Gisa Vadhika Sacawisastra Ideology in ’s Footsteps

Ideology in Pramoedya Ananta Toer’s Footsteps

Gisa Vadhika Sacawisastra English Language and Literature Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia [email protected]

ABSTRACT This study is conducted to construct ideology in Pramoedya Ananta Toer’s Footsteps. In order to construct ideology in the novel, Eagleton’s theory of six ideological features is employed as the tool to analyze the text. This study finds that there are two dominant class ideologies which are constructed in the novel, which are capitalism and feudalism. This study also finds that the characters are attributed with five ideological features, which are legitimation, rationalization, action-oriented, universalization, and naturalization to maintain the domination and advantages of the dominant classes and their ideologies.

Keywords: ideology, unifying, action-oriented, rationalization, legitimation, naturalization, universalization

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INTRODUCTION of society as a whole (p. 6).” In Literature and politics are two relation to literature, Eagleton (2002, disciplines which have a connection p. 7) also says that literary works are to each other (Farrel, 1942). The “forms of perception, particular ways relation between politics and of seeing the world; and as such they literature itself can be seen through have a relation to that dominant way literary works. As Bertens (2001, p. of seeing the world which is the social 113) states that literary works “always mentality or ideology of an age.” If have a political dimension in the literary works are particular ways of sense that on closer inspection they seeing the world and they have a can be shown to take specific stances relation to ideology, then it means it is with regard to social issues, either important to analyze ideology that is through what they say or through constructed in literary works in order what they do say”. Eagleton (1996) to comprehend them. also states that literature deals with One of the writers in Indonesia societies, power, and the way people whose ideology looks strong in his see history or, in other words, it deals literary works is Pramoedya Ananta with politics from the beginning. Toer. As Boef and Snoek (2008) If politics and literature are write, Toer was a writer who was bounded, then ideology is the bridge arrested and whose books were between those two. As Hartley (2013, banned by the Dutch colonialist, the p. 5) states that “we must first have a Old Order, and the New Order basic grasp of the concept of because of his political tendency. He ‘ideology,’ since this is one of the was also a member of an artist most useful terms for linking politics organization, Lekra, and had and literature.” According to contributed to the spreading of Eagleton, ideology is “the way men socialist-realism doctrine in live out their roles in class-society, the Indonesia. In 1980, Bumi Manusia, values, ideas and images which tie the first part of Pramoedya’s them to their social functions and so Quartet, was published. This Buru prevent them from a true knowledge Quartet (Bumi Manusia, Anak Semua

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Bangsa, Jejak Langkah, and Rumah third novel of the Buru Quartet. Thus, Kaca) is a story about the birth of with Minke’s maturity in the novel, Indonesia nationalism. Bumi Manusia this study offers an alternative way to was greatly welcomed and had been read Pramoedya Ananta Toer’s reprinted five times when the second Footsteps by constructing ideologies book was published. However, the in the novel. first two books were banned by New Berteens (2001, pp. 84-85), Order regime because the regime explains ideology as faiths and ideas believed that the books implicitly that make the fake and conflicting propagate the doctrine of Marxism- condition becomes natural in people’s Leninism. In 1985, the third book, eyes by distorting the condition. Jejak Langkah, was published and Shelby also (2003, pp. 156-157) also immediately banned by the argues that there are negative features regime. or aspects in ideology which can be The third novel, Footsteps, by criticized and denied. Thus, ideology Pramoedya Ananta Toer (1996) is contains negative features that aim to chosen to be analyzed in this study. distort the truth, and this distortion The reason for choosing the book is eventually is related to the interest of because Minke, the main character, certain class in society already has a firm political idea and According to Marx (as cited in realizes the condition of the colonized Taha et.al, 2008, pp. 237-238), people that are oppressed by the ideology and its systems “are the colonialist and the feudalists. His idea products of social and economic and realization have not surfaced yet condition.” It is related to the in This Earth of Mankind and Child of statement that say “the class which All Nation. These opinions are has the means of material production supported by Boef and Snoek (2008) controls the mental production (p. who believe that Minke is an egg in 235)”, it means that certain class in the first novel and then hatches in the certain era which dominates the second novel. They find that Minke as economic base is able to use ideology the protagonist has matured in the in order to maintain its domination.

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For example, the feudalists could economic and political condition, spread their ideologies that indeed which only bring advantages to the were able to give some benefits to capitalist class while the rest of them since they once dominated the society are exploited and oppressed economic base. Taha, Zahra, and Al- without even knowing it, are Khaoli (2008) then, connect ideology eternalized through ideology. to dominant class. They seem to stress Althusser (as cited in the untruth dimension of ideology that Berteens, 2001, p. 90) tries to answer cannot be separated with the the question of how ideology distorts economic base and the interests of the and conceal the truth, by stating class that lie within. Consequently, “‘Ideology represents the imaginary the ruling thoughts that get around in relationship of individuals to their real society are determined by the conditions of existence.” Ideology is condition of economy. The thoughts always able to distort the truth are only purposed to serve the benefit because ideology is some ideas that of dominant class and conceal the are continuously developed and truth that society and every aspect in constructed by individuals (Shelby, it is actually dominated by this 2003, p. 161). It is related to dominant class. Eagleton’s (1991) theory about The dominant class in society ideological features. Ideology is is not only the feudalists, which continuously developed and nowadays rarely seen in the world, constructed since people always use but also the capitalist/bourgeois class. ideology as a tool of rationalizing, Several theorists (Macris, 2011, p. 24; legitimating, naturalizing, Sussman, 2012, p. 477) connect universalizing, action-orientating, ideology with the capitalists. It is said and unifying. that ideology is a tool that is used by Ideologies are said to unify the capitalists and their state, since they “are often thought to lend including the high ranking politicians, coherence to the groups or classes to help and maintain their domination which hold them, welding them into a and benefit over society. The unitary, if internally differentiated,

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identity, and perhaps thereby specific to a certain place and time are allowing them to impose a certain projected as the values and interests unity upon society as a whole of all humanity (p. 56).” The last (Eagleton, 1991, p. 45).” In the feature is naturalization. According to action-oriented process, ideologies Eagleton, “successful ideologies are are not only deal with somewhat like often thought to render their beliefs ideas. They as well “must work both natural and self-evident - to identify practically and theoretically, and them with the 'common Sense' of a discover some way of linking these society so that nobody could imagine levels. It must extend from an how they might ever be different.” elaborated system of thought to the Thus, people who see something as minutiae of everyday life... (p. 48)” In natural or common, but it turns out this kind of process, Eagleton that it can be considered as an object continues, ideas, values, norms, or of criticism; they actually get cultures must be able to be transferred involved in naturalization process. into practice. Then, ideology also can be used for legitimating the dominant RESEARCH METHOD class and its ideas. Legitimation This study employs descriptive feature of ideology “can simply mean qualitative method, where the basis establishing one’s interest as broadly concept of this method is that the data acceptable, rather than lending them a take the form of words and the spurious wash of legality (p. 54).” analysis depends on explanation. The next feature is rationalization, However, the characteristics of the which “can be seen as more or less method also include that the systematic attempts to provide researchers have to take more plausible explanations and attention in comprehending reality in justifications for social behavior itself and there are a lot of alternatives which might otherwise be the object explanations rather than if the of criticism (p. 52).” The fifth is researchers use numbers (Elliot & universalization, where in this feature Timulak, 2005, p. 147). Tesch (as “values and interests which are in fact cited in Dey, 1993, p. 3) expresses

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that the method is “oriented to (1991) theory on ideological features: providing thorough descriptions and unified, action-oriented, interpretations of social phenomena.” rationalization, legitimation, It also can be employed to make the universalization, and naturalization. aspects or features of the topic Fourth, is to construct the dominant categorized (Neville, 2007, p. 2). class ideologies from the analysis. Regarding the data collection and data The next step is to make meaning analysis, there are several steps of the from the analysis by referring them to data processing in this study. First, the Marxist theory. The last step is to data are obtained by identifying make the conclusion of the study. narration and dialogues of characters which show conflicts. Next, the FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION conflicts are divided into three kinds The analysis that is conducted finds of conflicts, which are: (1) conflicts that there are two dominant class between the colonialist and the ideologies in the text. These dominant colonized, (2) conflicts between the class ideologies are capitalism and feudalists and the commoners, and (3) feudalism. By using Eagleton’s conflicts of organizations. The (1991) ideological features, the conflicts that can be identified to analysis also indicates that there are construct ideologies in the novel are five ideological features constructed the conflicts that contain the in the novel: legitimation, action- advantages and privileges oriented, naturalization, groups/classes get that can affect or universalization, and rationalization. maintain the dominant classes interest politically or economically, and also CAPITALISM the ideas, values, cultures, norms, or Conflicts between the Colonialist actions that can maintain the and the Colonized dominant ideologies domination over Legitimation society. The third step is to categorize The legitimations that occur in the and analyze the conflicts with conflict between the colonialists and reference to Eagleton’s Marxian

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the colonized in Footsteps do not The legitimation in this statement is involve the Dutch colonialist directly. pointed by the statement of the The mode of legitimation that can be importance of capital in this age; found in the novel is the dialogues everybody can do anything they liked between characters, Ter Haar and as long as they possessed capital. But Minke, which contain consent of the here, Ter Haar only tells the capitalistic ideas. As explained by importance of capital but he conceals Eagleton (1991, p. 55), that “A mode the situation that not everybody is of domination is generally legitimated able to possess capital. Therefore, the when those subjected to it come to people that do not own capital will judge their own behaviour by the only become the miserable person in criteria of their rulers.” So, it also can the end. This condition only gives mean that one is able to not obey the advantage to the persons that own dominant ideas, values, powers, or capital. The ideas of capitalism, cultures that exist within society, but where capital is above everything, are one can also do otherwise, which is not denied by Ter Haar. Because of legitimating the dominant ideology. his acknowledgement of capitalism The legitimation feature can be seen ideas, he can be identified as in the evidences where Ter Haar legitimating the ideas of capitalism as states: the dominant class ideology.

“... In this modern era, everything Rationalization moves faster. You remember why? Because of the triumph of capital, in its From the textual evidences gained search of profits... (p. 33)” from the novel Footsteps, the ...He returned to his lecture. “In short, it is the liberals who are the chosen sons attempts of rationalizing most of the of our times, the best sons of the age of time are manifested by the Liberals capital—an age when everything has and will be brought into being by and their leader, Van Kollewijn. Van capital, when anybody—not just the kings and sultans—will be able to have Kollewijn stresses the importance of anything they like, as long as they have some capital (p. 35) educating the Natives as a compensation for the profits and

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benefits that the Natives give to By mentioning the aim of educating Netherlands. He says: the colonized people is to make them able to operate the machines and “We owe a lot to the Indies—there is a factories, it seems that Van Kollewijn moral debt. A debt of honor, which as Europeans, as Christians, we are indirectly reveals the true motive of obliged to repay. We must now do good for the Natives, in return for the good his idea. It is to make the colonized they have done us. And this should not just amount to a few regulations in their people become the workers of the favour. They must be helped to become European and Dutch capitalists. Thus, equipped to deal with the new times. And the best bridge across to the the purpose of the education Natives in order that they may be so helped is the educated Natives (p. 39).” eventually is just to make the

colonized become the cheap workers, Here, Van Kollewijn just falsifies so that the capitalists can gain the some reasons or justifications to bigger profit. To conceal this educate the colonized people by despicable motive, Van Kollewijn explaining that it is because the debt therefore, make a rationalization that given by the colonized people to the the education prepared for the Dutch and the obligation to repay as colonized is aimed to fulfill the the Christians. Thus, in this passage, Dutch’s obligation as Christians and Van Kollewijn rationalizes the act of as repayment to the colonized. educating the colonized people. For the further explanation of the reason Action-Oriented why they should help the Natives, he The ideological feature of action- says it in the previous paragraph: oriented could be viewed when Minke

read some letters from his friends, Ter “…The qualifications needed to work in a modern society are higher today. This Haar and Mir Frischboten, who at is true in the Indies as well as in Holland. This means we have a once report and ask him about war responsibility to prepare educated and politics situation that occur in Natives to enter into the modern age. If we do not do this, then all the factories Dutch-Indies. However, Minke is too and machines, no matter how fantastic, will be useless because the Natives will confused to answer them because he not be able to use them (p. 38).” spend too much times on his study

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when he attends STOVIA, the isolates people from the political and medical school. He says: concrete reality. Thus, in Footsteps, STOVIA prevents the students, Minke And as for me, why was I never able to particularly, to study the reality of answer any questions based on my own knowledge? How was it that they knew their nations by using action-oriented far more about what was happening in the Indies than I, and I lived here? feature of ideology that takes the form But as usual all these questions went by of study regulation. the board because of my studies and

work (p. 169). Universalization I had no chance to do any writing. Every The universalization in Footsteps is hour was taken up by studying. There was no time left for enjoying life (p. 55). used by the gubermen, or governor- general. It can be found in the novel These evidences in which Minke in relation with the exile of the Raja knows nothing about recent political of Kasiruta and his daughter from updates because he is too busy with their country. When Minke hears this his studies indicate the action- problem and then consults it with his oriented feature. STOVIA, the school friend who was also a legal adviser, whose graduates will become the Hendrik Frischboten, the narration gubermen doctor, makes a strict states: regulation that one has to keep studying continuously in order to He explained that it would be impossible for the princess to leave become the doctor. Therefore, the without special permission from the regulation prevents Minke studying governor-general. He needed to give no justification for any decisions he would the political condition of the society. make. The governor-general had special rights and was not bound by the The regulation eventually oppresses law. The raja of Kasiruta had been exiled through the use of these special the students of the school and makes powers. That his daughter had not been involved in whatever had brought about their political criticism become dull, the decision was irrelevant. Such a as evidenced by Minke’s inability to practice came from the backward custom of the peoples of the Indies answer his friends’ reports. It is like themselves that held that with blood ties went shared responsibility (p. 307). what Eagleton (1991, p. 47-48) explained that sometimes ideology

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The evidence of universalization in establish. Raden Tomo wants Minke this passage is shown by the fact that to help him in the organization. But the gubermen “had special rights and then, he suddenly pries the rumor was not bound by the law.” It means about Minke and the gubermen that he is above the law or he is the closeness. He asks: law itself. Therefore, he is able to do anything he likes without having to “The stories about your relationship with the governor-general have been care about the consequences. Then, exaggerated, perhaps?” “It sounds as though you would like there is no difference between those rumors to be true?” “Well, Meneer Minke, I think that if you gubermen and ancient kings that often go with the stream things are always consider themselves beyond the law, easier (pp. 235-236).” or even the representation of God In this evidence, Raden Tomo viewed itself. Such a value is transferred by that it is going to be safer for Boedi the gubermen, to the age where the Oetomo if it follows the stream of kings’ mightiness has almost government power. By mentioning vanished. The gubermen in this case, the gubermen and the stream, Raden brings the idea which is bound to Tomo wants to utilize the authority of particular time to the beginning of gubermen. This dependency to the twentieth century, or specifically, he gubermen’s power and authority universalizes the absolutism of indicates that Raden Tomo and his ancient kings. organization legitimate the colonialist government. If the aim of Raden Conflicts of Organizations Tomo’s organization is to liberate the Legitimation Dutch-Indies from the Dutch The legitimation in the conflicts colonization, then the organization between the organizations is will have the aim that will destabilize concerned with Boedi Oetomo. One the status quo. However, he decides to of the founders of Boedi Oetomo, be under the protection of the Raden Tomo, has a discussion with colonialist rule and gives the consent Minke about the new direction of the to the colonialist authority. Therefore, organization that he wants to by thinking that the gubermen is the

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legitimate one, Raden Tomo disadvantages the colonized people. maintains the dominant culture of the However, it supports the ideology of Dutch domination over Dutch-Indies. capitalism maintain its domination in society. Action-Oriented Aside from Boedi Oetomo, the Feudalism organization which was told in Conflicts between the Feudalists Footsteps was Sarekat Dagang and the Commoners Islam(ijah), the organization that was Naturalization founded by Minke. When he has a The evidence of naturalization is discussion with his comrade, Thamrin shown by the worker of a train when Mohammad Thabrie, Minke decides he stands face to face with Minke and that it is time to establish a party. He his old friend, Sadikoen. Both Minke says: and Sadikoen hold the title of Raden Mas, while the trainman is just a “So you agree, Tuan Thabrie, that such commoner. As narrated by Minke, the an organization should be established. One that is multi-ethnic, that has malay trainman really feels inferior when he as its official language, that is not based on the priyayi but on the traders…” is herded before Minke by Sadikoen: And so it was that the Sarekat Dagang Islamijah (Islamic Traders’ Union) or SDI was founded…. (pp. 339-340) Not long afterward he returned with a man wearing overalls, who just stood The action-oriented process in this there beside Sadikoen, with a bit of bow in the way he stood. He clasped his passage is indicated by Minke's hands before him. He didn’t dare sit down, only because the priyayi caste decision to make the traders/little system classified him as being of lower status (p. 270). bourgeois as the mass basis for his organization. It means that capitalism, The naturalization process in here is which is represented in the traders, is showed by the trainman’s act that just brought into practice by Minke and stands straightforwardly before his colleagues. Minke’s act to make Minke and does not even dare to sit. the traders become the mass basis of The trainman really feels like he is an the organization neither supports the inferior human being in front of the Dutch colonialist and capitalist nor two Raden Mas. He feels happier

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standing like that because it is natural syndicate plans to reduce the land for the low-caste person like him to rent. Minke has an intention to act like that. It seems that he does not support the farmers in fighting for know that there is another rule or their right that is snatched by the custom that allows everyone to sit Dutch. To his mother’s idea regarding down while having a conversation. the farmers’ low status, Minke asks: On the other hand, the trainman only knows the custom that does not allow “And who decide this, Mother?” him to sit while having a conversation “They who are the most powerful among all the men, that which is more with his superior. He cannot think of powerful than all men. Have you ever seen a farmer in any wayang story? the alternative condition where he can Never. Because they are just not there. There are only the kings, the knights, the sit in front of Minke. Thus, it means priest. The closer a person works to the land, the less honor there is to him, the that the trainman naturalizes the less he is thought about by anybody (p. ideology of feudalism about the caste 408).” system and custom. In this rationalization process,

Minke’s mother gives three reasons to Rationalization rationalize the idea of feudalism that Rationalization that is implemented considers the farmers as low human by the feudalists in Footsteps being. These rationalizations may connects the justification of their give advantages to two dominant ideas to the God’s will. In the time classes in the novel. First is the when capitalism start to dominate the capitalist class, who is advantaged Dutch-Indies, feudalism also give because the ideas teach the farmers to justification to their own attitude so not fight their superior. The ideas also that they can sustain the power and teach that the farmers should not be interest they have. The case of cared by other people. Thus, the rationalization could be seen when capitalist can gain more profits by Minke’s mother opposes Minke reducing the land rent. The second are regarding his decision to help the the feudalists that can maintain their farmers in Java. The farmers are faced domination toward the lower class. by the problem where the sugar

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Conflicts of Organizations Naturalization in this passage Naturalization is shown by Sadikoen that believes The actions and ideas of Boedi people are already born into the caste Oetomo are not only deals with in this world and this condition will legitimating the power of the remain unchanged. It is even government, but it also has a compared to the axioms that there are connection with feudalism. As men and women, the earth and the mentioned before on the section of the sky, etc; the condition that will last conflicts between the feudalists and forever. However, what is natural for the commoner, Minke meets his old the feudalists only give advantages to friend, Sadikoen, who has became the persons like the noblemen. Sadikoen member of Boedi Oetomo, on their urges Minke should not teach journey to attend the BO congress (p. anything that can ruin the status quo 270). In the middle of their because he himself, as a Javanese conversation, Sadikoen starts a feudal, does not want to lose any polemic against Minke’s article in his privileges. Thus, by being reactionary newspaper that teaches the public to and believe that the caste system is use boycott. He argues that the eternal; Sadikoen naturalizes the information contained in the article Javanese feudalism ideology about contradicts the priyayi’s belief in the caste system. which each person is different in their status. Then he states: CONCLUSION his study is conducted to “We were born into a world where there are already raja and their families, construct ideologies in the novel. It where there is already a government with its priyayi. There are those who are can be concluded from the analysis honored, and those who have no honor, that the dominant class ideologies and there are those who are humiliated, because that is the world. There are men constructed in Footsteps are and there are women. There are the high and the low. There is the earth and capitalism and feudalism. This study the sky. There are the poor and the rich. You were taught in school too that for also finds there are five ideological everything there is a plus and minus… (p. 269)” features in the novel. The ideological features used in helping or serving

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capitalism are legitimation, Eagleton, T. (2002). Marxisme dan Kritik Sastra. Yogyakarta: rationalization, action-oriented, and Sumbu. universalization. These features used Elliot, R., & Timulak, L. (2005). Descriptive & Interpretive generally by the characters in the Approaches to Qualitative novel to maintain the domination and Research. In J. Atiles, & P. Gilbert (Eds.), A Handbook of advantage of the Dutch capitalist class Research Methods for toward the colonized Dutch-Indies Clinical & Health Psychology. New York: society. Meanwhile, the ideological Oxford University Press. features used by the feudal class and Farrel, J. T. (2012). Literature and Ideology. Retrieved February its compradors are naturalization and 8, 2015, from rationalization. The uses of https://www.marxists. org/subject/art/lit_crit/works/f ideological features are related to the arrell/litandideology.htm efforts of the characters in convincing Hartley, D. (2013). The Politics of Form: British and American Minke of the ideas of feudalism that Marxist Literary Theory. only give advantages to the feudal Retrieved January 20, 2015, from http:// class. www.academia.edu/23600/Th ePoliticsofFormBritishandA REFERENCES merican_Marxist_Literary_T heory Bertens, H. (2001). Literary Theory: Macris, V. (2011). The Ideological The Basics. London: Conditions of Social Routledge. Reproduction. Journal for Boef, A. H., & Snoek, K. (2008). Critical Education Policy Saya Ingin Lihat Semua Ini Studies , 9 (1), 20-46. Berakhir: Esai dan Neville, C. (2007). Introduction to Wawancara dengan Research & Research Pramoedya Ananta Toer. Methods. Bradford: Jakarta: Komunitas Bambu. University of Bradford School Dey, I. (1993). Qualitative Data of management. Analysis: A User-Friendly Shelby, T. (2003). Ideology, Racism, Guide For Social Scientists . and Critical Social Theory. London: Routledge. The Philosophical Forum , 34 Eagleton, T. (1991). Ideology. (2), 153-188. London: Verso. Sussman, G. (2012). Systemic Eagleton, T. (1996). Literary Theory: Propaganda as Ideology and an Introduction. Oxford: Productive Exchange. triple- Blackwell Publishing. C, 10 (2), 474-487.

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Taha, A., Zahra, A., & Al-khaoli, S. Research and Scientific (2008). The Marxist Studies - Arts and Humanities Approach to Ideology: Marx Series , 30 (2), 235-247. and Hegel. Tishreen Toer, P. A. (1996). Footsteps. New University Journal for York: Penguin Books.

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