian–Maastrichtian) and Early Eocene, several tory of nappe emplacement associated with ocean basin closure during ophiolitic units, including mélanges, were emplaced onto the margins late Cretaceous to early Tertiary time (Robertson et al., 2003). Tightening of the Tauride carbonate platform (Mackintosh and Robertson, 2012). of the angle between western and eastern limbs is established from pa- In southwestern Anatolia, there are several predominantly marine Mio- leomagnetic studies (Kissel and Poisson, 1986; van Hinsbergen et al., cene basins, which are presently perched on the Central and Western 2007) suggesting continued intermittent convergence up to Miocene Taurus Mountains, such as the Kasaba, Aksu, Köprüçay, Manavgat, time. Neogene deformation observed in the offshore Antalya Basin Mut, Ecemiş and Adana basins (Figs. 1, 3). In these basins, the Early– (Işler et al., 2005) is characterized by the Middle to Late Miocene fold– Late Miocene deposits unconformably overlie Cretaceous to Eocene thrust belt and regionally-partitioned Pliocene to Recent extension/ basement rocks of a thin-skinned fold–thrust belt (Burton-Ferguson transtension and transpression. Thus a critical question addressed in et al., 2005; Monod et al., 2006). This depositional architecture suggests thispaperisthelinkageintimeandspacebetweenthemarineAntalya that the basement was exhumed and eroding prior to the Miocene Basin and its onland extension into the area of the Isparta Angle. transgression (Eriş et al., 2005). In the Mut, Ecemiş and Adana basins, the first marine inundation is dated as Early Miocene (Bassant et al., 2005; Eriş et al., 2005; Ilgar and Nemec, 2005). Similarly, sediments 1.2. Bathymetry of the eastern Mediterranean Sea occupying the paleo-river valleys also date as Early Miocene in the Mut Basin (Eriş et al., 2005), Adana Basin (Ocakoğlu, 2002) and the In the east Mediterranean region, the morphology and topography Aksu, Köprüçay, and Manavgat basins (Deynoux et al., 2005; are controlled by large-scale tectonic features, such as the Anaximander Karabıyıkoğlu et al., 2005). In the offshore, immediately south of Mountains, the Florence Rise, the Misis–Kyrenia–Aksu zone, and the the Central and Western Taurus Mountains, there are several deep ba- Cyprus Arc in the marine areas and the Isparta Angle, the Taurus Moun- sins, including the Rhodes, , Antalya, Cilicia and Iskenderun ba- tains, Kyrenia Range onland (Fig. 2). The Antalya Basin is an embayment sins, which contain significant thicknesses of Miocene deposits, in in the eastern Mediterranean (Fig. 2). The continental shelf around the addition to near-complete Pliocene–Quaternary successions (Aksu Antalya Basin is very narrow, ranging between 2 and 6 km. The shelf- et al., 2005a,b, 2009; Bridge et al., 2005; Hall et al., 2005a,b, 2009; Işler slope break occurs at ~100–150 m depth, and steep slopes lead to the et al., 2005). These offshore basins often are directly paired with an continental rise and abyssal plain. There is no multibeam data from onshore basin, only separated by the narrow continental shelf and the the Antalya Basin, but the available bathymetry maps with 200 m adjacent steep continental slope, such as the onland Kasaba Basin and isobaths show that the slope face is dissected by numerous submarine its offshore continuation into Finike Basin, the onland Mut and Adana canyons, presumably feeding submarine fans, similar to those seen in basins and their offshore continuations into the Cilicia and Iskenderun continental slopes around the western Mediterranean (e.g., Droz et al., basins and the onland Aksu, Köprüçay, and Manavgat basins and their 2001; Lastras et al., 2002). The continental rise occurs between 1800 offshore continuations into the Antalya Basin (Fig. 1). and 2000 m water depth, where the slope gradient decreases consider- The evolution of the Miocene basins in the eastern Mediterranean is ably (Fig. 2). The abyssal plain occurs at ~2400 m water depth: the controlled by the development of a large, nearly east–west-trending maximum depth is ~2600 m, observed as a near-circular depression foredeep in front of the Tauride fold–thrust belt (Williams et al., in a central location within the Antalya Basin (Fig. 2). 1995). The Tauride culmination was characterized by an arcuate thrust

Fig. 2. Physiography of the eastern Mediterranean showing the Antalya Basin and its relationship with the major tectonic elements in the region. The topography and bathymetry are com- piled from GeoMapApp (Ryan et al., 2009), the coastline and the selected isobaths contours are from the International Oceanographic Commission (1981). Inset is the study area shown in Figs.3,4,9–11, 18. 4 J. Hall et al. / Marine Geology 349 (2014) 1–23

Fig. 3. Geological map of the Western Taurus Mountains (simplified and redrawn from Blumenthal, 1963). AKMB = Aksu, Köprüçay, Manavgat basins, ANT = Antalya complex, BEY = Beyşehir nappes, BOL = Bolkar nappes, BOZ = Bozkır nappes, LYC = Lycian nappes. front that delineated a broad syntaxis, comprising several smaller thrust An examination of the elevation of various Miocene successions culminations which developed in the foredeep itself. There are remark- within the onland-offshore linked basins shows that correlative ably similar marine Aquitanian–Tortonian successions in the now- shallow-marine units are routinely vertically separated by 3000– onland Mut and Adana basins (Eriş et al., 2005; Şafak et al., 2005), 5000 m across short distances of 5–10 km. Clearly, there must have Aksu, Köprüçay and Manavgat basins (Poisson et al., 2003a,b; Deynoux been primary seabed gradients within these basins, so that some of et al., 2005; Karabıyıkoğlu et al., 2005) and the Mesaoria Basin of central the observed vertical stratigraphic offset can be attributed to variations Cyprus (Robertson and Woodcock, 1986). The depositional similarities in the water depth in the ancestral Miocene basin. However, a signifi- further continue into the fold–thrust panels of the Misis Mountains cant proportion of this large offset is the result of rapid subsidence in (Gökçen et al., 1988) and the Kyrenia Range (Calon et al., 2005a,b), the offshore basins coupled with dramatic tectonic uplift of the onshore the Aksu Thrust (Poisson et al., 2003a,b), as well as the marine Cilicia, basins associated with the rise of the Taurus Mountains (Eriş et al., Iskenderun, Antalya and Finike basins (Uffenorde et al., 1990; Aksu 2005; Karabıyıkoğlu et al., 2005; Satur et al., 2005; Schildgen et al., et al., 2005a,b, 2009; Işler et al., 2005). These strong regional depositional 2011; Cosentino et al., 2012; Koç et al., 2012). similarities suggest the presence of a single large basin in the Early Miocene which encompassed what are now seemingly isolated basins 2. Data acquisition and methods in the eastern Mediterranean (Fig. 1). This large ancestral basin probably extended into the Karsantı and Maraş basins in the east (Calon et al., The principal data used in this paper consist of (a) ~4500 km of mul- 2005a; Hall et al., 2005a; Ilgar and Nemec, 2005; Satur et al., 2005; tichannel seismic reflection profiles collected in 1992 using the Memo- Hüsing et al., 2009) and the Antalya and Kasaba basins in the west rial University of Newfoundland (MUN) systems on RV Koca Piri Reis of (Işler et al., 2005; Çiner et al., 2008). The development of crustal-scale the Institute of Marine Sciences and Technology (IMST), Dokuz Eylül thrust culminations (e.g., the Misis–Kyrenia–Anamur lineament, the University, (b) ~3000 km of multichannel seismic reflection profiles Amanos–Larnaka fault zone and the Tartus ridge), perhaps associated using the MUN source and the IMST streamer on RV Koca Piri Reis, with the onset of escape tectonics associated with the final collision of (c) ~2000 km of multichannel seismic reflection profiles provided the Arabian and Aegean–Anatolian microplates in the latest Miocene by the Turkish Petroleum Corporation and (d) biostratigraphic and and Pliocene–Quaternary (Şengör et al., 1985), essentially split the lithostratigraphic data from two onshore exploration wells, provided foredeep into several large piggy-back basins: the Mut–Adana–Cilicia by the Turkish Petroleum Corporation (Fig. 4). The source for the basin complex, the Iskenderun–Latakia–Mesaoria basin complex, and MUN multichannel data consisted of a Halliburton sleeve gun array, the Cyprus, Antalya, Finike and Rhodes basins (e.g., Calon et al., 2005a; employing gun sizes of 40, 20 and 10 in.3 (656, 328 and 164 cm3), Hall et al., 2005a, 2009; Aksu et al., 2009). While the origins of these with the total volume varying during maintenance cycling of the guns, basins lie in Miocene contraction, extensional structures are overprinted but typically 200 in.3 (3277 cm3) in 2008 and 2010 and 90–120 in.3 on them in many places, especially during the Pliocene to Recent, (1475–1968 cm3) in 1992. Shots were fired every 25 m, and reflections reflecting regionally-variable transtension. were detected by the full 48 channels in 1991 (group interval = J. Hall et al. / Marine Geology 349 (2014) 1–23 5

Fig. 4. Location map showing the position of seismic reflection profiles used in this study. Solid red lines = high-resolution multichannel seismic reflection profiles, dashed purple lines = industry multichannel seismic reflection profiles. Seismic profiles shown as thick lines A–N are illustrated in text figures. Also shown are the locations of exploration wells drilled in the onland Aksu, Köprüçay and Manavgat basins. Selected isobaths contours (in meters) are from the International Oceanographic Commission (1981). (For interpretation of the ref- erences to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

12.5 m), the nearest 12 channels of the same 48 × 12.5 m analog (group interval = 6.25 m) in 2010. The resultant 12-fold (1991 and multichannel streamer in 1992, 96-channel digital streamer (group 2008), 3-fold (1992) and 27 fold (2010) data were recorded digitally interval = 6.25 m) in 2008 and 216-channel digital streamer for 3–7 s (with delay dependent on water depth) at 1 millisecond

Fig. 5. Stratigraphy of the Antalya Basin showing the correlations between seismic stratigraphic units and the sedimentary successions on land, compiled from: (i) Adana Basin = Yalçın and Görür (1984), Kozlu (1987), Yılmaz et al. (1988) and Gökçen et al. (1988), (ii) Mesaoria Basin and Kyrenia Range = Weiler (1969), Cleintaur et al. (1977) and, Robertson et al. (1995), (iii) Kasaba Basin = Hayward (1984), Şenel (1997a,b),andŞenel and Bölükbaşı (1997); (iv) Aksu, Köprüçay and Manavgat basins = Akay and Uysal (1985), Akay et al. (1985), Flecker et al. (1998),andKarabıyıkoğlu et al. (2000, 2005). Stratigraphy of the Manavgat-1 and Manavgat-2 wells is from the Turkish Petroleum Corporation (unpublished data). Units 1 through 4 are discussed in text. M and N are reflectors delineating the top and base of the Messinian successions, discussed in text. 6 J. Hall et al. / Marine Geology 349 (2014) 1–23 sample rate, using a DFS V instrument in 1992 and a NTRS2 seismograph identified in the seismic reflection profiles. The Manavgat-2 well was in 2008 and 2010. The multichannel data were processed at Memorial drilled to a total depth of 2565 m (Fig. 6). The well recovered ~204 m University of Newfoundland, with automatic gain control, short-gap of loosely consolidated to unconsolidated claystone with few sandstone deconvolution, velocity analysis, normal move-out correction, stack, interbeds. These sediments are assigned to the Pliocene–Quaternary filter (typically 50–200 Hz bandpass), Kirchhoff time migration, and Yenimahalle Formation (Fig. 6; Turkish Petroleum Corporation, unpub- adjacent trace sum. lished data). Below this upper veneer, there is a 290 m-thick siliciclastic The sonic logs in the exploration wells show that the velocities in succession composed of sandstones and shales with several volcanic tuff the Pliocene–Quaternary sediments increase from ~1500 m s−1 at the horizons. On the basis of biostratigraphic data this succession is corre- sediment–water interface to ~2100–2300 m s−1 at the base of the lated with the Late Miocene Taşlık Formation, which is the lateral equiv- succession. Similarly, borehole data reveal that the Miocene siliciclastic alent of the evaporitic deposits of the Gebiz Formation deposited successions have interval velocities of 3000–3500 m s−1. Interval veloc- associated with the Messinian Salinity Crisis (e.g., Garrison et al., ities calculated during seismic data processing reveal that the Messinian 1978). The Taşlık Formation is conformably underlain by a 445 m evaporites of Unit 2 in the marine Antalya Basin often exhibit values thick siliciclastic succession consisting of sandstone, siltstone and ranging between 4200 and 5000 m s−1. Note that the dip indicators in claystone interbeds, which is correlated with the Tortonian Karpuzçay figures illustrating the seismic reflection profiles are calculated using Formation (Fig. 6; Turkish Petroleum Corporation, unpublished data). 1500 m s−1 sound velocity: dip estimates below the seabed should be Below the Karpuzçay Formation the well recovered an approximately multiplied by the amplification factor (i.e., interval velocity/water 436 m thick siliciclastic succession with several well-defined limestone velocity). beds (Fig. 6). This succession is correlated with the Aquitanian– Serravallian Geceleme Formation, which is underlain by a 171 m-thick 3. Seismic stratigraphy and chronology prominent limestone unit, which is well known in the Aksu, Köprüçay and Manavgat basins as the Oymapınar Formation (Akay and Uysal, On the basis of acoustic character, stratigraphic position and age, 1985; Akay et al., 1985). At the base of the Oymapınar Formation the four distinct seismic stratigraphic units are identified in the Antalya well encountered 575-m thick Geceleme Formation clearly indicating Basin and environs (Fig. 5): Unit 1: Pliocene–Quaternary siliciclastic a repetition of stratigraphy. A northeast–southwest trending industry successions; Unit 2: Messinian evaporites and interbedded siliciclastic seismic reflection profile explains this age reversal: the Manavgat-2 successions, Unit 3: pre-Messinian Miocene siliciclastic and carbonate well drilled through a broadly northeast-verging thrust at ~1.1 second successions and Unit 4: undifferentiated pre-Miocene sedimentary, depth where a strongly reflective seismic package is clearly duplicated igneous and possibly metamorphic rocks. Two prominent and laterally (Fig. 6). The Manavgat-1 well a few km to the northwest was drilled continuous markers are identified in the seismic reflection profiles, away from the thrust, and so does not include the duplication seen in delineating the Units 2–3 and 1–2 boundaries, respectively. Based on the Manavgat-2 well. The Manavgat-2 well recovered an additional their stratigraphic position and age, these markers are correlated with 128 m of siliciclastic successions with carbonate interbeds, which are the well-known M- and N-reflectors in the eastern Mediterranean. correlated with the Aquitanian–Burdigalian Aksu Formation (Fig. 6). Where possible, the lithostratigraphic makeup and chronology of these units are determined by correlations with the onshore exploration 3.1. Unit 1: Pliocene–Quaternary wells. These four units are further correlated with lithostratigraphic units identified in the adjacent Kasaba Basin in the west and the The youngest succession identified in the Antalya Basin is char- Adana, Cilicia and Mesaoria basins in the east (Fig. 5). acterized by a strongly reflective, laterally continuous package of There are four exploration wells drilled in the onland Aksu, high-frequency reflections which extends from the seabed to the Köprüçay and Manavgat basins: Manavgat-1, Manavgat-2, Aksu-1 and M-reflector (Figs.7,8). This unit is imaged on all seismic reflection Ismail-1 (Fig. 4). The chronology of the Manavgat-1 and Manavgat-2 profiles, but shows dramatic thickness variations across the Antalya wells is most critical for this study because the successions encountered Basin as further explained below. Unit 1 is also identified in the onland in the well can be readily correlated with the seismic stratigraphic units seismic reflection profile, and corresponds to the predominantly

Fig. 6. Industry seismic reflection profile (A) showing the projected locations of the Manavgat-1 and Manavgat-2 exploration wells. Note that there is a major NE-verging thrust that pro- duced a duplication of the lower Miocene successions in the Manavgat-2 well. Profile is kindly provided by the Turkish Petroleum Corporation. See Fig. 5 for the details of the formations. Location is shown in Fig. 4. J. Hall et al. / Marine Geology 349 (2014) 1–23 7

Fig. 7. High-resolution multichannel seismic reflection profile (B) showing the architectures of seismic stratigraphic units described in text. The prominent M-reflector and N-reflectors define the top and base of the evaporite successions of Unit 2. Note the co-occurrence of thrusts and extensional faults, discussed in text. Domains 1B and 3B are explained in text. Location is shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 8. High-resolution multichannel seismic reflection profile (C) showing the architectures of seismic stratigraphic units described in text. Note that the present-day continental slope is delineated by a huge thrust culmination, and that the M-reflector defines a major erosional unconformity across the shallower region of the Antalya Basin where the Messinian evaporites of Unit 2 are absent. Domains 1A/B and 3A/B are explained in text. Location is shown in Fig. 4. 8 J. Hall et al. / Marine Geology 349 (2014) 1–23

Fig. 9. Isopach maps of the Pliocene–Quaternary succession of Unit 1 (top) and Messinian evaporite succession of Unit 2 (bottom) in the marine Antalya Basin. Unit 1 thickness data from the eastern and western Antalya Basin are from Işler et al. (2005) and King (2013), respectively. Note that there is a good correlation between the northern and western edges of Unit 2 and the 2000 m isobath (from International Oceanographic Commission, 1981), except in the deep Finike Basin where the evaporites are absent. siliciclastic successions of the Yenimahalle Formation (Fig. 6). In the ma- packages are found either (i) as growth strata wedges developed in rine Antalya Basin, the base of Unit 1 is marked by a strong and distinc- piggy back basins (Işler et al., 2005), or (ii) in mini basins between elon- tive reflector, identified in the eastern Mediterranean as the M-reflector, gated salt rollers and walls. The relationship between the distribution which is dated at 5.3 Ma. In a regional context, this unit is correlated and thickness variations of the Pliocene–Quaternary and ongoing tecto- with: Kuranşa and Handere Formations of the Adana and Cilicia basins; nism is further discussed later in this paper. the Athalassa and Nicosia formations of the Mesaoria Basin; and the Mirtou Formation of the Kyrenia Mountains of northern Cyprus (Fig. 5). 3.2. Unit 2: Miocene (Messinian) The thickness of the Pliocene–Quaternary succession varies across the study area from b100 ms in the shallow nearshore region to Unit 2 is characterized by a weakly reflective package displaying N1600 ms in elongated basins in deep western Antalya Basin (Fig. 9). complex internal architecture with weak, discontinuous and often cha- In general, Unit 1 is thinnest along the continental shelf and slope, but otic reflections that is bounded at their top by the M-reflector and base thickens considerably toward the deeper water regions. The thickest by the N-reflector (Figs. 7, 8). Reflectors within this unit have generally packages of Pliocene–Quaternary sediments, exceeding 1500 ms of lower frequencies than those observed within the overlying Pliocene– sediments are found along broadly east–west trending elongated de- Quaternary succession. This unit also occurs across the southern Antalya pressions situated across the southern portion of the western Antalya Basin and Florence Rise, where Deep Sea Drilling Project Leg 42, Site 375 Basin (Fig. 9). This trend is also illustrated in Işler et al. (2005). Toward and 376 results show that it is primarily composed of halite with alter- the east there are several northwest–southeast trending tear-drop nating smaller layers of anhydrite and limestone (Baroz et al., 1978). shaped basins which also contain 1500–1600 ms thick Pliocene– Based on its acoustic character, the correlations with the Manavgat-1 Quaternary sediments. A broadly north–south trending elongated and Managvat-2 wells (Turkish Petroleum unpublished data) and the lobe of Pliocene–Quaternary sediments occurs beneath the axis of existing studies onland (Akay et al., 1985; Karabıyıkoğlu et al., 2000) the present-day bathymetric channel in the western Antalya Basin Unit 2 is correlated with the Messinian deposits (Fig. 5). In the onland (Fig. 9). The distribution and thickness variations of the Pliocene– Aksu, Köprüçay and Manavgat basins the equivalent successions of Quaternary Unit 1 are predominantly controlled by the prevailing tec- Unit 2 include siliciclastic series interbedded with anhydrite-bearing tonic regime in western Antalya Basin, where thick Pliocene–Quaternary and/or gypsiferous and carbonaceous sediments of the Gebiz Formation, J. Hall et al. / Marine Geology 349 (2014) 1–23 9 as well as the terrestrial coarser siliciclastic sediments of the Eskiköy deposition within these basins which are situated 1500 m–2000 m Formation (Akay et al., 1985; Karabıyıkoğlu et al., 2000). In a regional above the present-day floor of the Antalya Basin, and (2) onland studies context, this unit is further correlated with the Haymanseki Formation clearly show that the Gebiz Formation in the Aksu, Köprüçay and of the Adana and Cilicia basins, the Kalavasos Formation of the Mesaoria Manavgat basins include anhydritic and gypsiferous intervals, suggest- Basin and the Lapatza Formation of the Kyrenia Mountains (Fig. 5). ing that these now onland basins must have been inundated and were The thickness of the Messinian evaporite succession of Unit 2 varies receiving evaporitic deposition during the Messinian (Akay and Uysal, across the study area from 0 ms to ~1700 ms in the deep western Antal- 1985; Akay et al., 1985). The occurrence of evaporites in the Cilicia ya Basin (Fig. 9). The edge of Unit 2 broadly follows the 2000 m and Adana basins as well as in the Aksu, Köprüçay and Manavgat basins isobaths, except in the deep Finike Basin where there are no Messinian argues that evaporite deposits must have developed higher along the evaporite deposits (Fig. 9; Aksu et al., 2009). The Messinian isopach map slope and/or the surrounding continental shelves of the Antalya Basin clearly shows that the present-day post-halokinetic thickness of Unit 2 during the Messinian. These possibly thinner evaporite deposits may in western Antalya Basin is characterized by several broadly north- have migrated downslope during the Pliocene–Quaternary mobilization west–southeast elongated tear-drop shaped lobes where Messinian of Unit 2 (Bridge et al., 2005; Işler et al., 2005), thus creating weld sur- deposits range in thicknesses between 700 ms and 1600 ms (Fig. 9). face along much of the present-day continental slope. Thus, the 0 ms These thick lobes are separated from one another by similarly trending isopach contour not only shows the present-day edge of the evaporites, zones where the Messinian evaporites are notably thin, ranging from but also suggests that bulk of the evaporite deposition has taken place in 100 ms to 400 ms. A comparison between the Pliocene–Quaternary iso- the deeper parts of the Antalya Basin. pach map and the Messinian isopach map reveals that the axes of the thickest sediment deposits between these two maps are offset, and 3.3. Unit 3: Miocene (pre-Messinian) that the thickest regions in Unit 2 correspond with the thinnest regions in Unit 1. This observation indicates that the growth of the Pliocene– Unit 3 is situated below the N-reflector where Messinian evaporites Quaternary depocenters is controlled by halokinesis and the associated of Unit 2 are present and below the M-reflector where the Messinian developments of salt diapirs and walls in the region. evaporites are absent (Figs. 7, 8). Unit 3 is characterized by strongly The 0 ms isopach contour can be interpreted as denoting the depo- reverberatory, high reflective and low amplitude reflections with signif- sitional edge of the Messinian evaporites in western Antalya Basin. icant lateral continuity (Fig. 8). Correlations with the onland Manavgat-1 However two lines of evidence argue that the depositional edge of and Manavgat-2 wells show that this unit is composed of siliciclastic and Unit 2 may have been much higher along the slope: (1) the wide- carbonate successions of the Aquitanian– Tortonian age. In the broader spread occurrence of evaporite deposits in the Cilicia and Adana basins regional context, Unit 3 is further correlated with the Pakhna Formation, in the eastern Mediterranean suggests that the sea level must have risen including the Koronia and Terra members of the Mesaoria Basin, the considerably sometime during the Messinian to allow evaporite Kythrea Group of the Kyrenia Mountains in Northern Cyprus (Follows

Fig. 10. Pre-Messinian Miocene tectonic map of the western Antalya Basin showing major thrust faults (with filled triangular ticks on the hanging walls), the crestal hinge lines of prom- inent ridges (shown with diamond ticks) and trough lines of major piggy-back basins developed on the backlimbs of major thrusts. Thick lines with half arrows depict strike-slip faults. Onland thrusts are compiled from the geological map of the Antalya region (Blumenthal, 1963). 10 J. Hall et al. / Marine Geology 349 (2014) 1–23 and Robertson, 1990); and also the Elekdağ, Kasaba and Sinekli forma- 4.1.1. Domain 1A tions of the Kasaba Basin (Şenel, 1997a,b; Şenel and Bölükbaşı, 1997; Domain 1A is a NW–SE trending zone which occupies the continen- Fig. 5). tal shelf and slope in the eastern portion of the study area (Fig. 10). It is characterized by an arcuate SW- and W-verging, NW–SE and N–S trending fold–thrust belt (Fig. 10). The belt is composed of 9–12 prom- – 3.4. Unit 4: Cretaceous Eocene inent thrust panels, best imaged in the industry seismic reflection profiles (e.g., Figs. 11, 12). Within domain 1A, the M-reflector is a dis- Unit 4 constitutes the acoustic basement in the study area and con- tinctive marker and defines a prominent erosional unconformity sists of a diverse collection of regional lithostratigraphic units ranging which separates the Pliocene–Quaternary successions of Unit 1 from from the Paleozoic to possibly Eocene (Fig. 5). Along the westernmost the underlying pre-Messinian Miocene successions of Unit 3 (Figs. 11, Antalya Basin immediately east of the Antalya Complex there is an 12). In this area the gently northerly-dipping pre-Messinian Miocene acoustically dark-transparent unit which occurs directly below a very reflectors are clearly erosionally-truncated at the level of the M- fl thin veneer of Unit 1, separated by the M-re ector. The unit exhibits reflector. The leading thrust of the fold thrust belt is located at the fl only few coherent re ections emanating from seemingly chaotic and base of slope in the western Antalya Basin (T3 in Figs. 11, 12). The foot- disordered surfaces. This acoustic character is often observed associated wall–hanging wall cutoffs of this fault are clearly visible in the seismic with massive igneous or metamorphic rock units. In this region Unit 4 reflection profiles. The thrust trajectory can be confidently traced from ğ ı probably includes the ophiolitic Antalya Complex (Ba c and Parlak, the seabed to ~5000 ms depth, defining a prominent listric thrust 2009) and the Complex of high-pressure metamorphic rocks surface (e.g., Figs. 11, 12). At depth, this surface further defines a (Okay and Özgül, 1984). 200–300 ms thick distinctive reflector bundle that gently plunges northward to depths exceeding 6000 ms. Thus, the slope face is the 4. Structural interpretation forelimb of a huge thrust culmination carried by the T3 thrust (Fig. 11). A secondary thrust (i.e., T3a) splays from T3 and creates a The structures and their associations observed in the seismic reflec- wedge-shaped package bounded on its top and base by two thrusts: tion profiles are described using three temporal phases: Phase 1 = pre- this package occurs prominently at the base of slope and is readily fl fi Messinian Miocene; Phase 2 = Messinian and Phase 3 = Pliocene– seen in most seismic re ection pro les (Figs. 11, 12). Quaternary. Phases 1 and 3 are each further dividend into three spatial Trajectories of the individual thrusts in the fold thrust belt can be fl fi domains, as explained below. delineated in the seismic re ection pro les. For example, all thrusts near the M-reflector exhibit relatively high angles (15–20°), but pro- gressively become flattened with depth (e.g., Figs. 11, 12). Here the 4.1. Phase 1: pre-Messinian Miocene thrust trajectories imaged range from ~6° and can be confidently traced down to 6000 ms depth in the seismic reflection profile, Phase 1 affected the entire western Antalya Basin west of the where they merge into a near-horizontal detachment surface. Beydağları and Antalya complexes (Fig. 10). The deformation associated These depths, when converted using the interval velocities in the with Phase 1 also extends eastward toward the Kyrenia Range of north- seismic profiles, correspond to ~10–15 km, suggesting that the pre- ern Cyprus and southward toward the Florence Rise. It is characterized Messinian Miocene fold–thrust belt defines a crustal-scale feature by structures developed during a period of protracted contractional de- in front of the Western Taurus Mountains of south-central Turkey formation. On the basis of the predominant morpho-tectonic elements (Figs. 1, 2). The folds within the fold– thrust belt are clearly asym- and their trends and to a lesser extent the style of deformation, Phase metric having short, S- and SW-dipping forelimbs and longer, N- 1 can further be subdivided into three spatial domains: the eastern arcu- and NE-dipping backlimbs (Figs. 11, 12).Thedistancebetweenthe ate mainly NW–SE trending domain 1A, the western primarily N–S hinge lines of a given syncline to the adjacent anticline is notably trending domain 1B and the triangular-shaped south-central domain shorter than the distance between the hinge lines of the anticline 1C that straddles between domains 1A and 1B (Fig. 10). to the adjacent syncline, confirming the asymmetry of the fold–

Fig. 11. Industry multichannel seismic reflection profile (D) showing the Miocene structural architecture of the western Antalya Basin. Note that the M-reflector is a prominent erosional unconformity separating the Pliocene–Quaternary successions of Unit 1 from the pre-Messinian Miocene successions of Unit 3. Further note that the leading thrust of the fold thrust belt delineates the base of slope in the western Antalya Basin, and that the slope face is the forelimb of a huge thrust culmination. Profile is kindly provided by the Turkish Petroleum Corpo- ration. Location is shown in Fig. 4. J. Hall et al. / Marine Geology 349 (2014) 1–23 11

Fig. 12. Industry multichannel seismic reflection profile (E) showing the Miocene structural architecture of the western Antalya Basin. Note that the M-reflector is a prominent erosional unconformity separating the Pliocene–Quaternary successions of Unit 1 from the pre-Messinian Miocene successions of Unit 3 and that the prominent wedge-shaped package at the base of slope delineated by two large thrusts. Also note the Pliocene–Quaternary reactivation of the Miocene thrusts in the westernmost portion of the profile in domain 1B. Profile is kindly provided by the Turkish Petroleum Corporation. Location is shown in Fig. 4. thrust belt. These fold geometries indicate a SW and W vergence di- Miocene successions of Unit 3 show no discernible sedimentary growth, rection for the fold thrust belt (Fig. 11). A prominent back-thrust is it is clearly observed within the uppermost portion of Unit 3, where the identified in the frontal portion of the huge thrust culmination that upper Tortonian succession is mildly thicker within the trough of the defines the morphology of the present-day continental slope (BT in piggy-back basin and thins toward the ramp anticline (Fig. 13). This Figs. 10–12). sedimentary architecture suggests that thrusting occurred during the In the trailing portion of the fold thrust belt, there are several distinc- Late Miocene. The tip points of the thrusts in domain 1A in the eastern tive thrust panels where large piggy-back basins developed on the back segment of the study area are invariably situated at or below the M- of the thrusts (Figs. 12, 13). Although the majority of the pre-Messinian reflector (Figs. 11, 12). By comparison, in the western portion of the

Fig. 13. High-resolution multichannel seismic reflection profile (F) showing the detailed structural architecture of domains 1A and 1B. Note that the M-reflector is defines a major erosional unconformity across the shelf region of the Antalya Basin, and that the Messinian evaporites of Unit 2 is absent in this area. Also note that the Pliocene–Quaternary successions are cut by numerous normal faults, forming prominent horst and graben structures. Location is shown in Fig. 4. 12 J. Hall et al. / Marine Geology 349 (2014) 1–23

Fig. 14. Industry multichannel seismic reflection profile (G) showing the Miocene structural architecture of the western Antalya Basin. Note that the M-reflector defines a prominent ero- sional unconformity separating the Pliocene–Quaternary successions of Unit 1 from the pre-Messinian Miocene successions of Unit 3. Also note the presence of a prominent ramp anticline delineated by the M-reflector. Profile is kindly provided by the Turkish Petroleum Corporation. Location is shown in Fig. 4. study area in domains 1B and 1C (see below), thrusts extend into the the northern portion of the domain. An E–W trending industry profile Pliocene–Quaternary, creating notable structures within these succes- located ~8 km south of the present-day shoreline confirms that sions, as well as controlling the present-day morphology of the sea the SW-convex arcuate fold thrust belt continues toward the present- floor (Figs. 12, 13). day coast (Fig. 14), and suggests that the prominent thrusts in this The fold–thrust belt in the southeastern segment of domain 1A is belt must link with the prominent thrust panels mapped onland oriented in a NW–SE trend. Traced toward the northwest, these thrusts (e.g., Poisson et al., 2003a,b). These onland thrust panels further define progressively swing clockwise to assume a broadly N–S orientation in the southeastern structures of the Isparta Angle (Poisson et al., 2003a,b).

Fig. 15. High-resolution multichannel seismic reflection profile (H) showing the detailed structural architecture of domains 1A and 1B. Note that the M-reflector defines a major erosional unconformity across the shelf region of the Antalya Basin, and that the Messinian evaporites of Unit 2 are absent in this area. Also note that the Pliocene–Quaternary successions of domain 1C are cut by numerous high-angle planar normal faults. Location is shown in Fig. 4. J. Hall et al. / Marine Geology 349 (2014) 1–23 13

Fig. 16. High-resolution multichannel seismic reflection profile (J) showing the detailed structural architecture of domains 1B/3B and 1C/3C. Note that the Messinian evaporites of Unit 2 are very thin across the lower slope and absent in middle and upper slopes. Also note that the Pliocene–Quaternary successions of domain 1 are cut by numerous high-angle planar normal faults. The map distribution of the faults bracketed by the X symbol is illustrated in Fig. 17. Location is shown in Fig. 4.

4.1.2. Domain 1B Unit 1 (Figs. 12, 15). However, several lines of arguments can be made Domain 1B is a narrow zone situated between domains 1A in the for the initiation of the tectonic activity in the Miocene. For example, east and 1C in the west (Fig. 10). The structural architecture of domain there are several ramp anticlines which show steeply dipping shorter 1B is characterized by a large west-verging broadly N–S trending thrust forelimb segments, and gently dipping longer backlimb segments panel, which is developed as a secondary splay from the major thrust T3 (Figs. 11, 12, 15). This architecture suggests a preferred deformation of domain 1A (Fig. 12). The zone occupies the narrow bathymetric direction for the Unit 3 successions. The fact that these structures are channel in western Antalya Basin, and widens considerably toward discordant with respect to the structures observed in Unit 1 above the the abyssal plain in the south (Figs.2,10). The eastern boundary of do- M-reflector suggests that they are developed somewhat independent main 1B is delineated by the prominent thrust T3 and its westerly splay of the Pliocene–Quaternary tectonic phase. T3a (Figs. 10, 12). The western boundary of domain 1B is marked by a distinctive thrust which rises from at least 5000 ms depth in the east, 4.1.3. Domain 1C immediately west of domain 1A, westward to 2000–3000 ms depth in Domain 1C is situated along the continental shelf and slope of the the seismic reflection profiles (T4 in Figs. 10, 12). A prominent lower- westernmost portion of the Antalya Basin, immediately west of the frequency reflector bundle clearly highlights the thrust trajectory, Beydağları and Antalya complexes (Fig. 10). It is characterized by a defining a nearly flat and gently listric fault surface. The apparent thrust broadly N–S trending wet-verging fold–thrust belt which consists of angle is notably gentle (i.e., 6–9°) in the southern portion of the domain, 2 –3panels(Figs. 10, 15, 16). In the northern portion of the domain but gradually steepens to 15–20° in the northern portion of the domain. the thrusts have well-developed ramp anticlines delineated by the Footwall and hanging wall cutoffs on the M-reflector suggest consider- lower frequency reflections in Unit 3, as well as the M-reflector able contractional separation along this thrust (Fig. 12). A notable ramp (Figs. 12, 16). They cut the M-reflector, tipping within the lowermost anticline developed on the hanging wall of thrust T4 (Fig. 12). This ramp portion of the Pliocene–Quaternary successions of the unit. The eastern- anticline can be readily mapped across the domain, defining a promi- most thrust of this belt (T6 in Figs. 10, 15, 16) displays a listric thrust nent structure along the western margin of the domain (Figs. 10, 15). trajectory and soles deep into Unit 3. Immediately west of thrust T6, Seismic reflection profiles show that tectonic activity continued into the seismic architecture of the pre-Messinian Miocene Unit 3 suggests the Pliocene–Quaternary, as indicated by growth strata development in the presence of another east-verging thrust; however, this structure is 14 J. Hall et al. / Marine Geology 349 (2014) 1–23

Fig. 17. Pliocene–Quaternary tectonic map of the western Antalya Basin showing major thrust faults (with filled triangular ticks on the hanging walls), the crestal hinge lines of prominent ridges (shown with diamond ticks) and trough lines of major piggy-back basins developed on the backlimbs of major thrusts. Thick lines with half arrows depict strike-slip faults. The architecture of the region bracketed by X is illustrated in Fig. 16. Map is compiled from data from the Department of Earthquake Research (Deprem Araştırma Dairesi), Ankara, Turkey (http://www.e-sehir.com/turkiye-haritasi/deprem-fay-haritasi.php).

not well imaged in the seismic reflection profiles. Traced toward erosional in nature. These observations together with the absence of the south, the architecture of domain 1C becomes progressively more growth strata development within the evaporite succession collectively complicated as structures become buried beneath the steep western suggest that most of the Miocene thrust activity ceased by the time continental slope of the Antalya Basin. However, the structural elements when the M-reflector was formed, and that Messinian was a period of observed in the northernmost portion of the domain can still be mapped relative tectonic quiescence. The Messinian evaporites have been subse- in this region. For example, the thrust that demarks the boundary quently mobilized, but this event has clearly taken place during the between domains 1B and 1C is well imaged in the seismic reflection Pliocene–Quaternary. profiles (T6 in Figs. 15, 16). 4.3. Phase 3: Pliocene–Quaternary 4.2. Phase 2: Messinian The Pliocene–Quaternary structures in the Antalya Basin are largely overprinted on the older structures. Some of these young structures The Messinian was a period of significant changes in the eastern appear to have developed completely independent of older structures, Mediterranean Sea, both in the tectonic style as well as the morphology yet others are clearly evolved over the pre-existing structures by of the basins and the surrounding landmass. From the latest Tortonian the re-activation of the faults bounding these structures. Pliocene– into the Messinian, the progressive evaporation of the western exten- Quaternary structures can be described in three spatial domains, sion of the Tethys Ocean (the evolving Mediterranean Sea) exposed where each domain displays distinctive sets of characteristics, including the continental shelves and slopes to subaerial processes (Hsü et al., structural trends and style and depth of deformation (Fig. 17). These do- 1978; Rouchy and Caruso, 2006; Garcia-Castellanos and Villaseñor, mains overlap nearly perfectly with the domains identified in Phase 1. 2011). During the Messinian, the entire Antalya Basin became a deep largely subaerially exposed basin, with a very shallow water depth. Periodic inundation of this deep but shallow basin throughout the 4.3.1. Domain 3A Messinian allowed the sedimentation of an approximately 2000 m- The Pliocene–Quaternary domain 3A is a zone occupied by numer- thick evaporite successions within the deeper portions of the erosional ous superficial extensional faults which are developed over the pre- basin. Messinian Miocene fold–thrust belt (i.e., domain 1A; Fig. 10). The struc- The tip points of the pre-Messinian Miocene thrusts occur at or below tural architecture of domain 3A is characterized by an arcuate belt the M-reflector. Most of the thrusts do not affect the M-reflector and the which has a predominantly NW–SE trend in the southeastern portion structuring that is observed on this marker appears predominantly of the study area, but progressively swings clockwise to assume N–S J. Hall et al. / Marine Geology 349 (2014) 1–23 15

Fig. 18. High-resolution multichannel seismic reflection profile (K) showing the detailed structural architecture of domains 1A/3A. Note that the edge of the evaporite Unit 2 is located at the base of continental slope. Further note that the Pliocene–Quaternary successions are cut by numerous faults with normal-sense stratigraphic separations. Location is shown in Fig. 4. trend in the northwest segment of domain (Fig. 17). This morpho- Most of these faults terminate near or at the M-reflector, but some cut tectonic character appears to overprint the pre-existing structures of the M-reflector where they create 10–100 ms vertical stratigraphic sep- the pre-Messinian Miocene domain 1A, but displays a dramatically aration (Fig. 19). Seismic profiles show little-to-no sedimentary growth different style of deformation, dominated by extensional faults (Fig. 17). across these faults. Domain 3A is characterized by numerous NW–SE trending and SW- Farther toward the northwest the domain 3A is characterized by dipping extensional faults that define a series of internally parallel numerous broadly N–S trending and E- and W-dipping high angle ex- fault blocks (Figs. 17, 18). Most of these faults cut the entire Pliocene– tensional faults (Figs. 8, 10, 16). The horst and graben structures prom- Quaternary successions of Unit 1, extending to the depositional surface inently imaged in the southeastern and central portion of the domain where they create distinctive steps on the seafloor. Some of these faults become progressively less defined toward the north. The high angle show NE dips and create horst and graben structures along the slope extensional faults are largely confined to the Pliocene–Quaternary suc- (Fig. 18). Along the upper slope, the extensional faults are steeper and cession of Unit 1 (Figs. 8, 16). cut the M-reflector, where they create 200–300 ms vertical stratigraph- ic separation. Along the lower slope the fault trajectories are notably 4.3.2. Domain 3B listric, and faults sole immediately below the M-reflector, near or onto Domain 3B is an arrow-head shaped zone situated between the the tips of the underlying pre-Messinian Miocene thrusts described in arcuate extensional faults of domain 3A in the east and the NE–SW domain 1A. A few faults in this region only cut the middle portion of trending high-angle extensional faults of domain 3C in the west Unit 1. These faults sole in bedding parallel detachments. Prominent (Fig. 17). The region exhibits complex structures involving re-activation reflectors across the footwalls and hanging walls of the extensional faults of the pre-Messinian Miocene thrusts, development of prominent fans show very little sedimentary growth across these faults, suggesting that of superficial extensional faults and numerous halokinetic structures as- the fault development post-dates most of the deposition of the Pliocene– sociated with withdrawal and/or migration of the Messinian evaporites Quaternary succession. of Unit 2. These structures are developed within an internally coherent In the central portion of domain 3A and along the steeper lower spatial framework with extensional, contractional and halokinetic struc- slope immediately above the abyssal plain the slope face is carved by tures having similar orientations and trends. The structural architecture several superficial listric extensional faults which developed over the of the domain is described under three headings: south, central and forelimb of a huge thrust culmination (e.g., Fig. 13). Landward of this north. frontal margin, the morphology of the slope is very similar to that de- scribed in the southeastern portion of the domain. This region is charac- 4.3.2.1. Southern extensional area. The southernmost portion of domain terized by numerous NW–SE trending and NE- and SW-dipping planar 3B is delineated by a N-convex arcuate region that extends from the extensional faults that define a series of internally-parallel horst and eastern fringes of domain 3C to the southwestern edge of domain 3A graben structures (Figs. 10, 19). The majority of these faults show tip (Fig. 18). A major south-dipping north convex arcuate listric normal points at the depositional surface where they create steps on the sea- fault (referred to as the master fault) marks the northern boundary of floor, giving the seafloor an irregularly corrugated 2D appearance. this region (N1 in Figs. 7, 16, 17, 20). Several smaller synthetic and 16 J. Hall et al. / Marine Geology 349 (2014) 1–23

Fig. 19. High-resolution multichannel seismic reflection profile (L) showing the detailed structural architecture of domains 1A/3A across the Antalya Basin continental slope. The architecture of the pre-Messinian Miocene successions is characterized by large thrusts. Note that evaporites (Unit 2) are confined to local pockets. Also note that the Pliocene–Quaternary successions are cut by numerous faults with normal-sense stratigraphic separations, creating horst and graben structures. Location is shown in Fig. 4. antithetic faults are developed seaward and landward of the master smaller number of similarly trending, but northwest-dipping antithetic fault (Figs. 7, 16, 20). The master fault and its subsidiary splays define faults (X in Figs. 16, 20, 21). In some instances, these planar faults the northern margin of a large Pliocene–Quaternary basin situated in appear to define a series of domino faults, such as seen in Fig. 21, the southern portion of the western Antalya Basin (Fig. 17). They and in other instances the faults are developed over the halokinetic show clear listric trajectories, cutting the M-reflector and the Messinian structures, such as seen in Fig. 16. The tip points of the faults often evaporites of Unit 2 when present, extending into the pre-Messinian extend to the depositional surface where they create steps on the sea- Miocene Unit 3 (Figs. 7, 16, 20). The faults further extend to the seafloor, floor (Figs. 20, 21). There is little-to-no sedimentary growth within where they create 50–300 ms steps on the seabed. Prominent growth the Pliocene–Quaternary succession associated with these faults, sug- strata wedges are developed within the Pliocene–Quaternary succes- gesting that the faulting largely postdates the deposition of most of sion of Unit 1 immediately seaward of the master fault and its subsidiary the Pliocene–Quaternary successions. splays (Figs. 7, 16, 20). These growth strata wedges define a prominent roll-over structure suggesting that the master fault was active during the entire Pliocene–Quaternary. The structural architecture of the re- 4.3.2.3. Northern area with extensional and contractional structures. The gion south of the master fault and its subsidiary splays is characterized northernmost portion of domain 3B is a narrow belt situated between by a distinctive fan of superficial faults that are developed entirely domains 3A in the east and 3C in the west (Fig. 18). The tectonic archi- within the Pliocene–Quaternary succession of Unit 1. Most of these su- tecture of the region is defined by two distinctly different structural perficial faults are developed in the upper portion of Unit 1 and extend styles that overprint one another (e.g., Figs. 7, 12, 13, 15, 16, 21). The re- up-section to the seafloor where they create corrugated seabed gion is characterized by two large broadly N–S trending and oppositely- morphology. The trajectories of these superficial faults are notably listric verging thrusts (west-verging T3A, Figs. 12, 13, and east-verging T6, and in many instances the fault surfaces progressively curve to assume Fig. 17)andaseriesofsmallerN–Strendingandeast-andwest- bedding-parallel detachment surfaces (Figs. 7, 16, 20). The preponder- dipping extensional faults (Fig. 17). The prominent thrust T6 is clearly ance of the shallow near-bedding-parallel detachment surfaces ob- mapped displaying a large ramp anticline developed within the pre- served within the Pliocene–Quaternary succession and the complexity Messinian Miocene Unit 3 (Figs. 12, 13, 15, 17). Seismic profile shows of their faults traces imply that the region experienced a transtensional that the lower portion of the Pliocene–Quaternary succession is also stress regime during the Quaternary (further discussed later). incorporated into the ramp structure, which shows clear growth strata wedge on its backlimb, suggesting that thrust T6 was active during the 4.3.2.2. Central extensional area. The region west and northwest of the early Pliocene–Quaternary (e.g., Fig. 13). In the southern portion of the arcuate listric master fault is characterized by a prominent fault fan northern area, there are two additional thrusts that were active during which is entirely confined to the Pliocene–Quaternary successions of the Pliocene–Quaternary (T5 in Fig. 17). These thrusts exhibit well- Unit 1 (X in Fig. 17). The fan consists of numerous broadly NE–SW developed ramp anticlines (e.g., Figs. 7, 21). These thrusts sole deep trending and southeast-dipping planar extensional faults, with a into the pre-Messinian Miocene Unit 3. J. Hall et al. / Marine Geology 349 (2014) 1–23 17

Fig. 20. High-resolution multichannel seismic reflection profile (M) showing the detailed structural architecture of the southwestern Antalya Basin. Note that the edge of the evaporite Unit 2 is located at the base of continental slope and that Unit 2 is absent across the continental slope and shelf. Further note that a prominent listric extensional fault defines the framework of the deep basin in this region. Several shallow faults define near-bedding-parallel detachments. Location is shown in Fig. 4.

The northeastern and/or southwestern margins of the large are bounded at their upslope ends by numerous superficial listric de- Pliocene–Quaternary ramp anticlines are cut by several high-angle tachment surfaces (Fig. 15). These shallow structures are very similar planar extensional faults (Figs. 13, 16). These faults invariably sole ei- in their morphology and internal seismic architecture to the submarine ther on the M-reflector or near the tip of the underlying thrusts. The ob- slide and slump masses described elsewhere (e.g., Hiscott and Aksu, served geometric relationship between the ramp anticlines and the 1994). In the southern portion of the study area, the domain is notice- superficial extensional faults strongly suggests that the extensional ably broader and is defined by several high-angle extensional faults faults are developed as a response to the thrust activity. The extension- (Fig. 17). al/transtensional character of the structure in the southern and possibly central segments of the domain and the predominantly contractional 5. Discussion character of the structure in the northern segment of the domain strongly suggest that the strain is spatially partitioned in this area. The structural data described above reveal the presence of a complex tectonic history in the western Antalya Basin, spanning from the 4.3.3. Domain 3C Miocene (or older) to the Pliocene–Quaternary. The Miocene succes- Domain 3C is situated in the westernmost portion of the study area. sions define a southwest to west verging imbricate fold–thrust belt It occupies the shelf and slope regions of the western Antalya Basin. The (Fig. 10) aligned with structures mapped onland that define the eastern domain is characterized by 7–9NE–SW- and NNE–SSW-trending high- limb of the Isparta Angle (e.g., Poisson et al., 2003a,2003b). Tortonian angle normal faults (Figs. 15–17, 21). The shallow occurrence of the first and older successions are involved in the fold–thrust panels, suggesting multiple, coupled with the steep continental slope with numerous large that the Isparta Angle continued to evolve at least into the late Miocene. slide and slump masses (discussed below) renders poorer temporal and The tectonic activity experienced a period of relative quiescence across lateral resolutions of seismic markers below the M-reflector. However, the western Antalya Basin during the Messinian. In a broad regional primary reflectors can still be identified in the pre-Messinian Miocene sense, this period follows a major tectonic re-organization in the eastern Unit 3, as well as the M-reflector, and other Pliocene–Quaternary Mediterranean Sea: the collision of the Arabian Microplate with the features, including the seabed morphology, so that the locations of Eurasian Plate and its final suturing along the Bitlis–Zagros belt (around these high-angle extensional faults can be delineated. 11 Ma, e.g., Şengör et al., 1980; Robertson, 1998) initiated the west- Some of the faults show tip points at or below the M-reflector, yet escape of the Aegean–Anatolian microplate (Dewey and Şengör, 1979; others show tip points extending into the lower portion of the Şengör et al., 1985; Dewey et al., 1986). This westward escape is accom- Pliocene–Quaternary successions of Unit 1. In all cases, the faults sole modated along a number of major crustal-scale transform faults, includ- deep into Unit 3. The slope face in this area is marked by several large ing the North and East Anatolian Transform faults, the Kozan Fault, the lenticular units that rest over the steeply (10–20°) southeast-dipping Tuzgölü Fault, and the prominent Misis–Kyrenia–Aksu fault zone M-reflector. Seismic reflection profiles show that these lenticular units (Aksu et al., 2005a; Işler et al., 2005). During the Pliocene–Quaternary 18 J. Hall et al. / Marine Geology 349 (2014) 1–23

Fig. 21. High-resolution multichannel seismic reflection profile (N) showing the detailed structural architecture of domains 1B/3B in western Antalya Basin. Note that the Pliocene– Quaternary successions are cut by numerous planar faults which form tilted domino-pattern. Location is shown in Fig. 4. the tectonic evolution in the eastern Mediterranean is very strongly spa- Basin (Işler et al., 2005) and the western Antalya Basin in the west. The tially partitioned into contractional, extensional and strike slip domains. final collision of the Arabian Microplate with the eastern portion of the Aegean–Anatolian microplate in the Late Miocene splits the broadly 5.1. Morpho-tectonic elements of the Miocene fold–thrust belt east–west trending foredeep with arcuate deformation fronts, such as the Misis–Kyrenia fold–thrust belt, the Amanos–Larnaka fold–thrust A prominent crustal-scale imbricate fold–thrust belt formed in the belt and the zone which links the Tartus Ridge with the Cyprus Arc offshore western Antalya Basin during the Miocene. The thrusts display (Fig. 1), and to the west, the Kyrenia–Aksu fold thrust belt (Fig. 1; Işler broadly arcuate map traces which trend NW–SE in the central portion of et al., 2005). The fold–thrust structures associated with this Late Miocene the Antalya Basin, but toward the northwest these thrusts progressively compression are clearly seen in the western Antalya Basin, where there assume a NNE–SSW trend. During the Middle–Late Miocene, the entire is protracted contractional deformation during at least the deposition of Antalya Basin, including its present day onshore sedimentary basins, the upper portion of Miocene Unit 3 (Işler et al., 2005, and this study). was situated between the evolving Tauride culminations in the north Thus the Antalya Basin shows a similar late Miocene history to that and the subduction zone at the leading edge of the Neotethys Ocean described in the Cilicia and Iskenderun basins (Aksu et al., 2005a,b), in to the south. The Late Miocene (mainly Serravallian to Tortonian) the Kyrenia Range (Calon et al., 2005a,b), as well as the Latakia Basin successions of the Karpuzçay and Aksu formations onland and their (Hall et al., 2005a,b). correlative successions imaged in the marine seismic stratigraphic Unit At the end of the Tortonian, the Mediterranean Sea was situated 3 were deposited within a large elongated, broadly east–west trending at approximately the same subtropical latitude as today and was foredeep extending from the Bitlis Ocean in the east (e.g., Şengör et al., completely isolated both from the Atlantic Ocean and the Indian 1985), across the present-day Iskenderun, Adana, Cilicia basins (Aksu Ocean (Rouchy and Caruso, 2006; Garcia-Castellanos and Villaseñor, et al., 2005a,b; Burton-Ferguson et al., 2005), and the Kyrenia Range 2011). This configuration led to the Messinian Salinity Crisis (Hsü of northern Cyprus (Calon et al., 2005a,b) into the eastern Antalya et al., 1978). J. Hall et al. / Marine Geology 349 (2014) 1–23 19

During the Messinian, the Mediterranean Sea became desiccated with a few re-activated Miocene thrusts, (ii) a predominantly exten- and the ensuing lowering of the base level and subsequent subaerial sional domain (3B) with few re-activated pre-existing Miocene contrac- exposure led to profound erosion of all the Mediterranean basins. This tional structures in the southern and central portion of the study area, erosional event is represented by the N-reflector where the Messinian and (iii) an extensional and/or transtensional domain (3C) occupying evaporites are present and by the M-reflector where they are absent. the continental shelf and slope in the westernmost Antalya Basin. The observed thickness of the Messinian evaporites range from 3000 m in the Herodotus Basin to ~2500 m in the vicinity of Florence 5.2.1. Pliocene–Quaternary extensional fault zone over large Rise (Biju-Duval et al., 1978) and to ~1000 m in the Cilicia and Latakia re-activated thrusts basins (Aksu et al., 2005a; Hall et al., 2005a). The final phase of desicca- Normal faults were observed affecting the Pliocene–Quaternary suc- tion of the Mediterranean Sea at the end of the Messinian (Hsü et al., cessions along the Aksu–Kyrenia deformation zone by Işler et al. (2005), 1978) and the associated subaerial exposure of the sea-floor resulted who suggested that the faults also accommodate significant strike slip in the development of the well-known unconformity represented in displacements. Within the central portion of the Antalya Basin, small the seismic reflection profiles by the M-reflector. The truncation of the amounts of growth strata observed in the hanging walls of these faults folded strata of Unit 3 by the M-reflector (e.g., domain 1A) implies suggest that the faulting may have locally initiated during the lower that the initial thicknesses of the Miocene sedimentary fill of the Pliocene. piggy-back basins were greater than what is now observed on the The presence of this zone dominated by extension and transtension seismic reflection profiles. The progression of contractional deformation immediately co-occurring with a zone dominated by transpression is during the early Messinian is difficult to establish, because the architec- enigmatic. Işler et al. (2005) proposed that this lineament developed ture of the evaporite unit was considerably changed by both contrac- through the partitioning of displacements created by the ensuing tional deformation and halokinesis that took place after the early westward escape of the Aegean–Anatolian microplate in the north Pliocene. (i.e., Dewey et al., 1986), and accommodated by an arcuate splay of the East Anatolian Transform Fault, extending from the Misis Mountains 5.2. Morpho-tectonic elements of the Pliocene–Quaternary of southern Turkey to the Kyrenia Range of northern Cyprus and farther west to the Antalya Basin. A major kinematic change occurred during the transition from the Işler et al. (2005) used GPS data (e.g., McClusky et al., 2000, 2003)to Miocene to the Pliocene, when the regional strain was partitioned into argue that the sense of movement along the Misis–Kyrenia–Aksu fault three spatially localized tectonic domains, as described above: (i) an zone must be sinistral. Sinistral strike slip is also suggested by Meijers extensional domain (3A) confined to the Pliocene–Quaternary Unit 1, et al. (2011). However, several other studies suggested that the occupying the northeastern portion of the study area, which co-exists Aksu fault zone is a dextral strike-slip system overprinting large re-

Fig. 22. Physiography of the eastern Mediterranean Sea showing a selection of GPS vectors, relative to a fixed Anatolia, redrawn from McClusky et al. (2000). The topography and bathym- etry are compiled from GeoMapApp (Ryan et al., 2009), the coastline and the selected isobaths contours are from the International Oceanographic Commission (1981). Major structural lineaments are drawn in white; coastlines in black; GPS vectors and site names are shown in red with white outline. Study area of the western Antalya basin is shown as orange rectangle. PST = Pliny–Strabo trenches, BDL = Beydağları Lineament. Strike-slip motions across major lineaments indicated by GPS vectors are shown in red, with possible extensions indicated with dashed arrows in the triangular area south of the Isparta Angle. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.) 20 J. Hall et al. / Marine Geology 349 (2014) 1–23 activated thrusts (Barka and Reilinger, 1997; Yağmurlu et al., 1997; westernmost Antalya Basin. Recent mapping of the onland Beydağları Poisson et al., 2003a,b, 2011; Piper et al., 2006; Çiner et al., 2008; and Antalya complexes also delineated numerous Quaternary and Toprak et al., 2009). These studies imply that the offshore continuations younger faults which appear to have developed over the similarly of these re-activated thrusts must also have a dextral sense of slip. trending Miocene and older thrust surfaces (Fig. 10)anddisplay A distinctly spatially localized contractional zone is situated in north-northeast–south-southwest trends and extend along the entire the eastern and central portion of the western Antalya Basin. Here length of the Peninsula (Yaltırak, unpublished data). This fault the prominent pre-existing Miocene thrusts are re-activated in the system appears to link with a major north–south trending dextral Pliocene–Quaternary, as indicated by the growth strata architecture strike-slip fault zone that extends ~200 km from the towns of Kırka to that developed in the associated piggy-back basins. Comparison of the Afyon, and then to Isparta (Savaşçın et al., 1995), defining the Antalya structures in the greater onland Aksu, Köprü, Manavgat and Antalya fault zone (Fig. 17). Glover and Robertson (1998a,b) also described a basins revealed that the offshore re-activated fold–thrust belt can be dextral strike-slip fault zone along the Beşadalar–Kemer zone immedi- readily linked with the 4–7 large thrust panels identified onland, associ- ately west of the marine Antalya Basin. However, Barka and Reilinger ated with the Aksu phase of compression (Poisson et al., 2003a,b, 2011). (1997) use modern GPS data to suggest that this is a sinistral strike- Poisson et al. (2003a) documented that the compressional deformation slip zone. Along the apex of the Isparta Angle, this strike-slip fault continued into the lower–middle Pliocene in the onland Aksu, Köprü zone is associated with a prominent north–south trending potassic alka- and Manavgat basins. However, our offshore data also reveal that the line volcanic belt situated between the Menderes and Kirşehir Massifs thrust activity locally continued into the upper Pliocene–Quaternary, (Savaşçın et al., 1995). These authors used radiometric ages and geo- particularly in the southern and southeastern segment of the study chemical data on the volcanic successions to show that the volcanism area. Industry seismic reflection profiles showed that this thrust belt occurred along this north–south zone paralleling the bisector of the Is- had very deep roots, extending well into 6–8s(or~10–15 km), strong- parta Angle. They showed that the age of the volcanic rocks becomes ly suggesting that this fold–thrust belt was a crustal-scale feature, and progressively younger from the north (i.e., the region of Kırka and the associated tectonic activity was thick-skinned. Afyon dated at 21–17 Ma) toward the south (i.e., Isparta at 4 Ma, and The correlation of the offshore thrust panels with those mapped Antalya 1.5–3.0 Ma; Besang et al., 1977; Sunder, 1982; Lefèvre et al., onland suggests that the fold–thrust belt associated with the Aksu 1983). They further argued that the fault zone exhibits dextral strike phase of thrusting formed a 350 km long and 30–50 km wide deforma- slip. tion front, extending through the Antalya Basin to the thrust panels of While Glover and Robertson (1998a,b) and Zitter et al. (2003) sug- theKyreniarangeofnorthernCyprus(Calon et al., 2005a,b; Işler et al., gest that the Pliocene–Quaternary tectonism in western Antalya Basin 2005), and then farther east. Aksu et al. (2005a) showed that the fold– is dominated by extension, Işler et al. (2005) argued that except for thrust panels mapped on the Kyrenia Mountains extend across the very superficial extensional faulting associated with gravity sliding, Cilicia Basin and link with the fold–thrust panels mapped in the Misis the region is dominated by contractional deformation. New data and Mountains of southern Turkey, and then toward the Kahramanmaraş mapping showed that indeed Glover and Robertson (1998a,b) and triple junction in southeastern Turkey (Fig. 1). Thus, we identify a Zitter et al. (2003) were correct: there is a prominent Late Pliocene– 750 km long south-convex deformation front referred to as the Misis– Quaternary tectonic phase of extensional faulting. However, there was Kyrenia–Aksu fault zone (c.f., Aksu et al., 2005a,b; Calon et al., 2005a, also a distinct phase of Early–Middle Pliocene–Quaternary phase b; Işler et al., 2005). We regard this as a major orocline in eastern of contractional deformation, which locally continued until the Late Mediterranean Neogene evolution, related in part to the Isparta Angle Pliocene–Quaternary. The co-occurrence of extensional and contrac- but with much greater regional ramifications. Onland in the Isparta tional deformation within roughly the same interval is suggestive of Angle, the individual faults (i.e., the Aksu Fault, Kırkkavak Fault; strain partitioning in a strike-slip regime. Figs. 10, 17) of the northwestern limb of this arcuate deformation front exhibit notable dextral Pliocene–Quaternary strike slip displace- 5.3. Linkage with the Isparta Angle ments (Barka and Reilinger, 1997; Yağmurlu et al., 1997; Çiner et al., 2008). The individual faults on the northeastern limb of the oroclinal The Isparta Angle is a north-pointing triangular-shaped tectonic deformation zone (i.e., the Misis–Kyrenia fault zone, Misis Thrust, province in southern Turkey. It constitutes one of the most important Kyrenia Thrust, Aslantaş Thrust) all are known to have sinistral strike structures in southern Turkey which can be correlated with other slip movements (Kelling et al., 1987; Kozlu, 1987; Gökçen et al., major lineaments in the eastern Mediterranean such as the Kyrenia 1988). The fact that the northwestern and northeastern limbs of the Range of northern Cyprus. The Isparta Angle has an autochthonous arcuate deformation front exhibit oppositely-directed slip directions core in the Beydağları, overthrust from the west by the Lycian nappes suggests that the southernmost apex of the deformation front must be and from the east by nappes of the Antalya Complex and the Hoyran– a zone of intense contractional deformation. The thrusting observed in Beyşehir–Hadım(Monod, 1977; Robertson et al., 2003). Nappe the Kyrenia Range of northern Cyprus during the Quaternary may be emplacement occurred during early Tertiary closure of the Pamphylian partially explained by the convergence of these two slip vectors in the Basin, which originally separated the Beydağları and the Western Taurus region of Kyrenia Range. platforms during the Mesozoic (Poisson et al., 2003a,b), but nappe devel- opment continued intermittently until Miocene time. The Isparta Angle 5.2.2. Extensional/transtensional zone in western Antalya Basin is transected by several younger structural lineaments. The Lycian A broad northeast–southwest trending zone of invariably southeast- nappes are cut by the active NE–SW-Burdur–Fethiye fault zone, charac- dipping extensional structures cuts the Pliocene–Quaternary strata of terized by sinistral strike-slip faults with considerable normal dip-slip Domain 3B at its boundary with domain 3C (Fig. 17). The steeply- component (Şaroğlu et al., 1987; Price and Scott, 1994; Barka et al., dipping faults cut the Pliocene–Quaternary succession of Unit 1 and 1997) and which may be a northeasterly extension of the Pliny–Strabo become deeply rooted in Miocene Unit 3. This fault system appears to Trenches STEP transform fault zone linking Cyprus and Hellenic arcs. control the morphology of the present-day continental margin. Indeed, Miocene basins occupy part of the onland eastern margins of the Isparta there are several prominent scarps along the shoreline where the strike angle and are cut by the transpressional, N–S, Kırkkavak fault and the of the scarp face is nearly identical to the strike of the individual faults in NNW–SSE-trending, westward-verging Aksu Thrust, which may link to this system. The fact that these faults are steeply deeply cutting into the the southeast through the offshore Antalya Basin to the Kyrenia Range Miocene (or older) Unit 3, and that they delineate a series of sharp of northern Cyprus (Işler et al., 2005). Normal faults also cut parts of escarpments, both onland and across the shelf break suggests that these Miocene basins (e.g., Çiner et al., 2008). The evolution of the they form part of a large crustal-scale structure which shapes the nappe systems and their relationship with closure of strands of the J. Hall et al. / Marine Geology 349 (2014) 1–23 21

Tethyan Ocean are still widely debated (Robertson et al., 2003; Güngör, western Antalya basin. The Beydağları Lineament (BDL, Fig. 22) may 2013). However of particular interest here is the later, late Miocene to mark the boundary of the dextral strike slip fault zone from the sinistral Recent history, which is characterized by rotations about vertical axes strike-slip faulting closer to the Burdur–Fethiye fault zone. There is no documented from paleomagnetic studies. During the Miocene, the clear evidence of present-day extension in the triangular zone from western limb of the Isparta angle, including the Beydağları carbonate the GPS vectors. In essence, it appears that continuing northward mo- massif experienced a 30° counterclockwise (CCW) rotation, according tion of the African Plate, increasing to the west, results in contraction to Kissel and Poisson (1986),andMorris and Robertson (1993). Recent across the Florence Rise but that northward motion is partly transmitted re-evaluation of this rotation (van Hinsbergen et al., 2010) indicates a to the triangular block, resulting in sinistral strike slip towards its 20° CCW rotation during 16–5 Ma, i.e., Middle to Upper Miocene time. western margin and dextral strike slip towards its eastern margin. TheeasternlimboftheIspartaAnglemayhaveexperienceda40°clock- How these general motions are expressed locally in transtension or wise (CW) rotation since the Eocene (Kissel et al., 1993), though the transpression will depend on local orientations of older structures highly variable estimates (from 7° to 56°) of such rotations suggest being reactivated, thus presenting a diversity of apparently contradictory that they may be localized to individual thrust sheets and not character- strains in adjacent blocks. istic of the region (Meijers et al., 2011). The northernmost seismic reflection profile where thrusts are 6. Conclusions observed in the marine data is only 5 km south of the present-day shoreline (Fig. 14), allowing a correlation of the marine structures Offshore seismic mapping of Miocene to Recent structures in the with the similarly-trending and similarly-verging structures mapped offshore western Antalya Basin leads to recognition of two contrasted onland. In fact, the marine fold–thrust belt can be readily correlated phases of structural development. A west- to southwesterly-verging with the eastern limb of the Isparta Angle: the structures mapped in late Miocene fold–thrust belt links similar structures on the eastern Unit 3 of the western Antalya Basin are the seaward continuation of limb of the Isparta Angle to the Aksu–Kyrenia–Misis oroclinal contrac- the structures mapped and described onland. Seismic reflection profiles tional zone, which developed in an ancestral foredeep basin subsequent and the borehole data further document that the Tortonian and older to the Arabia–Eurasia collision and the initiation of the westward tec- successions are involved in the fold–thrust panels, suggesting that the tonic escape of the Aegean–Anatolian microplate. Locally this contraction- tightening of the Isparta Angle continued to evolve at least into the al deformation may also relate to the counterclockwise rotation of the latest Miocene. western limb of the Isparta Angle. Pliocene–Quaternary deformation is The thrusts mapped in the marine area invariably have south- spatially partitioned and characterized by transtension and transpression, westerly vergence. This is consistent with the trend and vergence partly reactivating older structures, but consistent with present day of structures mapped onland across the eastern limb of the Isparta differential motions recorded by GPS, indicating northward motion of Angle (e.g., Waldron, 1984; Poisson et al., 2003a,b, 2011). Furthermore, the block within the Isparta Angle and extending offshore, relative to continued thrusting during the Pliocene and Quaternary observed the adjacent blocks to the north of the Angle. offshore matches the continuation of thrusting observed onland in, for example, the Aksu Basin (Çiner et al., 2008) at least in the Pliocene. In summary, the Miocene westerly-directed thrusting occurring off- Acknowledgments shore matches that observed onland on the eastern limb of the Isparta Angle. In the broadest regional sense, this is interpreted as part of a We thank the Officers, crew and scientific personnel of the RV Koca much longer orocline, extending to the East Anatolian Fault, but locally Piri Reis for their assistance in data acquisition. Special thanks are its development may also be related to the counter-clockwise rotation extended to the Turkish Petroleum Corporation for kindly providing of the western and central parts of the Isparta Angle, which indicates paper copies of their multichannel seismic profiles and well informa- contraction across Antalya bay (van Hinsbergen et al., 2010). tion. We acknowledge research funds from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) to Aksu and Hall, 5.4. Relationship to current deformation determined from GPS studies and contributions from the Office of the Vice-President Research at Memorial University of Newfoundland. Seismic data were processed How can the possibly contrary directions of strike-slip across the at Memorial University of Newfoundland, using the ProMAX© software western Antalya Basin and adjacent Beydağları be related? Fig. 22 donated by Landmark Graphics. Assistance with data processing was shows a simplified version of GPS motion vectors from McClusky et al. provided by Sharon Deemer. We thank D.J.J. van Hinsbergen and (2000) relative to a fixed Aegean–Anatolian microplate. The Aegean A. Çiner for their valuable reviews of the original version of this paper. Sea is generalized by vectors showing strong southerly motion. Vectors from stations MATR and HELW show that the African Plate is moving References northward about a rotation pole not far off the eastern edge of the map. Convergence at the Florence Rise increases westward. Vectors Akay, E., Uysal, S., 1985. Orta Toroslarınbatısındaki (Antalya) Neojen çökellerinin stratigrafisi, sedimantolojisi ve yapısal jeolojisi. 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