Vol. 1.2 1387(2009) No.6·7 AFGHANISTAN QUARTERLY

Vol. 1.2 1387(2009) No:6-7J

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF AFGHANISTAN AFGHANISTAN QUARTERLY

Vol. 1-2

Editorial Board:

1- Professor Nasrullah Sobman. 2- Professor Fazil Ahamad Ghurub. 3- Associate professor Jalat Khan Hikmati. 4- Associate professor Abdul Hakim Safi. 5- Assistant professor Mohammad Nabi Salahi.

Administrative Board:

Director: Rahmat Nabi Assistant Director: Sultan Mohammad Zari Composed and Designed by: Sameer Samander Safi By the Name of Allah who is All Mighty and merciful Contents

I. Pro. Doctor Ghulan Najmoddin ((Tarin)) Lapis lazuli (lazhward) Deposits of Badakhshan ...... 1-19 2. Hafizullah Emadi. A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE DURAND LINE AND THE FUTURE OF AFGHANISTAN- PAKISTAN RELATIONS ...... 20-34 3. Hafizullah Emadi. Women in Afghanistan's State apparatuses: from post independence period to the present...... 35-63 4. Professor Mohammad Nasser Stanikzai. Healthcare and economic development in Afghanistan .... 73 5. Professor Fazil Ahmad Ghoroub, Superstition and OmensmFrom the View point of psychology ...... 81-85 6. Junior Assistant professor Mohammad Ratib Abeer, Admiui,tration corruption in Afghanistan ...... 86-Jiif Lapis lazuli (lazhward) Deposits of Badakhshan

Pro. Doctor Ghulan Najmoddin tarin Legends and lore: In all civilization, magical power have been ascribed to gems perhaps out of a need , to explain their rarity, beauty and gemstones: in gemstones the whole majesty of nature is compressed into the smallest space, and in a single stone we can perceive the master piece, and in a single stone a polished plate of lapis, with its included grains of pyrite, we likened in the orient to the starry beavers, for the inhabitants of Mesopotamia this was more than a pleasing comparison. In their eyes, all human dusting is controlled by the movement of the stars. It was inevitable that lapis should become a stone to which supernatural powers were attributed.

Description and location; Badakhshans population is of a settled, peaceful character, the descendants of older inhabitants and of people, who sought refugee in the mountains from invading barbarian hordes, the narrow valleys, the harsh climate with long winters, and the relatively inaccessible habitat keep most people in this area on a primitive level of culture. The saving ranges ofthe Pamirs and the Hindu Kush surround the heartland of ancient Bacteria except on the west - northwest. The rich minerals of the eastern Hindu Kush- lapis Lazuli, rubies, gold and salt once attracted merchants from far and wide, but future development of its natural resources will depend largely on political factors. The east-west communication has very long tradition. Badakhsahn was the province to the west of Tibet on the trade route, unsurpassed among all the provinces on the upper Amu Darya. Not only wus it celebration ror its ruby and its lapis mines, but also for its magnificent pa§tures, its broad and highly cultivated ~alleys, and for its excellent climate. According to the history of the Turks, the mountains form great Bokhara between the dominions of the great Mogul and Grand Tartary afforded very rich quarries of lapis. The lapis mines also contained deposits of iron, lead, alum, Sal ammoniac, sulfur, ocher, and copper, however, only the lapis was worked. the inhabitants were also enriched by the mines of gold and silver, Between Balkh and Badakhshan lay the district of Turaristan, which extended from the banks of the Amu Darya to the passes of the Hindu Kush. A thousand years ago the valley

2 was, celebrated for its silver mines the richest 111 the eastern portion ofthe Moslem world. Badakhshan is closely connected with other countries in cast by a tight network of river system. Form Afghanistan. the Kokcha, Kunduz, and Balkh rivers tlow into the Amu Darya. while the Helmand empties into seistan. The river Kabul rises on the southern slopes of the Hindu Kush and flows into the Peshawar valley in Pakistan. Throughout history. lapis mines have been attributed to southwest Persia, Azerbaijan, and the Kinnan region of Iran but as there are no metamorphic Iimestones in these areas. the lapis was probably confused with turquoise or azurite. Marco polo (1271) in his writings. realized that the lapis come form Badakhshan, although he never actually visited the mines: there is also in the same country another mountain where azure is found. It is the finest in the world and is got in a vein like silver (Yule 1903) the valley of the Kokcha is about 183 meters (200yards) wide, although he never actually visited the mines: there is also in the same country another mountain where azure is found. It is the finest in the world and is got in a vein like silver (Yule 1903) the valley of the Kokcha is about 183 meters (200yards) wide where lapis occur. Mineralization takes place on the eastern flank ofthe valley: it cuts north to south through an enormous antic! ine of

3 crystallin~: schist that mak~:s up th~: axis or the llinJu Kush. On~: of the most interesting points at which lapis occur is a stratum of marble that forms the upp~:r s~:ction of the mountain over Iing older gne1ss

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the entrances to the mines are in the face of the mountain on the right bank of the stream and about 457 meters ( 1.500 feet) above it. The path is steep and dangerous, usually as a result of neglect rather than natural difficulties. The mining area consists of a series of lolly caverns that arc 46 meters ( 150 teet) high in place covereQ by a thick deposit of black soot, giving evidence of the ancient method of extracting the stone. Geology and Topography:

4 The province of Badakhshan, m the mountains northeastern part of J\ fghanistan, has been famous throughout history for its reserves of lapis lazuli. The mines have been intermittently worked for 6,500 years

They were described by Marco polo in 1271, but owing to their remoteness and inaccessibility lillie has been known or them to the out side world. Badakhshan is an inhospitable area of bare mountains with altitudes I'Unging between I ,830 and 5, I 80 meters 6.000 and 17,000 feet) and deep ravines. Badakhshan consists mainly of metamorphic and plutonic rocks dissected by v- shaped valleys, which funned most life into narrow trails. The swill-flowing rivers have cut deep canyons and gorges; vegetable is almost nonexistent; consequently, there are few

5 settlements. The blue mountain, as the mountain lapis lazuli has been called, is situated along the right bank of the Kohcha river, which cuts an anticline form north to south with summits reaching 3,500 meters (I I A83 teet) to 5,500 meters ( 18,045 feet) . Folding and faulting of the mountain occurred in cretaceous times with the intrusion of diorite porphyry (Barthoux 1933). The Kokcha arises from the confluence of the Anjuman and Munjan rivers and empties into the Amu Darya, which demarcates the border with Tajikistan (a satellite of the former USSR) to the north. Lapis lazuli is the only important gemstone that is properly classified as a rock rather than a mineral. It is a combination of minerals: Iazurite , calcite, pyrite and to a lesser extant , dropsied, amphibde ,feldspar, mica and other silicates. The formation is not a common geological occurrence, but occur in gray lenses of calcite - dolomite- skarn formed by contact sequence of rocks of Precambrian Age, recrystllization to marble the miraculous marble is more than 400 meters (1312 teet) thick and underlain by gneiss. Since there is no grnite persent today the materials required for the formation must ha':e been deposited with the original I imestone (Emmett 1985). The oldest and mot famous of the lapis lazuli mines are in a strata of black and white limestone

6 several hundred feet above the river. but at 2,743 meters (9000 feet) above sea level in a rigorous climate. The crystalline series that encloses the lapis deposits consists of gneiss. leptinites. and cipolin marble in a heavy layer amphibolites. pyroxentes . and peridotites that resonble a sedimentary formation. The lapis lazuli is found in veins disseminated throughout the layer of cipolin marble. which is several hundred meters thick. The cipolin. which also contains magnesium silicates like disposed. forsterite scapolite and tremdite. intimately associalat with calcite and dolomite rises over gneiss that is thinly layered with garnets and sillimanites and sometimes is shot through with pegmatitic threads of tourmaline. Pyrite is abundant in tine crystallization and minutely mixed in with the lapis. The royal blue of the lapis is Iazurite; the pale blue is called afghanite which belongs to the cam crinite group and was named to honor Afghanistan. T)te color of lapis varies according to the amount ofvarious impurities (wyart. Bariand and Filippi 1972. 1981) Illustrations of lapis nsr and trade:

Hadakhshan • over 3220 kilometers (~OOOmiles) l(mn Lgypl. was the source of lapis for the ancient Egyptian and Babylonian (present day Iraq) civilization. as well as the later Greek and !{oman. Other major items of export to the Reman mpin: included

7 rubies, silver and turquoise fi·om Afghanistan. (Dupree 1980). The great distance attested to the value of the stone in ancient Egypt. In fact, no precious stone was more highly prized than lapis lazuli. Worshipers once prayed, like lapis lazuli, may my Ii fe be precious before you, and may my body are puri tied Iike lapis lazuli. Ezavations in Naqada 13300 -3100 B.C) which predate the Egyptian dynasties, have yielded what is apparently the tirst use in Egypt of lapis and other ornamental gemstones in jewelry on the shores of the Nile, statues made of lapis were worshiped as the personifications of gods. In archaic lists of precious gemstones. lapis is usually cataloged before gold. It was among the valuables paid in tribute to the pharaohs. Because of its high cost. the Egyptians had developed artificial lapis. the most notable apparently colored with copper sulfate. Further evidence of the value was the existence of a separate hieroglyph for lapis. both natural and artificial, depicted in the Egypt ion hieroglyph dictionary. Lapis, more than other gemstone, was represented prominently

111 the artifacts of other ancient. Cultures (Tosi 1974; chakrabrati 1990; Hermann 1968; sherr Dubin). There is sample evidence of the massive use of lapis in trade: magnificent jewelry of the period; beads cut in many different shapes; hair comb; inlay used as a veneer, often forming the background of a picture

8 scepters, gaming boards, and bowls; horns and beards of animals and Humans, handles of daggers; amulets and cylinder seats. Lapis was ground into powder and used as a medicine and cosmetics. Fersman wrote of a noted sample of lapis carved into an elephant in the collection of the Mineralogical museum of the Academy of Sciences. It remained in the museum until the spring of 1928 when the amir of Afghanistan Ammunullah Khan, was returning from Europe through Russia. He brought the elephant back to his summer palace at Faizabad. However, latter the palace burned and everything was stolen, and the fate of the elephant is unknown. Lapis is so important in Afghanistan's history that it figures in the war with the soviets. Lapis'lazuli was an important source of the cash, the Mujahiddeen used to buy weapons to fight the soviet - backed regime the puppet government in Kabul also raised cash by selling quantities of the blue stone. nuring November 1<>7<> the Ministry of Mines was atten1pting to sell 50685 tons (52 million kilograms) of lapis to America, prior. to tlie official soviet invasion, which took place on December 27/1979.

9 his lapis was stated to be a 50 year collection" In rec~:nt years. there has been an abundance of lapis but only a minute part has the most desirable color. Historic Notes: The mines of Badakhshan are legendary. The quality and supply of lapis form Afghanistan is unique in the world and a national treasure

. A ross Bactria, three great civilizations- Greek, Persian and Indian met and ran the lapis caravan routes from India to the west and to the north. Evidence suggests (Tosi 1974; chakrabarti 1990; Herman 1968; Sherr Dubin, that the Badakhshan lapis lazuli mines began operating more than 6,500 years ago- making it the world's oldest known commercial source of gemstones.

Mountain tribes occupied themselves with the mining of lapis lazuli as early as the fourth millennium B.C and exchanged it for

10 agricultural products. Finds of lapis lazuli in the pyramids of Dahour are the oldest definite evidence of a well- established commercial gem trade between Egyp{and Afghanistan more than 4400 years ago Of all the blue stones known in ancient times. Lapis was held in the highest eastern, but it can find in other colors like azure and purple. Lapis lazuli is a medieval latin form that means "lazuli stone'' "lazulus" was adopted from the Arabic word lazward, which is used for the sky and more generally for anything blue. Its beauty lies wholly in the blue mineral, and the degree of beauty is a measure ofthe extent to which this mineral is present in the stone. Lapis varies form a blue tending to be greenish - blue to a rich purple -blue, the ideal color being a rich royal blue of extraordinary depth and intensity. In ancient times pyrite inclusions were thought to enhance the beauty of the stone. Badakhshan and the usc of lapis was mentioned in Chinese annals of the sixth and eighth centuries B.C., as the stone was a favorite with Chinese lapidaries for carving, at that time, the territory was larger than the borders today, extending more broadly from east to west to in<;lude part of Tajikistan. lhe kingdom of Badakhshan became Moslem in A.D.736. The town of Jurm, situated about 100 kilometers (62miles) north of the lapis mine, was the border outpost for Islam on the trade route

II that led through the Wakhan corridor to Tibet. It thus connected china with the valley of the Amu Darya and the city of Bokhara. From information we have today it seems likely that lapis was the first stone exploited by man. Arab geographers and geology ists during the tenth century, described Badakhshan as a land rich in pastures and cultivated lands and associated this mountainous lend with lapis lazuli and ruby three centuries later 1271 Marco polo brought back first hand accounts of )azurite in Badakhshan although he himself never actually visited the mines. There were mountains "in which are found veins of lapis lazuli, the stone which yields the azure color (ultramarine), here the finest in the world". In recent years, additional information has been furnished by French geologists: de )apparent, Bariand, and Blaise ( 1965), and Bordet and Boutier ( 1968). The Russians completed a detailed geologic and economic mineralogical study in 1964. Mining Methods: Sar-e-sang and the village of Kuran on the right bank of the Munjan branch of the KoKcha lie in a narrow valley of the Kokcha 56 kilometers (35miles) south of Jurm and 2285 meters(7500 feet) above sea level. The village is inhabited by the miners without their families; the men are rotated in I 0- day shifts three hundred miners' work in this area 50-60 percent of

12 the time. Supplies are backpacked over 32 kilometers (20miles) of precipitous trails (advance 1972) the mines are readied by following a winding path through and village and up the mountain. The valley of the Kokcha is about 183 meters (200yards) wide where he lapis mines are located. The entrance to the tunnels is on the right bank in the face of the mountain and about 460 meters ( 1500 feet) above stream. The mountain is rugged and naked of all vegetation; the path is step and dangerous. As of summer 1994, 20 tunnels were distributed among seven lapis mines

. Afghanistan fortune seekers pay the Mujahideen for mining right; local workmen do the actual digging. The mines consist of a series of lofty caverns connected by narrow passages. The roofs

13 and walls are 45 meters (150 feet) high in some places, and covered with dense black soot, evidence of the extraction techniques of the ancients as previously described. Before the twentieth century, mining methods varied little since the beginning of time. Perhaps the major difference was the introduction of blasting in 1906, but dynamite has been used predominantly since the ware with the soviets ( 1979). In the past, the primitive fashion of mining uirrored other methods used throughout the world. The miners used fire to heat the rock, and then doused it with cold water. The rock became sufficiently soft or nurim. They then beat the rock with hammers, and flake after flake was knocked off. Deep grooves were picked out from the lapis and crowbars were inserted to detach both the stone and matrix. Today dynamite is set without regard for safety ofthe miners or care of the minerals. The tendency is to use more dynamite than required, as the Afghans relate to the "big bang" because there is no shoring up of the tunnels by lumber, wire or screws, there is always a danger of cave- ins. Lapis is often blown into small pieces and spearmen's are damaged; both result in the loss of revenue for the community. The blocks of lapis are then backpacked to the camp by men. This is very dangerous as the mountain is almost vertical. The

14 steep footpath begins at a small platform at the entrance to a vast cavern that shows traces of smoke. The blocks of tock that lack color are thrown form the platform to a dump 300 meters (985 feet) below m the streambed The transport of the material takes bout nine days; the route is described fully in the section of location blocks of lapis are packed on mules, a maximum of 40 kilometers (88pounds) each a convenient weight for transporting throughout of this inhosprtalbe locality . A quantity of this material reaches West Pakistan. The Mujahideen levy a 5-10 percent tax, and the Pakistani government also taxes at the border near Gharam chashma, usually as much as 20 percent. Most ofthe world production in high- quality lapis originates from this very inaccessible area. In former times, an important caravan trail followed the upper Kokacha, thus facilitating the early exploration and exportation of the lapis. After recovering their investment from the sale of the lapis, the investors, who are usually Badakhshi, split the profit with the miners, if there is a profit. Top quality lapis fetches about I 00$ per kilogram (2,2pounds) at the mine and maybe as much as three times that amount in the back bazaars of Namak Mandi, the gem district in Peshawar. Additional profits are made by selling on the export market. During the past five years complete crystal of lapis, once

15 rare; have been more abundant on the market. In 1979, production was though to be 6000 kilograms ( 13230 pounds). Today, the authors calculate the export of lapis at 9000 kilograms (I Otons) per year. From the sale of lapis to the manufactures, carvers, and so forth at lest 5$million is returned to the Afghan, making this stone an important source of foreign revenue.

Properties: Unlike most gem materials, lapis is a complex aggregate of several minerals , particularly hauyne (Naca)4 - (so4s I) (AI6si6o24), to which the stone owes its beautiful blue color, solalite Na8cl2( Al6 si6024), nosean Na8 (S04) ( Al6 si6024) and !azurite , which is an isomorphous combination of hauyne and sodalite (webster1983). In more deeply colored gemstones, the color arises from the absorption properties of transition metal ions or aggregates of these ions. Lazrite does not contain transition metals in sufficient quantity to produce its deep blue color. The deep blue of wltramarine and !azurite is associated with the presence of sulfur, an interesting and unusual case where a nonmetallic dement yields a strong color. Chemical Andy sis indicates that the grater the percentage of sulfur in the mineral. This phenomenon is unusual in inorganic

16 chemistry and a singular situation in the world of gemstones; /"''. making lapis a unique gemstone forn1 many points ofview. Thus, the blue color, which usually increases the value of the material as it becomes darker, depends above all on the sulfur content, as well as on the amount of calcium. 25-40 percent or the mineralogical composition is !azurite. The content of the !azurite directly affects the quality of the lapis: above 40 percent is too dark; less then 25- percent is considered to light. In addition, calcite is always present {(Na, Ca, K) 12 (SiH I) 16 034 (G2,So4,Co3 )4- 6H20 J, which produces the whitish parts of the poorer- quality material. Miner logically, lapis crystals arc a solid solution of dirlcrcnt members of the feldspar group, which are interspersed with pyrite, forsterite, Phlaopite, diopsied and calcite. The Afghans classily three distinct types of lapis: nili, the best quality of indigo color; asmani, a light blue lapis, much like the color of chambray denim; and Sabzi a green lapis, sometimes confused with turquoise. The value is in the order given, the better quality being found nearest the river and in the darkest rock. With in these categories are a wide variety of colors, from a deep, almost vided blue, through the royal blue of the gem quality, to light blue, turquoise, and finally a few pieces of brilliant green. The finest quality

17 should be a pure royal blue without blemish; impurities include iron pyrite (fools gold) calcite. and black spots.

References: 1- Adamec, Ludwig W., ed. 1972. Historical and political Gazetteer of Afghanistan. V.I. Badakhshan province and north eastern Afghanistan .Graz, Austria: Akademische Dru(k Verlagsan stalt. 2- BarthouxJ. 1933. lapis lazuli ET Rubis Balais des cipolin afghans .C.R. Acad. Sci .. V.l96, pp.1131-1134. 3- Dupree, Louis 1980. Afghanistan. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University press 778p. 4- Emmett, John L. 1985. Lapis Lazuli: the gem of Afghanistan. Lapidary Journal, V.38, no. II. 5- Fersman, Alexander E. 1947. Jewels of the Russian Diamond fund. Gems and Gemology, V.5, no .II, p 467. Translated by Marie Pavlovna Warner. 6- Tosi, M. 1974. The lapis lazuli trade Aross the Iranian plateau in the third Millennium B.C. Naples, ldaly: lnstituto universitario oriental: Gururamanjaricka studi in onore DiG. Tucci, V.l, pp. 3-22. 7- Webster, Robert. 1983. Gems: their sources. Descriptions and Identification. London: Butter worth's. 1006 p.

18 8- Wyart, J.p. Bariand, and J. fillippi. 1981. lapis lazuli from sar-e-sang, (Badakhshan, Afghanistan) Gems and Gemology, V. 17, no. 4, pp. 184-190. 9- Yule, colonel sir Henry, ed. 1903. The book of Sir Marco Polo the Venetian concerning the kingdoms and Marvels of the East. London: John Murray. 10- Gary, W. Bowersox, Bonita E. chamber line, ph. D. Gem stone of Afghanistan. Fir:-;t published by Geocience press in 1995 P.220.

The end

19 A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE DURAND LINE AND THE FUTURE OF AFGHANISTAN- PAKISTAN RELATIONS

lfatizullah Emadi

Relations between two Mus Iim countries. 1\ fghan is tan and Pakistan, have not been friendly since the partitions of the Indian- / continent into Pakistan and India 1947. The Durand line was drawn by the British government in 1893. and serarates the Baluchis and pushtuns between /\fghanistan and Pakistan; it has l"l.'IIJained a soun.:c or hostility f(u· these two govcrnmenb. The pushtun men..:hants who dominated the state apparatus in Afghanistan long aspired to have an outlet to the sea in order to facilitate their trade and business. Access to a sea port prompted their claim to defend the rights or self-determination to the

20 pushtun and Baluch peoples residing on the other side of the Durand line. Afghan Premier Mohammad Hashim, during an interview given in Bombay, articulated his country's policy regarding the dispute over the Durand line: "if an independent pushtunistan cannot be set up, the frontier province should join Afghanistan. Our neighbour Pakistan will realize that our country with it's population and trade, needs an outlet to the sea, which is very essential ... {l}f the nations of the world desire peace and justice, ... it will be easy for us to get an outlet." 1 since then the question of pushtunistan has strained relations between the two countries. The pushtun- dominated government in Afghanistan wanted to annex pushtunistan to Afghanistan but was not in a position to implement this arrangement do it continued supporting the cause of the pushtun and baluch people ( at least verbally). The other reason the afghan government supported the issue of pushtunistan was to divert attention from the struggle of other oppressed national minorities inside the country for equal rights and better living conditions. The leadership in Kabul used the issue of pushtunistan, on the ne hand •• to rally afghan people behind government policies, and on the other, to find an excuse to detain, jail and execute opposition forces in the country by branding them Pakistan agents, etc. 2

21 Successive afghan governments continued to support the rights to self-determination of the pushtun and baluch people in Pakistan. To maintain political stability and orderin the country and to keep a balance of power with Pakistan, the Afghan government triad to modernize its armed forces. Premier Mohammad Daoud requested military assistance from the United states and sent his brother Mohammad Nairn to Washington an 8 October 1954. to mark a personal appeal to john Foster Dulles for US military assistance. 3 Two months later, on 28 December, the US government informed the leadership in Kabul of its decision to withhold the delivery of military assistance to Kabul until the afghan government resolved the "pushtunistan" dispute with the government of Pakistan. 4 in the mean time the US government extended its military assistance to Pakistan as a result of Pakistan's membership in the US-sponsored south East Asian Treaty Organization (SEATO) and later in the Baghdad pact. Premier Daoud perceived US military support to Pakistan as a major threat to his government and requested the American government to offer an equivalent amount of military aid to Afghanistan, but America declined to offer such military aid, inducing premier Daound to turn to Moscow for assistance 5 during an emergency session of the Loya jirgah (Grand Assembly) in March 1955, which included I ,000 representatives

22 from all Afghanistani tribal groups, a unanimous decision was made to request the Soviet Union to provide military assistance to Afghanistan. In the meantime the loyajirgah decided to terminate all US development projects in Afghanistan and turn them over to Soviet bloc countries. 6 During Daoud's premiership ( 1953-63) the afghan government attached great importance to the issue of pushtunistan. Kabul's continuous support of pushtun leaders aggravated the strained relations between the two countries to the extent that both Afghanistan and Pakistan began mobilizing their armed forces across their common border- the Durand line- and were ready to engage in full-scale war. A few years later the government of Pakistan decided to create a single province of West Pakistan which included the pushtun area. This provoked Daoud's government to issue an official protest regarding Pakistan's policy on the pushtun region. The afghan government sponsored meetings and demonstrators in various towns and cities in Afghanistan to denounce Pakistan's pol icy of suppressing the pushtuns. A group of afghan demonstrators gathered in front of th~ Pakistan embassy I Kabul, seized the embassy, and tramped its flag underfoot. Similar incidents were organized in front of Pakistan consulates in Jalal Abad and kandahar province. 7 As a result relations between the

23 two countries were strained to the extent that Pakistan severed political and trade relations with Afghanistan in May 1955; all afghan consulates and trade missions were closed and goods in transit across Pakistan territory were stopped. 8 the closure of the trade route and the stoppage of afghan goods in Pakistan ports drastically affected the afghan economy. The situation generated discontent among both blue-collar workers and intellectuals in Afghanistan, the state crushed opposition and imprisoned its leading personalities. Mir Ghulam Mohammad Ghubar was sentenced to four years jail, and Dr Abdur Rahman Mahmoodi to nine years. Other afghans fled the countries; Abdul Hay Hibibi settled in Pakistan, where he published a journal Azad Afghanistan (free Afghanistan) which criticized the royal regime; Abdurrauf Benawa was deported to India. The government of Pakistan supported the afghan opposition members and provided them with every possible assistance9 In the hope that these incidents would distract the regime in Kabul and it,would be unable to put it's full strength behind the pushtunistan issue. A few years later relations between the two countries improved as a result of mediatory efforts by some Middle Eastern countries. 10 Although Afghanistan then softened its tone on the

24 pushtunistan issue, Afghan - Pakistan relations again deteriorated in 1961. 11 As before, the government of Pakistan closed Afghan consulates and trade mission on its territory, which resulted in the suspension of Afghan export shipments across Pakistan. 12 in this way the government of Pakistan attempted to put pressure on the Afghan leadership not to interfere in Pakistan's internal affairs. The economic and social development in the country. As a result a split occurred among the leadership in Kabul. A section of the Afghan elite concentrated around King Zahir was interested, for economic reasons, in normalizing relations with Pakistan, while another sections rallied behind premier Daoud and favored supporting the pushtun and baluch peoples and their rights to self-determination and secession from Pakistan. The split with the Afghan bureaucracy grew to the extent that premier Daoud was forced to resign in 1963. 13 following Daoud's resignation as Afghan premier, relations between Afghanistan and Pakistan were normalized and remained so until he end of the constitutional experiment ( 1963-73 ). The monarchy was overthrown in 1973 and Afghanistan was proclaimed republic, with former premier Mohammad Daoud as president and prime minister of the country. President Daoud reiterated his government's support or the lushtun peoples of Pakistan. In his address to the nation he admitted hat the question

25 of pushtun and baluch had remained an obstacle in maintaining friendly relations with Pakistan. Daoud's hard line on the question of the pushtun and baluch people was hostile to both Iran and Pakistan. His demand for a Greater Afghanistan, which included parts of Iran and Pakistan, antagonized both countries.

On 5 November 1973 Deputy foreign minister Waheed Abdullah declared that Afghanistan did not recognize the Durand as an official border line between the two countries because it separates almost 2.5 million pushtuns from Afghanistan. 14 The leadership in Pakistan perceived Afghanistan's anti­ Pakistan policy as well as its close ties with Soviet Union and India as a threat to its security and requested financial and military assistance from the United States. The US had imposed an arms embargo on Pakistan because of Pakistan's deteriorating relations with India. When indo- Pakistan relations improved, the US lifted its earlier arms embargo on Pakistan. The Kabul leadership viewed US economic and military assistance to Pakistan as a threat to the balance of power between the two countries. During his visit to India president Daoud expressed his government's concern over the issue as such that "[T]he lifting of [the] arms embargo to Pakistan by the United states government in a time that Pakistan is engaged [in] shedding blood in

26 baluchistan and pushtunistan has caused grave concern to the people of Afghanistan. It well lead to imbalance in the region and promote an armaments race and would create an additional threat to the peace in the region". 15 President Daoud supported the baluch resistance in Pakistan; he provided financial assistance and granted asylum to resistance leaders. In 1975 Mir Hazar and his associates "received a subvention of $32.00 monthly per person from successive Afghan government, totaling some $875,000 per year in mid- 1980". 16 President Daoud's supported demand for a separate pushtunistan and his support for the Baluch political activists in Kabul worried president Bhutto of Pakistan and forced him to take measure to counter Daoud's anti-Pakistan policy. President Bhutto accused the regime in Kabul of conducting subversive activists in the North West frontier province (NWFP) and Baluchistan. Addressing a crowd in Chitral, Bhutto said "if there is a war, the flag of Pakistan will be hoisted in Afghanistan". 17 in ~ the meantim~ an anti-Kabul proganada centre was established in Pakistan with the intention of destablising the newly-formed regime of president Mohammad Daoud. The government of Pakistan also gave sanctuary to Afghan exiles (such as GuiBuddin Hikmatyar of the Islamic party and professor Burhanuddin Rabbani of the Islamic society and their associates).

27 President Bhutto tried effectively to bring Pakistan's NWFP under full control of the central government by launching a modernization programme there. According to Tariq Ali The drive to words superficial modernization of the Tribal Areas was clearly prompted by the overthrow of the monarchy in neighbouring Afghanistan. It was part of a strategic military offensive designed to destabilize Daoud. That is why the razmak camp in south waziristan was reactivated, and that also explains the desperate rush to construct new roads and improve communications. The high command m Islamabad was determined to forestall a pathandesh on it is northern frontiers. Bhutto's forward policy was designed by putting maximum pressure on Kabul to foreclose permanently the pushtunistan issue. A tribal revolt which erupted in 21july 1979 in the panjsher valley north of Kabul was planned and exeuted by Afghan exiles financed and armd by Islamabad. It is believed that President Bhutto also consulted the Shah of Iran regarding Iran's relations with Afghanistan. The Shah regarded Daoud's ante-monarchy propaganda and his suppor for pushtun and Baluch as a threat to Iran's security ( Baluchis have been divided among Afghanistan, Pakistan and Iran and the Iranian Baluchis have also been ttghting for their autonomy and independence.) Thus the Shah had also tried to thwart Daoud's

28 pushtun and Baluch policy in the region. For this reason the Shah attempted to destabilize the regime in Afghanistan and initiated a calculated raid on Afghan military posts on the Afghan-Iranian border, resulting in the deaths of seventy Afghan soldiers. 19 He also ordered the deportation of approximately one million Afghan labourers from Iran. 20 the Shah· s pol icy caused severe economic problems in Afghanistan and forced Daoud's regime to reconsider a rapprochement with Iran. President Daoud sent his brother Mohammad Naim to Tehran to normalize relations between tow countries. Fallowing this visit and the Shah's mediation between Afghanistan and Pakistan. relations between Kabul, Tehran and Islamabad were greatly improve 21 and remained friendly until president Daoud was overthrown in April 1978. Relations between A1ghanistan and Pakistan deteriorated again fallowing a new political development in Afghanistan in April 1978. Afghanistan was proclaimed a democratic republic. and the new regime's support of the pushtun and baluch question further strained relations between the two countries. The leadership in Kabul state that it did not recognize the Durand as an official border line between Afghanistan and Pakistan. President Noor Mohammad Taraki and premier Hafizullah Amin advocated a pushtun-controlled Greater Afghanistan. Addressing a crowd of tribal leaders on 29 July 1979, Amin declared that.

29 All nationalities from the Oxus to the Abasin are brothers from one homeland. In Kabul the roaring of the waves of the Abasin are mingled in the revolutionary cascades with the waves of the Oxus. The waves of bravery of the pushtuns and Baluchis of the whole region are reflected in the revolutionary emotions of the toilers here ... our revolution is revered and welcomed from the Oxus to the Abasin ... from the mountains of pamirs to the beaches ofGwadar in Baluchistan.22 The repressive policies of the new regime forced top members of the previous Afghan government to leave the country. This was followed by successive waves of other political opposition. The government of Pakistan supported and sheltered the Afghan opposition members and provided them with military training and assistance. The baluchi leaders in exile in European countries decided in July 1981 to set up a base in Kabul under the leadership of khari Bakh MarrL chief of the Mari tribe, to guide the movement for an independent homeland for baluchis living on both sides of the Pakistan-Iran border. The regime in Kabul welcomed the baluchis' proposal for establishing a base In Afghanistan and provided financial and military assistance not only to the baluch leaders but also to other opposition forces such as Murtaza Bhutto, the eldest son of Pakistan's executed prime minister,

30 zulfikar Ali Bhutto and chief of the AI-Zulfikar guerrilla organization and lman Ali Nazish secretary ofthc Pakistan policy

. ~3 C ommunrst party.- The anti-Pakistan policy pursued by the regime rn Kabul provoked the leadership in Pakistan to increase its aid to the Afghan Islamic parties. The Pakistan-based Afghan Islamic parties regard past difference between the Kabul and Islamabad government over the question of pushtunistan as having been fabricated by social force hostile to Islam. These differences do not serve the interest of Islam but its enemies. Burhanuddin rabbani, head ofthe Jamiati Islam of Afghanistan (Islamic society of Afghanistan) elaborated on the question of pushtunistan as a Soviet fabricated issue. He claimed that "even the instigation of a confrontation with Pakistan by Daoud was part of Soviet machination{s} to again access to the shindand air base. Only the intervention of Azhir Shah prevented Daoud from signing as agreement giving the Soviets the rights they now fully enjoy ... in this regard we should recall that about 70 percent of Soviet troops concentration after the invasion was in the shindand area, on Iran's border''.24 The Pakistan fundamentalist group Jamiati lslami. considered to be the main social base of president Zia ul Haq, influenced the politics of Afghan Islamic parties and maintained a

31 close link with the Jamiati lslami of Afghanistan. The fundamentalists, backed by the military establishment in Pakistan, did not allow nationalist and progressive Afghan groups to engage in politics. Any inclination toward nationalism and resistance movement within the Afghan refugee camps was severely dealt with. Individual Afghans propagating nationalism were harassed, jailed or executed by the Islamic parties. Although Pakistan publicly calls for an independent, non­ aligned Islamic Afghanistan, one of its main objectives in the post-Soviet withdrawal period in Afghanistan is the establishment of an interim government comprised of the Pakistan-based Afghan Islamic groups to replace the present Soviet-backed government in Kabul. The Pakistan government believes that such an interim government in the post-Soviet withdrawal period will be likely to adopt a pro-Pakistan policy and recognize the long disputed Durand line between the two countries as an official border. Furthermore the new government in Afghanistan might not support the question of pushtunistan as did previous Afghan government. Notes I. the statesman [New Delhi], 22 June 1947. 2. akhgar ( Sazmani Tadaruk Bara-e-Eijadi Hizbi Kammunist Dar Afghanistan), Afghanistan (Tehran, 1980), P 57.

32 3. Leon B. Poullada." Afghanistan and United Stutes: The Crucial Years". the Middle East Journal 35 (Spring I 98 I). P.l S. 4. Patrick Reardon, "Modernization and Reform: The Contemporary Endeavour". in Afghanistan, some new approaches, George Grass muck ct al, eds ( Ann Arbor: University of Michigan press. 1969), PP. 153-154. 5. Ibid 6. Ibid 7. Surkha(Sazmain Rahayc Bakhshi Khaiqa-e- Afghanistan), Chegunagi-e-paidayesh wa Rushdi Bourgeoisie dar Afghanistan (Kabul: Ayendagan Press, 1980), P.ll7. 8. Vitaly Baskakov, trans, A history of Afghanistan( Moscow: Progress Publishers. 1982), P, 255. 9. Akhgar. Afghanistan. p.57 10. Ibid / II. Baskakov, A History of Afghanistan. P.261. 12. Ibid

IJ. llalil.ldlah bnadi. "All~hanistan's Struggle li11· National Liberation", Studies in Third world societies 27 ( March IY86), P.31. 14. V.K.Bhasin, Soviet Intervention in Afghanistan: its Background and lmplications(New Delhi: S.Chand, 1984 ), P.J5 15. Afghanistan's republic Annual 1976. 1976,P.25.

33 16. seling Harrison , in Afghanistan's sadow: Baluch Nationalism and soviet Temptations ( New york: Carnegie Endowment for peace, 1981 ), pp.81. 17. J.P.Anand, "Focus on Indo-Afghanistan Relations", IDSA News Review on South Asia ( March 1975), P.42 18. Tariq Ali, Can Pakistan Survive: the Death of a state ( New York: Pelican Books, 1983), P.l30. 19. Quarterly Economic Review: Pakistan, Bangladesh and Afghanistan [London] (1974), no3, p.20. 20. Ibid 21. Ibid 22. Hafizullah Amin, "Address to Charrnang and Bajaur people, " Kabul Times, 5 August 1979, " This is a revolution which handed power from one strata to the other", Kabul Times, 21 August 1979. 23. Harrison, In Afghanistan's Shadow, P.147. 24. Eden Naby, " the Changing role of islam as a unifying force in Afghanistan," in the state, religion and Ethnic politics: Afghanistan, Iran and Pakistan, Ali Banuazizi and Myron weiner, eds, (Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology: Syracuse University press 1986), P.l45.

34 Women in Afghanistan's State apparatuses: from post ndependence period to the present

Hafizullah Emadi

Women make up half of Afghanistan's population; however their social activities are largely restricted to the domestic realm, performing household tasks such as cooking, cleaning and bearing and rearing children. Women are viewed and treated as second class citizens and are routinely deprived of their basic rights. It is difficult for women to engage in socio-political and cultural activities that are usually viewed as the exclusive domain of men. In Afghanistan's patriarchal society the status of women is so low that the word woman has been used by men to insult opponents. Women are referred to as naqis- e- aql, which means lacking in wisdom, and traditionally they were treated as chattel to be sold and bought by men. This article studies factors that compelled the ruling elites in the state apparatus to initiate policies despite the prevailing social -cultural milieu not only to

35 transform socio- economic formations but also to promote women's rights and equality, to involve them in economic development activities outside the home as well as in the government institutions since Afghanistan gained its independence from the British in 1919. Modernization and the status of women After king Amanullah seized power and declared Afghanistan's independence he promulgated a constitution known as Nizamamah- ye- Asasi-e- Dawlat-e- Aliyah-e- Afghanistan in 1923 that assured equality of all citizens of the country before law, recognized the separation of powers and it is for the first time that the Shura- e- Waziran, council of Ministers an Shura-e­ Dawlat the council of State were established. The legislature was called Majlis-e-Ayan or Dar al- Shura or council of the state. (2) To advance the cause of women Amanullah and his wife Soraya supported women's freedom and equality with men. To this end Amanullah opened home economic schools for women, regular schools for girls and encouraged families of the upper and middle classes particular civil services personal to send their daughters to school. Between 1920-1928 eight hundred girls attenped schools and a few girls were sent to study in Turkey. Efforts were also made to convince women to discard the veil particularly civil service officials were encouraged to allow their women to leave

36 home without the veil. Among other measures adapted to support women were encouragement of monogamy, increased freedom of choice for women to marry and establishment of a minimum age for marriage partners. To further advance the cause of women Anjuman-e­ Himayat-e-Niswan, the women's protective association was formed which and headed by Amanullahs sister Kubra. The first girls schools Esmat establish in Kabul and was supervised by soraya. A weekly paper lrshad -e- Niswan, the guide for women was edited by sorayas mother Rasmiyah Tarzi which focused on national international news as well as recipes and tips for women on cooking and homemaking fashion. (3) Soraya criticized those who opposed women's freedom and equality. She stated that: Independence has been achieved. It belongs to all of us ... do not think, however, that our nation needs only men to serve it. Women should also take part as women did in the early years of Islam. The valuable services rendered by women are recounted throughout history, from which we learn that women were not created solely for pleasure and comfort. Form their examples we learn we must all contribute toward the development of our nation an that this cannot be done without being equipped with knowledge. So we should all attempt to acquire as mach

37 knowledge as possible in order that we may render our service to society in the manner ofthe women of early Islam. (4) When Amanullah, Soraya and a number of their visited Europe between December 1927 and July 1928 Soraya appeared unveiled at official function. This acts caused some dismay in Afghanistan but sentiments were further inflamed by conservation clerics who sought to use the issue to rally public opinion against the king's reforms, calling such reform anathema to Islamic values and traditions. Opponents product photographs of Sorya published in newspapers in the west wearing a low- cut gown and distributed them among tribal communities in the eastern region of the country while calling for a Jihad to overthrow the king. Opposition to Amanullah grew stronger and ultimately caused him to leave Afghanistan for Italy in January 1929. A nine- month civil war ensured and disrupted the country until General Mohammad Nadir emerged to seize power and declare himself the new king. Nadir closed down girls schools and reinstated the practice of polygamy and the wearing of the veil. After consolidating his power base Nadir reopened the Esmat school and converted it to a nursing school in order avoid confrontations with conservatives . until the 1930s there was no parliamentary system to provide opportunities for people of

38 differing social, ethnic, religious and political backgrounds to freely debate socio- political affairs of the country . decisions on vital issues regarding internal and external matters of the country remained the exclusive domain of the ruling elite in the state apparatus, and there was no inclination or motivation to keep the public informed. In 1933 Nadir convened a Loya Jirgah, Grand Assembly of Tribal Elders and his handpicked representative endorsed his policies and effectively handed him a mandate to run the country single - handedly . Shura-e-Dawlati was renamed Shura-e-Milli National Assembly which was approved by a Loya -Jirgah session in Kabul. The parliament was comprised to two chambers, Shura -e-Ayan, senate and Shura-e- Milli, lower house of the parliament. Senators were appointed and representative to Shura-e-Milli were elected by the people. Abdul Ahad was speaker of Shura-e-Milli and Mir Ata Mohammad speaker of the senate. (5) Nadir did not recruit women to work for the government and did not allow or encourage women compete in the parliamentary elections as he was well aware of the ill- fated women's movement sponsored by Amanullah and wished to avoid such a catastrophe during his rule. Nadir was assassinated in 1933 and was succeeded by his son Mohammad Zahir who ruled the country until 1973.

39 lhe new government consolidated its power by building a modern army capable of crushing and resistance aimed at destabilizing the country. This enabled the government to embark upon building schools for girls and supporting women's involvement in outdoor activities. Unlike Nadir who saw only great risk in increased women's participation in society and politics, this government and the ruling elite believed that such a move if implemented judiciously would not cause the extreme conservative backlash as it did in the 1920. Women's involvement in outdoor activities increased in the 1950s an more girls attended schools. Establishment of schools enabled women to acquire knowledge and skills for employment in the private and public sectors of the economy. Work in these institutions provided women to gain experiences and socialize with each other in work places, sh:1rc their experiences and

"· .. \ ' gradually come to the realization to unite and fight for gender -~~,~~lity. In ,;;ite. ~t~· won;~n; s:i~~o~·~emcnt in extern~ I social' and ~co~,o·:nic. a~i·i~iti~~ ~~~s~;v~tives refused to .1cknowledge their social status as equal to men. ,,''i •. :;.~,r ·.,., .~ ,''(_;,,: :;"'· .~·: ;~;·'·t';; The 1950s~ is regarded to be a period of radicalization of

J .·,i, ·., ,. .... ,.! !.... .• •' ··;."-~.::::: ~4'",,: 0 ··~·' ~ politics in Afghanistan as a nLamber 0 of social activities '•, ·l•. participated in the scy~;1th p~rliamentary elections held in 1949. a ~ig~it1ca~t· ~'~•~bet:· of them ~rid' il·adcpenden("tigures succeed in

40 securing' seats m the parliament. This parliament gained the reputation of Afghanistan's most liberal parliament as radicals, liberals and democrats fought for socio- political reform. These individuals included Abd al - Rahman Mahmoodi, Mir Ghulam Mohammad Ghubar and others. Abdul Hadi Dawi, a pro­ establishment was elected speaker of Shura-e- Milli with Gut Pacha Ulfat as his deputy with two secretaries Abdul Azim Safi and Mohammad Kabir Ebrat. This parliament remained a thorn in the side of ruling elite as the governments slow pave of \ development, nepotism and cronyism remained the subject of criticism by radical parliamentarians .(6) fazl Mohammad Mojaddadi served as speaker of the Senate with Abdul Jabbar as his deputy and Hafiz Abdul Ghaffar and Mirza Mohammad as first and second secretaries respectively. Radicalization of politics in the one hand and increased enrollment of women in schools contributed to instilling and developing social and political awareness among women and caused many to begin to fight for attainment of more equal rights. This factor had convinced the ruling elite in the state apparatus to take steps toward involving women in the government institutions and channel and guide their growing awareness and energy instead of suppressing it. They made concerted efforts to support the unveiling of women. As a first step in that direction in 1957 a

41 few female announcers and signers were employed by the state - owned Radio Station, a women delegate attended a conference in Ceylon and women delegate was sent to the United Nations. These efforts were intended to test public opinion with regard to women's involvement in the government institutions. There were minor protest to such endeavors but no major opposition emerged and this encouraged the ruling elite to take further steps in women's involvement in outdoor activities. A number of women were hired as hostesses for the airlines industry and receptionists at the telecommunications department. A major step in that direction was the official unveiling of women. During Afghanistan's independence anniversary in 1959 Zahir and his cousin Prime Minister Daoud ( 1953-1963) allowed "the ladies of the royal family and wives of officials to appear without veil sitting next to their husbands in reviewing the military parade in Kabul."(?) Intellectuals of upper and middle classes hailed the government policy of unveiling the women as a step in the right direction toward modernization. Conservatives opposed the policy arguing that it undermined Islamic traditions and principles as they understood and interpreted the Islam doctrine. Theses forces organized a large - scale protest rally in areas such as Qandahar, Jalalabad and Wardak provinces in an llttempt to rattle the government and compel its leaders to revoke its women's

42 programs. To restore stability the state called on the standing army to crush the resistance. An estimated 600 people were arrested and charged with criminal behavior. Since then the government has continued to take steps to further involve women in government and political issues. A great number of women received a modern education in the / 1960s and while in school many of them became acquainted with radical and social ideologies that inspired them to fight for gender equality. Such a movement gained momentum alter the promulgation it' a conslilution in 19M. The king appoiuted a committee that dralled the constitution in 1963 and after the document was complete a Loya- Jirgah was convened in September 1964 in Kabul that ratified the constitution. a few women were appointed to the Loya- Jirgah to deliberate the constitution. Although the ruling elites supported women's involvement in outdoor activities, a few conservatives in the state bureaucracy belittled women regarding them as weak creatures and claiming their physical weaknesses interfered with their ability to serve the public. An example was put f011h of one female delegate to the Loya- Jirgah who " had a baby during the Loya -Jirgah so she was able to participate in all sessions, leading to unofficial comments by several religious leaders on the

43 superiority of men in legislative matters, even while admitting to the biological superiority of women." (8) The state appointed two women of upper and middle class families into the cabinet post. Kobra Noorzai was minister for public health (1965-1969) and Shafiqa Ziaee was a political advisor to the Prime Minister Abdul Zahir (1971-1972). During the 1965 parliamentary elections a number of women of affluent families competed in the election. Two women candidates form Kabul, one from Herat and one from Qandahar provinces succeeded in capturing four seats out of 216 seats in Shura-e­ Milli. These women were Anahita Ratebzad, Khadija Ahrari, Roqia Abubakr and Masuma Esmati Wardak. Similarly there were 56 men and two women who served as senators in the upper house of parliament, Shura-e- Ayan. The women were Homeira Seljuqi and Aziza Gardizi.(9) Although the state worked to ensure that its men get elected, a significant number of liberal- minded individuals secured seats m the parliament. These parliamentarians used the parliamentary forum to criticize the government for its failure to improve the country's economy and the standards of living of the people. During the 1969 parliamentary election new female candidates failed to secure seats in the parliament and the incumbent representative Masuma Esmati Wardak from one of

44 the districts of Qandahar was defeated, as was Zuliekha form Badakhshan center. Women's participation in the parliamentary affairs was mainly in Kabul and a few major urban centers. A limited number of women of wealthy families went to the polls to cast their votes in parliamentary candidates of their choice. Most women were under the control of their husbands who decided which candidates to vote for - a traditional behavior that prevented many women form supporting candidates of their own choice. For example m the Doshi district of Baghlan province and influential religious leader of the lsma iii communities in central and northern Afghanistan, Sayed Shah Nasir Naderi was a candidate to the parliamentary elections and he encouraged lsma iii women to support him in the election so he could secure a seat in Shura-e- Milli and because of women's votes he was elected to the parliament, however Naderi did not take any actions to promote or support the cause of women. (I 0) Since women failed to secure seats in the parliament the ruling elite in the state apparatus decided to re-appoint the two incumbent female senators to their seats in the senate. (II) In the 1960s women increasingly got involved in the struggle to end gender equality and become members of political groups that agitated equality of people and transformation of the political

45 system. The parties included the peoples Democratic Party of Afghanistan, POPS that split into Khalq (masses) and Parcham (banner) and the progressive Youth organization known as Shula­ e- Jawid. During this period women did not have an organization of their own to tight for women's rights and equality. When the monarchy was overthrown by former Prim Minister Mohammad Daoud in July 1973 the parliamentary system was suspended because Dauod was more concerned with consolidation of his social and political base of support rather than dealing with members of the parliament who would not agree with his policies. Daoud declared that soon he would promulgate a new constitution but did not so until a year after he formed a new political party, Hizb-e-Enqlib-e- Milli National Revaluation party in 1975.Daoud and his team worked to enlist public support for the party· and persuaded civil service personal to joint it. He appointed a committee of forty one persons including two women, Alia Hafeez and Fatima Kayfi, to draft a new constitution. ( 12) The Loya Jirgah, Grand assembly was renamed Mili Jirgah, national J irgah in an attempt to stress the national character of the ·assembly- a move that was more in line with Daouds nationalistic views. Elections for the Mili Jorgah was con.flucted under the watchful eyes of the state and the 219 desirable representatives

46 were elected including four women representatives: Kubra Noorzai, director if the women's institute from Kabul city, Aziza Amani, Principal of a high school from Qunduz, Najiba Siir, Principal of Mahasty high school from Khulm, Samangan and Najiba, principal of the Malika Jalali High school from Heart. Another eight women were appointed by Daoud: Humaira Hamidi, Khalida Ghaus, Khadijia, Zainab Amin, Mahbooba, Aziza Ehsan omer, Suraya Khadim and Zakia. ( 13) These women were young college graduates, under thirty -five years of age. In February 1977 the Mili Jirgah was convened in Kabul, debated the draft of the constitution and eventually endorsed it. Members of the Jirgah unanimously elected Daoud president of the country. Although Daoud banned political parties, these organizations remained underground and continued to oppose the bureaucracy. The revolutionary association of the women of Afghanistan, RA WA was established in 1977 in Kabul with Meena as its leader (she was assassinated in February 1987 in Quetta, Pakistan). The organization publishes a magazine, Payam-e-Zan, the massage of women that remains critical of the Islamic fundamentalists for waging a war in the 1990s that destroyed much of the country's infrastructure and criticizes the current government for not bringing to public justice warlords who committed atrocities during the civil war.

47 Daoud was overthrown in a military coup organized by army officers loyal to the pro-soviets PDPA in April 1978 and Afghanistan was declared a Democratic Republic. The state which was headed by Noor Mohammad Taraki, first secretary of the Khalq faction of the PDPA, abrogated the country's . constitution and drafted a new one that stressed the role of the ruling party in managing the daily affairs of the country. Taraki established the revolutionary council with a mandate to approve the constitution, issue decrees and among others to approve state plans for economic and social development. The party also supported the cause of women and appointed Anahita Ratebzad, a member of the Parcham faction of the PDPA as a member of the revolutionary council and a member of the party's central committee. Two more women member of the ruling party were

appointed as members of the revolutionary council ~nd head of the women's Democratic Organization of Afghanistan.

The Soviet Union armies invaded the country~.· December 1979 and Babark Karma!, head of the Parcham t~ion of the PDPA was installed to power. Soon afterward the new ruling party drafted the interim constitution in 20 April 1980 that recognized the institution of Loya Jirgah as the highest organ of state power as well as the revolutionary council of the democratic republic. Ratebzad remained a powerful female member of the

48 ruling party and hold prominent in the government. Karmal was removed from the leadership post in November 1986 and his successor Najibullah introduced a new constitution in July 1987 that revived the parliamentary system.(l4) there were a few women parliamentarians form Kabul and the provinces. Parliamentary elections under the Soviet occupation were supervised by the pro -Soviet ruling party and individuals with close ties to the party secured seats in both houses of the parliament. ( 15) Mahmood Habibi was speaker of Shur-e-Milli and Khalili Abwi speaker of the Senate. The role of parliamentarians during this period was little more than serving as rubber stamps, approvmg policies of the Soviet-backed government that did not reflect the genuine needs and decisions of the people. The state intervened in the process of elections to ensure that men supportive of the system won the elections. The party supported women's organizations only with the proviso that these organizations rally women in support of the ruling party's political agendas. Women's participation in politics increased during this period and a number of party members and sympathizers held key positions in the state apparatus: Msuma Esmati Wardak was Minister for education and Saleha Farooq Etemadi as Minister for Social security. Womens participation in the government

49 continued until the Soviet-bach·d regime collapsed in April 1929 and Islamic parties that came to power tbrmed a new government headed by Sebghtullah Mojaddadi. head of jagha -c- Milli -e­ Nijat, National Liberation front. Afghanistan was declared an Islamic republic and the ne\\ regime adopted a constitution in 1992 and stipulated establishment of Shura-e- Jihadi, Council with the mandate to approve or abrogate agreements between and government and to supervise government policies just as the parliament did in the past.( 16) Women's status was dealt a further setback after interim president Sebghatullah Mojaddadi was sworn in as president of the country. In April 1929 he urged the nation to elect a leader for the state who is dedicated and qualified tor the job and recommended that the nation must not elect a woman as their leader. According to him the weakest nations in the world are those that had a woman as a leader. It doesn't mean that Islam i against women. On the contrary, it respects them and S) s th,· , .: equal to men. But thistory shows) that weak nations : , led by women.( 17) Government policies of Islamicization o' .tn al• :

Muslim nation banned women's participation 111 Joor activities, a policy that continued until the Taliban militias SL'i;cd control of Kabul in 1969 and ruled much of the country until they were overthrown by the US-led coalition tbrces in late 200 I.

50 Women in the government in the post- Taliban period The Taliban rule collapsed when the US formed a coalition force, fought the Taliban and removed them form power for shel~ering Osama Bin Laden, head of the al-Qaeda organization whose supporters masterminded the attack on the Trade Center Building in New York and the Pentagon on II September 200 I. to rebuild the country's political system the US invited a number of the Northern Alliance figures, supporters ofthe ex king in exile in Roma, Italy and other Jihadi commanders to a meting in Bonn, / Germany in December 200 I to discuses the prospects for the post- Taliban system of governance. The Bonn Agreement under the aegis of the US laid down the road map for peace that called for establishment of a broad - based government through national elections, Hamid Karzai, son of Abdul Ahad Karzai who served as the first deputy speaker of Shura-e-Milli in 1969-1973 was installed as head of the provisional state to rule the country for six months until establishment of an emergency Loya Jirgah, ELJ in June 2002. The ELJ with I ,500 delegates ( 180 women) confirmed Karzai as head of the state. A constitutional Loy Jirgah CLJ was held on 13 December 2003-4January 2004 that endorsed the draft of the constitution paving the· road for presidential and parliamentary elections in 2004 and 2005 respectively.( 18) Karzai under pressure form the international community worked to

• 51 support involvement of women in the government and for this reason he crated the Ministry for women affairs in 2002 and signed the convention for the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against women, CEDA W in 2003. To gain international recognition Karzai championed the cause of women and to this enq he appointed Sima Samar as head of Afghanistan's independent Human Rights Commission; Sidiqa Balkhi, daughter of an influential cleric of the Sayyed background as minister for disabled and martyred and former minister for women's affairs Habiba Sarabi, a Hazara woman, as governor of Bamiyan. The CLJ debated the draft of the new constitution and after a few days of intensive discussions it endorsed the constitution. The constitution declared Afghanistan an Islamic Republic with a president and two vice presidents and a parliament. The parliament consists of two chambers, the lower house, Shura-e­ Milli and the upper house, Senate as well as provincial, district and village councils and municipal council and mayors. The president is elected by a m~ority of votes and if no candidate obtain more then 50% of the votes cast, a run- off election is held between the top two candidates. During the 2004 presidential election Karzai obtained 55, 4% ofthe votes cast.

52 Senators an.: elected by a mixture of appointments and indirect election by members of the provincial council as each provincial council elects one of their members as a senator from the province for four years while the district councils elect one person as a scnatot· fur three years. The Electoral l.aw slates lhal the number of senator must be thrice the nunthcr of provinces (lolal

number of senators are I 02 pcrs~>ll 1. Olll' 1hird is elected by provincial councils, one third I> · 1C .dbtncl councils and one 1 third is appointed by the prcsidl·1·: and hall "r this appointment

includes women .. Former president Sehgh<~tullah Mojaddadi is the current speaker of the senator with two deputy speakers. Representatives lo the lower house of parliament arc elected by direct and secret ballots and there arc 249 scats in the Shura-e­ Milli Electoral Law adopted in April 2005 allocates len seals li.H . / Kochis, nomads with three scats exclusively reserved lor Kochi women. Article 83 of the ll:!w also states that at least 68 seats (27%) out of the 249 seals mltsl be allocated for women and this signifies two scats for women in each province while the remaining scats in the parliament remain open to candidates of both genders with sufficient numbers of voll:s cast in their litvor. Members of the Shur-e-Milli are elected for five years. ( 19) After almost two decades of civil strife parliamentary elections were held on 18 September 2005 unfortunately the turnout was

' 53 low as only half of the registered voters of 12 million cast their votes. The main reason was primarily disenchantment by the voters who felt that they were betrayed by the government as the Electoral Law did not bar candidates with criminal background and warlords who committed atrocities of untold proportion against innocent men and "omen. Indifference by the government on this issue enabled individuals of Jihadi background, Khalq and Parcham factions of the defunct pro­ Soviet PDPA, the Taliban and Hizb-e-lslami of Gulbuddin Hikmatyar to contest the election. These figures used a combination of coercive intimidation tactics, disbursing cash money to registered voters and by throwing sumptuous dinners they succeeded in securing seats for themselves in the parliament. Mohammad Younus Qanooni, a veteran member Jamia-e-Islamic society headed by former president Burhanuddin Rabbani is elected as speaker of Shura-e-Milli while Mohammad ArifNorzai is elected the first deputy speaker and Fawzia Kofi, a female representative from Badakhshan is the second deputy speaker. A significant number of these elected parliamentarians are semi-literate, and are unfamiliar with parliamentary experiences ' and procedures and for this reason they could not contribute much on social, political and economic issues debated in the parliament issues that are vital to the welfare and security of the citizens and

54 they often had Iittle or no interest in the topics under discussion. A few pari iamentarians were recorded on Iive camera by a private television station. taking a nap while parliament was in session. Most parliamentarians are severely criticized by the people who labor day and night to eke out a living while the parliamentarians do not concern themselves with issues to improve the economy. eradicate rampant poverty and provide homes to refugees returning from years of living in exile in Iran and Pakistan, yet they demand perks and privileges and pay raises for themselves. In the past women in Afghanistan could not imagine competing and publicly campaigning as candidates for high posts in the government. The marked the first time in Afghanistan's history those women ran as bona tide candidates in the presidential and parliamentary elections. Masouda Jalal . a pediatrician by procession contested the presidential elections

.t!·~~'~ male candidates but failed as she onl~ obtained 1.1% ofthe

, ~1st during the election and then Karzai appointed her as . : for women affairs. During the parliamentary elections

~•J.,tl-:~ candidates were harassed by warlords and because ofthis they had to campaign in some places using male relatives as surrogates. Death threats by warlords who were obsessed with the dominant tribal cultural values that negate the role of women caused 140 women candidate to withdraw from the race.

55 Although a female election worker and a female candidate were killed, and Islamic fundamentalists continually harassed and threatened women candidates with death, these risks did not deter some brave women from participation in the pari iamentary elections and they succeeded in wining seats on the basis of their own merits and effective campaigning in their respective provinces. Throughout the country 68 female candidates some independent and other supported and backed by interest groups and government managed to secure enough votes to become member of the parliament constituting 27% of the 249 member of the Shura-e-Milli. Since the fall of the Taliban women become active in the social, cultural, economic and political arenas. During the ELJ and CLJ it was these brave women who spoke against injustices and tyranny of warlords demanding that they be tried in a court of law for perpetrating crimes against humanity. Although the number of female parliamentarians is small, they are relatively well educated and competent to represent their constituencies, defend their rights and promote the cause of women's equality and fight against gender biases and discrimination against women. These parliamentarians, if united and voting as a block, in theory could. hy their collective decision and action have some impact on the out come of decisions by male members of the parliament unfortunately the women are

56 divided politically as a number of them are affiliated with political groups and support the political agenda of the respective parties, while some others have their own ideas and others are swing voters who can be influenced by interest groups in addition they are a minority in the parliament and the decision male members of the parliament is final and binding that often renders the collective decisions by female parliamentarians insignificant and invalid this factor demonstrates the relative powerlessness of women parliamentarians when held up against the majority of their male counterparts who are also heads of and are members of various jihadi organizations Differences of views among women parliamentarians hindered their collective unity and caused them to weaken each other's stances on various social and political issues discussed by various parliamentary commissions (there are 18 commissions) and the plenary session of the assembly. for example when on 7 may 2006 malalay joya, a radical representative from farah province called number of parliamentarians as murderers and condemned them for violating human rights in the 1990s crusader uproar in the parliament. A members of parliamentarians threw plastics water bottles at her causing a scuffle between her supporters and detractors, and detractors, and they also physically assaulted a cameraman from the, privately owned toto television station who

57 was recording the assembly's session. During the CLJ joya also condemned a number of participants for abusing human rights I , .she was opposed by representatives at the jirgah and received anonymous calls threatening her with death. This situation caused the US and the government to provide her with a security staff charged to protect her. in 2007 during a plenary session of the parliament joya compared the jihad dominated parliament to a stable and this enraged members of the parliament to suspend her from attending forthcoming parliament session.20 this action by Jihadi Dominated parliament caused a large number of people in farah, jalalabad and other provinces to stage a demonstration in support of reinstatement of joya to the parliament. Despite international support for jaya the parliament refused to reinstate her. Perception of women parliamentarians The people harbored hopes and expectations that members of these newly elected parliament wot.rid work to rebuild the country's shattered economy abd improve peoples, standard of living and eliminate bureaucratic procedures and administrative corruption they are disappointed and frustrated that members of the parliament continue to fight each other over differences of ideas and demand perks and privileges for themselves instead of working together to address their expectations. The electorate

58 began to lose confidences in the pari iament as it failed to enact laws to safeguard the public interest and welfare. Percepti(l)n pf male pari iamentarians of their female counterparts are shaped by the tribal cultural values that attach less value to women. Most make oarkuanebtaruabs are warlords who spent much pf their time on the battlefield and lack of interaction with women on social and political issues, to a large extent have contributed to their regressive views on women. Although male parliamentarians claim they support their female counterparts, they do not regard them as true equals and some argue that female pari iamentarians are there only encase the country's constitution a quota system for women politicians, in reference to the clause that reserves a number of seats for them in the government. Hard-line male parliamentarians view such a clause in the constitution as a violation of men, tights in both the parliamentary... and provincial councils, elections. Female parliamentarians sometimes are the subject of jokes by some conservative male parliamentarians who believe that women are there simply because of the quota system sanctioned by the constitution. When a female parliamentarian was elected as the second deputy speaker of the parliament during the first year it caused

59 great dismay among the arch conservatives and those affiliated with radical Islamic parties although publicly they supported her as a qualified deputy. As jihadi groups dominate the parliliament it makes it difficult for female parliamentarians to influence the opinions of their male counterparts to vote against bills that they do not agree with or wish to modify. their minority status in the male dominated parliament reduces the influence of female parliamentarians and they even inadvertently serve as little more than accessories to agendas as male parliamentarians exploit their presence in the parliament to imply a progressive stance when proposing their own bills for endorsement. female parliamentarians often support the cause of women in the shura-e-milli by representing their constituencies as they provide women with the voice it be heard-a voice that calls attention to ward improving the plights of women and safeguarding their vested interest. The efforts by female parliamentarians also contribute in helping the struggle to eliminate gender biases and will motivate other women to tight for their right and participate in the country, politics. Female parliamentarians are more concerned with the practical and immediate needs of women that include provision of services in

60 the areas of education, health care had employment opportunities for women particularly widowed women who lost their husbands during the war and they are the sole bread winner of the family. There are two women who were widowed during the war and there are an estimated 50,000 such women in Kabul alone. Growing instability and harassment by conservatives and fundamentalist make it difficult for female parliamentarians to regularly visit their respective constituencies, exchange views on critical issues that hinder women, active participation in outdoor activities. trough exchange of view and discussion on problems that people face they would be able to develop proper strategies to deal with problem and find ways to transform the status quo .Although parliamentarians argue that they represent the entire people of the country, their main concern however lies within their districts and towns they belong to as opposed to the interest ofthe province they are elected from. Conclusion The period of soviet occupation and the resulting civil war soon after .the soviet-backed government collapsed in 1992 resulted in the destruction of the country, infrastructure, dislocation of thousands of people inside the country and migration of five million people to the neighboring countries. Repressive policies of the jihadi groups that battled the soviets and the Kabul

61 government lead to systematic suppression of women as they did not allow women to venture outsid~: the homes and thee brutality against them was so severe it caused ll}ilny '' (linen to commit suicide as the only was to end their sui"!Cring. Since the fall of the

Taliban opportunities are provided I(H women to work side by side with men. At present there are women in the government, in the parliament and there are women who run small- scale business enterprises throughout the country. Women by hundreds of thousands have been working as teachers while a small number works in civil service departments and a few others work for NGOs. Despite the fact that the state provided opportunities foe women to participate in outdoor activities and adopted laws that safeguard women's tights, women will continue to suffer from societal injustices because their rights cannot be assured simply by enacting laws. Punic and consistent support by the government i:, necessary to provide a political climate conducive to change and tolerance. Practical steps must also be taken in that direction so that women feel safe to work outside the homes and freely express their views on issues related to them and the country. Women who oppose and fight domestic violence and those who fight for their right and gender equality are currently not

sufficiently protected by thL· ..,t.ltt· and a number of these activists

62 are injured or killed this situation will not change until comprehensive and sustained measures ~re taken by government authorities that guarantee the fundamental rights of women. It will be a difficult task for women an for a traditionally patriarchic society to overcome centuries of gender discrimination, but there is precedence in other societies and other culture in world history made gains in similar situations, and for those that did not yet succeed there are lessons to be learned from them as well. Promoting the rights of women and their equality with men necessitates establishment of relevant organization and their empowerment to enforce laws concerning women's rights both in the domestic and the public arena. Most important all it requires unity of ideas and action on the part of women in the struggle to end gender apartheid that suppress women in rural and metropolitan areas. It is important and necessary that women learn to think and plan differently and to ally with one another and With men supportive ofwomen's rights so the by working together their struggle can begin to make a difference as well as create a political foundation for others to build upon.

63 Healthcare and economic development in Afghanistan

Prof,senior researcher Mohammad Nasser Stanikzai

All developments, especially development implies progressive improvement in the living condition and quality of life enjoined by society and shared by its member , its is a continuing process that takes place in all societies , but few would claim that the development is completed . If someone says, distinction between economic and social development exist, that is not true, because economic development is necessary to achieve most economic goais. Beside that, social factors are the real driving force behind development also. The main purpose of development is to permit people to lead economically productive and socially satisfying lives and welfare.

64 Social satisfying and economic productivity will be interpreted in widely different ways according to the social and cultural values prevailing in each society. Everywhere people themselves realize that their motivation in striving to increase their earnings is not greater wealth for its own sake, but the social improvements that increased purchasing van bring them power such as better food , housing , better education , better leisure opportunities and better health , only when they have an acceptable level of health for individuals , families and communities , enjoy the benefits of life , so that health development is essential for social and economic development and the means for attending them are intimately linked . For this reason, action to improve the health and socio economic situation should be regarded as mutually supportive rather than competitive. Discussion of health promotion are an economically productive factor contributing to development , and belonging to academic studies .Good health is a fundamental aspect of the wellbeing of people , further , it is positively related to the economic development of a country. Access to health, nutrition, clean water and sanitation are globally recognized as basic human right, however, these rights are not available for most people in some development countries.

65 All the health indicators including life expectancy, access to the healthcare, vaccination coverage, nutrition, mortality rates figures show that some under developing countries as Afghanistan worse off, than some countries of the world, this weakened situation belong to the economic weakness of those countries and Afghanistan. In other words, health care is the key to attainting an acceptable level of health by awl: it will help people to contribute to their own social and economic development. It follows that health care should be an integral part of the overall development of society or people. Health care contributes to development of society by improving health status and by stimulating action and organization in part of the development process. It is clear proper nutrition and reduction of sickness increase work productivity. Breaking the vicious circle of malnutrition and infection improves the physical and mental development ofthe child. Thn~ are many factors which are related to health care and economic development in Afghanistan. The health system can assist economic development on condition tbat they will be attuned to providing support to the full range of primary health care activities and by appropriate administrative levels of ideas and proposals emanating from communities that will promote an

66 integrated approach to health and development. In this case this is considerable approach for economic development which involves health care from supporting other sectors. These sectors also serve as entry points for the economic development and implementation ofhealth care. The agriculture sector is particularly important in most countries especially in Afghanistan. It can ensure that production of food for family consumption becomes an integral part of agriculture policy and that food actually reaches those who product it. In this cause , some countries may require changes in the pattern of land tenure and nutritional status can be improved through programs in agriculture and home economics geared to meeting priority family and community needs. It ·is important to ensure that women enjoy the benefits of agricultural development as well as a man in Afghanistan and in most developing countries: the majority of women in rural areas are engaged in agricultural, house hold management and the care of infants and children. They need appropriate technology to lighten their work load and increase their work productivities. They also require knowledge about nutrition which they can apply with the

67 resources available, in particular concerning the proper feeding of children and their own nutrition during pregnancy and lactation. Another policy in support of health is needed water for house hold use as important as water f()r cattle, irrigation energy and industry. Supplies of clean water help decrease mortality and morbidity. On this sector within easy reach of the majority to bring urban and rural water supplies within easy reach of the majority in the shortest possible time. In this sector is mentionable, the safe disposal of waste and dirty materials also has a significant influence on health and it influence on economic development, the good result will come from education and main tenancy of water and sanitary facilities to this sector. Housing and communication system have also effect on health, housing from one side, effect positive result and from other side negative result by existence of insects that they will carry disease. ( 'ommunication system, connect the people to the market and \ illages, radio and other mass media are very important for the "rHlwledge ofpeople for health and economic development. As we said before, the educational sector also has an important part to play in the development and operation of primary health

68 care. Education helps people to understand their health problems good solution totbem and the cost of different alternatives. Parents and teachers can do these activities with in schools and the community such as sanitation programs, food for health campaigns, or courses on nutrition and first aids. Other thing which. is considerable agricultural and industrial activates has side effects on health,e.g, irrigation schemes and artificial lakes can create good condition for mosquitoes to transmit malaria and snail and industries can lead to the pollution of air, in addition, the industrial sector can support health care by establishing industries related to health, particular for essential food and drugs. These activities in suitable way will be more effective for creating employment and economic growth. According of above mentioned, now we will say. what are necessary for achieving to a good health which will be more effective for economic development, in all developing countries, especially in Afghanistan. Coordinated planning at the community level will make it possible to link primary health care closely with other sectors in joint efforts for community development. The community development will effect on health and the health care will have positive effects on economic development.

69 The desirability of coordinating at the local level the activities ofthe various sectors involved in socio-economic development. In wide view health personal is part of the community in which they live and work. Community dialogue between them and the rest of the community is necessary to share views and activities relating to health care, such dialogue enables health personnel to acquire a better understanding of the community's feeling, the reasons for its views, the level of its aspiration and the pattern of its organization and relation between them. To this point, the community and society will come to realize that health is not only the right of all, but also the responsibility of all, and the members of the health professions, too will find their proper role. There are many ways in which the community can participate in every stage of health care, like assessment of the situation, solving of problems and the setting of priorities , and then it helps to plane for health care activities. Such cooperation includes the acceptance by individuals of health degree of responsibility for their own health care, in this situation member of community will contribute in financial aids and other resources to the healthcare. The more benefits will be for health care, when a clear national policy is available in overall communities of a society and coordination at the local level, it will build up the capacity of

70 community and needed for mutual support between government and community, because it is the government responsibility to stimulate this kind of support to set up the necessary coordination at the different administrative levels and helps for human, material, technical and financial resources. It is also mentionable m general administrative system of a country like Afghanistan ts important for ensuring coordinated development from the different sectors concerned, experiences shows that for having a good system. To approach to suitable health of a community, decentralization will have positive effects on health care and for the development process. In this case all sectors jointly will promote development in provincial or district levels. So, these levels are near enough to communities to respond sensitively to their practical problems and needs. They are equally near to the control administrative level and government policy for the health care and for the economic development. One another thing which is more important and considerable for economic development is mother and child health of a community. In this concerned, Afghan is tan has one of the worst devastating maternal mortality rate in the world, 1600 per I 00000 live births, but in the entire world only a few countries have rates that high,

71 more over, for every woman who dies, many more suffer from serious and long term health problems and disabilities. Most of the deaths and health problems of mothers which occur in our country (Afghanistan) are happening during the normal process of pregnancy and labor and not from diseases. The majorities of these problems are preventable and can be avoided with adequate care and preventive measures. More problems to the mother healthcare. are considerable, like severe bleeding and infection, unsafe abortion complication, hypertensive disorder of pregnancy and obstructed labor are the major medical causes of maternal mortality and morbidity, these medical problems mainly occur in women who do not have access to good quality health services during pregnancy, child birth and postpartum, especially women who are poor, uneducated or who live in rural areas. A range of social, economic, education and cultural barriers exist which limit women access to care. Most of the afghan families who live in rural areas live very far from health facilities and many have no way to get to health facilities except by walking and many others can not afford to use services due to the cost of transport, drugs, medical supplies, lodging and food for themselves and their family members. Tradition also limits

72 women decision making and rights with regard to child bearing contraception and seeking medical care. Mother's health can be improved by providing high quality maternal health services to all women during pregnancy, childbirth and the postpartum period.

73 Superstition and Omens From the View point of psychology

Senior Researcher Fazil Ahmad Ghoroub

Before taking about superstition and omens, it is eligible to talk about psychology and its relation with the superstition and omens. Psychology both applied and academic studies the human mind and behavior. Research and psychology seeks to understand and explain thought, emotion and behavior. Application psychology includes mental health, treatment, performance, enhancement, self help, ergonomics and many other fields effecting health and daily life.

74 The field and study of psychology was truly come when Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig of Germany. Wunts research utilized a school of though known as structuralism which involved describing the structure that composes the mind. This perspective relied heavily on the analysis of sensations and feelings through the use of introspection, a highly subjective processes, Wundt believed that properly trained individuals would be able to accurately identify processes that accompanied feelings sensations and thought. (I) Psychology is used human behavior as a clue to the working of the mind. So we can not observe the mind directly, everything we do, feel, think, and say is determined by the functioning of the mind. Psychologists take human behavior as the raw data for testing their theories about how the mind works? How human beings behave? What do they imagine? The above questions have been answered through the science of psychology. Superstition and omens is a part of the mental behavior which has been studied by the science of psychology. Superstition comes from Latin word (sperstitio ). Literally ''standing over" derived perhaps from standing in awe used in Latin as an unreasonable or excessive believe in fair or magic. Oxford advanced learners dictionary states: superstition is

75 a belief that particular events happened in a way that can not be explained by reason pr science. (2) The definition makes it clear that superstition is an irrational belict: half belief: or practice. Those who use the term imply that they have certain knowledge or superior evidence or their own scientific, philosophical or rei igious conviction. Superstition as a culture value inserts in the folkloric stories and has ditlerent features, I ike: vampire, vampier bat, shishak (afghan word for vampire),Ummasobyan, GhouL etc. Omen, like magic, charm, and exorcism is a part of superstition and defines as following: Omen is an exceptional experience or occurrence, believed to be a sign of a coming event, or of news to come from a distant place, or an occurrence suppose to pretend to portend or foreshadow a future event, but not causally connected with it.(J) The types of omens which have been recognized in one part of have the word or another include a \\ide range. For the guidance of the affairs of a whole people these omens more often consisted of highly variable spontaneous events such as exceptional manifestations in birds (the sudden appearance of a white dove), in the phenomenon of the heavens (eclipse or meteors,) or m accidental happenings and environment (lightening, landslide, tloods). For the guidance of the individual

76 there were smaller more personal signs: for example the peculiar howling of a dog might presage an approaching family catastrophe: the dropping of a bucket could be ominous: the breaking of a mirror had fatal implications in fact, any spontaneous happening in nature might become an omen merely by ass?ciation with events of irpportance to the group concerned. (4) In the forest of ancient China when a Nivkhs hunter was pursuing game his children were forbidden to make drawing on wood or in sand, they feared that ifthe children did so, the paths in the forest would become as complicated as lines in the drawings and the hunter loose his way and never return back.(5) All the superstition no matter how silly they sounded can be a reality for many people. If you believe in something strongly enough then it can come true. It is the power of positive thinking someone use when has done a spell or make amulet. If someone doesn't believe strongly in omens in omens it will not work correctly.

References: t- Earnest R. Hilgard, the Introduction psychology, USA, 1962, PP.2-3.

77 2- Raynmond J. Corsini, the Dictionary of psychology, Brunner/Mazel, USA 1999, P. 964. 3- Hornby, Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary, Oxford press, India, P.l541. 4- Raymond J. corsini, the Dictionary of psychology, Brunner/Mazel, USA, 1999, P.664. 5- The Encyclopedia Americana, Volume XX, USA, 1961, PP. 730-731.

78 Administration corruption in Afghanistan

Ass. professor Mohammad Ratib Abeer

Introduction:- lt is short study regarding administration corruption in Afghanistan. This phenomenon is serious problem which is sensible with most of governmental and Non- governmental organs in some ways or order this paper wi II identify the important factors such as analysis of the background for corruption, avoid of mistakes for better fighting against in the future and suggestion of a work all strategy for feasible implementation of anti-corruption. The paper describes and proposes key points for corruption reduction, promote transparency and accountability. Also it coordinates other closely

79 related problems, such as weak role of law, insecurity and weak political accountability. This paper proposes a guideline for activities, which is based on review and better understanding of corruption in Afghanistan and building of public consensus and leaderships in the future. Corruption is defined as the misuse of public power by officials or authority for private benefit through bribery, extortion, influence peddling, nepotism, fraud, speed money or embezzlement. (July l998UNDP) (I) Although corruption is often considered a sin of government and civil servants, it also prevails in the private sector. ~orruption is a multifaceted phenomenon that source from weak governance system and failing institutions with multiple interactions among each other. (Article 5 ofUNCAC policy www.unca.rQ_g._

80 sensible in every part of this country that clear, but there are some questions regarding it, that should be focus on them. What are the causes tor the prebeen of increasing corruption problem? Why the corruption influenced is the whole in administration system of Afghanistan? Who is responsible to reduce the corruption? These are keys for searching to find the solution and ways how to reduce the corruption. According to a survey conducted by Integrity Watch Afghanistan, corruption is endemic, the survey, conducted in 13 provinces in August and September 2006, focused on Afghans perception about administrative corruption (bribery, obstruction, nepotism). The low pay of civil servants is considered the main root cause of corruption in the public sector. The majority of respondents also indicated they tolerate this kind of corruption. Weaknesses in the administration system, the lack of sanction and a general culture of impunity are cited as the main facilitating factors for corruption as perceived by respondeuts to the survey; the most common practice of corrupt behavior of civil servants is to delay.(2)

81 At the beginning of transitional administration and the successor post-contl ict government is disgracefully weak in terms of governing human capacity and institutions. Its internal legitimacy varies among. the ditlerent groups within the country, and it is directly contested by anti- government groups, in particular by those who perceive its legitimacy as being imposed externally. Transitions also create uncertainty about the future and opportunistic behavior is often observed in regard to the sudden influx of aid. The institutional void is tilled by illegal local power brokers and indeed the drug producers and traffickers who exploit corrupt government officials to continue their businesses. (3) Corruption hinders economic development, reduces social services and diverts investments and in infrastructure institution. Moreover it fosters on anti- democratic environment characterized by uncertainty, unpredictability and dealing values and disrespect for constitutional institutions and authority. In Afghanistan corruption has an historical root. We have to seek the source most important reason of corruption in the government system. The review of this challenge will formulate and analysis to have better focus bout it, its clear that bringing a good government in one night is impossib~e.

82

• Thus the resistance against corruption needs uninterrupted work for changing the heritage of war decades in the country. As a result of, administrative corruption, bureaucracy i!\ seen to be an instrument for abusing power that will be followed by a crisis in public finances. Here both revenue and expenditure are irregular and budgeting becomes an exercise in emergency management. Now a day, Afghanistan face with a high level of corruption, it has changed as a common problem which damages the system. But corruption, in the high ranking administration level is more unsafe while in its turn it cause to; poor leadership, weak professionalism in government, lack of trust between staffs in organization, escaping from responsibility, nepotism, less salary for employees who work hard. high salary for internal powerful personnel or who is coming from outside and etc. By all indications, corruption defined as "the abuse of public position for private benefits is very important and q1,1ite Iikely a growing problem in Afghanistan. This paper will provide a summary background on corruption in Afghanistan and lessons from international organizations experience, highlights some key policies, lays out a suggested guideline for action, and propose a program of work including for development of an anti· corruption strategy.

83 3- strategy: Discussing about strategy for anti- corruption is impossible without a glance review seeking about corruption roots. Beside terrorism and drug, corruption constitutes the third major component of the crisis in the country. Each state shall have in accordance with the fundamental principle of its legal system, to develop and implement or maintain effective coordinated anti - corruption policies that promote the participation of society and reflect the principles of the role of law, proper management of public affairs and public and public property honesty, transparency and accountability. ( for more information refer to UNCAC policy www.uncac.rog) In spit of this statistic and figure on the quality and quantity of governance and corruption in Afghanistan is difficult due to lack of resources and other factors caused by the crisis. Since the end of war decades, the government has given legal and institutional incentives in order to combat against corruption although there isn't a sufficient anti- corruption strategy yet.. During the firs three years of the reconstruction, the fight against corruption was no a priority for the international community and the donors. The afghan interim administration was the first to consider., corruption as a potential problem. The

84 Afghanistan constitution, adopted in December 2004, placed the fight against corruption as one of the duties of government officials. Under article 75, section 3, the government has the following duties: maintenance of public law and order and eradication of all types of administrative corruption. . At The beginning of 2004 the government created the general independent administration of anti- corruption (GIAAC), the law of campaign against Bribery and administrative corruption. These actions were not very fruitful, as the law contains some inconsistency and the GIAAC has limited power, resources and capacity to really address corruption. The first use of these tools has been political; GIAAC has not been able to develop a national anti- corruption strategy. (5) According to the World Bank, Afghanistan, in addition to scoring poorly in control of corruption remains in the bottom eighth of countries with severe governance problems., particularly those related to the role of law and regulatory quality. Abuse of political and military power, misuse of public funds, land grabs, abuse of public land management by high ranking government officials, corru.ption related to the unclear and obscured privatization processes of state-owned enterprises, widespread graft, dugs and other crime- related corruption are major concerns

85 for afghans. In their eyes, corruption fuels feelings of injustice, along with distrust of recoRstruction efforts. ( 6) Influence of governors on policies and structures and public processes for the implementation of individual and collective goals, lack of institutional capacity and human resources, bureaucratic culture, the international aid expenditure, lack of internal capacity and drug as a source of funding corruption are considered important indicators.(7) Another movement toward fight against corruption establishing of independent administration reform and civil service commission il'l 2003 but still it is not satisfactory for reduce of corruption, maybe it's a political game to give some privilege for a special group? whiles, there is not any protect guideline for Supreme Court and Attorney General office who are answerable to reduce the corruption. This procedure which covers basic area in the establishment of modem and efficient administration, without realizing these expressions, achieving the anti- corruption goals will be difficult. However, this process has faced challenges due to the following reason: lack of necessary capacity in the implementing agencies, resistance against reform, lack of monitor'ing and evaluation system and formula on the implementation of reform, inability of

86 institutions to recognize reform, non- coordinated actions of donors and problems due to political relations.(8) Judiciary power has a considered role on anti- corruption also. Except the implementation of reform in the leadership of

' . " executive body, no other significant activity has been carried out to review the problems in this sector. The policies, which have designed so far is not responsive and inadequate to address corruption issues. This problem exists especially in the institutional structures and the establishment of anti- corruption commission. Anti- corruptions are a comprehensive public process and various institutions playing their roles in combating corruption. If the judicial system is feeble and unpredictable, then efforts to provide remedies through the courts will be problematic. So where corruption is widespread, an anti-corruption agency alone will not provide the complete answer but can be an important part of a broader national plan of action. The corruption is principally a governance issue, a failure of institutions and lack of capacity to manage society by means of a framework of social, judicial, political and economic checks and balances. When these formal and informal systems break down, it becomes harder to execute and enforce laws and policies that ensure accountability and transparency. Corruption arises when

87 public official have less authority. little accountability and perverse incentives, or when their accountability responses to informal rather than formal forms of regulation. Corruption tends to improve when the individuals concerned receive meager salaries, have ample opportunities to be corrupt. and are unlikely to be caught or not severely punished even if detected. (Refer to anti- corruption policy UNDP '0'~'~"-.un~ill.Qlli • Lack of a meaningful accountable administration coupled with unaccountable state managers is a factor in rising petty corruption for instance. in order to get a driving license: a customer has to go through more than 15 steps and has to pay a gift at each step. Or for obtaining an ID card. a citizen has to go through the same number of administrative sh:ps. but spread over many institutions. Each time, tile LitiLen has to get a paper and take it to a different department or ministry, \\ ith the consequent loss of money and time. • Lack of legal infrastructure. enforcement of the law and poor public mistake are a common challenge for weak states but in particular tor a post-conflict transitional regime like Afghanistan. • Lack of public awareness campaigns to create a demand tor

~:I kLlive anti- corruption action. • Poverty is another factor increasing of corruption. In order to make help for good governments identify and pursue appropriate

88 policy through open and participatory dialogue among key stakeholder. This note also sum up on the movement to gained through governance and poverty. • Poor transparency and accountability of state limited the rights of access to information. A single effective mechanism and system does not exist to manage and ensure transparency and - accountability in institutional building and in the implementation of policies on anti- corruption. • Lack of culture monitoring and evaluation, almost entirely ignored: self - assessments did not bring results and external reviews of progress, e.g. by parliaments, research institutes and universities, had not even been foreseen. • Lack of information and accurate researches on CllfTtiption in the government machinery and private sect• ·· il.h blocks drafting appropriate policies, program" . rt!spect to :mit- corruption.

• Lack of such strateg~. \\l11~h can' ·11· • , , >~l•lls and policy

. in a single framework and :t, c~u.un..lance with it, mechanism should be provided. These shortages in the key areas of corruption, which have been given priority. • Less legal framework, limited technical resources and programming, weak executive power and inadequate government

89 Sltpports, relying on bureaucratic and traditional methods, lack of autonomy. With ~he term of. anti- corruption policy framework. • Insecurity for anti- corruption process. In general security agencies are assigned to discovery crimes related corruption it could not play their due role but, are widely involved in corruption themselves. Weakness and disorder in the security agcncil's cnttsed distance .between. the central and provincial unites an~i.this has also caused the administration reform and anti: corruption process to slowdown and fail. • Lack of expert and honest cadres within government administration. • Poor education nnd information about Islamic principks people believe to Islam charters but needs correct awareness to attention the Islamic rule. • The hig!l level leodcrsl1ip of n"!inistries nnd public agencies which lnve to implement t:1e lioi1s share of the measure~ contained in anti- corruption policies and strategies they hadn"t active- parts and participation in their design, and political agreements. • The tension between comprehensive and targeted approac! remains unresolved: the anti- corruption strategy in AfghanbL<~n was not strategic. They did. not set priorities, nor did they

90 consider a sequenced roll- out across agencies, allowing for pilot testing and keeping in line with capacities and resources. • Lack of coordinating agency in authority: the pub Iic agencies charged with the coordination and monitoring of anti- corruption strategy usually did not has the power, political backing or capacity to encourage or compel powerful line ministries to implement envisioned measures and report on progress. • On going technical advice and mentoring is absent public agencies that have to implement an it- corrupt ion mcasmcs frequently did not have the required capacities to "mainstream" these measures into their daily business operations and anti­ corruption lead agencies often lacked the capacity to remedy this situation. • The lack of information for communication with implementing agencies, actors, the media and the public hinders the creation of a sustained political debate and thus of political pressure to move anti- corruption pol icy forwards .

• Imbalance or law between cili/.CI1S f(H" L'\.alllpk, when a influential make a transgression he/she become free whiles a common person do the same action he/'.IH· ,,. , 11.' .i11•1 ~ .. tlrl· 1,1d. • Lack of political powerful decision in the government.

• Inability to determine whether the antr · corrurtion :w.cr1n '" doing its jobs and how it is performing, these considerations call

91 for timely and meaningful actions by the government, both against corruption directly and to reverse the deterioration in public perceptions. • Lack of understanding ofthe people form law and regulation. • Lack of coordinate management to direct the programs for anti-corruption. • Lack of explained laws and non attention it.

4- Conclusion and Recommendation:

Infact, this case study cant coverin~ ,11 aspe~:t·. 11f corruption.

As result of negative effect of ~:on 'ion whr, · had on administration system of countries, the ·\·ernment ':lVS recognize it as priority duties, but with a cor1 investigu1.

1 clarified that the system administration in .·\ · ' rnistan 1s suffering with a persecution corruption in someway L''i 1h 111 executive power and judiciary power. The common definition oL corruption for national an,, international organization is a misuse of public official or authority for private benefit through bribery, extortion, influence peddling, nepotism, fraud, spread money for embezzlement. Corruption in project contract is un-nationally and with high embezzlements also in administration reform, judiciary and

92 financial has been the same business. These problems created a obstacle in economical growth, political process, social changes and culture improvement. It needs rational collective movement towards, so the main responsible referring for government to takes rational attention to the major problems. The anti-corruption and bribery commission that is established in 2004 has not enough ability to fight properly against corruption. It should be replaced by an independent and high authorized organ that has ability to reduce it. The media have responsibility to disseminate the problem and force to corrupt organs through themselves.

Creation of a culture to able changes the behavior of cit i /l'lh and encourages them for corruption reduction. The pv· i'11. ar~n·t

confidence from the government tasks. Fight at-'~"''"l wrruption is

difficult when most of administrations arl' ~.:orrupting themselves.

In this case the government ha-. to train more rrn~'· powerful and honest people 1;" hl'lter servict· , ,.,,rt them

to work with out intertCrl· , >1 lraudulenl

Irrespective of its a~.:tual incid·· .; h:vel, public perceptions

of widespread corrurti ·· ,~.·:-.ull In disappointment with the government. This applies particularly to corruption faced by people in their daily lives, e.g. corruption in gaining access to and paying for water power services; paying more than the mandated

93 fees for licenses and certificak: pa~ ing teachers for extra school time or for grade promotions. ra' in~ doctors for extra care. etc. Poor political responsible anJ k·adership weak civil society participation for reduction of cPnuption. lack of competition for privatization. and slo\\t improvement of government administration towards ref()rms are the important in all paper and also obstacles for fighting against corruption in the country. There are some basic guidelines which propound towards of corruption: I. The government has consistently recognized corruption as a critical issue and has taken meaningful actions in terms of overall policies as well some degree of institutional development. 2. directly tight against corruption: the government of Afghanistan has to \\Ork practically. in this case establishing of an independent organization for anti-corruption and bribery which was set up in the beginning of 2004. preparing of strategy for anti-corruption that propounded for session of counL·i I .11 ministers in March 17.2008. They should build up thi~ process powerful. more active and appointed professional and f.1 ;. persons. 3. Given that anti-corruption policy is interdependent\\ 1th otlll core government policies and reforms. it explores how these Iinkages are reflected in practice, special emphasis is put on the

94 role of development partners play throughout the anti-corruption policies cycle. 4. Clarifying the institutional framework for anti-corruption, initially clarification of existing institutional mandates and responsibilities (to avoid overlaps, confusion, tensions). Later, as the anti-corruption stmtegy is further developed, there would need to be a through review and design of a suitable institutional and legal framework to implement the strategy. 5. resolutely pursuing key cross-cutting reforms, public administration reforms, judicial reform, counter- narcotics strategy (a "smart" strategy against drugs) and strengthening external accountability (through parliament, media, civil society and academic investigation) 6. Assessing vulnerabilities to corruption in key sectors, ' agencies, and functions (through preparation of vulnerabilities to corruption assessments and corruption risk alleviation plans), taking appropriate actions, and monitoring progress in anti­ corruption efforts at the sector, agency, and function level. 7. The application of the Sharia (Islamic law) is effective tool and powerful principle to combat against corruption. 8. Establishing of complaints mechanism for citizens in each Ministre and publish the complaints.

95 9. Opening up of contract to more competition to improve efficient use of available resources. 10. A nation wide public outreach strategy to regularly inform the population about plans, initiatives, and progress. 11. Expanding the civil service reform to improve good governance, performance-based management and increased salary levels to develop an efficient public administration. 12. Anti- corruption and transparency should not be exclusively carried out by the executive but be vested in a reformed and strengthened attorney Generals office. 13. Production of information anJ knowledge on the current state of affairs regarding accountability, transparency and anti­ corruption.

Books, Articles and websites: I. a collection of massages and articles, Academy of Sciences of /\11!hanistan, administration corruption. Kabul2004.

~ .tJministration corruption, Mohammad Abbaszadagan

lllltural Research bureau, 2004( \vww.iranculturcstudi~:s.com .1. Afghanistan country reports Human Rights practice 2006. 4. Anis daily news 17 March, 2008.

5. Anti- corruption final version. (\\\vw.undp.or~.af) 6. Asia- pacific region December 2000. (www.asiapacitic.org)

96

---- 7. Collection of topic (seminar about corruption reduce and prevention) Academy of Sciences of Afghanistan. 2007. 8. Conference about corruption in Afghanistan lesee- staglal 19 march ~008. 9. December- building in Afghanistan an integrated dimension for the way forwarded, European Union Election observation mission, Afghanistan 2005. I 0. Discourse, Quarterly, political roots of corruption, Journal center for strategic studies and researches, Kabul 2007. (www.afghanistan.com) II. fighting corruption in Afghanistan a roadmap for strategy and action, Draft for discussion, ebruary 16,2007 (www.unodc.org/pdt/afg/anti corruption readmap.pdal) 12. humanitarian policy group overseas development institute (wwv• .odi.org.uk/hpg) 13. Islamic Republic of Afghanistan General independent administration for anti- corruption (GIAAC) (w" \\ .ands.gov.af/strategics/src/govcrnancc) 14. Jamea-e- Madani. Monthly Magazine, afghan civil society forum (ACSF) second period, no sixth 2007... 15. Payam-e-Maihan. Monthly magazine, publication of SAP ANT A culture association. Second Number/2003.

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