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Abstract Examining the Influence of Perceived ABSTRACT EXAMINING THE INFLUENCE OF PERCEIVED SCHOOL CLIMATE, ANXIETY, VICTIMIZATION EXPERIENCE, AND OBSERVED DEFENDING ON BYSTANDER BEHAVIORS DURING BULLYING Trevor W. Bixler, Ph.D. Department of Psychology Northern Illinois University, 2018 Michelle K. Demaray, Director This dissertation was completed to delineate mechanisms that influence bystander behavior in the presence of bullying phenomena. Given the limited investigations that exist into the differences between defender role behaviors and outsider role behaviors, the current study sought to further understand the variables which promote or inhibit action when bullying phenomena occur. Defender and outsider role behaviors were examined as outcomes among a sample of Midwestern students in grades six through eight. Students’ perceptions of school climate were investigated as a predictor. The association between perceptions of school climate and bystander behaviors during bullying was proposed to be moderated by self-reported anxiety, gender, victimization experience, and the extent to which respondents have seen other students in their school put a stop to bullying. NORTHERN ILLINOIS UNIVERSITY DEKALB, ILLINOIS AUGUST 2018 EXAMINING THE INFLUENCE OF PERCEIVED SCHOOL CLIMATE, ANXIETY, VICTIMIZATION EXPERIENCE, AND OBSERVED DEFENDING ON BYSTANDER BEHAVIORS DURING BULLYING BY TREVOR BIXLER © 2018 Trevor Bixler A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY Doctoral Director: Michelle K. Demaray ACKNOWLEDGMENTS To my sister, without your support, my life and this work would never have been the same. You walk through life bravely, you forgive without cause, and you love unconditionally. You are the reason I believe that we can exist in this world in love and truth. I think of you in all that I do. To my mom, you have every talent in the world and yet you remain humble and have dedicated yourself to improving the lives of others. You taught me at a young age that each person is deserving of dignity and respect. To my father, you are the original image in my mind of what it means “to help.” I will always carry the image of you rushing out of the truck to help a car full of wrecked teenagers get out of their car. You have always put others first and done what is right. To my grandmother and grandfather, who have always believed in me and have never failed to tell me how much you brag about me to your friends. You have been the greatest cheerleaders and you have always made me feel like I am accomplishing something. To my patient, encouraging, and kind advisor, Dr. Michelle Demaray, I can never thank you enough. Thank you for your incredible perseverance in this work. Thank you for your willingness to really think deeply about these concepts with me and growing my understanding. You have invested in me and I will always be grateful for that. To my dynamic and awesome program director, Dr. Christine Malecki, thank you for your dedication to my growth and your unwavering support in this process. I am truly blessed to have experienced this training program. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES…………………………………………………………………..….…… vi LIST OF FIGURES………………………………………...………………………..….…… vii LIST OF APPENDICES………………...…………………………………………..….…… viii Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION…………………..…………………………….……..……………….. 1 2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE.……………………………….……………………… 4 Bystander Behavior During Bullying........................................................................... 5 Gender Differences in Bystander Behavior.…….…………….………….….. 6 Mental Health of Bystanders.………………………….….…………..……... 7 Anxiety……………………….…………………………………………....……….... 10 Victimization………………..………….………………………….…..…….………. 16 School Climate………………..………….………………………..…..…….………. 18 School Climate and Bystander Behaviors………………….…………..……. 21 Frequency of Defending Behaviors and School Climate..…….....………….. 25 School Climate, Anxiety, and Bystander Behaviors…………..…………….. 26 School Climate, Victimization, and Bystander Behaviors…………...……… 29 The Current Study………………..………………………………..…..…….………. 30 iv Chapter Page 3. METHODOLOGY………………………………………………………………..……… 35 Participants……………………………...…………………………………….……... 35 Measures……………………………………………………………...…………….... 35 Anxiety…………………………………..……………………………..……. 36 Perceptions of School Climate……..………………………..…...………….. 37 Bullying Behavior Participant Questionnaire.……………………………….. 38 Frequency of Observed Defending Behaviors..…..……………….………… 39 Procedure…………………………………..……………...…………………..……... 40 4. RESULTS…………………………………………………………………..…………….. 41 Assumptions…………….…………………………..……………………...………... 41 Data Analyses……………………………………..…………….............………….... 41 Descriptive Analyses…………………………………………..………..…… 41 Missing Data Analyses………………………………………………….…… 42 Preliminary Analyses……………….……………………..…………….…… 48 Primary Analyses……………….……………………………………...…….. 50 Research Question 1.………………………………………..……...... 51 Defender Behavior…………………...………………………. 51 Outsider Behavior.……..………………………....………….. 53 Research Question 2…………………………………...…………….. 53 Defender Behavior………………...…………………………. 54 Outsider Behavior.……..…………….…………...………….. 55 v Chapter Page Research Question 3……..……………...…………………………... 58 Defender Behavior………………………...…………………. 61 Outsider Behavior.……..………………….……...………….. 62 Research Question 4………………………………………...……….. 62 Defender Behavior………………………...…………………. 64 Outsider Behavior.……..………………………....………….. 67 Research Question 5………………………………….…….……....... 69 5. DISCUSSION…………..………………………………………….……………….…….. 74 REFERENCES….…………………...…………………………………………..…….….…. 87 APPENDICES…………………………………………………………………...…….……. 104 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Means and Standard Deviations of Variables for Female Participants………………..… 43 2. Means and Standard Deviations of Variables for Male Participants.………………….… 44 3. Means and Standard Deviations of Variables for All Participants……….……...…….… 45 4. Intercorrelation Table for Variables Utilized Males/Females…………………...…….… 46 5. Missing Data Proportions Before Mean Imputation……..........................................…… 47 6. Missing Data Proportions After Mean Imputation……………………………...……….. 47 7. Regression Analysis of Incremental Predictive Ability of Social Anxiety on Defender Behavior……...…………………………………………………………………...……... 52 8. Regression Analysis of Incremental Predictive Ability of Social Anxiety on Outsider Behavior……...…………………………………………………………………….….… 54 9. Regression Analysis of Defender Behavior With Social Anxiety as a Moderator….…… 56 10. Regression Analysis of Defender Behavior With Generalized Anxiety as a Moderator... 57 11. Regression Analysis of Outsider Behavior With Social Anxiety as a Moderator..……… 59 12. Regression Analysis of Outsider Behavior With Generalized Anxiety as a Moderator… 60 13. Regression Analysis of Defender Behavior With Social Anxiety as a Moderator..……... 66 14. Regression Analysis of Defender Behavior With Generalized Anxiety as a Moderator... 68 15. Regression Analysis of Outsider Behavior With Social Anxiety as a Moderator…......… 70 16. Regression Analysis of Outsider Behavior With Generalized Anxiety as a Moderator.... 71 17. Regression Analysis of Defending Behaviors and Independent Variables……………… 73 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Conceptual Model 1……………………………………………………….………… 31 2. Interaction of Perceptions of School Climate by Social Anxiety by Gender.……..… 63 3. Interaction of Perceptions of School Climate by Victimization on Defender Behavior…………………………………………………………………..…….…… 67 LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix Page A. SCREEN FOR ANXIETY-RELATED DISORDERS GENERALIZED ANXIETY SUBSCALE…….…………………………………..……………………...……………. 105 B. SCREEN FOR ANXIETY-RELATED DISORDERS SOCIAL ANXIETY SUBSCALE……………………………………..……………………………….……… 108 C. SAFE AND RESPONSIVE SCHOOLS SAFE SCHOOLS SURVEY………………… 111 D. BULLYING PARTICIPANT BEHAVIOR QUESTIONNAIRE VICTIM SUBSCALE……………………………………………………………………….…….. 119 E. BULLYING PARTICIPANT BEHAVIOR QUESTIONNAIRE DEFENDER SUBSCALE…………………………………………………………………………..…. 122 F. BULLYING PARTICIPANT BEHAVIOR QUESTIONNAIRE OUTSIDER SUBSCALE………………..……………………………………………………………. 125 . CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION In the present day, school-based bullying remains a prevalent concern for students, families, and school staff (Wang, Iannotti, & Nansel, 2009). Prevalence rates of traditional (face-to-face) bullying within the United States are said to hover above 30%, according to a recent meta-analysis by Modecki, Minchin, Harbaugh, Guerra, and Runions (2014). In studies of abuse, bullying, and victimization, the focus of intervention and prevention can all-to- commonly hone on individuals and groups, rather than the broader social-ecology. More often, the impact of the whole group process, such as in considering the impact of bystanders, is overlooked. In a review of the literature by Banyard, Plante, and Moynihan (2004), the authors argue that there is overwhelming empirical support for the notion that the remedy to victimization is not only within the empowerment of victimized groups, but also by the mobilization of a community that values justice for all and is unwilling to accept norms which place certain community members at-risk of degradation, such as what happens when a peer is bullied. Given this social-ecological framing, the current study focuses on bystanders as a subgroup, and the factors which may play into their willingness to intervene in bullying instances. In contrast to children and adolescents who perpetrate acts of bullying, as well as those children and adolescents who are victimized,
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