“We Will Stay Here Forever”
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“We will stay here forever” A sense of belonging in landmine affected territories of Nagorno-Karabakh Pia Ferner “We will stay here forever” A sense of belonging in landmine affected territories of Nagorno-Karabakh January 2016 Pia Ferner Master International Development Studies Disaster Studies (SDC) SDC-80733 Supervisor: Gemma van der Haar Abstract The aim of this thesis is to gain insight into reasons why Karabakh Armenian settlers choose to settle and live in landmine affected areas of Nagorno-Karabakh, in the South Caucasus. War in the region has ceased in 1994 and enabled Karabakh Armenians to live in the contested territories, now characterized by frozen conflict, despite a continued presence of landmines. I applied an ethnographic research approach to explore meaning making processes of local settlers on their living situation and their readings of landmines. The village of Karegah served as main location for in-depth research and qualitative interviews. A theoretical exploration of the framing on landmines provides basis for a discussion of local settlers perception of landmines and how this relates to humanitarian framings. Theoretical notions of identity and belonging are further explored as aspects that turned out to be of particular relevance for Karabakh Armenians in their accounts of reading and coping with landmines in their living environment. It becomes clear that perceptions of risk are not taking place outside of identity narratives. Risks emanating from landmine contamination tend to be seen as low concern, instead highlighting the importance of Armenian settlers local presence, ascribing further meaning to territory. These findings gain significance in the broader context of conflict resolution. An understanding of local settlers commitment to live in these areas, their entrenchment in the contested space despite mines are inherent for an honest approach to lasting peace. Keywords: Nagorno-Karabakh, South Caucasus, landmines, frozen conflict, belonging, identity Acknowledgements This thesis would not have been possible without the support of many individuals helping me in the process of organizing and writing this master thesis in many direct and indirect ways. First and foremost I would like to express my gratitude to all the great people I was able to encounter in Karabakh. Many thanks for receiving me with open arms and showing me Armenian hospitality. I would like to give special thanks to Susanna Petrossyan, as well as to Kamo and his wife Aida, who shared their homes with me. Susanna additionally provided plenty of practical support in the form of establishing helpful contacts and arranging field visits for me. I would also like to mention the effort of several of my translators, who made a great effort creating a bridge between my respondents and me. “շնորհակալություն“ to Lusine, Anna and Narine. Similar accounts for the help and support of international NGOs working locally and some of its committed individuals. Some of these key supporters I would like to mention are Nick Smart and his team working for the Halo Trust, namely Gala, Irina, Asquanaz, Arkadi and many others that cannot find mentioning by name. Thanks to all of them I got the unique opportunity to understand the functioning of an internationally renowned humanitarian demining organization and was able to connect with various people involved in the process of demining. In addition, I would like to thank the staff of the ICRC, especially Nicolas and Edgar for their support, providing me with background information on the local context and taking me on field trips to meet beneficiaries. Furthermore, I would like to thank Nick Wagner, who took time to introduce me to Karabakh Armenians to share their local experience and knowledge. Special thanks goes to all the Nicks on site, who did not only help me in gaining access for data collection but contributed in the process of understanding the local context all of us are/were working in through numerous private discussions. While the support in Karabakh was very influential, I would also like to bring attention to the people that provided help and support from Wageningen and afar. Special thanks goes to my supervisor Gemma van der Haar for showing patience and trust, for continuous brainstorm sessions and guidance for a successful completion of this thesis. Last but not least, I would like to thank friends and family for their patience and continuous support. Special thanks to Jelmer, Nina and Anika for words of motivation and contextual advice. Please know that I appreciate all of your effort and input. Thank you all! Շնորհակալություն! Спасибо! Table of contents List of figures ........................................................................................................................................... iii List of Abbreviations ................................................................................................................................ iv 1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1 2 Theoretical framework .................................................................................................................... 4 2.1 Reframing landmines - from a military to a humanitarian perspective .................................. 5 2.2 (Frozen) conflict as a social process ........................................................................................ 8 2.3 Identity and Belonging .......................................................................................................... 10 2.3.1 The meaning of borders ................................................................................................ 14 2.4 Summary................................................................................................................................ 16 3 Research approach and methods .................................................................................................. 18 3.1 Data gathering methods ........................................................................................................ 18 3.2 Access to the field and the role of gatekeepers .................................................................... 20 3.3 Case selection and sampling ................................................................................................. 22 3.4 Data analysis and interpretation ........................................................................................... 24 3.5 Understanding local meanings and perceptions ................................................................... 25 3.5.1 The Role of Narratives ................................................................................................... 26 3.5.2 The role of meta-data .................................................................................................... 27 3.6 Personal challenges and dilemmas in the field ..................................................................... 28 3.6.1 “Lost in translation” ....................................................................................................... 28 3.6.2 Confusion about the local context – “post-field stay clarity” ....................................... 29 3.7 Ethical considerations ........................................................................................................... 30 4 Historical roots and political complexities of the frozen conflict .................................................. 32 4.1 Armenian migration to Karabakh in the 19th and 20th century and the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast ........................................................................................................................... 33 4.2 The conflict in a nutshell ....................................................................................................... 35 4.3 The ceasefire agreement - Political dynamics in the region ................................................. 39 4.4 Conflict resolution and peace negotiations .......................................................................... 40 4.4.1 The Role of the Minsk Group ......................................................................................... 40 4.4.2 The Role of the US ......................................................................................................... 41 4.4.3 The Role of Russia .......................................................................................................... 42 4.4.4 The current deadlock in the peace process and the effects on the ground ................. 42 4.5 Nagorno-Karabakh Republic at present ................................................................................ 45 i 5 The research locations .................................................................................................................. 48 5.1 Karegah – the main research site .......................................................................................... 48 5.2 The villages Nor Maragha and Nor Karmiravan .................................................................... 51 6 Perceptions on landmines, landmine contamination and demining ............................................ 55 6.1 Landmine contamination and demining – the case of NKR .................................................. 55 6.1.1 Mine and Cluster Munitions Ban ................................................................................... 55 6.1.2 Casualties