International Journal of Architecture and Urban Development 23 Tugbobo Babatunde Tugbobo 3 streets and public spaces, once meant for , vehemently struggle with degradation and invasion from unrestrained 2000a, 2000b; Peter & transportation.(Peter & Jeff, motorized 2006) 1989 ; Newman & Kenworthy,, Jeffery and controversies of lot a has generated of it sense actual in This urban planners and even public, counter attacks from general recreation, shopping, visiting friends and family. (Adam, 2011; (Adam, 2011; recreation, shopping, visiting friends and family. et al., (2000); Breines & Dean, 1974; Commission, Bloomberg 2000; Joseph, 2002; Ozbil, 2010). andwalking encouraging is interest central the Surprisingly, other non-motorized modes in most urban landscape planning. this will help shape the extended mobility trends of Expectedly, tomorrow. that, ancient paths It is has been severally argued undercountednon-regulated spaces, becoming increasingly are and undervalued when compared with the urban spaces for motorized modes. In addition, due to advent of modern transportation technologies, Dayomi Mathew, Dayomi Mathew, 2 Recieved 07.25.2014; Accepted 03.02.2015 Recieved 07.25.2014; these Trends Kenya these Trends Adeyemo Ajibade, * 1 being the oldest form of urban transport, and until the advent of major transformations of major advent the until and transport, of urban form oldest the being Walking Trends, Automobile Dependence, Worldwide, And Global Implications Automobile Dependence, Worldwide, Trends, Studies, College of Humanities, the University of KwaZulu-Natal (UKZN) South Africa. KwaZulu-Natal (UKZN) South Studies, College of Humanities, the University of [email protected] hirteen Most Common Trends Shaping Automobile Automobile Shaping Trends Common hirteen Most Principal Lecturer, Department of Architectural Technology, Lagos State Polytechnic, Ikorodu, Lagos, Nigeria. Lagos, State Polytechnic, Ikorodu, Lagos Technology, Architectural Department of Principal Lecturer, 1 Ph.D. Candidate, Department of Urban and Regional Planning, School of the and Development the Built Environment of Urban and Regional Planning, School of Ph.D. Candidate, Department Professor, Department of Urban and Regional Planning, School of the Built Environment and Development Studies. Regional Planning, School of the Built Environment Department of Urban and Professor, 3 T 2 Dependence Worldwide and the Global Implications of and the Global Worldwide Dependence conventional . Contemporarily, reducing dependency has been discussed broadly in the planning. Contemporarily, transportation conventional scientific community by professionals in the built environment and of course by the general public.With increasing and dependency of automobile point this to we get did how swirl of questions, raises a it worldwide, streets vehicular thirteen extensively discussed and identified paper this question, this answering In desirable? more alternatives the are automobile dependencies in most cities of the world. major distinct trends that are responsible for the Keywords: Today, there is a change in transportation which emphasizes, the traditional pedestrian paths which are increasingly which emphasizes, the traditional there is a change in transportation Today, in emphasis This change modes. to the urban spaces for automobile spaces when compared non-regulated becoming may ultimately has rarely been planned for in the past few decades and urban partly because is noticeable landscape in recent times particularly It has brought enormous changes to urban dependency. replace our automobile there and degrees. For instance, ways, forms comes in different dependency Automobile in the developed world. only form of transport). is the (where driving dependent automobile are absolutely that worldwide are few cities and cycling of walking, amount have a noteworthy often dependent automobile to be highly appear areas that Even by be undercounted use of these modes tends to areas, although groups or in certain travel among certain transit ABSTRACT: ABSTRACT: in ways that supported walkability. were structured most cities century, nineteenth in the in transport technology International Journal of Architecture and Urban Development and Urban Architecture of Journal International 2015 No.3, Summer Vol.5,

*Corresponding Author Email: essential mode of transport. It offers people freedom to travel offers essential mode of transport. It work,for car using or owing either of responsibility without of the matter is that contemporary planning of 21st century must acknowledged pedestrianization (walkability) not automobile driven communities. Pedestrianization is very familiar and to many people, an Dean, 1974) (Lynch, 2011a, 2011b; Mills, 2013; Morris, 1979). 2011b; 2011a, Dean, 1974) (Lynch, Barnett (2014) in his article “on life take place on foot” reiterated thrust The people. not definitely are people, for are cities that, are increasingly popular in most cities of the world which makes that cities exist for care and culture of people, one easily forget not the passage of motorized transportation alone (Breines & Recently faced considerable criticism from public and activeenvironment; streets without built the in professionals pedestrian activities (active transportation or pedestrianization ) INTRODUCTION novice in the built environment. Right now there are so many These concerns reflect an underlying sense of isolation, lack of anti-automobile critics today who are condemning the invasion control over changing environmental landscape and erosion of of motorized transportation in most streets and canvassing for community life by depending on automobile mode of transport. complete banning of motorized transport. Substantiating the above statements, Breines & Dean (1974) in Strange enough there are no moral justifications to condemn their book the pedestrian revolution, streets without cars argued or disagree with their perspectives, because cities are still that cars cannot be disinvested or nether banning car entirely is Vol.5, No.4, Autumn 2015 Autumn No.4, Vol.5, badly equipped to cope with the challenges of managing future the answer. urban transportation system especially the dichotomy between To be precise, the solution is to exploit the advantages of foot foot (walkability) and wheel (automobile) modes of transport. (walkability) and wheel (motorization) in areas where each (Amphlett, 2011; Francois-Joseph & Ralf, 2014; Kellese et al., operates better because in the contemporary planning of the 21st 1996; Sanyal, 2013; , 2010). century, pedestrian-friendly environment can be seductively the One thing that must be clarified is that automobile transportation backbone of transportation system. is not necessarily a bad innovation, well intended but turned out Accordingly, many urban analysts advocated for sticking over time to be a major concern and misguided efforts to create transformation in to absorb walkability and more unhealthful life due to lack of balanced coordination with reduction of auto- mobility system (Breines & Dean, 1974) other modes. As a matter of fact most public space has been (Sanyal, 2013) (Litman, 2003; 2012). International Journal of Architecture and Urban Development Urban and Architecture of Journal International

plagued by automobile, for travel or parking. The questions often ask is how we get to this point of resilience For instance, the major value of urban life which is public- and overreliance on vehicular mode of transportation. To answer ness, of people from different group meeting each other while this question therefore this paper identified and discussed walking is no longer encouraged due to popularity of automobile extensively thirteen major distinct trends that are responsible for dependency. the automobile dependencies in most cities of the world. The fact of the matter is that, the important public places originally designed exclusively for pedestrian are completely Literature Review saturated by automobile use, without considering the fact that As earlier expatiated the primitive mode of commuting in no public life can take place in automobile dependent streets. To most cities from a point of origin to a destination is by foot. most urban planner and landscape architects these are genuine Supposedly, making cities pedestrian friendly is a contemporary concern no doubt about it. issue of 21st century urban planning yet, pedestrian paths

Table 1: Auto Dependency and Balanced Transportation Compared Sources: (Litman, 2012;Litman & Laube, 2002)

factor Automobile Dependency Balanced Transportation (Automobile + Pedestrian Modes) Motor vehicle Ownership High per capita motor vehicle ownership Medium per capita motor vehicle ownership vehicle use High per capita motor vehicle use. Medium per capita motor vehicle use. Land use density Low Medium

Land use mix. Single-use development Mixed-use development patterns. Land for transport Large amount for roads and parking. Medium amount devoted to roads and parking. Road design. Road designs favoring automobile traffic Road designs balancing modes. Street scale. Large scale streets and blocks Small to medium streets and blocks. Traffic speeds. Maximum traffic speeds Lower traffic speeds. Walking Mainly in private malls On public streets. Signage. Large scale, for high speed traffic Medium scale, for lower-speed traffic. Parking Generous, free, rigid requirements. Modest, some priced, flexible requirements Site design Parking paramount, in front of buildings Parking sometimes behind buildings

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International Journal of Architecture and Urban Development 25 show that city dwellers will generally purchase motorized purchase generally will dwellers city show that words, to do so. In other as soon as they can afford vehicles to be modes continue transport and non-motorized public (UN-Habitat, 2014a; phased out as people get richer. inevitably 2014b; Adam, 2011). increasing vehicular density. Level of Motorization Un-controllable and rapid population of unprecedented One of the effects in motorization increases taking place worldwide is an increase increase uncontrolled The that established It has been level. to attention level combined with limited in motorization times, recent in has planning environmental in pedestrians decrease in the overall resulted in a continuous inadvertently automobile pedestrian mode share and increase unregulated & Jeff, 2008;Peter Taiyab, & Salon, 2002; (Sperling reliance 2000b) automobile in some communities today Fortuitously, ownership is now a means of measuring affluence. Affluent to be a right, and even people consider personal mobility wealth in most of cars are a way of showing off accumulations that to note countries. It is therefore interesting developing to able equally and buoyant who is economically non-motorist will continuously shift to the a personal motor vehicle afford motorized modes and hence increasing vehicular ownership. now is car a of owning prospect the out, pointed As earlier comfort, and mobility, seen by most people as an access, from fatal of safety measure status as well as an additional traffic accidents and freedom fromthe drudgery of woefully inadequate public transportation. Not surprisingly, findings from countless transport studies However, the process of is accelerating at much at much is accelerating the process of urbanization However, personal mobility demand for new and creating faster rate the automobile usage. which in turn increases multiplied population world's as the that, so far, It is noticeable and inter movements accelerated the need for both intra repercussions of excessive One of the more quickly. even in car ownership. increase trend is unprecedented urbanization divergences tendency for the is apparent No doubt about it, there are tendering dependencies automobile to continue, if anything to widen yearly. sources from various reliable information statistical Available will dependency automobile that, fact to the is also a pointer Nations United the For example globally. unchecked continue urban in would live population world's of the half that projected 64.1% that predicted is 2050 it by 2008 and of end the at areas world respectively developed and developing 85.9% of the and about 30 will be there Consequently, will be urbanized. by 10 million exceeding population with a total will population world’s the half over just implication By 2025. The economies. in emerging located in megacities be living of and the development urbanization is that effect cumulative for more opportunities provide undoubtedly will megacities concomitantly people to purchase vehicles at will therefore on automobile (De Cambra, 2012). brings ordinarily urbanization wisdom is that The conventional It also life. changes in community and cultural about social development. industrial and modernization corresponds to increase in population of people. This trend according to many to according trend This of people. population in increase urban analysts, researchers and planners will make walkability and livability extremely impossible and increasing dependency Un-controlled Urbanization Un-controlled has undying passion for the automobile society’s Consequently, continued with linked intricately and connected directly been industry as one of its most important measures for promoting industry as one of its most important economic growth and employment largest in the world, has been dubbed as one of the pillars of largest and people 1.8 million employs It development. economic & Schipper, (Shiuen GDP accounts for 1.5 percent of total automobile its domestic 2005). India also considers developing Most national governments encourage automobile because of because automobile encourage governments Most national jobs and drive economic it create importance, its economic third now the industry, auto Chinese the For instance, growth. motorization has succeeded in the post economic boom. More in the post economic has succeeded motorization doing so in large people are buying personal vehicles and numbers. of transport during the long-boom, the pedestrian mode system of transport during the long-boom, the pedestrian declined sharply. of level world uncontrollable the throughout Today, With cars easily affordable during the post-war period, people post-war period, the during affordable easily cars With enjoyed the freedom and flexibility to travelbecame the preferred means As the automobile on foot. reliant without being employment, the levels of car ownership rose from 100 cars employment, persons 500 cars per 1000 per 1000 persons in 1945 to almost Amphlett, in kieron by the early seventies (Forster 2004 cited 2011). manufacturer Henry Ford made car ownership – formerly Henry Ford made manufacturer Coupled with the removal of wartime a luxury – affordable. full approaching economy booming and a rationing petrol ‘long boom’, saw a rapid increase in automobile ownership in automobile ‘long boom’, saw a rapid increase world. of the most cities by households throughout car American by pioneered Mass-production technology MATERIALS AND METHODS MATERIALS World Boom in the Economic War of Post Effects known as the The post-war period from 1947 to 1971, relatively inferior transportation alternative. Automobile Automobile alternative. transportation inferior relatively various transport and is not just a thing it includes dependency 1 below. Table in land use factors, as described of per capita automobile travel, oriented land use patterns and use patterns land oriented travel, automobile of per capita it is the language, In a layman’s reduced transport alternatives. and provides that favors automobile approach cities, the trend according to some urban analyst call for an for call analyst urban some to according trend the cities, immediate action. levels high as defined is context this in dependency Automobile are often narrow, neglected with irregular surfaces and poor with irregular neglected narrow, often are most in dependency automobile thus encouraging maintenance Table 2: Total Cars Produced In the World Source: (OICA, 2014 )

Year Cars Produced

Vol.5, No.4, Autumn 2015 Autumn No.4, Vol.5, 1999 39,759,847 2000 41,215,653 2001 39,825,888 2002 41,358,394 2003 41,968,666 2004 44,554,268 2005 46,862,978 2006 49,918,578 2007 53,201,346

International Journal of Architecture and Urban Development Urban and Architecture of Journal International 2008 52,726,117

2009 47,772,598 2010 58,264,852 2011 59,929,016 2012 63,069,541 2013 65,140,268

Paradoxically, empirical studies on what the rapidly-growing trend has grown so quickly that the existing road infrastructure car population will mean for the world's economy and systems in most cities of developing countries have not been environment for instance found that, the number of cars on the able to keep up. world's roads today surpassed one billion. A similar study from For example, car ownership in Lagos and Beijing grew a Ward’s auto further confirmed that, the global number of cars staggering 230 and 300 percent respectively from 2002 to exceeded 1.015 billion in 2010, jumping from 980 million the 2008. In the past 10 years, Beijing has experienced a tenfold year before. increase of private cars and Shanghai a 25-fold increase. In Another study also confirmed that the yearly car produced Bangalore, India’s new Silicon Valley, 900 new vehicles are worldwide is anticipated to grow geometrically. In 1999 for registered every day (Pucher et al., 2007). example; 39,759,847 cars were produced and thirteen years Therefore, if the current statistical figures emanating from after over 65,140,268 cars produced representing over 64% various reliable sources worldwide are something to reckon increase from 1999 to 2013 (Table 2). with, the growth pattern of the world’s automobile per capita A similar independent study conducted by IEA (year) further is estimated to continue unabated to a foreseeable future no corroborated the trend, for instance, it revealed that the growth doubt about this. in vehicles per capita, in the year 2000 was 4 vehicles per 1000 Without mincing words, this will uninterruptedly affect people, 2010 was 40 per 1000 people and 2035 will be 310 per vehicular dependence of most cities. The fact of the matter 1000 people. By 2035, the numbers of vehicles on the road is that, increasing automobile popularity on most roads is worldwide is projected 1.7 billion. currently a big challenge and the future of cities road system is It is worth noting that vehicular vehicles growth pattern varies at the verge of physically depleted. from country to country. The growth of personal cars is soaring especially in the developed countries when compared with Urban Densities their counterparts in developing countries. Newman & Kenworthy (1989; 2000) argued that automobile United States (developed country) still conservatively dependence is a function of city density. Consequently many constitutes by far the largest vehicle population in the world, changes in urban development patterns began to take place with 239.8 million cars, the Ward's study reported, while China after post war economic boom; the is now an (developing country) the world's second largest car population, important issue in the city transportation system. with 78 million vehicles. Typically, urban density and urbanization are mutual To a surprising degree, the developing world share of vehicle exclusive. Both are independent and interdependent to one ownership is far behind the developed world, yet motorization another. Specifically, densities are a major factor for the rising

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International Journal of Architecture and Urban Development 27 factor in automobile dependency. No doubt about it but he was he but it about No doubt dependency. automobile in factor automobile in factor important an as weather that admit to quick He cited to locality. varies from locality its effect dependency, in and variation perspectives countries from different examples weather which usually make cities un-walkable. that, in Singapore, it is too hot and humid to He reiterated sunlight or too much snow. The study affirmedin was associated with a 14% increase in temperature increase that, a 5°C was associated conditions dry snow to from shift A pedestrians. increase 5% a and traffic, pedestrian in 23% of increase an with in sunlit area was associated with a 2% increase. found a direct From all these studies, researchers have and weather. correlation between pedestrians travel pattern While these findings are theoretically logical to some extent, to some regions such as be applicable they may not necessarily changes between Africa because throughout the year round the without mild and invigorating summer and winter are generally being frustratingly extreme. shaded street trees as Even the provision of the traditionally African main streets, which provide most seen in traditional breezes draw also strong sunshine, the from shade needed and level due to air pressure differentials down to footpath serve more beneficial antidote to the heat and humidity. to say that despite these very Perhaps it is very important urban landscape natural and available weather friendly is dependence automobile regions, these of most in elements Generally, very low. and walkability on a very high side still where shaded trees are not due to high humidity this is partially available in these regions, with frequent downpours. the above submissions Sanyal (2013) in his Authenticating weather is a major that, argued city” walkable paper on “the applicable to compact, and transit-oriented cities which are transit-oriented to compact, and applicable climates. mostly in cold and walkability on weather-ability studies empirical Similarly, have confirmed that, walking rate is measured in relation to sunlight, such as temperature, conditions various climatic and precipitation. torrential downpours by and acknowledged believe Otherwise, it is widely and hold street that environment built the in professionals throw off hot months and wider streets in the heat throw off the during for pedestrian it impossible more heat, making thus encouraging people to compulsory hot weather to walk, transportation switch to automobile independent an findings, empirical previous these Substantiating earlyto fall late from days 170 over conducted was that study (published in the journal environment and behavior, summer, in nine cities aroundCanada) the study conformed to pedestrians Kilmarnock andthe world (Santa Cruz in the Canary Islands; Gliwice in PolandGlasgow in Scotland; Rousse in Bulgaria; and IthacaOulu and Jakobstad in Finland; Sion in Switzerland; pedestrian May, in the United States; from November through traffic was observed between 7 a.m. and 5 p.m.) to walk when The study found that people are less likely too much rain, when there’s dip below zero, temperatures people can enjoy low density suburban lifestyles, same is can enjoy low density suburban lifestyles, people usability in a given locale. It is also an undisputable fact that, automobile Correspondingly, where by warm climates induced is inevitably dependence volumes of pedestrian’s trips and auto usage. More scientific studies have equally found that weather always has measurable on the amount of walking occurring and vehicular effects and automobile dependency. and automobile dependency. weather For instance, it has been established that, peculiar conditions have expressive associations with fluctuations in and illusion that the automobile is the only possible option possible only the is automobile the that illusion and weather. humid excessive the avoiding and for commuting a number of studies have supported and demonstrated Evidently, that there is a significant relationship between weather-ability unconditionally un-walkable in view of the effect of weather effect of the view in un-walkable unconditionally and humidity factors. proposition under an incorrect residents generally Most cities Weather-Ability in rapidly expanding Everyone who lives in city especially is city the assumes that world regions of the urban subtropical 21st century. (Jean-Paul et al. , 2009; Lynch, 2011a; Francois- 2011a; , 2009; Lynch, al. et (Jean-Paul 21st century. Joseph & Ralf, 2014; Gota et al., 2010) compact the development the less are the distance that has to be the less are the distance that has compact the development covered. It has been proven scientifically that density without the could return cities to slums or urban blight in livability Amphlett, 2011; Breines & Dean, 1974; Damian & Barbara, Breines & Dean, 1974; Damian 2011; Amphlett, 1999) 2000; Dobesova, 2012; Choi, 2012; Ewing, of our density increase must we is that, therefore moral The more the because dependency automobile discourage to cities from specialized destinations or center area often deters area or center destinations from specialized use of solely by the except most places from reaching people Allan & Donald, 2009; & Laube, 2002; (Littman automobile. And the fact that most cities have spread out uncontrollably out spread have cities most that fact And the use) (land pattern monoculture extensive to separated and separation Such classic dependency. automobile promotes There is no point ignoring the fact that the dispersed the that fact the ignoring is no point There trends of most urban fringe do not favor more development compact and accessible development. use activities (such as residential, commercial, industrial, and commercial, (such as residential, use activities language, simple very In a radius). lesser a in recreational, to shopping (for instance closer together lives if everyone complex and work), trips are shorter and fewer. automobile usage compare to less dense area. automobile usage compare denser areas have a close knit development, In a related land various together bringing urban fabric and encourage close, people would prefer to use alternative modes wherever to use alternative close, people would prefer available. Thus, the density has significant because denser cities have lower effects dependency, of automobile on level al., 1996; Krambeck, 1999; Litman, 2003; 2012; Litman & Litman 2012; 2003; Litman, 1999; Krambeck, 1996; al., Laube, 2002). have shown Recent empirical data are that when destinations automobile dependency in most cities of the world and play a play and world the of cities most in dependency automobile et (Kellese in any city. in the intra-urban mobility crucial role walk; Beijing air quality is not good and too cold in winter to the existing road design capacity previously dedicated to walk. In Delhi, it is too hot in summer to walk and of course in pedestrians. Today, transport trend is operating close to London it is always drizzling all year round. Added to the list saturation, not sustainable and livable by implication, possibility is Lagos where it is, too humid and rain makes the city equally of an impending instability, crisis, and threat of a gridlock. un-walkable. The fact of the matter is that more people will be forced Poor Land Use Planning Vol.5, No.4, Autumn 2015 Autumn No.4, Vol.5, to use their vehicles instead of walking to avoid extreme Despite historical antecedents of pedestrianization globally, climatic conditions even in a temperate region, thus increasing failure to incorporate such into the Land use planning, design, automobile dependency. conceptual framework and construction in the past years represent a major reason for increasing vehicular streets Lack of Complementary Transportation throughout the world. Infrastructures Conversely, a dispersed land development pattern facilitates Despite the fact that most cities in the world today emerge from vehicular travel and reduces the viability of other travel the coalescence and symbiotic interaction of infrastructures, modes. When land use activities are far apart from each other people and economic activities, yet most cities are not immune such encourages automobile dependency. The trend is that to automobile dependency pattern of transportation. contemporary land use development structure hardly supports International Journal of Architecture and Urban Development Urban and Architecture of Journal International

Cities are suffering from serious urban ailment orchestrated healthy and active lifestyles, thus reason for rising automobile by uncoordinated transportation system that provides only dependency in most cities in the world. for vehicular needs and totally ignore the pedestrian facilities. Also, it is widely acceptable by the professionals in the built Lack of pedestrian infrastructures deter most people from environment that the orthodox land use planning and not just walking and cycling, thus increasing urban vehicular usage. the density of people will bring life to an area. In fact, life will It is no longer a contentious issue that over decades, the be meaningful to people going about a full range of a normal advent of motor car and expansion of road network especially activity without having to get into an automobile. building of motorway network, produced sharp and speedy fall in pedestrian mode. This encourages automobile usage and Lack of Consideration for Other Transport Modes facilities needed to support it. in Urban Planning and Landscape Architectural It has been argued therefore that the need to address car Activities dependence through better infrastructure options is clear, but Also related to the previous land use issue discussed above urban design trend has been critically manipulated to ignore is lack of consideration for other transportation modes such other related transportation modes (such as walkability and as pedestrian mode in most previous urban planning and cycling) landscape architectural designs. For instance, transport development strategy over the last sixty Added to this argument is the fact that little attention has been years (post 1949) has focused mainly on provision of large given to Pedestrianization in most comprehensive, regional and scale automobile infrastructure which sometimes conflict with, local plans in the past decades, these however have promoted and mostly override, the pedestrian scale. automobile dependency, and leave serious gap between the Most metropolitan areas continually run on these old facilities demand and availability of pedestrian facilities. This is a which lack pedestrian utilities and not meeting the need of testament to the failure of planning and planners to see beyond the people. Sidewalks are completely missing in most streets automobile city. and where available too narrow to accommodate substantial number of people Still, urban landscape elements that will Effects of Cities Age and Changes in Structure ordinarily stimulate walking are technically not available in from Walkable Environment to a Car Centric/ most streets and major arterials. Most of the road systems Carchitecture Urban Pattern and infrastructure are dysfunctional; given age-long lack of Presently, the city pedestrian centered spatial pattern continues to maintenance resulting in dilapidated surfaces, retarding the rate diminish thanks to the automobile transportation. Urban analysts and pace of city activities and failing to offer optimum support are of the opinion that the city’s age does affect its spatial and for the ever-increasing population. transportation traditions. For instance, it is agreed that cities Unfortunately excessive dependence on automobile has founded before the middle of the 19th century were built around destroyed aged old amenities in place for pedestrian, pedestrian walking, while those built after are characterized as car centric paths are completely eliminated due to old policy of narrowing cities. the sidewalks to accommodate automobile traffic. Already, there To cite as an example, many countries in other parts of the world are obvious signs to attest to these patterns of transportation such as Asia and Africa whose cities have traditionally had high development of unrestrained automobile dependency. density walking oriented urban forms are developing their own Typically, the trend is making walking a dangerous mode characteristics style of automobile city form and structure. This of transportation, and it is having overbearing effects on according to Preston is true where there is little effective public

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International Journal of Architecture and Urban Development 29 enhanced dependency on automobile worldwide. Other Government Policies Do Not Favor Modes of Transport by was replaced when walking post-war era Shortly after non-motorization despites being a dominant trip mode. Most despites being a dominant trip mode. Most non-motorization data for planning purposes are not as statistical of the available mode. for other modes of transport except automobile detailed worldwide sources for other modes In fact there are no reliable of transport. Just as the lack of quantifiable goals of limits the effectiveness the limits and data measurements of empirical the lack policy, for other mode (such of planners to justify the policies ability as walkability) rather than automobile. This deficiency operates in this unique way,the throughout cities most in dependencies automobile aided invariably and in most the numbers of pedestrians recently, quite world. Until a are data vehicular contrast unknown. In are largely cities bound in terms of quality and quantity anywhere in the world. Technologies Improved worldwide dependency reason for automobile Another classic a blistering at appearing for vehicles is improved technologies urban pace. improves and new feature innovative As technology advances, most in mobility auto aid to continue such made are discoveries weight, in vehicle reduction part of the world. For instance, high-beam automatic detection, with pedestrian vision night greatly have design, engine the in improvements and control increase the efficiency of the vehicular and offered higher-end has greatly advancement This technological options. safety has been overtaken by motorized transportation. They also They also transportation. by motorized has been overtaken and streets crossing in difficulty about concern express usually automobile traffic. feeling threatened by of humanistic there is a disappearance Contemporarily to that help people where pedestrian facilities activities such as shopping, parts in activities come together and take friends are and meeting eating out, and theater letters, mailing . conspicuously missing on major roads in most cities tend to Safety of the pedestrian to go on their private cars, people be questionable, thus making dependency. therefore increasing vehicular It is therefore necessary to is it Associatively, streets. less safe to use the feel pedestrian infer that as trafficlogical increases, to conclude that straighter, wider, and flatter nature of thus faster drive to drivers encourages actually roads street the reducing safety on the streets at least for pedestrian.(Bloomberg Control Development Wagga ; et al., undated; UNDESA, 2011 Plan, 2005; 2013) Lack of Quantitative Data on Other Modes Transportation of movements is known of motorization much Ironically known fact about persons and goods across the globe than any 31% 23% 19% 27% Car occupants Car Motorized Pedestrians and cyclist Others global 2010 Source: (WHO, 2013) Fig.1: Distribution of Road traffic by type of road usrs safety concerns about the livability of most road system that livability safety concerns about the Interestingly, people prefer to take private or public buses mode or public private take to prefer people Interestingly, during safe at any time are considered that of transportation strongest express their routine. Most pedestrians daily their walking, some of whom become permanently disabled. These disabled. permanently walking, some of whom become as economic as well and grief much suffering cause incidents hardship for families and loved ones. while crashes traffic-related in injured are people more Millions some countries this proportion is as high as two thirds (Fig.1) some countries this proportion is as high as two fifth of the people killed on the roads world’s each year are not a majority of these deaths involve pedestrians. travelling in a car, constitute 27% of all road deaths and in pedestrians Globally, fatalities, especially in developing countries. per year of peopleThere are more than one million deaths and more than oneinvolved in road crashes around the world Accident involving pedestrian is higher in comparison to otherAccident involving pedestrian is higher in comparison modes of transport. It is arguable that growing traffic in urban of accidents andareas is directly linked with a growing number sequence the same automobile based urbanism approach leftsequence the same automobile era. (Adam, 2011) behind by post oil boom Safety of the Pedestrian boom and in most cases responsible for the subsequent changesubsequent the for responsible cases most in and boom and urban edge. It will not be outin cities landscape structure most cities today are still in a naturalof context to infer that to vehicular centered city or what could be referred to as ato vehicular centered architecture pattern. of the post war economic it is one of the legacies Unsurprisingly, It is a fact that automobile dependence is an inevitable featureIt is a fact that automobile the matter is that cities worldwideThe truth of of modern life. from pedestrian community structurenow metamorphosed planning control over land uses (e.g. Bangkok, Kuala Lumpur, Lumpur, Bangkok, Kuala over land uses (e.g. planning control Lagos) motorized transportation system nothing has been done by expenditures, energy costs, fuel availability, congestion, regulating authorities worldwide to encourage walking. Major pollution and other attendant environmental impacts. (Lynch, public investments have been apportioned for automobile paths 2011a; 2011b) improvements. With the exponential growth of cars on most streets, it will Governments worldwide continue to build and invest more encourage automobile-oriented development, resulting to motorways, expressways and flyovers for cars while Pedestrians, reduced travel choices, (such as spiraling decline of transit Vol.5, No.4, Autumn 2015 Autumn No.4, Vol.5, cyclists, motorcyclists, and rickshaws are generally ignored or system, lack of travel choices for non-drivers can be a major even discriminated against (Badami et al., 2004) barrier for welfare-to-work efforts, and for many employers Enabling and encouraging more walking for transportation will who rely on lower-income workers who often have limited require substantial action on the part of respective government. access to an automobile(Amphlett, 2011; Eunyoung, 2012; Principally it is recommended that government need to Litman, 2003; Lynch, 2011a, 2011b; Mills, 2013; Smith et al., continue to invest millions of money to upgrade and construct 2010; Taiyab, 2008; TFL, 2005) new streets, sidewalks, and other facilities that constitute its It is thus evident from the above that if no mitigating measures pedestrian infrastructure. are put in place to address the insurgence of motorized mode of transportation, the foreseeable future of the intra-urban RESULTS AND DISCUSSION mobility would definitely be chaotic, more problematic and International Journal of Architecture and Urban Development Urban and Architecture of Journal International Effects of Automobile Dependency on Cities constantly consumed by negative impacts. High level of automobile dependency presents arrays of insidious environmental, social and economic problems. It is Recommendations very important to note therefore that low-density, automobile- Moving Forward; Overcoming Automobile dependent development with large amounts of land for vehicular Dependency through Urban Planning and Design transportation ordinarily imposes various economic, social & Future Pedestrian Friendly Environment and environmental costs such as higher public service costs, Approaches and reduced pedestrian accessibility. These problems are The good news is that there are emerging and genuine summarized by (Newman & Kenworthy, 1999) in table 3 below. concerns for improving pedestrian mode (Pedestrianization) In summary therefore, much of the renewed attention on and decreasing automobile dependency in the scientific urban walkability is associated with concerns that extreme communities worldwide. European Cities and United State are car dependent cities understandably, will continue to grow eagerly canvassing for non-motorized transportation cities and enormously and will not be sustainable in the future, due to, reduction of auto dependency in urban road system. crash damages, increased mobility, increased road and parking The ultimate goal of non-motorized transport mode is to

Table 3: Problems associated with automobile dependence

Environmental problems Economic problems Social Problems Oil vulnerability Congestion costs Loss of streets life High urban infrastructure costs for sewers, water Loss of community in neighborhood mains, road etc. Photochemical Smog Loss of productive rural land Loss of public safety Acid rain Loss of urban life to pavement Isolation in remote with few amenities High greenhouse- global warming Poor transit cost recovery Access problems for those without cars and those with disability. Greater storm water runoff Economics and human costs of transportation Road rage problems accidents trauma and death Traffic Problems Noise, High Proportion of city wealth spent on Anti-social behavior due to boredom in car neighborhood severance, visual passenger transportation dependent intrusion, physical danger Public health cost from air and other pollution Enforced car ownership for lower-income Decimated transit system Health cost =s from growing obesity due to households sedentary auto life style Physical and mental health problems related to lack of physical activity in isolated suburbs

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International Journal of Architecture and Urban Development 31 distance between destinations as well as on the number of as well as on the destinations between distance (walking/ modes active by reached be can that destinations and households jobs are many there When and transit. cycling) the provides and viable more becomes transit given area, a in development.(Acharya, mass needed to support retail critical Neo-traditional Planning Approach Use) (Multimodal Centers & Mixed Land role to play in reversing Good urban planning design has a vital is only mode of transportation that pedestrian perception the technology new for a is need There citizen. second-class for the by This is characterized that will change urban design priorities. of provision of uses, mix greater a densities, higher somewhat bicyclist the and pedestrian the accommodate to transit public and an interconnected pattern of streets. use dense land mixed, with centers of multimodal creation The transport to quality that reduces the need to travel and are linked by redesigning areas can be improved systems. Residential auto discourage and foot encourage to as streets traditional mobility. of some degree must have practices best urban planning The respond to the usually mixtures The of land uses. mixtures in urban system walkability and encourage of publicness value rather than encouraging automobile usage. Diversity when livable more cities make only work to can Density is commonly Diversity by diversity. are characterized areas called “mixed use”, referring to the degree to which different are located retail/service) (residential, commercial, activities near each other. on the impact its through behavior travel affects Density The 3D approach requires a strategic planning approach planning strategic requires a The 3D approach support pedestrians others: among by new policies supported in and sidewalks on drive to motorbikes forbid way, of right of a Livable support the design that parks, and new policies The 3Ds it is operate together; a city for people not cars. City, walking, cycling for a good environment not possible to create on one or two and ignoring non- and public transit by focusing motorized transport mode. techniques is most trusted qualitative Also, the 3D approach on motorized transportation and for reducing overdependence green environment creating user-friendly Density Approach on the distance through its impact travel behavior Density affects as well as on the number of destinations between destinations and (walking/cycling) modes active by reached be can that planning neotraditional entails approach This density transit, & centers & mixed land use)(Allan techniques (Multimodal et al., undated; Donald, 2009; Ben-Joseph, 1995; Bloomberg 2000; Ewing, 1999; Francois-Joseph & & Barbara, Damian al., 2009; Joseph, Ralf, 2014; Gota et al., 2010; Jean-Paul et 2013) Technology, Beacon TFL, 2005; 2002; Ng et al., 2012; use in cities. be adopted for cities future livability and walkability. This and walkability. future livability for cities be adopted world that in the other cities has proved in several approach and transit cycling for walking, the conditions improve can it future urban growth. been Design) have Diversity and (Density, 3 D approach A to environment built the in professionals by recommended efficient. Therefore recommended greater appreciationon pedestrian mode of transport could change urban emphasize and for ingredient fundamental and serve as the priorities planning While there are divergent opinions on how best to reduce car on how best to reduce opinions divergent are there While agreed however urban analysts unanimously dependency, current the suggest that practices planning conventional that share of public resources devoted to pedestrian is not fair and automobile dependencies in the 21st century city planning. It is city planning. in the 21st century dependencies automobile cities all) not (if most resolving for approach important an also environmental, social and economic sustainability issues. many people regardless of age, status and sex can comfortably relate to. to reduced attempt yet pragmatic This is a revolutionary, transportation are integrated and pedestrian transportation in transportation and pedestrian are integrated transportation must therefore fight toparticular restoreWe encouraged. more the only mode that for the pedestrian because walking is often pedestrian all time and cumulatively produced more public and cumulatively all time pedestrian oriented society. modes of stand to gain more when all cities Ultimately, dependency. to approach this is an integrative is that check realistic The living, working for healthy especially urban activities balanced for the and shopping. It can bring about more accessibility In fact introduction of comprehensive benefit-costthe resources increase will by governments at various levels analysis automobile reduced and transportation pedestrian to devoted are to ensure that these gaps are reasonably closed, in order these gaps are reasonably closed, are to ensure that friendly pedestrian and creating sustainability livability, achieve countries. cities just like their counterparts in developed planning in most developed countries compared to developing compared to developing planning in most developed countries countries. countries therefore The priorities of governments in developing Sardonically, while cities in western world are thriving hard while cities in western world are Sardonically, and encourage dependency in automobile to ensure reduction in most of their counterparts such cannot be said walkability, pedestrian in gap serious a is There countries. developing attractive, comfortable and more livable places. Therefore, places. and more livable comfortable attractive, transportation to pedestrian vehicular shifting travel from automobile dependencies system can reduce significantly Fundamentally, there is a revolution going on today worldwide. there is a revolution Fundamentally, that encouraging pedestrian mode Citizens are now discovering into vital, neighborhood landscape of transport can reshape and right to walk to school, walk, recreation, shop under safe, walk, recreation, and right to walk to school, to all above conditions; and health pleasant aesthetically without noise or threat of cars. converse with friends increase opportunities for residents in any communities to in any communities for residents increase opportunities the freedom People should have of urban life. enjoy richness 2010; Adam, 2011; Allan & Donald, 2009; Amphlett, 2011; and Transportation Demand O’Hare, 2006). Management Charging motorists directly for their road and parking costs, Design Approach congestion impacts, crash damages and pollution is predicted Density gives the city enough people to ensure diversity. to reduce automobile use by 1/3 or more. Diversity focuses on creating a city that is interesting and International comparisons also indicate that automobile travel Vol.5, No.4, Autumn 2015 Autumn No.4, Vol.5, stimulating to live in and that allows people to walk and cycle declines significantly in regions with more efficient pricing, to their destinations by ensuring that there are places within a even if residents have high incomes. Travel Smart is one of reasonable distance. The design aspect of the built environment a number of TDM strategies aimed at reducing the’ impacts focuses on creating functional, attractive and safe places for of car travel through reducing single occupant vehicle use, everyone in the community shifting to more sustainable travel modes, namely: cycling, Good urban design is the foundation upon which we can walking and using and reducing or removing build livable cities. But urban design alone is not enough. the need to travel The “design” aspect of the built environment focuses on creating functional, attractive and safe places for everyone in A Well Packaged Pedestrianization Policy Is the community. (Amphlett, 2011; Litman, 2003; Peter & Jeff, Very Essential International Journal of Architecture and Urban Development Urban and Architecture of Journal International 2000b) A policy of Pedestrianization can make an important difference to a city air quality, such policies if well implemented enhances Encouraging Pedestrian Structure Development physical wellbeing both by reducing air and . Communities worldwide are currently choosing to prioritize The implementation of these techniques will improve quality pedestrian safety and invest in safer designs while improving of life, promote healthy city; support aesthetically balanced quality of life. The strategies include: Physical planning environment and sustainable transportation choices. approach which entails pedestrian structure development and car restriction oriented development. CONCLUSION Focusing on pedestrian oriented development in locations that Essentially, the current transportation systems in most cities already exist and are underutilized can propel Pedestrianization worldwide is characterized by excessive , and concomitantly reduced automobile dependency (TCRP, unsafe roads system, pollution and environmental degradation 1997) among other problems orchestrated by excessive automobile usage. Creation of Urban Regeneration and Restructure The implication of this is that the renaissance of the streets will Program not, of course, cure totally urban ills. The grinding problems In addition, there is need for immediate creation of urban of poverty and crime will remain, but streets will always be regeneration and restructure program; through introduction very important in the life of residents. The escalating issues of of traffic calming approach. This will be achieved by putting overcrowding, extreme density and the need to find more space existing streets space to a complete new pedestrian friendly within the city’s spatial and ecological limits to accommodate use. both vehicular and pedestrian transportation system remains a greater challenge to the future of one every fastest-growing city Revolutionizing Urban Space through Increasing in world. Investment Opportunities in Pedestrian Infrastructures Going forward, the tried and tested A 3 D approach (Density, Facilities diversity and Design) road safety engineering solutions can Revolutionizing urban space to slow vehicle traffic and be expected to yield minimum reductions in automobile create more urban, humane environments better suited to dependency in most cities. This innovation is imperative if a other transportation modes. The introduction of sidewalks falling trend in automobile dependency is to be reduced. to accommodate urban landscape elements such as street Areas where an improved understanding of the impact of benches and other pedestrian–scale street furniture is equally automobile technology advances is needed and warranted for recommended at this time. effective integrations of other non-motorized transportation Expediently provision of safe and inviting pedestrian must be encouraged. facilities would reduce much of today’s vehicular congestion, environmental pollutants and some noticeable ecological REFERENCES problems. Acharya, P. (2010). Car dependency in : A Case Just as being practiced in European countries and America a Study of Fairfield City Council. Australia: The University of more aesthetically pleasing pedestrian Island and an exclusive Sydney. pedestrian districts is recommended for most central business Adam, D. (2011). 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