Phd Thesis: University of Leicester
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HEADS, SHOULDERS, KNEES AND TOES: EXPLORING BODIES, BODY PARTS AND PERSONHOOD IN LATE NEOLITHIC MALTA THROUGH FUNERARY TAPHONOMY Jess Emma Thompson Magdalene College, University of Cambridge This dissertation is submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy October 2019 Cover image compiled by author. Photographs of cranial cluster in context (1282) and articulated lower leg and foot in context (1257) from Brochtorff Xagħra Circle (BRX) project archive. Stone figurine fragments in foreground excavated from the Xagħra Circle hypogeum, images from Malone, Bonanno et al. 2009, 310. Declaration This dissertation is the result of my own work and includes nothing which is the outcome of work done in collaboration except as declared in the Preface and specified in the text. It is not substantially the same as any that I have submitted, or, is being concurrently submitted for a degree or diploma or other qualification at the University of Cambridge or any other University or similar institution except as declared in the Preface and specified in the text. I further state that no substantial part of my dissertation has already been submitted, or, is being concurrently submitted for any such degree, diploma or other qualification at the University of Cambridge or any other University or similar institution except as declared in the Preface and specified in the text. It does not exceed the prescribed word limit for the relevant Degree Committee. i ii Jess Thompson HEADS, SHOULDERS, KNEES AND TOES: EXPLORING BODIES, BODY PARTS AND PERSONHOOD IN LATE NEOLITHIC MALTA THROUGH FUNERARY TAPHONOMY Abstract This research addresses the body and personhood in late Neolithic Malta (c. 3600–2300 cal BC) by reconstructing funerary practices at two collective burial sites: the Xemxija Tombs (Malta) and Xagħra Circle (Gozo). The range and sequence of funerary practices are identified through implementing taphonomic analysis to classify the condition and modification of bone and explore dominant trends in depositional practice. Although the extensive disarticulation and fragmentation of remains has received considerable attention, the timing of post-mortem interactions has been largely overlooked. Yet, the temporality of mortuary practices is crucial for understanding the social dimension of the process of death and dying, revealing how the identity of the dead is transformed. This work further explores how mortuary rites responded to understandings of the body held during life. To do so, the treatment of the dead body is placed in its social context, integrating burial treatment, bioarchaeological evidence and material culture—particularly the corpus of anthropomorphic figurines—to provide a new interpretation of personhood in late Neolithic Malta. Analysing the full assemblage of human remains from six rock-cut tombs at Xemxija, and between 9.3–100% of the assemblage from 16 contexts at the Xagħra Circle, this research finds a predominant practice of primary interment and subsequent disarticulation in most burial spaces. Disarticulation typically focussed on the selective removal of crania and long bones, and long bones are demonstrated to have been removed from the Xemxija Tombs. Careful analysis shows this was an extended process, in which the memory of the dead was maintained over several generations and social death was prolonged. Significantly, this practice was inclusive of individuals from foetal to old adult in age and was not biased according to sex. Aligning the life-course with the death-course, a pervasive interest in modifying the body is evident. The fragmentation of dead bodies and figurines indicates bodily partibility enacted across multiple media. These new results reveal corporeal practices which extended from life into interactions with the dead. However, in all contexts, the body is figured and constructed in diverse ways, revealing that personhood was founded on difference. Altogether, bodies are shown to be complex and multiple entities in both life and death, and the integration of bodies in their varied forms was significant. This research offers new insights into the ‘body worlds’ of Neolithic Malta which has implications for understanding socio-political dynamics. This thesis demonstrates the significance of a holistic analysis of bodies and personhood in the past. iii Table of Contents Declaration .................................................................................................................................. i Abstract .................................................................................................................................... iii List of Figures ........................................................................................................................... xi List of Tables ........................................................................................................................... xx Abbreviations ........................................................................................................................ xxii Pronunciation ........................................................................................................................ xxii Acknowledgements .............................................................................................................. xxiii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 The emergence of collective deposition in the Neolithic ..................................................... 1 1.2 Latecomers: collective deposition on the Maltese islands ................................................... 3 1.3 Research aims and objectives .............................................................................................. 5 1.3.1 The FRAGSUS project ................................................................................................. 7 1.4 Research methods ................................................................................................................ 8 1.4.1 Defining terms .............................................................................................................. 8 1.4.2 Analysing collective depositions ............................................................................... 10 1.4.3 Funerary taphonomy: a theoretically-aligned methodology ...................................... 12 1.5 Thesis structure .................................................................................................................. 13 CHAPTER 2 NEOLITHIC MALTA 2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 15 2.1.1 Chronology ................................................................................................................. 17 2.2 Living in Neolithic Malta ................................................................................................... 18 2.2.1 Domestic and megalithic sites .................................................................................... 18 2.2.2 Environment, subsistence, material culture and economy ......................................... 25 2.3 Dying in Neolithic Malta ................................................................................................... 28 2.3.1 Żebbuġ burial sites ..................................................................................................... 32 2.3.2 Ġgantija burial sites .................................................................................................... 33 2.3.3 Tarxien burial sites ..................................................................................................... 38 2.4 Current approaches to burial in Neolithic Malta ................................................................ 39 CHAPTER 3 DEATH AND THE BODY 3.1 Beyond death...................................................................................................................... 42 3.2 Bodies and their parts ......................................................................................................... 43 iv 3.2.1 Body parts and partibility .......................................................................................... 45 3.2.2 Bodies in Neolithic Europe ........................................................................................ 48 3.2.3. Bodies in Neolithic Malta ......................................................................................... 51 3.3 Personhood and social identity .......................................................................................... 55 3.3.1 Sex and gender ........................................................................................................... 56 3.3.2 Age and ageing........................................................................................................... 58 3.4 Deathways and the social lives of the dead ....................................................................... 61 3.4.1 Processing death and dying ........................................................................................ 64 3.4.2 An archaeology of dying ............................................................................................ 66 3.5 Bridging bodies, personhood and deathways .................................................................... 67 CHAPTER 4 THE XEMXIJA TOMBS AND XAGĦRA CIRCLE 4.1 Overview ........................................................................................................................... 69 4.2 Xemxija Tombs ................................................................................................................