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ASIA CENTRAL ASIA New Laws Adopted but Change a Long Way Off ubmitted reports from Central Asia include the Republics Overall, women’s work in the unpaid sector is unaccounted for in of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. all the Central Asian countries covered in this report. No statistics Turkmenistan, along with Iran and Afghanistan—which exist to track such work nor are any measures in place to account for are often considered to be part of this subregion—did unpaid home and farm work, which disproportionately is the respon- not report. sibility of women, or to create conditions of equity in sharing family In Central Asia, the reporting countries have all ratified the Conven- welfare and household responsibilities. In the formal sector, there has tionS on the elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women been a reduction in the number of women in highly remunerative (CEDAW). Generally, governments condemn violence against wom- sectors. Women’s work in the informal sector is mainly in indepen- en and endorse prevention of such acts. Yet violence against women in dent small trade or in “shadow businesses”—underground, off the Central Asia is prevalent. Current law enforcement practices treat do- books and untaxed—owned by men. mestic violence indulgently, and governments lack programs to train Data on women’s participation in Central Asia in the natural re- judicial, legal, medical, social, educational, police and immigrant per- sources and environmental sector has not been widely recorded. sonnel on dealing with violence against women. Most of the training As the majority of the populations live in rural communities, land that exists is carried out by women’s NGOs, but it is limited because reforms are critical issues to women throughout the subregion, but of resource constraints faced by these organizations. latent forms of discrimination among officials blocks access.

HUMAN RIGHTS tion; and CEDAW. The Government of Ta- and opportunities principle but also the Con- jikistan ratified CEDAW and the Protocol; stitution of Kazakhstan. The article finally was CEDAW Compliance the International Covenant on Economic, So- rescinded in 2004 when the new Law on La- In Central Asia, Kazakhstan (1998), Kyrgyz- cial and Cultural Rights (ICESCR); Interna- bor Safety and Protection was adopted. stan (1996), Tajikistan (1993) and Uzbeki- tional Covenant on Civil and Political Rights Women in Kazakhstan are prohibited from stan (1995) have ratified CEDAW. Kazakh- (ICCPR) and its first Optional Protocol (IC- driving large automobiles and buses carrying stan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan have also CPR-01); Convention on Elimination of All more than 14 passengers. Moreover, new dis- ratified the Optional Protocol. There are no Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD); criminatory laws have come into force fol- reservations from these countries. and Convention on the Rights of the Child lowing CEDAW ratification. A new labor States that have ratified CEDAW are le- (CRC). As with CEDAW, implementation law (2000) revoked many privileges earlier gally obligated to take steps to respect, pro- on these agreements is slow to emerge. granted to women with young children. For tect, promote and fulfill the rights of women. instance, women are no longer entitled to Ratification of CEDAW, however, has not al- National Law breaks, previously included as paid time, for ways translated into concrete measures aimed In Kyrgyzstan, eight laws relating to women’s feeding children who are under 18 months at protecting women against discrimination. rights have been examined and 84 amend- of age. Maternity leave has been reduced, Awareness of the Optional Protocol to ments and recommendations were made in and this law also does not include a direct CEDAW is not high. In Kyrgyzstan, there the period between 1996 and 2000. In 2002, prohibition on the dismissal of women who are no known examples of women having President Askas Akaev signed the National are on pregnancy or maternity leave and does used it. The Government has not taken mea- Action Plan on the achievement of gender not provide for individual working hours’ sures to provide information and training to equality and a decree on the improvement schedule and part-time jobs for women as the population on the complaint process. As of the personnel recruiting policy to involve stipulated by CEDAW. The new law also a result, not a single registered application more women leaders in governance. The Par- prohibits men from going on leave to take has been made through any individual com- liament adopted two new laws in 2003 on care of children. plaints mechanism from Kyrgyzstan to any gender issues, one related to state guarantees National Action Plans do exist. For ex- of the UN committees of treaty bodies. The for gender equality in the Republic and the ample, Kyrgyzstan established the National situation was reported to be similar in Ka- other related to social and legal protection Plan of Action for Achieving Gender Equal- zakhstan and Tajikistan. against violence in the family. The law on ity for 2002-2006. Unfortunately, as in the A greater representation of women in deci- family violence was adopted as a result of a case of the National Program “Ayalzat,” for sion-making roles in government and greater people’s initiative led by an NGO that col- 1996-2000 (of which only 30 percent has activity by women’s rights NGOs is impera- lected the required 30,000 signatures by vot- been implemented), not even half of the tive to achieving international standards of ers to submit a draft law for consideration Plan has been implemented to date. Con- women’s rights. by Parliament. sequently, many provisions of the National In 1996, the Parliament of Kyrgyzstan rati- In Kazakhstan, only one discriminatory law Plan of Action, including ones critical to fied five international UN conventions: the on labor protection (1993) has been repealed. promoting women to decision-making posi- Convention on Women’s Political Rights; According to Article 17 of law, all women are tions and ensuring gender budgeting, have Convention on the Agreement on Marriage, to be hired only after a prior medical exami- not been executed. Marriage Age and Marriage Registration; nation, and women up to the age of 45 must In Kazakhstan, the National Action Plan Convention on the Citizenship of Married undergo a medical examination annually. This on improving women’s position was adopted Women; Convention on Maternity Protec- requirement violates not only the equal rights by a government resolution in 1999. The

56 BEIJING BETRAYED ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

Plan was prepared with the participation of ture on improving women’s status is the Na- into Russian. In 2000, the Feminist League of NGOs, based on the Beijing Platform for tional Commission on Family and Women’s Kazakhstan had the majority of conventions Action priorities, and included several pro- Affairs (1999). The Commission has con- concerning women’s rights translated and gressive actions. The proposed law on equal sultative status and lacks its own budget. published in the Kazak language. In Kyrgyz- rights and opportunities for women and During five years of activity the Commission stan as well, international conventions have men, a law against domestic violence and a has attracted off-budget funds in the amount been translated into the Kyrgyz language by law on reproductive rights. of US$5.5 million for the implementation local NGOs. The Beijing Platform of Action, Of the listed laws, scheduled to be enacted of various programs. The funds are exclusive- however, has not been translated into Central in 2000-2001, only the law on reproductive ly in the form of grants from large interna- Asian languages. rights has been adopted (in 2004). Important tional organizations. Women’s human rights are not included in programs that were not implemented include In Tajikistan, one of the Prime Minister’s school curricula in most Central Asian coun- adoption of a gender approach in the prepara- deputies supervises matters of women’s sta- tries. Further, no adult education programs tion of new textbooks to eliminate sexist ste- tus and position. In 1991, the Committee covering women’s human rights are in place. reotypes; introduction of gender disciplines in on Women and Family Affairs was founded In Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan, however, the higher and secondary education system; and now functions under the Government police bodies are introducing programs on development of a contraceptive policy; devel- to promote and implement the policy of women’s human rights. opment of a draft law on refugees; research improving women’s status in all spheres of on a quota for women’s participation in ex- social life. It has set up offices in all local Violence Against Women ecutive and legislative state bodies; applica- goverment bodies. In general, governments in Central Asia con- tion of gender indicators in the development New legislation concerning women’s hu- demn violence against women and endorse of economic and social programs; and gender man rights has been adopted in Kazakhstan, prevention of such acts. In Kyrgyzstan, for analysis of the existing legislation. including the Law on family and marriage example, prevention of violence against The Government contends that 80 percent (1997); Addendum to the Criminal Code women is one of the main tasks of the Na- of the Plan has been implemented, while ex- (2000), specifically the part concerning rape tional Commission and the Secretariat. In perts from women’s NGOs estimate that no cases (2000); addendum to the Criminal 2003, the Parliament adopted two new laws greater than 25-30 percent of the plan has Code specifically the part on human traf- on gender issues, one of which dealt with so- been executed. Furthermore, they calculate ficking (2003); and the law on reproductive cial and legal protection against violence in that those parts of the plan that have been rights (2004). the family. carried out were mostly those addressed ear- Other efforts related to improving wom- Anti-violence activity is a main concern lier by other state programs. en’s human rights in Kazakhstan include the of the National Commission of Kazakhstan. In Tajikistan, the State Program “Basic creation of departments on violence against Since 1999, the Government has been de- Directions of the State Policy on provision women in police administrations, seminars veloping a draft law on domestic violence of equal rights and opportunities for men and trainings organized by NGOs on the prevention. While the Government of Ta- and women in the Republic of Tajikistan rights of women employees in judicial bod- jikistan condemns violence against women, ies, as well as free legal aid for women, also its support for such programs is limited. In provided by NGOs. Uzbekistan, the Women’s Committees under In Kyrgyzstan, programs being imple- the Government cover the issue of violence

Osh bazaar, mented by different NGOs include work against women. Kyrgyzstan. on increasing women’s access to land and Despite the anti-violence activity, vio- property rights, to reproductive rights and lence against women in Central Asia is to political rights. In Uzbekistan, while such prevalent. In Kyrgyzstan, domestic violence programs on women’s human rights are con- is widespread and increasing. According to ducted occasionally, they cover a very small official Ministry of Internal Affairs (MIA) population of women. data, 242 family disputes between spouses for 2001-2010” was approved on August 8, or partners—resulting in injury, disability 2001, though reporting on its level of imple- Public Awareness or even death of the woman—are registered mentation is limited thus far. In Central Asia, comprehensive human rights each month. According to a social survey Implementation of the state policy relat- education programs that raise awareness conducted by the Association of Crisis Cen- ing to maintenance of equal rights and op- among women are lacking. While a series of ters, domestic violence is not included in portunities for men and women depends on training courses and seminars dealing with the list of problems considered important the efficiency of institutional mechanisms. various aspects of women’s rights—includ- with respect to the observation of women’s Independent national institutions for the ing how to use legislation to protect these rights, although survey results show that protection and promotion of women’s hu- rights—are held by NGOs, the governments relatives, friends and the victims themselves man rights exist but are few. do not support such programs. consider domestic violence to be one of the Kyrgyzstan has created a national Council Nor do governments publicize and dis- most widespread and serious forms of dis- and Secretariat on Women, Family and Gen- seminate laws and information relating to crimination against women. A survey of der Development; an Ombudsman’s Office women’s rights. law enforcement employees conducted by (2002); and a Human Rights Commission Laws in the subregion are issued only in the crisis center “Chance” revealed that 38 within the Parliament. the native languages of respective countries percent of men and 17 percent of women

MERRILL MORROW In Kazakhstan, the only national struc- and in Russian. Guidelines are translated only did not consider humiliation, abusive in-

WOMEN’S ENVIRONMENT & DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION 57 ASIA AND THE PACIFIC sults and rudeness as forms of violence in this crime is a maximum of three months trafficking and a number of anti-traffick- domestic relations. imprisonment (even cruelty to animals is ing initiatives were undertaken to eliminate It should be noted that the Kyrgyz Gov- punishable by imprisonment for up to two or reduce cases of illegal traffic in persons. ernment has put in place legislation that years. Damage that is defined as “light” in However, despite these efforts, the scale of specifically addresses the punishment of do- the criminal code may have a profound and this phenomenon does not appear to be de- mestic violence, including the 2003 law “On long-term impact on the life of the victim. creasing. It is difficult to determine the exact Social and Legal Protection against Violence Many articles of the Criminal Code relating number of people trafficked as Kyrgyzstan in the Family.” One of the recommendations to domestic violence that do not lead to “ir- keeps no official statistics in this area. The developed by the Council of NGOs has to reparable physical harm” are attributed by the data available from the Ministry of Internal do with the development of a mechanism Criminal Procedural Code to a category of Affairs on the number of registered cases for for realization of this law, including training private prosecution, which includes causing 2001-2003 under various relevant articles of for prosecutors, law enforcement personnel light harm to health, threats and forced sex- the Criminal Code fail to reflect the magni- and judges on implementing and enforcing ual relations, among others. The procedural tude of the situation. its provisions. order of private prosecution cases is legally Kyrgyzstan is the most open and conve- In Kazakhstan, domestic violence is the quite complicated—women as victims of the nient country in Central Asia for both local most widespread kind of violence against stated abuses have to become their own legal residents and citizens of neighboring coun- women. Over 60 percent of women have represenatives in prosecution (i.e. collecting tries to transit out of the region. For the suffered from physical or sexual violence at evidence, etc), thereby taking on the physical, purpose of trafficking, traders actively take least once in their lifetimes. According to the moral, financial and other burdens connect- advantage of the low protection measures Municipal Department of Internal Affairs, ed to litigation or investigation. Kazakhstan, related to Kyrgyz passports (which can eas- in Almaty (the capitol) alone, 8,561 crimes in effect, lacks an effective preventive mecha- ily be forged). For example, traffickers use against women were committed in only six nism directed against domestic violence. passports of 30 to 35-year-old women to months in 2002. Of these, 1,405 were related In Tajikistan, stereotypes and assump- transfer 16 to18-year-old girls to the United to family and domestic relations and con- tions about female dispositions, abilities and Arab Emirates (UAE). By relying on fake tained attributes of violence against women. experiences prevent women’s access to basic passports with fake names, traffickers ensure Although though existing criminal legisla- rights. In addition to such attitudes, women that searches for victims overseas are made tion in Kazakhstan includes punishment of are not aware of their rights. These factors even more difficult. Among women deported violence in general, it does not specifically lead to widespread discrimination, and sub- from Turkey, the UAE and other countries, address domestic violence separate from vio- sequently violence, against women. many are from Tajikistan, Uzbekistan—and lence against members of the community. According to the International Organiza- even Azerbaijan and Russia—who were traf- This prevalence of violence is the result of a tion for Migration (IOM), Central Asia is a ficked on Kyrgyz passports. In 2000, Kyrgyz number of societal and legal factors. The tra- growing region of origin for human traffick- law enforcement bodies detained 80 women. ditional attitude of society to problems of do- ing. However, the countries covered in the In 2003, criminal proceedings were initi- mestic violence is that it is “the family’s busi- report have not taken steps to track statistics ated against 10 persons for the illegal cross- ness;” the woman is “guilty” and therefore the or introduce legislation related to trafficking ing of the border with forged passports. In man in the family has the right to punish her. of women. August of 2003, the Ombudsman’s Office of Legal factors involve the difficulty of proving In Kazakhstan, for example, statistics re- Kyrgyzstan received a letter signed by 1,000 aspects of the crimes and the high probability lated to trafficking women are not available Kyrgyz citizens, mainly illegal migrants who of the victim reconciling with the offender and the Government lacks any programs were held in slave-like conditions on tobac- and, as a consequence, the possible recall of directed at tackling the problem. Existing co plantations in neighboring Kazakhstan. Many of them were women forced to seek employment outside Kyrgyzstan due to the In Kazakhstan, where domestic violence is lack of economic opportunities who then had to endure difficult conditions under the widespread, over 60 percent of women have been threat of violence, thereby jeopardizing their health and undermining their dignity. Kyr- subject to physical or sexual abuse. gyzstan signed the UN Protocol on Traffick- ing in Persons on December 13, 2000, but the claim or complaint. Research conducted studies on the issue are largely inaccurate. has not yet ratified it. The National Council, by the UN Population Fund (UNFPA) in The Crisis Center for women and children established by a Decree of the Kyrgyz Repub- 1999 has shown that an attempt by a stranger estimates the human trafficking figure in the lic President, lacks continuity in its activities to abuse a woman would be reported to law 5,000-70,000 persons; according to IOM because of frequent changes in membership enforcement bodies 68 percent of the times. data it is between 5,000 and 10,000 persons. and has been unable to adopt a formal ap- However, if the violator was a person close to Kazakhstan has not ratified the conventions proach to its work. Despite becoming party the victim (husband, close relative) then the concerning trafficking in people and slavery, to international agreements and creating crime was likely to be reported in only 26 and national legislation does not specifically organizations to protect Kyrgyz trafficking percent of the cases. address the issue of trafficking of women but victims’ rights, Kyrgyzstan to date has failed It is especially difficult to protect women’s only of children. to effectively tackle the issuer. Moreover, per- rights in the event of “light” harm to the In 2003, Kyrgyzstan introduced amend- petrators of the crimes themselves often hide victim as the most severe punishment for ments and changes to the law on human behind the mask of such organizations.

58 BEIJING BETRAYED ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

Culture-based violence against women Governmental intervention in the form ally consisting of 4-6 children. Some refugee in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan primarily re- of direct support services (i.e. shelters, relief, parents are reluctant to allow their children volves around the abduction of brides. In access to the mechanisms of justice, physical/ (especially girls) to attend school, not consid- Kazakhstan, the practice of kalym payment mental health services) for women subjected ering education on important priority. Older (payment by the groom’s family for the to violence is non-existent in the countries children, especially girls, have to take care of bride) and abductions of brides are prevalent. covered in this report. their younger siblings or help their parents in No formal study has been carried out but, the market. according to women’s rights organizations, PEACE AND SECURITY Families of Uigur refugees from China also abduction of brides against their will is on live in Kazakhstan. Providing refugee status the rise in the country. Security Council Resolution 1325 to this group of people is a serious challenge In Kyrgyzstan, according to research con- The level of public awareness about Security because they are perceived as having connec- ducted by NGOs, the practice of forced mar- Council Resolution 1325 in Central Asia is tions with Talibs (Islamic religious students) riages is becoming increasingly prevalent. very poor. The governments in the subregion and the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan. This practice primarily takes place either have failed to take any actions with regard The Chinese Uigurs are not subject to the through bride abduction or stealing, or pa- to implementing its provisions. No effort national procedure granting refuge status. As rental agreement and arrangement. Cul- has been undertaken to integrate gender per- a result, official statistics about their numbers ture-based discrimination against women in spectives in the areas of conflict prevention, in Kazakhstan are not available. Those who Uzbekistan leads to practices such as forced management and resolution. Furthermore, feel threatened by the Chinese and Kazakh- marriages and young girls becoming prosti- women are rarely present at decision-making stan authorities live illegally and report to tutes. Culture-based discriminatory practices levels and very few are involved in the area of the UN Refugee Agency (UNHCR) office, against women in Tajikistan are similar to foreign policy. which determines their status based on the those in Uzbekistan. Negative traditional UNHCR mandate. cultural practices exist such as forced and Asylum Seekers, Refugees, Even though there is officially no dis- child marriages and unequal treatment in the Internally Displaced crimination against displaced children with upbringing of boys and girls and in society. Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan have a significant respect to education, they are frequently de- The Governments of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz- number of women refugees, mainly from Af- nied access due to the absence of a residence stan and Uzbekistan have introduced laws ghanistan and Tajikistan, and asylum seekers permit. These families are also very poor and prohibiting the practice of bride kidnapping. from the Chechen Republic. In 1998, the thus have limited access because children of In Kazakhstan, the Criminal Code valid un- two countries joined the Convention on the school age not only require warm clothes, til January 1, 1998, stipulated punishment Status of Refugees (1951) and the Protocol but also school uniforms, accessories and pe- by imprisonment for a period of up to one on the Status of Refugees (1961). riodic tuition. Some Chechen children were year for compulsion into marriage. For ab- In 2000, the Kazakh Government brought denied admittance to school on the grounds duction of the woman against her will, the a draft law “on refugees” to Parliament but it of overcrowded classes. The majority of Tajik same article provided imprisonment for up to was withdrawn six months later. A new draft refugee children are also deprived of oppor- three years. The new Criminal Code, which law has not been submitted. The operational tunities to receive basic secondary education. came into force on January 1, 1998, failed guidelines for recognizing petitions for refu- The exact number of Tajik children living in to specify these crimes, showing weakening gee status, as well as the procedure for de- Kazakhstan is not known. Refugees children government commitment to women. termining refugee status, allow not only for who complete secondary education do not In Kyrgyzstan, the Criminal Code in- the refusal of status but also for the refusal have access to higher education due to lack of cludes a chapter prohibiting the practice of of registration of the petition, which contra- economic resources. As citizens of the Gov- bride kidnapping, and in Uzbekistan, the dicts the international obligations of Kazakh- ernments of Indepenent States (CIS), Tajiks practice of kidnapping girls is also a punish- stan and the national legislation. and Chechens do not qualify for refugee able offense. The Kyrgyz Government created a state status. Cases of abuse of refugee children’s Governments in Central Asia in general lack structure, the Migration Service Department rights under article 24 of the Convention on programs to train judicial, legal, medical, so- under the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in 1993 the Rights of the Child are rampant. They are cial, education, police and immigrant person- to settle refugee issues. In March 2002, the not only deprived of the right to health care nel on dealing with violence against women. Government adopted a domestic law, in ac- of the highest standard possible, but may be Most of the training is carried out by women’s cordance with international protection prin- deprived of medical aid at all, due to the lack NGOs but is limited because of resource con- ciples, which came about through the legal of a residence permit, especially in remote straints faced by these organizations. expertise of international organizations and villages. Access to medical services is also Governmental efforts in Central Asia to is acknowledged as the most advanced in the limited due to a lack of financial resources. promote research and data compilation on subregion. Regulations were adopted to im- Refugees and migrants are frequently com- violence against women are very limited. plement and enforce this law. The legislation pelled to pay rates that far exceed the speci- Such research is mainly conducted by wom- does not differentiate based on gender. fied prices for medical services. en’s NGOs, independent experts and through The living conditions of refugee and in- In Kyrgyzstan, a majority of women refu- international projects. Practical efforts to in- ternally displaced women and girls are dif- gees from Tajikistan live in rural areas in the troduce a gender perspective in policies and ficult. In Kazakhstan, the main source of villages in the Chui valley and in the South programs related to violence against women income for a majority of refugee families is of the country. Many families rent houses or by governments in Central Asia have also market trading. However, the income earned flats; some manage to buy houses, especially largely been lacking. is rarely sufficient to support the family, usu- after becoming Kyrgyz citizens. Living con-

WOMEN’S ENVIRONMENT & DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION 59 ASIA AND THE PACIFIC ditions of many refugee women and their Kyrgyzstan seem to demonstrate the effec- currently in effect in the countries of Cen- families are below average. Afghan refugee tiveness of the proportional election system in tral Asia to improve women’s representation women and asylum seekers from the Chech- promoting the active participation of women in high-level legislative positions. In Kyrgyz- en Republic mostly live in urban areas. in state decision-making at the top levels. stan, a Presidential Decree “on improvement UNHCR and other humanitarian orga- Three women, who constitute almost half of of staffing policy and attraction of women nizations such as the UN Children’s Fund all women elected to both chambers, were leaders to the state governance in the Kyrgyz (UNICEF), Mercy Co, the Adventist De- elected through party lists. Currently, there Republic” was adopted in 2002 with the pur- velopment and Relief Agency (ADRA), the are seven women deputies in Parliament. ported aim of providing certain guarantees Norwegian Refugee Council and the Red However, a closer look at the available for the representation of women at high-lev- Cross implement different programs to im- data suggests a regression in steps taken to els of decision-making. However, in practice prove the situation of refugees as a whole improve gender parity in political decision- this Decree only serves to reinforce gender and to widen access to food, health care, ed- making roles. A comparison of current statis- discrimination, as women are only given par- ucation, employment, micro-credits, charity tics with data from 1996 illustrates a signifi- ity-type access to deputy positions. They are aid and legal support. Still, refugee women cant decrease in women’s representation in thus unable to make independent decisions lack access to information, education, train- high-levels positions. In 1996, women occu- and face limited opportunities to rise to top ing, social protection and medical services. pied six highly influential positions, includ- level positions. Most of them are not aware of their rights. ing Vice Prime Minister, Minister of Labor Since the publication of the Presidential Domestic violence is a serious but largely and Social Protection, Minister of Justice, Decree “On improving women’s role in so- hidden problem among refugee women. Al- Minister of Foreign Affairs, Chairperson of ciety” in Tajikistan in 2000, 12 women have most every young woman and mother suf- the Social Fund and Chairperson of the State been appointed to executive positions in fers from poor nutrition, anemia and gyne- Commission on Family and Women Affairs. the central governmental bodies and three cological diseases. Currently, only two high-level positions— women have been approved as members of There is a low level of involvement of refugee Minister of Labor and Social Protection and the ministries’ board. In addition, 13 women women in social life. With respect to govern- Chairperson of the State Commission for the have been appointed to executive positions mental programs to facilitate the integration of Support of Entrepreneurship—are held by in local government bodies. Tajikistan is one refugees into society, there are very few. None women. Among the diplomatic corps, while of the first CIS countries to have ratified the are directed specifically at women refugees. In previously Kyrgyzstan had two women am- International Convention on Women’s Po- Kyrgyzstan, there is a support program for re- bassadors, currently there is only one woman litical Rights. Policy pursued by the Govern- turning ethnic Kyrgyz people. In Kazakhstan, holding a position of such rank. In addi- ment on the promotion of women contrib- there is only one governmental program of tion, there is only one woman General Con- uted to their success in the last elections and support directed at Oralmans (persons of Ka- sul, stationed in Turkey. Moreover, recent has led to an increase in women’s representa- zak origin, mainly from Afghanistan, China, amendments to the Constitution (passed by tion. Women now comprise 12.7 percent of Iran, Mongolia, Pakistan, Turkey and Uzbeki- a widely criticized referendum on February deputies in the lower chamber of Parliament stan, who have migrated within this program 18, 2003) eliminated the proportional elec- and 11.7 percent in the upper chamber. framework to Kazakhstan). tion system. Consequently, a critical chan- These numbers are higher than in many CIS nel has been lost for women to participate countries and European States. The International Criminal Court in parliamentary elections. Also instructive Women’s participation in local representa- Only Kyrgyzstan is a party to the ICC and are data regarding the inclusion of women in tive bodies also appears to have improved in public awareness on the ICC remains low. political parties. Of the 43 registered political Tajikistan. In the former deputy structure, parties, only five have women leaders. women accounted for 4.4 percent of the POWER AND DECISION-MAKING Furthermore, as in the case of Kazakhstan, representatives; currently they make up 11.6 the Kyrgyz electoral finance system hampers percent. Despite this positive trend, there Representation women’s access to participation in elections still exists a gender imbalance in the power Over the past few years, movement in wom- to higher representative bodies. At the time structures of Tajikistan. Men dominate in all en’s representation in governmental, public of registration, candidates are required to pay branches of state power. Gender inequality and private decision-making positions has election collateral in the amount of 30,000 is seen most vividly in the state’s legislative been mixed. In Kazakhstan, women’s repre- Som (about US$14). A lack of adequate fi- bodies. As of 2001, the Government includ- sentation in Parliament has decreased over nancial resources precludes many women ed two women—the Prime Minister’s deputy the last decade. Also, women’s representation from complying with this requirement. and the Minister of Labor and Social Protec- in political parties dwindled in the recent The registration fee is especially onerous in tion. Women also head the Committee on elections in 2004 compared to that in the a country where the average monthly salary Women and Family Affairs and the Social 1999 elections. Furthermore, the country’s for women (according to an official govern- Protection Fund. Women are traditionally electoral finance system is discriminatory ment report) is 964.6 Som (about US$23), entrusted with supervisory roles only in the towards women—candidates to be parlia- around 68 percent of the monthly wages of social spheres and men typically prevail in ment ary deputies are required to provide in men. Finally, personnel policy in the upper executive positions in the Administrative a substantial non-recoverable pledge. Given state bodies also requires reform. Currently, Offices of the President, ministries and state that women have lower average incomes than women representatives have very limited op- committees. Practically all first deputies in men, this policy selectively hinders the politi- portunities for promotion to the top levels government bodies. The higher the level of cal participation of women. of power. position, the lower the percentage of repre- The 2000 elections to the Parliament in Few concrete governmental measures are sentation by women.

60 BEIJING BETRAYED ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

Gender inequality is also stark in the ju- power. Nevertheless, female NGOs sometimes in various Ministries and Agencies. Sessions dicial branch in Tajikistan. Of the 72 chair- manage to infl uence legislation related to em- of the National Council are held once or men of courts, only four (5.6%) are women. powering women. For example, the Almaty twice a year. Th e national mechanism, which One heads the regional court, one heads the Female Information Center in 2003 lobbied is responsible for concrete day-to-day work city court, and two head district courts. Two to add an article prosecuting transit traffi ck- on women’s issues, has been beleaguered by women are deputies of court chairmen. In ing in people to the Criminal Code. In 1999, a lack of continuity and stability and has the Supreme Court, as of May 2000, women the Feminist League started a campaign sup- largely been ineff ective in addressing wom- accounted for 21.6 percent of the offi cials. ported by many female organizations aimed en’s concerns. In the Supreme Economic Court, however, at reforming several articles in the Criminal more than half of the offi cials (55.6%) were and Criminal Procedural Codes. Th ree of the POVERTY ERADICATION women. Th e Women’s representation in the proposed amendments were accepted in May Constitutional Court totals only 14.7 per- 2000. Th e Feminist League also brought a Macroeconomic Policies, cent. In the sphere of foreign policy and Development Strategies international relations, men occupy most For many women in Central Asia, privatiza- executive positions. Furthermore, there is no tion and globalization have served to intensify woman ambassador from Tajikistan to other existing inequalities, often translating into the countries. Women are rarely part of the gov- loss of livelihoods and certain social benefi ts. ernmental delegations at international nego- In Kazakhstan, privatization has had a tiations and meetings. A gender analysis of greater adverse impact on women than on all branches of government shows an extreme men. Th e majority of state industries (light, disproportion in the representation of men food, local) with a large proportion of wom- and women. Less than 30 percent of deci- en workers have stopped growing and are in sion-making positions are held by women. recession. Simultaneously, the change in the

In Kazakhstan, in the law enforcement Shopping in state social security system (in 1998-1999), bodies and among political servants, women Tashkent, Uzbekistan. which resulted in the transfer of the econom- make up 11.3 percent. Th e largest number ic burden from the state to employers, has of women is in the Ministry of Environmen- number of other amendments into the legis- considerably lowered the competitiveness of tal Conservation (75%, including the Min- lation that have been accepted. female laborers (because of their entitlement ister), while the Central Election Commis- In Kyrgyzstan, as in Kazakhstan, women to numerous benefi ts). Work in the unpaid sion (57.5%, including the Chairman) and are underrepresented in Parliament and exert sector for women has also considerably in- the Agency on Demography and Migration little infl uence on new policies or legislation. creased, particularly in connection with so- (50%, including the Chairman) also include However, women deputies help local NGOs called “optimization” of education, which equal to majority representation for women. to lobby for their interests at decision-mak- has resulted in the reduction of the number In the social sphere, 7 out of 30 political of- ing levels and lend support in eff orts such as of kindergartens by 4.5 times. fi cials are women (23%). In the economic lobbying for new laws and reconsideration of In Kyrgyzstan, more than 60 percent of and fi nancial sphere 14 out of 107 political the Family Code. Unfortunately, the number the population lives in rural areas. About one offi cials are women (13%), with no repre- of women offi cials at decision-making levels third of the 5 million residents of the coun- sentation in agencies on state procurement, is declining. Recent political developments, try directly depend on agriculture. Recogniz- land resources management and natural mo- such as the elimination of proportional elec- ing that the successful transition to a market nopolies regulation. In the national security tion of deputies to Parliament, threaten to economy depends on reforms in the agricul- sphere none of the 12 political offi cials are worsen the gender disparity in decision-mak- tural sector, Kyrgyzstan began to introduce women (0%). In the constitutional and le- ing positions. Because women constitute a private ownership of land and distributed gal sphere 12 out of 134 political offi cials are large percentage of the voting population private lands to private holdings about ten women (9%). In regional administrations, (52%), an increasing number of political years ago. Th e principle of private ownership 280 out of 2725 political offi cials are women parties are including gender concerns in their was included in the Constitution and Land (10.3 percent). Dispersal among regions is platforms. However, to what extent such Codes. As a result of the land privatization, very high. Th e greatest percent of women is concerns translate into policies and legisla- nearly 2.6 million people received land plots, in the capital of the Akmola region (21.5%), tion targeted towards enhancing the status of of which 50.8 percent were women. How- the least in the Mangistaus region (2%). Un- women remains to be seen. ever, women have been more aff ected than fortunately, in Almaty, the cultural and eco- In 1996, within the framework of the men by high unemployment rates caused nomic center of Kazakhstan, women regional implementation of the Beijing Platform for by the privatization of state enterprises. In political employees are non-existent. Action, the Kyrgyz Government established 1999, women made up 56.8 percent of the a State Commission on Family and Wom- total number of unemployed. Unemploy- Impact of Representation en. Th is Commission was later abolished ment among women in the 30–49 age group In the existing parliamentary structure in and replaced by the newly-created National reached 65 percent. Kazakhstan, women make up 8.7 percent of Council on Women, Family and Gender Despite the high price paid by many the total representatives. Consequently, the Development under the President’s Offi ce. women in Central Asia as a result of the legislative infl uence of women deputies is ex- Th e National Council consists of high-rank- transitioning economies, macroeconomic tremely limited. Political decisions are made ing offi cials and famous public fi gures, al- and trade policies in the subregion remain

ED AUSTIN mainly by the executive branch of the state ready overburdened by their existing duties gender blind. Economic and social policies

WOMEN’S ENVIRONMENT & DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION 61 ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

Box 13. Tajikistan: shelter, sanitation and basic needs in general. parents to have access to day-care for their Distribution of Students in Certain international organizations award children and also a recognition of value of the Secondary Schools by Grades grants to local NGOs for this purpose but of- unpaid work. However, a study of women’s in 1998 ficial data on such initiatives are not available. economic opportunities in Tajikistan reveals Furthermore, the trend of decreasing expen- significant limitations compared to the status ditures on education, health and social assis- of men in different spheres of social-economic Grade Boys (%) Girls (%) tance in Central Asia may further limit pro- life, including opportunities for employment, Grade 1 51,8 48,2 grams directed at women’s empowerment. access to highly paid labor, property, land use, Micro-credit is particularly targeted to- ownership of land plots and recognition of Grade 2 50,4 49,6 wards women. In Uzbekistan, women have household unpaid work. Unequal access to Grade 3 51,7 48,3 access to interest-free loans through certain highly paid work, along with the dearth of banks. In Kazakhstan, access to education, production jobs due to the slowdown in the Grade 4 53,6 46,4 information, technologies and resources production sector over the past few years, has Grade 5 52,4 47,6 is equal for all. A special credit line for the led to an increase in women’s unemployment Grade 6 52,4 47,6 amount of US$1 million has been allocated in all branches of the national economy and a in 2002 for granting credit to women entre- widening of the gap between average incomes Grade 7 52,9 47,1 preneurs. In addition, over the last six years, of men and women in Tajikistan. Grade 8 52,5 47,5 the state granted more than 40,000 micro- In Tajikistan, women are bearing the heavi- Grade 9 54,4 45,6 credits totaling about US$6 million dollars. est burden of economic transition. The num- Two out of three beneficiaries of micro-credit ber of women among workers and employ- Grade 10 60,8 39,2 are rural women. Micro-credit is also award- ees in 1992 fell almost to the level of 1985. Grade 11 61,7 38,3 ed to women by a number of NGOs. While some of this decrease could be attrib- Source: State Statistical Agency While a state program on legal literacy for uted to migration out of Tajikistan, a con- women does not exist in Kazakhstan, this ac- siderable share of the decrease was because have not been subjected to any form of gen- tivity is carried out by women’s NGOs with women were compelled to leave the work- der-impact analysis. support from international organizations. force due to a decline in production. Due Officially transnational corporations are During the last two years more than 300 semi- to the unequal household division of labor, accountable to national laws and codes, so- nars involving 5,000 women have been carried women have to bear the bulk of the respon- cial security regulations and applicable in- out. In Kyrgyzstan, as in Kazakhstan, women sibilities of caring for their families. These re- ternational agreements. However, corpora- legally have equal access to education, infor- sponsibilities make women less competitive tions enjoy significant tax privileges. Also, mation and resources along with men. Addi- compared to men when seeking work. Young the extent to which the laws and codes are tionally, support programs and credit lines are women (20-35 years old) are most affected followed is difficult to determine since many in place for women and women’s groups. by the dearth of work opportunities. They contracts between governments and interna- are forced to sacrifice their personal interests tional corporations are not disclosed. Further, Employment Patterns, Women’s Work for fear of losing an opportunity to work and economic, social, agricultural and related The economic independence of women is earn a living. These women often accept jobs policies specifically formulated in support of critical to achieving gender equality. While that are underpaid and for which they are female-headed households are absent. legally there is a requirement that women overqualified and spend many years without and men be paid equally for equal work in the opportunity to advance their qualifica- Access to Public Services and Resources most countries in Central Asia, the reality is tions. Over two thirds of working women do Formally, women in the Central Asian coun- quite different. In Kazakhstan and Kyrgyz- not enhance their skills from the time of the tries have the same right to inheritance and stan, women on an average are paid 56-63 birth of their children. ownership of land, credit, natural resources percent of what men are paid. Unemployment benefits are awarded to and appropriate technologies as men. How- Employment conditions for women in only a small portion of the unemployed seek- ever, it is essential to note that women are Uzbekistan have deteriorated over the last ing work. Moreover, the unemployment ben- not always in a position to avail themselves few years. Pregnant women face difficulty efit is much lower than the living wage. There of these rights. For example, in Tajikistan, in finding work, as do women with interna- is a lack of vocational training and retraining despite legal opportunities, women are not tional certificates or diplomas. services for the unemployed in Tajikistan, able to realize their right to own property. Women’s labor throughout Central Asia, and the actual number of unemployed far ex- A number of barriers contribute to this, in- especially household work (childcare, care of ceeds that in the registered data. Rural wom- cluding cultural norms regarding property elderly parents and husbands) goes unrecog- en working in agriculture, urban and rural inheritance through the male line; public nized and unrewarded and their participa- women with personal plots or those possess- stereotypes such as “entrepreneurship is not tion in decision-making at home and in the ing industrial skills were likely to suffer less a women’s business;” a low level of legal community are minimal. difficulty than urban women without per- awareness among women; and, in cases of In Tajikistan, the state’s policy providing sonal land plots. The latter were often forced privatization, the consequent lack of ways for equal rights and opportunities for men and to offer any services, to sell personal property women to acquire the property. women includes the right to equal pay for or to borrow money to earn a livelihood. Governments in Central Asia typically do equal work, the right to a worthy living stan- In general, women’s work in the unpaid not allocate funds specifically towards ensur- dard for them and their families, the right to sector is unaccounted for in all the Central ing women’s access to health care, education, social services, including the right of working Asian countries covered in this report. No

62 BEIJING BETRAYED ASIA AND THE PACIFIC statistics exist to track such work nor are in higher education than men. In Kazakhstan NATURAL RESOURCES AND any measures in place to account for unpaid in 2003, among students of higher educa- ENVIRONMENTAL SECURITY home and farm work, which disproportion- tional institutions, 338,200 were women and ately is the responsibility of women, or to 259,300 were men. In Tajikistan, however, in Decision-Making create conditions of equity in sharing family recent years there has been a drastic decrease Data on women’s participation in Central welfare and household responsibilities. in the number of girls in schools after grade 9 Asia in the natural resources and environ- In the formal sector in Central Asia, there (after receiving the basic, mandatory educa- mental sector has not been widely recorded. has been a reduction in the number of wom- tion). The table on page 76 provides a general Few statistics are available in this area. In en in highly remunerative branches. In the daily distribution of students in secondary Kazakhstan, women made up 40 percent informal sector women prevail, mainly in schools by grades in 1998. of employees of the Ministry of Nature and independent small trade and also employed In rural Tajikistan, representation of girls in Environmental Protection in 1999. In 2004, in many spheres of the shadow businesses senior classes was lower than in urban areas. they accounted for 47 percent of the employ- owned by men. Women comprise 26.1 percent of students in ees. Earlier data in this area is not available. higher education institutions, 48.7 percent Further, 75 percent of the officials at deci- EDUCATION in secondary special education institutions sion-making level in the Ministry of Nature and 27.7 percent in vocational colleges. and Environmental Protection are women. International Agreements There are several reasons for the gender in- This may be due to the fact that the Minister Central Asian countries did not ratify the equality with respect to education in Tajiki- is a woman. However, there are no specially Convention Discrimination in Education. stan: certain traditions, public opinion about trained gender specialists in the Ministry. Moreover, the governments do not have women, geographical hurdles such as remote Decision-making positions related to envi- programs to support women’s groups and mountainous regions, as well as lack of com- ronment and natural resources at local levels other NGOs that publish and disseminate fortable hostels for girls. However, the main are disproportionately held by men. information related to women’s equal rights hurdle is economic. Gender distribution in The Government of Kazakhstan approved and education. senior classes at comprehensive schools and the Convention on Biological Diversity in higher educational institutions suggests that, 1994. It ratified the Convention on Climate Public Policy within the next 3-5 years, the active partici- Change in 1995 and the Convention to Policies on education in Central Asia do not pation of women in scientific and education- Combat Desertification in 1997. Kazakhstan address women’s issues separately. No specific al spheres of community development may has joined the Ramsar Convention, mainly mechanisms or measures are in place to deal decrease sharply due to the lack of good edu- because of pressure from transnational oil with sex discrimination in education. Kazakh- cation and a scientific research base. How- and mining corporations, which exert a sig- stan and Kyrgyzstan did, however, review their ever, the gender inequality is even greater nificant influence on the country’s economy. national policy documents for incorporation in postgraduate and doctoral studies. Based In Uzbekistan, there is evidence that a of CEDAW and norms in education in their on data from the State Statistical Agency in growing number of women, especially from Initial Report on CEDAW performance. 1997, women accounted for less than one NGOs, are showing an interest in environ- Kazakhstan put in place a National Ac- third (29.5 percent) of the post-graduate mental issues. Ataniyazova Oral Aminovna, tion Plan on the improvement of women’s student population. The gender disparity is Director of the NGO “Perzent”, has even status, which stipulated the introduction of even more acute among experts in scientific won country’s the highest award in the en- a gender approach in the editing of new text- research, design and technological works. vironmental area. But statistical data with books by 2000 to eliminate sexist stereotypes Despite equal legal rights to education, regard to women’s involvement in the sec- and the introduction of gender disciplines in the above data reveals that in reality men and tor is not available. Similarly, in the case of higher and secondary education systems. Yet women avail themselves of these rights dif- Krgyzstan, exact statistical data is not avail- this plan has not yet been executed. While Kyrgyzstan has general programs on gender equality, they do not separately address the Lack of educational opportunities further marginalizes issue of gender equality and equity in edu- cation. In Tajikistan and Uzbekistan, Na- women from social and political life. tional Action Plans around gender equality in education are non-existent. Similarly, vo- ferently. Women have less access to different able, but approximately 43 percent of em- cational training policies for achieving equal educational opportunities, particularly those ployees in governmental agencies working opportunities for women, national literacy related to advanced education. The lack of on environmental security are women. There programs directed at adult women and poli- educational opportunities threatens to fur- are also several women’s NGOs on environ- cies to protect women and girls from sexual ther marginalize women from social and po- ment protection. harassment are all non-existent in countries litical life. covered in this report. Despite the gap between the existence of Gender Impacts formal rights to education and the use of In Kazakhstan, the Aral Sea shallowing has Access and Changes in Practices these rights in certain Central Asian coun- led to a significant desertification of soil in In Central Asian countries, access to education tries, none of the countries covered in this re- adjoining regions and has adversely affected is equal for all. In Kazakhstan and Kyrgyz- port have taken specific steps to promote the agriculture and fishery. The impact on em- stan, girls outnumber boys among students. access of women and girls, particularly rural, ployment and the health of the population Typically, there is a greater number of women minority, poor and indigenous women/girls. has been so grave that in 1992 the Govern-

WOMEN’S ENVIRONMENT & DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION 63 ASIA AND THE PACIFIC ment passed laws on the social protection of names included in the land document. Fur- Lands,” the owner of a land plot has the right citizens affected by this ecological disaster ther, in the case that a family has the right to sell it in its entirety without dividing it up. and citizens affected by nuclear tests at the to choose a land plot, the choice is typical- Consequently, in practice, a woman who di- Semipalatinsk nuclear range. Since March ly made by men. When the woman in the vorces cannot “cash out” her part of the land, 1994, however, payment of benefits and family is a widow, the decision is made by as sale of a sub-plot is not permitted. Second, measures directed at health protection have male members of the family. Lack of educa- this law also prohibits bequest of agricul- been suspended by the Government. tion regarding their rights typically prevents tural lands. Therefore, a woman who leaves Ecological disasters exert an adverse im- women from benefiting from them. The lack her husband’s family can neither sell nor do- pact on the regional economies. Unemploy- of knowledge is amplified by traditions and nate her stake in the land. Finally, land plots ment is especially high among women. Many the dissuasion of women from seeking infor- owned by citizens of the Kyrgyz Republic can of them are forced to leave their children and mation and recourse when their rights are in- be exchanged only within the same village. migrate to neighboring republics for work. fringed upon. Many women in the UNIFEM Therefore, laws regarding property division The situation of rural populations in zones of survey expressed the fear that their reputa- are discriminatory against women. Moreover, ecological disaster, which cover approximate- tion would suffer if they tried to assert their the law fails to protect the rights to land and ly an area of 80 million hectares is especially legitimate rights. Rights of women to prop- property of couples living in non-registered difficult. The majority of these areas have not erty in Tajikistan are closely related to their marriages. As a result, very often the man and been declared disaster zones. The situation is his relatives receive priority rights for making complicated by the fact that three quarters of Kyrgyz mother decisions about the property, including land, Kazakhstan is subject to desertification. Liv- and daughter. and its disposition. Such gender inequality in ing and working conditions in these areas are the access and use of land contradicts Article extremely hard, especially during the recur- 16 of CEDAW. ring droughts. The Family Code stipulates that common In the ecological disaster zone of the Aral property should be held in equal portions region, the incidence of disease among chil- by the spouses. However, a woman is un- dren is several times higher than the national able to take advantage of her land ownership average. The Kyzyl-Orda region in particular rights, as the laws cited above prohibit her has been the most severely affected in Ka- from managing her share. Even after a legal zakhstan, with the highest rates of disease divorce process, which includes the division and death among children. of property and land between spouses, in practice the man continues to manage his Right to Natural Resources ex-wife’s property. By law, agricultural land Tajikistan is a country where the overwhelm- can be bequeathed to only one heir. Accord- ing majority of the population lives in rural ing to tradition, the “heir” is always a man (a areas (80%), and maintenance of the rights brother, elder son, or other close male rela- to the land is extremely important. Tajikistan status in the family—as a daughter, sister or tives). As a result when it comes to inheri- has been involved in a land reform process wife. Girls in Tajikistan often work on their tance rights, even if women receive a part of during the last decade. Although legally father’s land and live in their father’s house. the property, it is usually a smaller share than women are entitled to the same property As a rule, they lose their right to use these what men receive. rights as men, a number of obstacles hinder resources when they marry. On the other them from availing themselves of their rights. hand, according to the Civil Code, widows HEALTH Frequently, women’s claims to property are are entitled to a share of their husband’s land denied without sound reasons. plot. According to the civil legislation, the Access and Affordability According to the UN Development Fund property is shared among a spouse, children While free primary health care is frequently for Women (UNIFEM), stereotypes such as and parents of the deceased. The UNIFEM available in the Central Asian countries cov- “women are not competent managers” pre- survey indicates that the reality is in fact ered in this report, its benefits are limited due clude women from the reform process as quite different. Widows seldom inherit their to the poor quality of care and inadequate land management skills are considered a pre- husband’s land. Typically, the land is inher- resources, especially in rural areas. requisite for the right of land use. Such latent ited by adult sons (if there are any); in the In Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, high qual- forms of discrimination are often not recog- absence of children, the land is inherited by ity primary health services are typically paid nized but can frequently influence the behav- the brothers of the deceased. services. For poor and women refugees, the ior of officials involved in land reform imple- Land reform in Kyrgyzstan was initiated quality of health services is poor. In Kazakh- mentation at all levels. Separate reports testify about ten years ago. Families that received stan in 2000, providers of state medical ser- that when women are allocated land, it is of land plots were each given a certificate of vices, including primary care, were not de- poorer quality than that allocated to men. private ownership, which delineated the cided based on the quality of care provided In cases where certificates are issued for the boundary of the land plot. As a rule, this but on the cost of service offered. In rural

household, the land is registered in the name document is registered to the head of a fam- areas, the number of primary health care SHERPALITO © of the head of the family, most frequently a ily, traditionally a man. In case of divorce or establishments has been drastically reduced. man. By UNIFEM estimates, less than 50 separation, women are at a disadvantage dur- About 1200 villages are without obstetri- percent of the surveyed women from house- ing the division of property. First, according cians or medical attendants. Over the last holds that received land shares have their to the law “On Management of Agricultural three years, the numbers of obstetrician and

64 BEIJING BETRAYED ASIA AND THE PACIFIC gynecologic beds have been reduced by 1.5 than 40 percent of women between 15 and poor nutrition (anemia, goiter, tuberculosis, times. Researchers estimate that by the age 24 years of age used modern family planning slow physical development in girls and teen- of 17, more than 60 percent of girls will suf- methods. More than half of abortions occur agers) as well as sexually transmitted infec- fer from some health problem. Further, more in this age group. tion among women. 4.7 percent of pregnan- than one third are under observation due to Kazakhstan is not a party to the interna- cies in Tajikistan result in premature birth. chronic diseases. tional conventions on maternity protection. About 70 percent of pregnant women suffer In Tajikistan, over 72 percent of the fe- Only two thirds of pregnant women obtain from various diseases; in particular, anemia male population lives in rural areas. An over- pre-natal care early in their pregnancy. Sev- in 57.0 percent of the cases, urinogenital whelming majority of women live in house- enty percent of women in the country suffer system illnesses (6%), venous complications holds with a per capita income lower than from anemia (63 percent of pregnant wom- (1.7%), and blood circulation system illness- the living minimum wage level. Women’s en in Almaty). Over the last 10 years, the es (1.4%). Of the total number of abortions, health in these areas is in peril because of the incidence of anemia in pregnant women has 1.43 percent of the cases are girls under 19 harsh geographical, climatic, economic and doubled, and renal and cardiovascular vascu- years of age. ecological conditions as well as poor access lar diseases have gone up 1.7 times. The in- Improvement of reproductive health, by to transportation and means of communi- cidence of complications during pregnancy improving infant and maternal mortality cation, municipal services, quality potable and childbirth is high (60 percent of deliv- rates and reducing the need for abortions, water and medical and sanitary services. The eries have complications). Of every 1,000 is a key strategy of public health services in poor health of teenage girls is also a concern. newborns, 288 are born sick. The above Tajikistan. They seek to improve access to 34 percent of teenage girls suffer from dis- statistics reveal that while Kazakhstan has contraceptive services primarily within the eases of the heart, kidneys, endocrine organs, made some strides in the area of reproduc- framework of primary health care services. problems with menstrual cycle, neuroendo- tive health, there remains significant room Additionally, new establishments like the crine syndromes and inflammatory diseases. for improvement. Centers of Reproductive Health have been Furthermore, the health systems in Cen- In Kyrgyzstan, the Ministry of Health and set up with the basic purpose of developing tral Asia are set up without consideration international organizations conduct research new directions and approaches for the Min- to ethnic and religious diversity, very few on a regular basis and develop recommenda- istry of Health. programs address environmental and occu- tions for the Government in the area of re- Data on maternal and reproductive health pational health hazards. However, separate productive health. According to the law on is monitored to some extent in Uzbekistan but programs directed at girls, teenagers and reproductive rights, women have free access the information and data are incomplete. children are in place. to information regarding sexual and repro- ductive health and rights to quality family HIV/AIDS Reproductive Health planning, prenatal and postnatal services. HIV/AIDS is not widespread in Central Asia. Sexual education for a long time was consid- Abortion is legally permissible only on medi- HIV/AIDS-related information is dissemi- ered taboo in the former USSR. However, cal grounds under certain conditions. For ex- nated to women mainly by NGOs and inter- recent studies indicate the need for such pro- ample, when a sexually transmitted infection national organizations, not by governments. grams. Results from surveys in each country (STI) is discovered at an early stage of preg- In Kazakhstan, as of March 2002, there demonstrate that the reproductive behavior nancy, termination of pregnancy is recom- were almost 3,500 known cases of AIDS. An of teenagers has changed over last years and mended. On the other hand, pregnant HIV- allowance in the amount of 80 percent of the the need for sexual and reproductive health positive women face no pressure to terminate minimal wage guaranteed to children under is growing. their pregnancy. Health providers fail to pro- 16 years of age infected with HIV/AIDS was In Kazakhstan, according to the law on re- vide consistent, accurate information about recently cancelled. productive rights adopted in 2004, women health risks to the pregnant woman and the In Kyrgyzstan, despite the Government’s have the right to choose. Women also have fetus and to women infected with STIs, in- assertion that only 16 women in the coun- the right to information on sexual and re- cluding HIV/AIDS. In the absence of ac- try are HIV-positive, 467 cases of HIV productive health and on protecting their curate information about the health impact were registered as of November 1, 2003, reproductive health. On the other hand, on the woman and the transmission risks of according to the Republic AIDS Associa- the number of medical institutions render- HIV to a fetus through pregnancy, delivery tion, of which 40 were women. However, ing services on reproductive health has been and breastfeeding, women are unable to fully even this data is incomplete and severely reduced. Between 1993 and 1998, the num- exercise their reproductive rights. The official underestimates the true magnitude of HIV ber of hospital beds for pregnant women government report contains no mention of in the country. According to an Association and women in childbirth was reduced from this prevalent concern. representative, the real incidence is at least 18,582 to 10,615. In Tajikistan, the National Program on Re- 10 times higher. The majority of registered Because of programs on modern contra- productive Health and Reproductive Rights HIV cases are intravenous drug users who ceptive methods and family planning, the has been approved and is being implement- live in urban areas. Relatively reliable infor- number of abortions over the last 10 years ed. Reproductive health services have been mation on AIDS and STIs is only available declined by almost 50 percent. On the other established and projects expanding access in schools and public health centers in cities hand, in 1998 only 1.5 million women or are being realized through the support of the and nearby settlements. Individuals infected 27 percent of those requiring them were Government and international organizations. with STIs and HIV/AIDS continue to face supplied with contraceptives. There were Despite some positive steps by the Govern- social stigma and frequently are forced to 150,000 abortions reported, of which 10 ment, recent data on maternal health show hide their health condition not only from percent were performed on teenage girls. Less a significant increase in diseases related to society but also from family members. Con-

WOMEN’S ENVIRONMENT & DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION 65 ASIA AND THE PACIFIC servative attitudes, as well as the country’s Republican AIDS Association, together with stan: Agency for Support Development Process significant rural population, constitute the supervision by public health organizations “Nau” (ASDP); Uzbekistan: Women’s Center main barriers to girls’ and women’s access to throughout the pregnancies. of Nukus. information on STI prevention. Two thirds In Tajikistan, the incidence of STIs is of the population live in rural areas and disturbingly high among married women. Sources have little access to complete information Awareness among the population about STIs CEDAW Alternative Reports for Kazakh- and quality consultations on STI-related is- is low. Practices such as early marriages still stan (2000) and Kyrgyzstan (1998); avail- sues. Given the close-knit village communi- persist. Furthermore, information on HIV/ able from http://iwraw.igc.org/publications/ ties, girls in rural areas are reluctant to seek AIDS is not widely available. countryreports.htm. consultation for fear of social condemna- “Main Directions of Governmental Policy tion. Existing barriers are only reinforced Authors on Providing Equal Rights and Opportuni- by attempts of public representatives to ban Olga Djanaeva, Rural Women’s NGO “Alga”, ties for Men and Women of Tajikistan Dur- sexual education in schools. Kyrgyzstan ing 2001-2010,” Governmental Program of On a positive note, public health services Tajikistan. are provided to HIV/AIDS infected women Contributors without any discrimination. Moreover, there Kazakhstan: Yevgeniya Kozyreva, Feminist United Nations Development Fund for are instances of successful results in the case League of Kazakhstan; Kyrgyzstan: Women’s Women (UNIFEM), Using Human Rights of pregnant women with AIDS. These have Support Center; Adilet Legal Clinic; Dia- Treaties to Protect Rural Women’s Right to Land been achieved through the support of the mond Association of Women Scientists; Tajiki- in Tajikistan, 2004.

EAST ASIA Despite Legal Gains, Monitoring and Implementation is a Problem

hroughout East Asia, governments have taken legislative ac- economy. Women have been laid-off more than men and more wom- tion to elevate the status of women. Almost all of the gov- en are employed in irregular and/or part-time work. ernments in the subregion, which includes China (People’s Governments have taken some measures to cope with rapid Republic of), Hong Kong, Japan, Mongolia, the Republic changes in the labor market, but these measures have largely been of Korea (South Korea) and Taiwan, have enacted non-dis- ineffective. The transition of some countries in East Asia to mar- criminatory laws based on gender. Progress has been made in the area ket economies have resulted in reduced access to health services ofT violence against women, with the exception of in Mongolia, and for women. In particular, women in informal and unpaid sectors women’s participation in decision-making has generally increased. and young women often do not have access to health care, and But despite these gains many of the legislative measures represent the there are drastic disparities in health care services in urban and bare minimum of what is needed to move closer to gender equality. rural areas. Lack of access to natural resources has also hindered Laws to prohibit trafficking and protect minorities are insufficient women’s health. and have only recently begun to be enacted. While many discrimina- Most women’s groups report that the primary reason for lack of tory laws have been repealed, those that continue to exist are mainly advances in so many areas is a failure in implementation, even where related to the family and are difficult to change because they are root- legislation exists, and the absence of any monitoring mechanisms to ed in customary practices. track progress. Many of the improvements in the region can be atrib- Women throughout the region have been losing stable jobs due uted to the work of women’s NGOs. In particular, the major efforts to changes in economic structure triggered by the introduction of to advance women’s human rights have been carried out by women’s the market economy, economic crises and the extension of the global NGOs, not governments.

HUMAN RIGHTS signed CEDAW. TheNational Union of itive actions in many countries in the subre- Taiwan Women’s Association (NUTWA) is gion. In 1992, China adopted its first basic CEDAW Compliance working to change this by increasing public law on the protection of the rights and inter- Most governments in East Asia have rati- awareness about CEDAW and how it func- ests of women. In 2004, its Constitution was fied the Convention on the Elimination of tions. In 1996, CEDAW was extended to amended to include respect for and the pro- All Forms of Discrimination against Women Hong Kong with the consent of China and tection of human rights. Although a gender (CEDAW) without reservation with the ex- the U.K. perspective is absent from most of China’s ception of South Korea, which has reserva- Currently, none of the countries in East laws, some legislation protects women’s hu- tions on Article 16 (g) regarding the right Asia, except for Mongolia, have adopted the man rights. to choose a family name. The South Korean Optional Protocol to CEDAW. In Japan, In Japan, in order to ratify CEDAW, the Government is working to amend its civil there are concerns that the Protocol might Government revised its nationality law, law to enable it to withdraw the reservation. cause a conflict with the “independence of changed high-school curricula and adopted A bill on the issue is currently under delib- the judiciary. Korea might adopt the Proto- the Equal Employment Opportunity Law. eration in the National Assembly. col if related laws are passed. Additional laws have been passed since then, Taiwan is the only country that has not The ratification of CEDAW has led to pos- including legislation for a gender-equal soci-

66 BEIJING BETRAYED ASIA AND THE PACIFIC ety, the prevention of spousal violence and plementation. For example, in China, many pendent staff and budget to support the against stalking. Japan also ratified the Inter- behaviors that violate women’s rights go un- work, and communications with other gov- national Labor Organization’s Convention punished. In Japan, no laws have been put in ernmental organizations is very rare. for Workers with Family Responsibilities. In place to protect the rights of indigenous, mi- Over the last decade new legislation on addition, 46 prefectures out of 47 and more nority and immigrant women. Very recently, women’s rights has been adopted in some than 200 local governments have adopted the Government announced that traffick- countries. In Japan, there are now laws on their own ordinances for gender equality. ing in human beings would be a punishable spousal violence, stalking, family leave and However, various obstacles hinder imple- crime. Laws against child prostitution, child equal employment opportunities. Taiwan re- mentation of these laws. For example, no pornography and child abuse were enacted in cently adopted the Gender Equality Educa- penalties exist for failing to comply with the 1999 and 2000. tion Act and ratified the International Cov- Child Care Leave Law and the Family Care In South Korea, laws to protect the girl enant on Civil and Political Rights and the Leave Law, and there is no compensation for child address children’s welfare and the pro- International Covenant on Economic, Social women who take leave. tection of juveniles from sexual violence and and Political Rights. In addition, legislation A recent backlash against gender equal- trafficking. There is a law that punishes sex- was passed on equality in the workplace, sex- ity in Japan is also having an impact. Some ual violence against children under 13, a law ual assault and domestic violence. public officials have made discriminatory re- that allows the secret transfer of children of Throughout East Asia, women’s groups have marks about women, and some local assem- victims of domestic violence to a new school played a critical role in promoting women’s blies have adopted ordinances that violate and a law stipulating that juveniles engaged human rights. For example, In South Korea CEDAW principles. The Government has in sex trafficking are not criminals. Taiwan many of the laws that protect women’s rights failed to respond to these incidents. also has laws protecting the girl child, mainly exist because women’s groups participated in Many positive actions are being taken by in terms of child welfare, sexual assault, sex the legislative process. In Japan, there is a na- NGOs in the subregion. For example, in Ja- trafficking and domestic violence. tional network of women demanding equal pan the Network for CEDAW (JNNC), a net- In addition to China’s 1992 law on wom- treatment for part-time work and contract work of 46 groups working for women’s hu- en’s rights, a 2001 law on population and workers and the prohibition of indirect dis- man rights, effectively lobbied the CEDAW family planning prohibits discrimination crimination in the workplace. In some cases Committee on issues faced by minority against women and ill treatment for wom- women have taken their fight against em- women. This resulted in two cases of long- en bearing baby girls or women suffering ployment discrimination to court. standing employment discrimination being from sterility. resolved in favor of the plaintiffs. In South Many countries have adopted national Public Awareness Korea, women’s groups have been able to use action plans to promote women’s human In Hong Kong, most of the campaigns CEDAW to increase women’s visibility. rights, but these plans are often not strong launched by the Women’s Commission lack a In 1997, the national CEDAW Watch enough to change customary practices and rights-based approach to women’s empower- Network was established in Mongolia to protect women’s rights. Even when legisla- ment and are related to services, or self-im- monitor CEDAW implementation. They tion exists to protect women’s rights, it is not provement for the good of the society. De- produced a Shadow Report in 2001 on gov- easily translated into action. Nor are there spite skimpy budgets and the risk of being ernment action on CEDAW. The Network any corresponding penalties, which in turn marginalized by the Government, NGOs also lobbied the Government for improved hinders effective implementation. There are have done much to pick up the slack by high- implementation. The National Human also few monitoring mechanisms. lighting issues such as women workers’ rights, Rights Commission of Mongolia organized In Japan, the Basic Plan for Gender Equal- single parent’s rights and sex worker’s rights. training for government officials on report- ity (2000) was adopted and an annual re- Japanese NGOs such as the Japanese Asso- ing to the CEDAW Committee. port is prepared by the Government to show ciation of International Women’s Rights are how it’s been implemented. In Mongolia, a active in organizing educational sessions and National Law National Program on the Advancement of producing publications to promote aware- Almost all governments in the subregion Women 1996-2002 was put in place and ness about women’s human rights. have non-discriminatory laws based on gen- a National Program on Gender Equality There is no comprehensive program for der, although some parts of laws are still (NPGE) was approved in 2002. human rights education in South Korea and discriminatory. These laws mainly relate to In Hong Kong, the Women’s Commis- no guidelines in place on how to use human the family, such as the Korean Civil Law sion’s Action Plans are not aimed at changing rights legislation. However, many NGOs under which women do not have the right policy, but focus instead on public education produce educational materials on topics in- to choose their surname. In Japan, discrimi- campaigns, such as “growth” projects that ex- cluding women, the environment, human natory laws remain in areas related to mar- amine women’s traditional roles. rights and peace issues. riage and child-rearing. Under the Penal In Taiwan, no unified national plan has In most of the countries in East Asia, Code abortion is still a punishable offense, been drafted. However, the Commission on women’s human rights are absent from although a maternal protection law stipulates Women’s Rights Promotion was set up to school curricula. Although in Hong Kong cases where abortion is allowed. monitor women’s human rights. The Com- the Women’s Commission recently pushed Many laws in East Asia protect children, mission has identified decision-making, la- for a tertiary program for women, the cur- including the girl child, but legislation pro- bor and the economy, welfare and poverty, riculum promotes women’s traditional role hibiting trafficking and protecting minorities education and culture, health and personal in the society. A human rights program has is insufficient. Part of the problem has been security as the most crucial areas regarding been launched for all students in Taiwan. the absence of a mechanism to monitor im- women’s rights. However, there is no inde- Several countries have adopted a women’s

WOMEN’S ENVIRONMENT & DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION 67 ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

brides in a very vulnerable legal and social In Japan, sexual violence against women by U.S. military position, with little effect on stopping the in- flow of sex workers. A foreign woman risks personnel is a major issue, with women’s networks immediate deportation and loss of custody of her children when she seeks separation or challenging the presence of military bases in the country. divorce because she needs a guarantor, who is usually her husband or a member of his fam- human rights education program for mem- significant health risk factor that has not been ily, for her continuous residency right. bers of the national security and armed forces. made a priority. 1 It has recently surfaced as Violence against women is prevalent in For instance, Hong Kong has a gender-sen- a public issue, partly because of increased re- Hong Kong and there are no laws prohibit- sitization program for the police. In Japan, porting, but also because of a rise in alcohol ing it. The Government is not keen on fund- many police departments receive training on abuse within families. The National Center ing NGOs that work on these issues. women’s human rights and now have special Against Violence (NCAV) has been working In Japan, public or private emergency shel- divisions that focus on crimes against wom- effectively in the last five years in the areas ters and some support services for victims are en. In South Korea, the Ministry of Justice of public service, advocacy, information dis- available but they are not easily accessible. has educated 2,543,813 police personnel semination and raising public awareness. In Moreover, information regarding public sup- about violence against women. late 2003, NCAV and the Mongolian Wom- port services does not reach minority people en Lawyers Association (MWLA) prepared in Japanese society. Two women’s unions have Violence Against Women a draft law on Domestic Violence, after sev- been set up in Tokyo to provide counseling Almost all governments have made progress eral years of lobbying. However, many male and support to women victims of sexual ha- in the area of violence against women. How- parliamentarians rejected the draft because it rassment. Groups have been created to pro- ever, many of the measures do not challenge was contrary to traditional beliefs. vide telephone counseling and awareness- the root causes of violence. In China, the Mongolia’s National Program on Gender raising activities for victims of all kinds of revised marriage law stipulates that violence Equality (NPGE) identifies combating do- sexual violence, including domestic violence. against women, including domestic violence, mestic violence as a priority and focuses on In South Korea, women and girls subject is a human rights violation. At the local level, adopting the Law on Domestic Violence. to violence can benefit from shelters, free le- approximately 16 provinces have adopted Statistics on sexual harassment are not avail- gal services, and medical subsidies for physi- laws to prevent domestic violence and 90 able. There are some services in the form of cal and psychological treatments. A special counties and municipalities have created shelters, counselors or medical professionals support service for migrant, immigrant and policies in support of this. However, these but they lack financial resources. There is minority and indigenous women is avail- anti-violence actions lack systematic plan- little data available on trafficking and forced able, but this does not help in cases of sexual ning and sustainability as well as statistics labor. Forced marriages of women and girls abuse of immigrant women because they and research from a gender perspective. has increased due to the sex ratio imbalance. are often illegal employees. The Ministry Between 2001 and 2003, a project in In Taiwan, a convicted rapist receives an of Gender Equality opened two shelters for China on the trafficking of women and chil- average prison sentence of between five and abused and trafficked immigrant women but dren solved 20,360 cases and rescued 42,215 ten years, and police often release perpetra- there are no comprehensive policies for im- women and children. The anti-domestic vio- tors after only a brief detention. The larger migrant women. lence network of the China Law Society has picture is that the society operates within In Taiwan, women have access to a range cooperated with NGOs, scholars and advo- traditional Chinese culture, in which there is of services including shelters, legal services, cates across China to raise people’s awareness a strong gender bias in favor of males that medical care and counseling and other men- of domestic violence against women, and affects every aspect of social life. tal health services. However, many of these some local governments have begun to pro- The 1998 Domestic Violence Prevention services are inadequate to meet women’s vide shelters for women. Act is not well enforced because of insuffi- needs. Most of them are provided by the In Hong Kong, there has been some prog- cient resources and because the issue is largely NGO sector. Services are available to mi- ress in the area of domestic violence but not regarded as a private matter. Divorce is legal, grant, immigrant and minority and indig- enough has been done to condemn violence but socially stigmatized. Until recently the enous women through the above framework. against women. father or his family was almost automatically However, these services are extremely inad- Some legislation on violence against wom- awarded child custody in divorce cases, re- equate, given the precarious legal position of en exists in Japan, but no laws criminalize gardless of the reasons for divorce. Anecdotal most immigrant women and the disadvan- sexual harassment or control the trafficking evidence suggests that judges are still inclined taged indigenous population. For example, of persons. Many policies are only superfi- to favor paternal custody even in cases of do- one recent study found that 40 percent of the cially implemented. For example, the length mestic violence. The Government has set up young prostitutes in main red-light districts of imprisonment for a convicted rapist is a telephone hotline as an emergency rescue were aboriginal girls, although aboriginal much shorter than that for a robber. service for women, but this is not available peoples make up less than 2 percent of the In South Korea, violence against women 24 hours a day. total population. is punishable by law, but the laws themselves Trafficking of women is especially prevalent have limits. The Korean Government has in the guise of foreign “brides” for Taiwanese PEACE AND SECURITY been indifferent to human-trafficking and men. The Government attempts to prevent the sex industry. this by imposing strict requirements on for- Security Council Resolution 1325 In Mongolia, violence against women is a eign women. This places legitimate foreign There is little public awareness of Security

68 BEIJING BETRAYED ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

Council Resolution 1325 in Hong Kong, Ja- nese Government and provided with equal The International Criminal Court pan or Republic of South Korea. Hong Kong opportunities, such as access to primary edu- Although South Korea is a party to the ICC, has not taken any action on the Resolution. cation, national pensions, child-care allow- laws regarding crimes against humanity and Japan has expressed support for the Resolu- ances and health insurance. However, with war crimes need to be supplemented and tion on various occasions, but the only action the country’s worsening economic situation, public awareness about the ICC should be so far has been to assist women’s participa- it is difficult for refugees to find jobs and raised. Korean women’s groups addressing tion in post-conflict peace-building in Af- make a stable living. Those who are in the Japanese sexual slavery are discussing how ghanistan. In South Korea, the Government process of applying for refugee status, as well to relate past crimes against women to the seems unaware of the Resolution, Rome Statute, although the Statute but some measures have been does not address past crimes. taken to empower women in the In 2002, Mongolia ratified the reunification process with North Rome Statute and adopted a new Korea. Overall though, gender criminal code and procedure law. perspectives are not mainstreamed The new code contains a special in the peace process between the charter on crimes against the peace two Koreas. and security of mankind. However, In Hong Kong, women largely according to Mongolian legal ex- do not participate in peace pro- perts it does not apply to the crimes cesses, agreements and other na- indicated in the Rome Statute. tion-building or decision-mak- There have also been many discus- ing processes. Progressive women Women in sions regarding the extradition of NGOs have participated in anti- South Korea the criminals. demonstrate war campaigns on Iraq and against against U.S. Taiwan has not ratified the Rome the massacre of ethnic Chinese in invasion of Iraq. Statute and there is little public Indonesia. In Japan, women’s par- awareness about the ICC. In Hong ticipation in peace processes has been lim- as immigrant workers living in Japan, have Kong, very few women’s groups are famil- ited, although women have played a critical little or no access to health care and other iar with the ICC. Japan has not signed the role in movements against war. kinds of social services. The Government en- Rome Statute on the grounds that contin- Sexual violence against Japanese women by acts immigration controls before protecting gency legislation must first be established. U.S. military personnel is a major issue. In the fundamental human rights of refugees Women’s NGOs working on peace and secu- Okinawa, where 75 percent of all U.S. mili- and immigrant workers coming to Japan. rity have urged the Government to become a tary facilities in Japan are situated, women’s South Korea has signed the refugee con- party to the ICC, which would give redress movements have challenged the rationale of vention, and has an immigration law that to women who have been subject to violence their presence. In 2000, the Women’s Inter- includes a refugee recognition process. In- and abuse. national War Crimes Tribunal conducted a ternally displaced women and girls are un- trial to seek justice for survivors of Japanese der the mandate of the United Nations High POWER AND DECISION-MAKING military sexual slavery, euphemistically called Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). As “comfort women.” The Japanese military and a result the Government has provided some Representation political leaders were found guilty of crimes protection for internally displaced women In China, women’s representation in gov- against humanity. and girls but the UNHCR statute is not le- ernmental decision-making positions has gally binding. Protection for internally dis- declined substantially. Among the deputies Asylum Seekers, Refugees, placed women and girls is subject to arbitrary of the Chinese National People’s Congress Internally Displaced judgment by the Government. Minimal so- (NPC), the proportion of female representa- In Hong Kong, there are small ethnic cial assistance is provided to refugees and to tives decreased from 21.8 percent in the pre- groups—from Nepal and Pakistan, for ex- internally displaced women and girls. Asy- vious session (1997-2002) to 20.2 percent ample—that face discrimination. Indians lum seekers are not provided with any social (2003-2007). The percentage of women in living in Hong Kong since the days of co- assistance except some medical aid. village committees is also low. lonial British rule are also discriminated Given that Taiwan is not a member of In Taiwan, women’s participation in against. Some illegal workers and new mi- the United Nations, the situation of refu- policy and decision-making has substan- grants from China receive help from NGOs. gee and internally displaced women and tially increased in recent years. Reserving There are only two NGOs with international girls is unique. So far, the Government does seats for women in elections has long been funding to work with sex workers—whether not have any legal provisions pertaining to a constitutional practice. Furthermore, citizens or illegal migrants. Migrant work- refugees, who are usually housed in a gov- pressure by women’s organizations since ers who do not understand the Chinese ernment detention center for three to six the 1990s has led to the adoption of quotas language face discrimination in health care, months. Under the pressure of NGOs, the in the nomination of candidates in major education and employment. Government usually arranges refugee settle- political parties. This practice helped to In Japan, there is no specific provision to ment in a third country. NGOs continue to increase women’s representation at all levels protect the human rights of refugee women push for asylum laws. Indigenous peoples of government. For example, before the and girls. Those who have obtained refugee are, on the whole, educationally and eco- early 1990s, the percentage of women in

WAAWP NETWORK PHOTO FILES status are under the protection of the Japa- nomically deprived. Taiwan’s national legislature was around 10-

WOMEN’S ENVIRONMENT & DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION 69 ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

12 percent. Currently, that number is about created policies. For example, the Beijing Although Mongolia established quotas for 22 percent. Municipal Government required women to women, there has not been effective partici- In South Korea, the rate of women in public be added to the candidate list if there was no pation by women. Decision-making in the administration has been steadily increasing female representative. The result was 30 per- executive branch of the Government remains since 1990. However, female representation cent women in middle and senior manage- highly centralized and there is concern over at managerial positions is only 5.5 percent in ment positions. lack of transparency and accountability. This the central government and 5.3 percent in However, many policies and measures to discourages women from taking action, as is- local government. The rate ofwomen judicial increase women’s participation in politics do sues seem remote and rarely reflect their daily officers has risen and is 8.5 percent. not have a gender perspective and do not concerns. As a result policy-making and pro- In other countries in the region, women’s take into consideration the impacts of child- gram development at all levels fails to fully representation has increased in some areas bearing and household chores on women. address women’s needs and priorities. but decreased in others. Japan, for instance, In addition, female officials are mostly con- A 2004 constitutional amendment in Tai- has gradually increased female representation centrated in areas typically considered suit- wan requires a change in the electoral system in local government and in areas such as the able for women. Regulations to promote by 2007 and mandates that at least 50 percent judicial and public administration branches women’s participation are weak in monitor- of party list seats be filled by women. The of government. The percentage of female ing and implementation. current ruling party and the largest opposition members in national advisory councils has In addition, the enormous funds that are party both have a 25 percent gender quota for increased from 20.9 percent in 2000 to 28.2 needed to finance campaigns often prevent the nomination of elective public positions. percent in 2004, and almost all councils in- women from running for office at the na- The ruling party also has a 25 percent gender clude female members. However, at the na- tional level. Many women candidates at the quota for positions within the party. tional level, the female numbers of the House local level succeed in running with the sup- of Councilors dropped from 17.1 percent in port of financial contributions from and the Impact of Representation 2000 to 14.6 percent in 2004 after a revi- voluntary participation of women supporters In Japan, the adoption of the 1999 law for a sion of the electoral system in 2000. The per- in their campaign. gender-equal society is one successful exam- centage of female members of the House of After the Fourth World Conference on ple of women’s involvement in policy-mak- Representatives has also decreased from 7.5 Women in Beijing, women’s organizations ing. Other examples include the revision of percent in 2000 to 7.1 percent in 2004. were established to provide financial support a law on spousal violence in favor of the vic- In Mongolia, women’s share of repre- to female candidates and to offer training in tims and the insertion of a clause on gender sentation in Parliament dropped from 23 campaign skills. Some political parties have equality in the newly revised 2003 Official percent in 1990—achieved through quota set up a fund to support women members to Development Assistance Charter. All govern- measures—to 3.9 percent in 1992, and was run for elections but, in general, no specific ment ministries have attempted to formulate 10.5 percent and 11.8 percent in 1996 and measures are taken by political parties to pro- gender-sensitive programs. 2000 respectively. mote more women in public positions. South Korea recently introduced laws In Hong Kong, NGO efforts resulted in In South Korea, responding to de- related to women’s development, gender candidates from women’s groups in local dis- mands by women’s organizations, each discrimination and women in science and trict government for the first time. One candi- party introduced a 50 percent quota for technology, among others. Quotas have been date was even elected on a feminist platform. proportional representation in the 2004 established for women professors and women The Women’s Commission succeeded during general election. As a result, women’s repre- public officers, and a five-year plan to increase its first term in increasing the percentage of sentation in the National Assembly increased female public administrators was set up. A women in the consultative bodies of the gov- from 3 percent in 1998 to 13 percent in quota of 50 percent representation in po- ernment. However, government officials re- 2004. However, the percentage of women litical parties has also been established along sponsible for appointments believe that wom- in local assemblies remains as of 2002 at 3.4 with a quota for women in governmental en should be appointed in areas connected to percent. There is also a goal of 40 percent committees. In addition, four female ministers their traditional roles. There has also been a representation of women in governmental were appointed for the first time in history. trend to appoint pro-government women to committees by 2007. As of 2002, women In 2002, women’s organizations petitioned consultative bodies. This was the case with the participated in 96.3 percent of governmental the National Assembly to introduce gender- second term of the Women’s Commission, committees, with an average rate of women’s sensitive budgets. A resolution in favor of the where no members of the progressive women’s representation at 31.5 percent. petition was passed. NGO coalition were appointed. The rate of women in public administra- Women’s representation and participation Several East Asian governments have taken tion has been steadily increasing since 1990 in South Korea has also led to some insti- measures to achieve equal representation. to reach 32.9 percent. However, female rep- tutional transformation. For example, the In China, women’s participation in politics resentation in managerial positions is 5.5 Minister of Environment, a woman, set up and decision-making is being promoted. The percent in the central government and 5.3 a tea table at executive meetings so that each Government has also launched projects to percent in local government. A gender equal- person can make their own tea, removing the enhance women’s capacity in elections and ity employment initiative has been launched expectation that women will prepare it. promote rural women’s participation in vil- to ensure women’s representation in public In Taiwan, civil law has been revised to lage committee elections. As a result, women administration and a five-year plan aims to eliminate most of the articles that discrimi- accounted for 29.2 percent of the total num- reach the 10 percent target rate of women nate against women. In Hong Kong, the ab- ber of village committee members—an 11 public workers in higher administrative sence of progressive women in power has led point increase. Local governments have also positions by 2006. to no significant impact on policy.

70 BEIJING BETRAYED ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

Several countries have set up an office or percent of the agricultural labor force, the Box 14. Exchange ministry of women’s affairs. In 1990, the agreement on agricultural trade under the Program for Peace Chinese Government established the Na- World Trade Organization (WTO) has tional Working Committee on Children and caused serious problems for family-operated A main challenge for Korean women is the Women (NWCCW). However, the Com- farms, where women work as family labor. division of the country and the Armistice mittee is ineffective and short on human and The increase in food imports has created an Agreement between North and South financial resources. excessive supply, which has decreased the Korea. Korean women on both sides were In Japan, the Bureau of Gender Equality sales cost by 20 percent in the last four to totally cut off from each other prior to the was established in 2000; however, it is inef- five years. fective. Moreover, there is no minister exclu- In addition to this price deflation, people 2000 North and South Korean Summit, sively responsible for the promotion of gen- in agriculture have been suffering from fewer an exchange program between North and der equality. Gender budgeting has also not sales. Part-time farmers, who comprise more South Korean women to overcome hostil- been recognized as an important tool, except than 90 percent of farmers in Japan, are also ity and confrontation and move towards by a few local governments where there are a being impacted by a decline in their income peace and coexistence. Since then, North higher percentage of female councilors. from non-agricultural sources. As a result and South Korean women have organized In South Korea, women’s groups succeeded women are having a difficult time managing meetings every year to celebrate the June in establishing a Ministry of Gender Equality their household budgets. Some of them must Declaration and Independence Day. In in 2001. Since then, laws and institutions even forgo medical treatment and payments particular, the Women’s Reunification Rally aimed at improving women’s status have for their national pension premiums. for Peace and the Implementation of the been systemized. One shortcoming is that When the import of green onions, mush- June 15th Joint Declaration, held on October the Ministry is small and powerless. Some rooms and rush grasses from China was 16-17, 2002 at Mountain Gumgang in North stakeholders resist executing policies. increased, over 10,000 women farmers de- Taiwan has not yet established an office or manded and obtained emergency safeguard Korea, was an important event. For the past ministry of women’s affairs. In Mongolia, the protection from the Ministry of Agriculture, five decades, the horror of war—instilling National Council for Gender Equality was Forestry and Fisheries. However, the safe- mistrust, hatred and confrontation—has established in 2001 and consults with a wide guard was only temporary and the damage in constantly dominated the lives of people range of stakeholders, including civil society. their sale has been still growing. in North and South Korea alike. In spite It also provides leadership on implementing National and local government programs of the success of exchanges between the National Program on Advancement of support single mothers with children un- North and South, the program is fragile. Women 1996-2002. der 18 years old. However, the average in- The lesson we have learned is that more come (including benefits and pensions) of women at the grassroots level need to be POVERTY ERADICATION a single mother household is a third of the involved to make the initiatives stable and average income of a two-parent household. strong and to eliminate political element. Macroeconomic Policies, Although the employment rate of Japanese We have learned that dialogue is the best Development Strategies single mothers is high—approximately 85 In China, few policies and plans take gender percent—they often work in unstable forms tool for reconciliation. Through dialogue into account and there have been no mea- of employment. and face-to-face meetings, we understand sures to reduce the negative impacts of glo- Women in Mongolia have been suffering each other and the differences between balization on women in anti-poverty plan- from unemployment and poverty. Female- and reality of each society. Women’s groups ning. Women are also not participating in headed households made up 12 to 13 per- demand that the North and South Korean poverty alleviation as decision-makers. cent of total households in 1999, yet were Relation Law, which political party mem- In Hong Kong, there are few women-re- 24.6 percent of very poor households. In bers are currently discussing, should be lated policies in the area of macroeconom- 1996, the number of female-headed house- based on a gender perspective. ics. However, sex-disaggregated statistics for holds reached 46,000, a two-fold increase employment are now produced. In general, compared to 1990. A quarter of these wom- Enhancing legal safeguards for women’s right Hong Kong prides itself on non-intervention en had six or more children and half of them to work has been a key item on the agenda. in its private enterprise. lived in poverty.5 The state has also provided access to credit In Japan, irregularization of female jobs The Government is implementing a project for poor women in rural areas at a nominal is the most prominent impact of globaliza- to provide 1,470 women with jobs. Another sum. A poverty relief project was launched to tion and deregulation. High unemployment government program envisions lowering help 80 million people with adequate food rates are driven by the economic recession poverty rates by 25 percent for the extreme and shelter from 1994 to 2000. Specific mea- and mega-competition. Women, especially poor by 2005 and by 50 percent by 2015, sures were put forward to address women’s those whose husbands have lost jobs, are be- consistent with the Millenium Development access to loans and credit. ing forced to enter the labor market in mar- Goals (MDGs). In Japan, there are public facilities to sup- ginal positions. port women farmers in both childcare and Women in agriculture have been severe- Access to Public Services participation in agricultural management. ly impacted by globalization. Already the and Resources Support for equipment and facilities neces- self-sufficiency ratio of Japan’s food supply In China, there are laws on women’s access sary for starting new agri-business is also is the lowest among all developed countries to economic resources. Regulations also ex- provided. Compared with the previous fiscal at 40 percent. Since women make up 55.8 ist to protect rural women’s right to land. year, the budget for social security increased

WOMEN’S ENVIRONMENT & DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION 71 ASIA AND THE PACIFIC by 4.2 percent in 2004. In addition, there are attorneys and legal advisory centers, to have begun to play a major role in agricultur- support programs for women starting busi- citizens who apply for them during lawsuits. al development. Over 60 percent of labor in nesses. Local governments and women’s cen- The federal government and most local agriculture, horticulture, livestock breeding, ters often provide free legal services, although governments also establish free hotlines to processing and mixed farming is female. Ac- this is not widely known. answer citizens’ questions and enquiries on cording to a sampling survey, 50 million of In Mongolia, men hold most titles to legal matters. 236 million female rural laborers are working land and have registered ownership of other in local township enterprises. moveable assets such as livestock and ve- Employment Patterns, Women’s Work Women make up one third of the total of hicles. This creates a significant gap in the In China, Industrial restructuring and the migrant workers, estimated at 100 million. ability of women, compared to men, to use transition to the market economy have made According to another source, the proportion such assets as collateral or as productive as- women more vulnerable to poverty than of women increased from less than one third sets under their control. This imbalance will men. Women’s income is generally lower to 40 percent. After 2000, the Government be repeated in a new round of land privati- than that of men. Although the percentage relaxed restrictions on migrant workers from zation if actions such as ensuring that the of women workers in cities and towns re- rural areas. names of both spouses appear on land titles mains the same—37.9 percent in 1998 and There are obvious discriminations based are not taken. 37.9 percent in 2002—more women than on sex, age, physical attributes and local- Privatization in the agricultural sector has men have been laid-off from work. Accord- ity in the labor market. Some governmental resulted in some positive shifts. Rural women ing to one report, the number of retrenched agencies fail to recruit female civil servants who are heads of households have now be- women has reached 3.86 million, which equally. The rate of women’s employment in come property owners. However, they are constitutes 57 percent of the total number the informal sector is higher than men’s and facing difficulties in meeting their needs for of workers who had been laid-off by the the employment conditions of women in the rest, study and health protection. The level of beginning of 2000. Eighty percent of these informal sector are worse than both that of cultural and communal services in rural areas women are between the ages of 31 and 45, women in the formal sector and that of men has deteriorated and the absence of comfort- with low education levels.2 However, other in the informal sector. able settings for work and living is increas- data indicates that women comprise 45 per- In Japan, there has been some progress in ingly causing internal migration of the rural cent of the workers who have been laid-off.3 the area of women’s employment but legal population to urban areas. Among the 6.81 million registered unem- measures have been either too weak or in- In Taiwan, women’s property rights are ployed people in cities and towns, women effective. Although discrimination against legally protected and women are equally totaled 49 percent. women in the workplace is illegal, without entitled to access credit. The Government Women have fewer opportunities for re- an enforcement mechanism it persists. In has reviewed its financial policy and employment in comparison with men. One addition, despite measures to prevent sexual launched various micro-credit programs in study found that only 47 percent of the total harassment at the workplace, the problem re- 2001. Women’s equal access to appropriate unemployed had found new jobs in 2000, mains prevalent. technologies is also protected by law. In 2004, and the re-employment rate for women was The percentage of women employees who public expenditures increased on military only 39 percent.4 To help laid-off women took childcare leave increased from 57.9 per- spending and defense, education, science and technology, agriculture, manufacturing industries and environment, while social In Japan unpaid work amounted to 23 percent of GDP spending and spending on culture and health care decreased. in 1996, and women did 85 percent of it. In 2004, the Government’s total public budgets of women-targeted expenditures over the age of 40 with poor educational cent in 1996 to 71.2 percent in 2002 among were NT$3,733.66 million (NTI=US$0.03), backgrounds and without specific working enterprises with over 30 employees. Almost demonstrating a growth rate of 17.8 percent skills, the Government grants preferential no men took leave, according to a survey by compared with the budgets of NT$3,168.13 policies on their social security and provides the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare. million in the 2003 fiscal year. Public work-skill training and employment chan- There are no laws stipulating equal pay for expenditures on women living in poverty nels. From 1998 to 2002, public employ- equal work or work of equal value; as a result and female heads of household are not cat- ment agencies have provided 19.62 million the average wage of women is 64.9 percent egorized in governmental budgets, though job opportunities for women who have been of that of men. total amounts of project-based expenditures laid-off, accounting for 44.7 percent of the The female ratio of employees increased to address issues of women in poverty total number of job opportunities. Almost from 38.9 percent in 1995 to 40.8 percent in and disadvantaged conditions continue 17 million retrenched women received job 2003, and the female labor participation rate to increase in most ministries. Additional skills training, representing 40.2 percent of of the 30-40 age group increased from 52.7 programs for women were organized on the total number of trainees. percent in 1993 to 60.3 percent in 2003. The savings and credit, basic civil rights, domestic Women entrepreneurs make up 20 percent wage ratio of female full-time employees to violence, women and children’s human of the total Chinese entrepreneurial popula- their male counterparts has increased slightly security, equal employment opportunities tion. Women entrepreneurial associations from 59.5 percent in 1993 to 64.9 percent in and the sex trade. have nearly 10,000 members. 2003, but they still earn less than two thirds In Taiwan, all courts provide free legal With the rapid urbanization of rural areas of men’s salary. services, including services of public and out-migration of male laborers, women Despite these modest improvements, the

72 BEIJING BETRAYED ASIA AND THE PACIFIC conditions of women workers in Japan has companies to grant paid child-care leave, EDUCATION worsened. The percentage of full-time em- but the amount paid to those who are on ployees among total female employees de- leave is unrealistically low and discourages International Agreements creased from 60.9 percent in 1995 to 50.7 people from taking leave. Women’s groups Since 1995, the Chinese Government has percent in 2002, while that of part-time em- have been demanding that all workers em- enacted several laws on education. Gender ployees (less than 35 weekly working hours ployed more than 180 days have the right balance has been achieved in elementary ed- in non-agricultural sectors) among all female to child-care leave and that the amount be ucation in China, yet the higher the educa- employees increased from 27.9 percent in based on a proportion of the workers’ sal- tion level, the lower the number of women. 1990 to 40.7 percent in 2003. ary, with a minimum of 50 percent of the Women account for 70 percent of the illiter- At the same time, the wage gap between national average salary. ates over 15 years old, and there is a lack of part-time employees and full-time employees Since the 1997 Asian financial crisis, the investment in anti-illiteracy campaigns and has widened. The ratio of part-time employ- Government has implemented various pro- lifelong education. ees’ wages to full time employees’ dropped grams to create temporary jobs in the public Gender mainstreaming has not been fully from 70.4 percent in 1995 to 65.7 percent sector for unemployed women and provide incorporated into educational decision-mak- in 2003. The unemployment rate of women vocational training and financial support for ing or reforms of the education system. Laws increased from 2.6 percent in 1993 to 4.9 women starting their own business and has and regulations to improve education for percent in 2003. However, rates for men set up the Women Resource Development women do not receive enough attention. were worse at 2.4 percent to 5.5 percent in Center. However, these measures have, for The concept of gender equality in curricula the respective years. the most part, been ineffective. needs to be further strengthened. Traditional Women’s unpaid work is not visible in the In Mongolia, during the process of tran- gender roles in Chinese society still influ- national income account, but a government sition to a market economy, opportunities ence educational values. In the educational survey estimates that the monetary value opened up for women to become property administrative system, most of the leaders of housework, social activities and other owners and employees in private business are male. unpaid work in 1996 accounted for 23 per- entities. In the early 1990s, the number of In Hong Kong, most school principals do cent of the gross domestic product (GDP) women employed in the private sector in- not even recognize gender inequality. The and women did 85 percent of the total creased 4.3 times and those running small Women’s Commission recently pushed for unpaid work. According to another study, individual business increased 5.8 times. Ac- a tertiary program for women, but the cur- published in 2000, women provided 82 cording to a survey conducted by the Union riculum emphasizes women’s traditional role percent of elderly care and 86 percent of of Private Owners in 1996, 26.6 percent of in society. child care. Working women spend three private companies were led by women, an in- In Japan, almost 100 percent of women hours a day on domestic chores, child rear- crease of 3.3 percent over 1993 figures. and men enter school at the compulsory ing, caring for the elderly and shopping, Mongolia has acceded to International La- education level. At the upper-secondary and while working men spend only 27 minutes bor Organization Conventions and enacted higher education levels, the ratio of women on domestic work. legislation guaranteeing a legal base for the and men is almost the same. Equality be- The female ratio of managerial positions implementation of the Conventions. tween girls and boys has also been realized increased from 8.9 percent in 1996 to 9.9 A 1997 law legalizing a five-day work week in the formal curriculum. In reality, however, percent in 2003. But women’s participation is important as it frees up leisure time for the separation of boys and girls is still often in economic decision-making is very limited. citizens. There are no laws or regulations on considered natural in the organization of The percentage of women in managerial po- wage differences between men and women. classes and the planning of courses. For ex- sitions in the private sector is also very low. Men often occupy high-profile higher paid ample, many courses in dancing and martial There is no official fact-finding investigation positions, while women are employed in arts are offered single-sex only. on women immigrant workers, although low-profile positions, that are paid less. In South Korea, there has been almost no many are forced to take low-paying jobs in In Taiwan, gender discrimination is pro- difference in the admission of girls and boys the manufacturing or service industries. hibited in the workplace. However, the ef- to elementary, junior and high schools since Over the past 10 years South Korea has fectiveness of the law is still under review. A 1999. But a huge gender gap remains in col- experienced economic growth. However, 1984 law requires equal pay for equal work. lege admissions. Gender bias in university the number of women irregular workers un- However, men are often still paid more than majors still exist. The number of women ma- protected by labor laws has increased to 70 women with the same education and work- joring in science has increased steadily, but percent. Women’s groups and others have ing experience. To get around the law, some the same cannot be said for engineering. Mil- petitioned to revise the laws and the Govern- employers give different job titles to men and itary academies allow the admission of wom- ment has announced plans to improve the women for similar work. en cadets, and special universities now accept treatment of irregular women workers. Women’s formal sector unemployment students based on academic results without Maternity and child-care leave has been has increased during the past decade from gender bias. The proportion of women in the extended to 90 days, but only 50.5 percent an average of 2.5 percent or less in the late Police Academy has also increased. of eligible women in South Korea took leave 1990s to 3.71 percent in 2001. It further Schools are moving towards co-education in the first half of 2003. This was an increase climbed to 4.25 percent in 2003. The length rather than gender segregation. This is the from 36.2 percent in 2002. Women in ir- of unemployment also increased from around result of efforts by women’s groups to main- regular employment are still not guaranteed 15 weeks in 1992 to about 20 weeks in the stream women in all areas of society. Textbooks maternity protection. The Government has late 1990s and 26.5 weeks in 2003. have also been revised to reflect the changes provided financial support to encourage in women’s social and economic roles, and

WOMEN’S ENVIRONMENT & DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION 73 ASIA AND THE PACIFIC pictures and illustrations in textbooks have reotypes of suitable jobs of women and men, In South Korea, gender equality education been edited to reflect gender equality. but also on directed labor allocations under is now mandatory in the training of teach- In Mongolia, high literacy levels and uni- the previously centrally planned economy. ers for public schools. The Government has versal education up to eighth grade for boys Despite higher levels of education, women tried to increase women’s participation in the and girls was achieved during the socialist era. do not seem able to convert this asset into professional educators’ circle through such State infrastructure was created even for re- higher income levels. There are also com- measures as encouraging the appointment mote areas for all levels of education, includ- plaints about poor teaching and poor infra- of women as elementary and junior school ing boarding schools to ensure nomadic herd- structure. Retraining and non-formal educa- principals and vice-principals. But the rate ers were able to access this for their children. tion tends to focus on preparing new entrants of women in management-level positions is In the early years of transition, the educa- for the work force. Older women, needing still very low. A 20 percent quota for newly tion sector faced many setbacks, in particu- skill improvements or new skills following re- appointed women professors in public and lar inadequate allocations for heating and trenchment from declining economic sectors, national universities has been set, earmark- maintenance of the extensive infrastructure. are not targeted in the existing programs. ing professorships for 600 women. Higher school dropout rates began to occur, Teaching staff are predominately female: Women are provided opportunities for particularly among boys who were kept at 93.6 percent in primary, 71.1 percent in continuous education through government- home to assist in income-generating activi- middle and 68.5 percent in senior classes. funded adult education programs. In 2003, ties. Overall enrolment fell from 98.6 per- Vocational and technical schools have 60.1 the Korea Teachers’ Union decided to ap- cent among 8- to 15-year-olds to only 84.3 percent female teachers and universities and point women members to 50 percent of its percent in 1995. colleges have 52.4 percent. These varying union representative seats. Fees were also introduced to cover some concentrations of women reflects traditional costs, especially for school dormitories. These gender stereotypes of how women extend Access and Changes in Practices costs were incurred just as real incomes were their caring aptitudes to teaching of young The Chinese Government has allocated 3.9 falling dramatically. Despite these cutbacks, children, but as studies become more techni- billion RMB (IRMB=US$0.12) for a proj- access to schools and pupil teacher ratios cal, the proportion of men increases. ect on compulsory education in poverty- have remained consistent across regions. Ex- Data also shows that the majority of school stricken areas. In 2002, the national budget penditure as a percentage of GDP has also principals are male, while females manage earmarked 99 billion RMB for compulsory now increased from a low in 1995 of 4.6 per- school financial affairs. Some working in the education in rural areas. As a result, China’s illiteracy rate among women has dropped. The gap between the illiteracy rates of men In Mongolia, older women are not considered in existing and women narrowed from 19 percent in 1990 to 8.5 percent in 2000. The decrease skills-training programs for entrenched workers. in female illiteracy surpasses the average na- tional decline of illiteracy. cent to 8.8 percent in 2001. education sector have identified the need to To raise the school enrolment rate, girls Prior to 1990, there was an extensive net- challenge these stereotypes by encouraging from impoverished families are allowed to work of pre-schools and kindergartens. Be- more men to work in primary and secondary delay their payment of tuition fees or are tween 1989 and 1998, the number of these education, providing varied role models for charged lower tuition fees—or even no fee at institutions dropped by half as state funding young boys, and encouraging more women all. For those girls who have not completed was drastically cut. In every part of the coun- to take on decision-making responsibilities.7 primary school education by the age of 15, or try, including the capital, girls outnumber female students between the ages of 15 to 18 boys enrolled. This is particularly noticeable Public Policy who have not received a junior high school at higher levels of education. A survey by the In China, there is a project on girls’ educa- education, the education department will UN Development Fund for Women (UNI- tion in the four western provinces and au- provide them with compensation education. FEM) found that, of their sample, 15 percent tonomous regions to ensure that ethnic girls Girls who take care of their siblings can attend of women have “diploma high” qualifications enter school and do not drop out. Other classes along with their younger siblings. (i.e. completed secondary education) and efforts to promote girls’ education includes In Japan, the National Women’s Educa- they constitute 80 percent of the total holders textbook reform. In Japan, only a few schools tion Center (NWEC) has provided train- of “diploma high”. The proportion of women have introduced education for global citizens ing for leaders and teachers along with other with completed secondary education was or multicultural co-existence as an interdisci- activities such as exchanges among women’s found by this same survey to be higher among plinary subject. organizations. NWEC has played a leading rural populations than in urban centers. Steps to reexamine gender divisions in role in promoting gender equality in adult Government data shows that female stu- schools have had a positive impact on school and lifelong education. dents comprise 50.1 percent of those in pri- culture. In fact, many local ordinances stipu- In South Korea, middle and high school mary and secondary education, 73.3 percent late the necessity of measures for promoting education training centers have been estab- in tertiary diploma studies, 62.7 percent in gender equality in every field of education in lished to give women over 50 the opportuni- bachelors degree studies and 65 percent in accordance with the law. However, there are ty to obtain junior and high school diplomas. master degree studies. At tertiary levels, choic- still problems. Customary practices, such as However, efforts to promote literacy and so- es regarding enrolment in different studies putting boys first and the division of labor by cial literacy—the ability to comprehend the are highly gendered, except in mathematics sex are rampant, and there are gender gaps in social significance of what is read and writ- and computing.6 These choices build on ste- some majors among university students ten—are scarce at the government level. In-

74 BEIJING BETRAYED ASIA AND THE PACIFIC ternet Technology (IT) training, vocational percent in local agricultural committees, al- together to take action in other ways too. A training and job counseling for female stu- though this percentage had increased from postcard campaign led by a group of women dents has become more substantial. Several 0.3 percent in 1995 and 1.8 percent in 2000. farmers expressed women’s concerns regard- women’s centers provide vocational and busi- Although women comprised 15.2 percent of ing the World Trade Organization. Women ness counseling for women seeking jobs or the members of Japan Agricultural Coopera- farmers’ successful demand for an emergency starting their own business. tives in 2002, the percentage of women ex- safeguard from the Ministry of Agriculture, ecutive members was only 1 percent. This is Forestry and Fisheries was noted earlier. NATURAL RESOURCES an increase from 0.20 percent in 1995. In China, there is no gender perspective AND ENVIRONMENTAL SECURITY The data on women’s participation in en- when it comes to understanding environ- vironmental decision-making at local level is mental degradation in the context of glo- Decision-Making not available. However, we can assume that balization and rapid domestic economic In China, a growing number of women the percentage of women in local councils growth. However, there have been some suc- participate in environmental policy-making has increased during the last decade because cessful environmental initiatives involving and decision-making. Recently, women have ordinances for gender equality have been en- women. In 1977, the All-China Women’s begun to occupy leadership positions in the acted in 46 out of 47 prefectures and 179 Federation (ACWF) and SEPA launched an Department of Environmental Protection municipalities (5.6 percent of the total) as educational campaign on women’s participa- at all levels. In addition there are two vice- of 2004. tion in decision-making on natural resources chairwomen of the Committee of Environ- In the Ministry of Environment there is and environment that was later recognized as ment and Resources of the National People’s a focal point for promoting gender equal- one of the “500 Best” by the UN Environ- Congress. In the institutions directly under ity, and in 2001 a plan was introduced for mental Program. In 2003, another campaign the State Environment Protection Adminis- increasing the number of women employees mobilized 340 million households to create tration (SEPA), women employees account and women in managerial positions by 2005. “green homes”. for 36.7 percent of the total. The Ministry of Environment also appointed In Japan, success stories on women’s par- Women make up a third of the 20,000 plus one woman among five NGO advisors to the ticipation in decision-making on natural scientists and researchers working for some government delegation for the 2002 United resources and the environment are available 400 environmental scientific and technical Nations World Summit on Sustainable De- but this is not systematic. research organs. The Ecological Environment velopment. This was the first time that the In China, the main obstacle to women’s Research Center of the Chinese Academy of Government included NGOs, and a woman, full participation is the failure of the govern- Sciences has the most female scientists who as members of a delegation to a UN environ- ment to pay adequate attention to the impor- make up 42 percent of the total employed. mental meeting. tance of public participation in environment In the National Program for the Devel- In South Korea, the Ministry of Gender protection in general, particularly, the role opment of Chinese Women (2001-2010), Equality recommends a 30 percent quota of played by women. In Japan, women’s full par- women and the environment was chosen to women on various kinds of advisory com- ticipation in environmental decision-making be among the six areas of development pri- mittees. The introduction of the gender is hindered by a lack of capacity and persis- ority, and an objective of enhancing wom- equality system in the public sector has been tent gender stereotypes. For example, women en’s participation in environment protection promoting the rate of women’s participation sort garbage at home but seldom participate and decision-making and other strategies in central and local government. Women as policy-makers in waste management. were formulated. participate in 31.6 percent of all government In Japan, women’s participation in coun- committees, with a target of 40 percent by Gender Impacts cils and advisory bodies for environmen- 2007. However, the number of women in Data related to the environment and the tal policy-making has increased during the administrative positions is still low. For ex- health impacts of environmental changes on last decade. The ratio of women in the four ample, as of 2003 the percentage of women human beings in Japan are usually collected councils of the Ministry of Environment was in administrative positions above level five from both men and women, but the analysis 28.6 percent in September 2003. This is an was 5.9 percent. The target rate for women is not always gender sensitive. Gender-dis- increase from 16.0 percent in 1996 and is administrators in the public sector is 10 per- segregated data is only available in relation to higher than the average percentage of 26.8 cent by 2006. women’s reproductive functions. percent in all government councils. The ratio Currently, the vice-minister of the Minis- There are many incidents of chemical con- of women in the eight councils of the Min- try of Environment is female but there are tamination that have been affecting people’s istry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries no women officers. Women NGOs have health. The impact of chemical contamina- reached 30.6 percent in 2003, a drastic in- been active in participating in various kinds tion on women’s health is severe because it is crease from 16.2 percent in 1996. of committees. As a result of pressure from passed on to future generations. For example, Women accounted for 55.3 percent of the the NGOs, a Committee for Women’s En- the discharge of methyl mercury by the Chis- agricultural labor force in 2003 and 16.7 per- vironmental Policies inside the Ministry of so Corporation affected some 20,000 people. cent in forestry and 16.6 percent in fisheries Environment is under consideration. Many women gave birth to babies with mer- in 2002. In spite of their important roles in In Japan, organizations such as the wom- cury poisoning. There is growing concern re- and contributions to supporting livelihoods, en’s division of the Agricultural Cooperative, lated to the disposal of WWII gas bombs and maintaining natural resources and revitaliz- have been established to represent the inter- other equipment of the Imperial Japanese ing local communities, women’s participation ests of women. However, the proportion of Army that was buried underground after the in decision-making processes at local level is women in the cooperative is low. Although war. These chemicals have seeped into the low. In 2002, women accounted for only 3.7 their activity is sporadic, women have come ground and ground water and affect people’s

WOMEN’S ENVIRONMENT & DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION 75 ASIA AND THE PACIFIC health in Japan and China many years later. a decline in government health expenditure In Japan, a 2002 health law and a 1997 in- Gender-dissegregated data on these two inci- from 25 percent in 1990 to 15 percent in surance law emphasize people’s responsibility dents has not been collected. 1999. Overall, the Government is less re- for their own health. Such laws lack consid- sponsible for providing primary health care.8 eration for people who already have diseases Right to Natural Resources In Taiwan, all citizens have health insur- and who cannot control their health for a va- In China, a law was adopted in 2002 that ance. However, medical facilities are not riety of reasons. Basic medical examinations ensures equal rights for women in land con- wide spread enough and gender-sensitive are conducted on people ages 0 to 15 and 40 tracts. It stipulates that women’s rights and health laws that focus on women are desper- plus, with a portion of the costs covered by interests in contracts should be protected and ately needed. national and local governments. After junior infringement on women’s rights to land by In Mongolia, the transition to a market high school, until the age of 40, however, any organization or individual is illegal. It economy has had a serious impact on the people must go to a hospital or clinic at their also ensures the protection of women’s rights health sector, which used to be funded 100 own expense. in land contracts after their marriage or di- percent by the state. Severe financial con- Women are less likely to have regular med- vorce or during their widowhood. straints have resulted in a 42 percent decline ical examinations than men. In 2001, 46 per- In Japan, although there are laws stipulat- in per capita state budget funding. Health cent of full-time housewives were medically ing that all children have an equal right to infrastructures have deteriorated and require examined, which is less than the percentage inherit land, statistical data is not available. modernizing. The number of maternity clin- of working women. Moreover, women en- The defacto right of women to inherit land, ics has been reduced. Among those remain- gaged in childrearing are less likely to under- especially farmland, has been hindered by ing, 71.9 percent are reported to have inad- go any medical examination—43 percent of tradition. According to custom it is the first equate buildings.9 Overall, there is public women compared to 62 percent of men aged son who inherits farmland and real estate, es- dissatisfaction with the quality of health ser- 25-34 are examined. pecially in rural areas. While it is often the vices. Although health budget expenditures In 2001, the first clinic for gender-sensi- wife of the son who actually performs agri- went up from a low of 3.1 percent of GDP in tive/specific holistic medicine was established cultural work, she is not eligible to inherit 1995 to 4.7 percent in 2002, this still com- and subsidized by the Government at the the land unless it is specifically expressed in a pares poorly with the 5.5 percent in 1990. Faculty of Medicine of Kagoshima Univer- will or she is adopted by her in-laws. Both of The Government has put forward the fol- sity. As of March 2004, there were 250 such these instances are rare in Japan. lowing objectives: expand the involvement clinics in 42 prefectures out of 47. Support In Okinawa, a courageous group of wom- of the state, individuals and business enti- for women’s life-long health and work on en, most of them over 70 years old, brought ties in health protection; increase preventive gender-specific medicine has been incorpo- a case to court claiming their equal right to measures against infectious diseases; decrease rated into the guidelines for the Chiba Pre- be members of an association that owns a infant mortality rates by 50 percent, widen fecture health policy. community forest. Although a district court Although official statistics are not avail- acknowledged their right based on the Con- able, it is believed that minority women have stitution, the high court ruled against them less access to adequate and comprehensive in 2004. The court failed to view the case as health care services and information. a violation of CEDAW, which prohibits gen- Despite improvements in the past 10 years, der discrimination. many doctors and pharmacists still do not The privatization of natural resources, disseminate necessary information to patients such as water has not been examined by the and clients. Human rights and ethical stan- Japanese women’s movement partly because dards are not focused on ensuring consent. South Korean the process is not visible. In the case of South women’s vigil Korea, resources such as energy and water against war. Reproductive Health are managed by public agencies. There have In South Korea, projects related to pregnancy therefore been no serious problems related the scope of collaboration with the UN; and and birth were launched in 1999 but never to privatization. better disburse health-related funds. progressed due to budget cuts. Currently In Mongolia, only 51percent of the popu- Some categories of the population—iden- there are a high number of births by C-sec- lation has access to safe water and sanitation, tified as vulnerable, poor or disabled—have tion, and costs of pregnancy and birth are which increases health risks and impacts their health insurance premiums paid by the not covered by national medical insurance. health outcomes for children in particular. Government, and 66.8 percent of all insured Although sex education is available, its qual- citizens were under exemptions and hence ity is not satisfactory. The rate of contracep- 10

HEALTH premiums are paid for them. The poor and tive use has increased since 1995. FILES PHOTO NETWORK WAAWP very poor spend 2.3 percent of their income China recognizes that the reproductive Access and Affordability on health compared to 1.5 percent in non- rights of citizens include the right to in- In South Korea, gender perspectives are ab- poor households, yet the poor have a higher formed contraceptive choice and the right to sent from public health policies. Women’s incidence of ill-health.11 free basic services.12 A broad approach to re- health is often limited to reproductive issues. There are also considerable time andfi- productive health has been taken with a focus In China, laws guarantee women’s health nancial costs in accessing the health system, on gender equality and women’s empower- care. However there is no evidence that particularly in rural areas—especially for ment. Emphasis continues to be on reducing health services have become gender sensitive. women, who are usually responsible for tak- population growth and encouraging couples Health sector reforms in China have led to ing children to medical centers. to consider only having one to two children.

76 BEIJING BETRAYED ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

This kind of ‘encouragement’ is not consis- and provide not less than 80 percent of the morbidity and abortion for decades. How- tent with the right of freedom to choose the population with a clean water supply. Oth- ever, data on unmarried girls and adolescents number of children one wants, and when er objectives have also been put forward to as well as on women victims of violence and enforced with incentives or disincentives is a better the scope and quality of reproductive minorities are unavailable. violation of reproductive rights.13 health services. After the enactment of the Mother and Emergency contraception is available on Rates of maternal mortality in Mongolia Child Health Law in 1965, neonatal mortal- request in public facilities. China has seen were at 158 per 100,000 live births in 2000. ity rates and infant mortality rates have de- consistently low maternal mortality rates of Trends between 1992 and 2000 show a re- creased, reaching the world’s lowest. By con- 43.2 per 100,000 live births, comparable to duction of around 20 percent.15 These recent trast, maternal mortality rates per 100,000 the developed world. However, significant decreases, however are not sufficient to meet births dropped slightly in the last decade but rural urban differentials have been observed. the Millennium Development Goals. The remain rather high among industrialized na- There was no national data on the reduction closure of maternity rest homes during the tions at 6.5 percent in 2001. Pregnancy, de- of unsafe abortions in China, where 1,650 early 1990s has also affected women’s access livery and induced abortion are not covered women die annually due to this practice.14 to pre-natal care. These services are now be- by health insurance. Over the past decade China has developed ing restored. policy statements on adolescents’ sexual, and Abortion rates are high at 231 per 1,000 HIV/AIDS reproductive health needs. Health centers live births in 2000. Poor women cite lack In South Korea, the private sector is involved provide contraceptive and other reproduc- of economic resources as the most common in the prevention of AIDS, sexually transmit- tive health services to adolescents as part reason. Thirteen percent of maternal deaths ted diseases and teen pregnancy. However, of primary health care. However, there is are due to unsafe abortions.16 Sexually trans- results are unsatisfactory. not enough emphasis on sex education and mitted diseases are also increasing through- In China, there is a stigma attached to the reproductive health for young girls, and many out the country. Between 1991 and 2002, disease and medical practitioners regularly young people cannot access information the incidence of syphilis increased from 3.7 violate confidentiality rights. China is also or counseling via regular channels. Formal to 6.7 per 10,000 and for gonorrhea, 9.4 to facing limited resources to treat HIV/AIDS teaching of sexual and reproductive health 19.6 per 10,000. Particularly for women, this infected persons. The inadequacy of existing and rights is included in Chinese school cur- increases the risk of recurrent infection. primary health care facilities to provide a full ricula. NGO reproductive health services In Japan, education regarding sexual and range of integrated STD and HIV services is have received a much higher rating by wom- reproductive health and rights has been in- a major impediment.19 Preventive programs en than government health services. adequate for decades. Many women are exist, although there has been no national Mongolia has redefined its national strat- hesitant to talk about their own reproduc- level assessment of their impact. egy on reproductive health. Major attention tive and sexual health and rights, although In Taiwan, beginning in 1992, heterosexu- is given to the issues of early medical supervi- attitudes are slowly changing. In 1999, a sex al contact became the primary route of HIV sion of pregnant women, treatment of female education book was produced for third year transmission. This has had a considerable leukemia and basic diseases, reduction of in- junior high school students. However, after impact on women. Youth and women of re- fant mortality, dissemination of knowledge criticism by some Diet members that the productive age constitute two of the fastest- about reproductive health, and contracep- Government had gone too far, circulation of growing groups being diagnosed with HIV/ tion for both women and men. the book was stopped. AIDS. Women in their childbearing years of To date, upwards of 30 percent of women Today, sexually transmitted diseases are 20-39 are at the greatest risk of infection, ac- of reproductive age use contraception. The rapidly increasing among teenagers. The counting for 56 percent of all HIV infections number of abortions has risen and the birth most vulnerable age bracket is 15 to 19, and among females.20 Statistics show that the rate rate has declined. Although only a small per- one out of four girls who visited gynecolo- of infection among women has increased centage (0.6 percent) of all pregnant women gists in Tokyo was infected with chlamydia.17 sharply since the 1980s. In 1989, the HIV deliver at home, their rate of maternal mor- The rate of teenage abortions rose from 6.2 infection ratio of men to women was 41-1. tality is 20 percent higher than women who per million in 1995 to 13 per million in six By 2001, the ratio had reached 11-1. give birth in hospitals. years, according to a report from the Health Researchers have neglected reproduc- Incidents of sexually transmitted diseases Ministry. In 1995, the reported number of tive health issues among women with HIV (STDs) among women are quite widespread: abortions performed on teenage girls in Japan even though the rate among pregnant wom- 50.4 percent of women with STDs are un- was 26,117. The number reached 46,511 in en showed a five-fold increase to 14.5 per employed and 40 to 58 percent are between 2001.18 Teenage girls with sexually transmit- 100,000 in 2001.21 Since 1985, the Depart- 15-25 years old. ted diseases and/or an unwanted pregnancy ment of Health has provided treatment at no The Government was working to achieve are reluctant to visit OBGYNs because they cost for persons diagnosed with HIV/AIDS, the following objectives by the year 2000: re- are afraid that their parent(s) will find out if including pregnant women. Antiretroviral duce maternal mortality by half, the mortality they use the insurance. Without insurance, therapy has been provided free to all patients of infants under five by one third and deliv- costs are prohibitive. at any stage of HIV infection since 1990. ery complications by 70 percent, compared In the past decade, maternal mortality rates HIV counseling and testing are not man- to 1990 levels; ensure 100 percent medical in Japan have fallen somewhat to 6.5 per dated services for pregnant women. In ad- coverage of all pregnant women, including 100,000 live births in 2001. Most deaths oc- dition, the HIV-related health care and 70 percent during the first three months of cur at clinics that are not prepared to handle treatment needs of girls, sex workers and pregnancy; treat not less than 90 percent of emergencies. The Japanese Government has transgenders are frequently ignored. The pregnant women with anemia with iron acid; been collecting data on maternal mortality, Government began an AIDS prevention

WOMEN’S ENVIRONMENT & DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION 77 ASIA AND THE PACIFIC program in 1985. Since 2001, AIDS and Workers in Japan from Southeast Asia Contributors STI control and prevention policies have and Latin America, particularly female sex Hong Kong: Cecilia Young Dongling; Japan: been coordinated at the central level. Since workers and undocumented immigrants, Yukiko Oda, Japan Women’s Watch (JAWW), 1985, all Taiwanese citizens with HIV, in- have been at high risk of contracting HIV and KFAW; Mihoko Ejiri, International Wom- cluding HIV-infected pregnant women and and STDs because they do not have access en’s Year Liason Group; Korea (Republic of): unborn fetuses, are entitled to access to to information, health services and insur- Lee, Mi-Young, Korean Women’s Environment free medication, prophylaxis treatment and ance. Japan is the only country among the medical services G7 nations where the rate of HIV infection Network (KWEN); Mongolia: Oyunchimeg Stigma and discrimination are the primary has been increasing. The rate of HIV infec- Damdinsuren, Liberal Women’s Brain Pool; obstacles for women with HIV/AIDS to ac- tion through heterosexual contact has been Bayarbileg Sambuu, Center for Development, cess treatment. Since Taiwan is a patriarchal increasing, especially in urban areas. Bayartuya Otgonbayar, Young Women’s Lead- society in which men are the primary deci- According to a 2003 survey on AIDS con- ership Club; Taiwan: Lin, Shu-Yi, National sion-makers concerning sexual activity, fertil- traction by the Ministry of Health, Labour Union of Taiwan Women Association; Yang, ity and contraceptive use, gender inequality and Welfare, 69 percent of teenagers in- Shih-Yu, Chang Fo-Chuan Center for the Study has a powerful impact on women’s reproduc- fected with HIV/AIDS are women. Due to of Human Rights; Chen, Jau-Hwa, Human tive and sexual health regarding HIV/AIDS an increase in the number of infected young Rights Program, Soochow University; Huang, prevention and treatments. women, the number of births from HIV-pos- In Mongolia, work on combating HIV/ itive pregnant women has risen since 1988. Mo, Chang Fo-Chuan Center For the Study of AIDS was first launched by the Government However, the number of infected infants Human Rights; Huang, Uang, Chang-Ling, in cooperation with the World Health Orga- is decreasing, suggesting that prevention Dept. of Political science, National Taiwan nization (WHO) in 1987. Recently, an HIV/ measures against mother to child infection University; Awakening Foundation; Chang, AIDS Reference Center opened. National are taking effect. In 2002, new government Chin-Fen, Research Fellow, Institute of Soci- specialists have been undergoing training, guidelines were formulated for health and ology, Academia Sinica, Taiwan; Hsu, Kristy, both abroad and in-country; laboratories for physical education. Chung-Hua Institution for Economic Re- analyses have been set up in provinces and Governments, including health centers search; Economy and Marketing Commission towns; and the necessary equipment, instru- and schools, NGOs and the media dissemi- at NUTWA; Chaing, Chueh, College of Public ments and chemical substances have been nate information. NGOs are taking the most supplied to urban and rural areas. Under the active and progressive action through lec- Health, National Taiwan University; Mental same project, 3.3 million condoms have been tures, symposiums, forums and publication, Health Association in Taiwan; Women’s Re- distributed to people in high-risk groups. often focused on peer education. search Program, Population and Gender Study The National Committee on Combat- Collaboration between the Government Center, National Taiwan University; Nai-Ying ing HIV/AIDS was established in 1992 and NGOs has been established in the area Ko, Dept. of Nursing, College of Medicine, and approved a national program. The Law of policy-making since the Tenth Interna- National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan Na- on Combating HIV/AIDS was passed by tional Conference on AIDS in 1994. Some tional Cheng Kung University. the Government in 1992. Provincial health NGOs, including self-help groups, have centers have been given guidelines by the been actively involved in government-fund- Sources ed research projects. Government for diagnosing and treating All-China Women’s Federation, Compila- HIV/AIDS and sexually transmitted diseas- In 1998, HIV-positive people became eli- tion of Laws Relating to Women and Children, es. Training and education has been aimed gible to receive an official handbook for the April 2002. at preventing infection among adolescents, physically disabled. Among other things, this high-risk groups and the general public. handbook provides information on the health All-China Women’s Federation, ed., Women The Mongolian Women’s Federation has coverage available at different income levels to of China, China Intercontinental Press, May organized nationwide seminars on the pre- help ease the economic burden of treatment. 2004. vention of HIV/AIDS and STDs. The Feder- Over 400 government-accredited hospitals ation has also cooperated with WHO on the HIV/AIDS treatment have been established All-China Women’s Federation and Chinese implementation of a small, $5,000 project for throughout Japan. These provide specialized Women’s Research Society, An Evaluation prostitutes regarding HIV/AIDS and STDs. training in HIV/AIDS treatment for medi- Report of Chinese Women’s NGO on Chinese Upwards of 200 female prisoners and prosti- cal professionals. However, an imbalance in Government’s Implementation of Beijing Plat- tutes have been assisted by these activities. It the quality of treatment and services between form for Action and Outcome Document, June has become a tradition in Mongolia to com- urban and rural areas persists. memorate World AIDS Day, with the active The AIDS Prevention Law, which includ- 2004. participation of youth and women’s NGOs. ed the possibility of immigration control Consideration of Reports Submitted by States In Japan, public health centers provide free for people with HIV/AIDS, was repealed in Parties under Article 18 of the Convention and confidential HIV testing. On the whole, 1999. A new decree was enacted the same - however, the number of people who undergo year and abolishes compulsory hospitaliza- on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimi HIV testing has not increased. Female con- tion of people with HIV/AIDS. nation against Women, Third and Fourth doms, which were expected to be an effec- Periodic Reports of States Parties, China, tive method for preventing HIV infection, Authors 1997; available from http://daccessdds. have been available since 2000 but not many Yukiko Oda, Kitakyushu Forum on Asian un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N97/183/09/ women use them. Women, Japan. PDF/N9718309.pdf?OpenElement.

78 BEIJING BETRAYED ASIA AND THE PACIFIC Consideration of Reports Submitted by bly on Women Issues; available from http:// 7. Interviews in January 2004. States Parties under Article 18 of the Con- www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/Review/re- 8. Abdullah, Rashidah, Sai Jyothi, andSyirin Junisya, “ICPD Ten Years On: Monitoring On Sexual and Reproductive vention on the Elimination of All Forms of sponses/CHINA-English.pdf. Health and Rights in Asia: Countdown 2015: Sexual and Discrimination against Women, Third and Reproductive Health and Rights for All,” ARROW Draft Regional Overview (August 30th – September 2nd) London, Fourth Periodic Reports of States Parties, United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM), Women in Mongolia: 2004, sec.10.0, 23. Mongolia, 1999; available from http://www. 9. UNIFEM 2001, 2. Mapping Progress Under Transition, 2001. un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/cedaw24/ 10. Asia Development Bank (ADB) Statistics 2002. cedawcmng34.pdf. Notes 11. UNDP/NSO 1999; Cited in UNIFEM 2001, 24. 1. Violence against women is increasingly termed as “gender- 12. Abdullah, Rashidah et al, sec. 3.1. Korea Women’s Associations United, Beijing based violence” to include all forms of violence—including 13. Ibid., sec. 2.1, 3. +10, Korean NGO Report: Gains and Gaps physical and psychological—that is perpetrated against girls 14. Ibid., sec 6.0, 13. and women and is assumed to serve, by intention or effect, to of Korean Women Policies for the Past 10 years perpetuate male power and control. 15. Government of Mongolia and UNDP, Draft MDG Report, 2003, 16. and Recommendations for the Next 5 years, 2. United States Department of State, 2001. 16. Ibid., 16/17. June 2004. 3. All-China Women’s Federation (ACWF), Women of China, 63. 17. Tokyo Health Service Association, Yobou Igaku, November 1999. Mongolia NGO Report for Asia-Pacific 4. Xin, Ru et al, “Social Safety Nets for Women,” Economic NGO Forum on Beijing+10, 30 June- 4 July and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP), 18. Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, Statistical Report, 2003. 2001. 2004. 5. United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM)/ 19. Abdullah, Rashidah et al, sec. 7.0, 17. United Nations Development Program (UNDP), Citing 20. Taiwan Center for Disease Control (TCDC) Statistics, Report of the People’s Republic of China sources from Living Standards Measurement Survey (LSMS) 2002. Regarding the Questionnaire on the Imple- 1998 and Mongolia National Statistics Office (NSO) 2001 21. TCDC Statistics, 2004. mentation of the Beijing Declaration, the data, 2002, 99. 6. United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM), Platform for Action and the Outcome of the Women in Mongolia: Mapping Progress Under Transition, 23rd Special Session of the General Assem- 2001, 32.

SOUTH ASIA With Legislative Gains Come Enforcement Challenges his report covers Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Pakistan. Women’s share in the labor force continues to rise in South Asia, In South Asia, women’s movements have been successful almost everywhere women do remunerated work. However, this in pressuring their governments to enact legal reforms in work is often in unsafe and in volatile conditions. Women’s enor- numerous areas of women’s rights. Such legislation ad- mous contribution to household incomes through their unpaid work dresses the issues of discrimination; women’s health care in the home goes undocumented as their work in the informal and and rights; dowry violence, rape, trafficking, acid throwing and other agricultural sectors and unremunerated labor—including child and Tforms of violence against women; marriage and divorce; land and elderly care, food and water provision to families and protecting the water rights; reserved political seats for women; and child labor and environment—is invisible in national income accounts. Thus wom- infanticide, among many others. Nonetheless, though policies, laws en’s work burdens, and the impact these have on women’s health and and machineries have been adopted, revised and/or created, imple- education, are often limited or neglected in national plans aimed at mentation and enforcement are often elusive. tackling poverty and other challenges.

HUMAN RIGHTS of religious sentiments and following Mus- Justice). The Government has not taken any lim Shari’a laws (personal laws). In efforts steps to revoke either the declarations or the CEDAW Compliance towards CEDAW implementation, the Gov- reservation. There is great pressure from and Bangladesh (1984), India (1993), Nepal ernment adopted the National Policy for Ad- lobbying by women’s human rights activists (1990) and Pakistan (1996) have ratified vancement of Women in 1997. A National for withdrawal of these, arguing that Decla- CEDAW. Only Bangladesh (2000) has Plan of Action also received the approval of rations are tantamount to Reservation. ratified the Optional Protocol. Nepal has the Government in 1998. The Ministry of Pakistan has one reservation on para 1 of signed, but not ratified. There is little move- Women and Children Affairs is a lead agen- Article 29, and a general declaration: acces- ment towards ratification in India and Paki- cy for women’s development. sion is subject to the provisions of the Con- stan, and limited awareness of the Protocol India has two Declaratory Statements: on stitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. in all countries. Article 16(1) (elimination of all discrimina- The Government has not taken steps to elim- After delays Bangladesh, India and Ne- tion against women in matters relating to inate reservations, though women’s rights pal have submitted reports to the CEDAW marriage and family relations) and on Article NGOs have raised the issue. committee. Pakistan’s first and second re- 16(2) (compulsory registration of marriage in Nepal ratified CEDAW without any reser- ports are both overdue. an official registry). India also has a reserva- vations. The Government has recently formed Bangladesh had reservations on Articles tion to Article 29 (1) (compulsory arbitration a high commission to present a report related 2, 13.(a), 16.1(c) and 16.1(f) on the basis or adjudication by the International Court of to laws discriminating against women.

WOMEN’S ENVIRONMENT & DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION 79 ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

Successes concerning CEDAW in South doesn’t specifically define the term “acid In Pakistan, Hudood Ordinances cover Asian countries have included many legisla- violence” but it lays down in-depth provi- rape and adultery (among others issues) do tive gains, including the passage of new laws sion on crimes committed through corrosive not permit evidence from women and non- and amendments to existing ones, as well as materials (meaning inflicting of acid or any Muslims in cases incurring the maximum creation of women’s machineries. Affirmative such substance). The 2000 Act does not ap- punishment. They have been used to pros- actions have been taken to increase women’s ply in the cases of forced abortion and resul- ecute rape victims who lack evidence on political participation at various levels of gov- tant death of a woman. Also, the 2000 Act is charges of adultery. Under the Law of Qisas ernment. In India, the Supreme Court has virtually silent on the issue of domestic vio- and Diyat, which covers crimes including applied the principles of CEDAW in a num- lence except in the case of dowry or dowry- murder and attempt to murder, women’s evi- ber of cases, including ones dealing with sex- related offences. dence is also not permissible for the payment ual harassment at the workplace and the right Family laws, including on divorce, guard- of Qisas (retribution). The Law of Evidence of the mother to be the guardian of a minor ianship and alimony, are still discriminatory equates the evidence of two women to that of child. In Nepal, free legal assistance is now against women, as are inheritance and citi- one man in financial transactions. provided for cases such as abortion, prostitu- zenship laws. Laws also limit women in poli- Pakistan is a signatory to many conven- tion, sex violation and domestic violence. tics to being nominated by the party in power tions on children’s rights related to armed Obstacles concerning CEDAW are similar and not elected directly in reserved seats. The conflict and sale of children, child prostitu- in all countries and include limited awareness Evidence Act makes two women’s evidence tion and child pornography, child labor and and lack of proper implementatio, lack of equivalent to that of one man. There are laws trafficking for prostitution. political will and commitment, lack of pro- making primary education compulsory for As a follow-up to the Beijing Conference, tection of women’s reproductive health and girls and providing free education to girls up Pakistan adopted the first draft National Plan rights, and insufficient budget allocations and to class XII, but customary laws and practices of Action (NPA). The Ministry of Women resources. The existence of old traditions and are still in force and Fatwa, or religious law, Development has made efforts to implement cultures is also significant, as these often have are in place to nullify the effects of such pro- the NPA, including preparing an implemen- negative impacts on women and marginalize active legislation by the Government. tation matrix and setting up NPA implemen- women’s rights, gender equity and women’s A major breakthrough since Beijing was tation units at national and provincial levels. participation in overall development plans. been the formulation of a National Plan of After years of pressure from women’s groups, Action in 1997, prepared to include women a permanent Commission on the Status of National Law as an integral part of national development Women was established. Legislation in Bangladesh to protect women’s programs and remove all legal, political and In Nepal, due to the non-installment of a rights cover a wide range of discrimination cultural barriers through policy formulations parliament, no new laws are being enacted against women and girls, addressing po- and by adopting strong affirmative actions. and no discriminatory laws are being repealed lygamy and child custody, dowry, cruelty to The goal is also to raise public awareness re- or amended. The 1989 Trafficking Act is still women, marriage disputes, marriage of un- garding women’s needs. The implementation in bill formbut will be passed as soon as par- derage girl children, marriage and divorce, of the Plan, however, is slow and inadequate. liament is installed. The Children’s Rights terrorism violence, trafficking of women and In India, all discriminatory laws have not Act addressed the girl child. children, repression, violence, acid violence, been repealed. Some laws have been amend- Issues related to migrant women workers reserved seats for women through direct elec- ed. Personal laws continue to be discrimina- have been reflected in the Tenth Plan (2003- tions, and paid maternity leave. tory. The Law on Domestic Violence is yet to 2007). According to the Population and Bangladesh has a number of laws for en- be enacted, and there are no special measures Housing Census 2001. 82,712 women have suring justice and eliminating discrimina- to protect women from sexual violence in sit- migrated outside Nepal . Indigenous/minor- tion against women and children. The most uations of communal, ethnic and caste vio- ity women in Nepal are victims of multiple historic act against forms of violence against lence. The widespread sexual violence against discriminations. There is no separate policy women is the Nari 0 Shishu Nirjaton Damon women in Gujarat in 2003, with no sexual for addressing their rights. Ain (Suppression of Violence Against Wom- convicted to date, speaks for itself. The recently established Human Rights en and Children Act or the 2000 Act). The The Protection of Civil Rights Act (1955) Commission and National Women Com- 2000 Act calls for setting up special tribunals and Prevention of Atrocities (1980), intended mission are institutional approaches for the to dispense justice for women and children, to enable the dalits to enjoy human rights on protection of human rights. specific time frames for disposal of cases, par with others, are not enforced. Dalits con- The National Women Commission makes compensation to the victims from fines im- tinue to face discrimination and denial of hu- the Government accountable if there is any posed on the perpetrators, punitive measures man rights, and crimes and atrocities against exploitation of women human rights. Re- for filing false cases under this Act, and pro- dalit and tribal women are on the rise. garding new legislation concerning wom- visions for trying the police personnel who The National Policy on Empowerment of en’s human rights, the 11th Amendment of commit violence against women. Women was framed in 2001, but the Na- Civil Code has been adopted, also called the Sexual harassment and sexual assault are tional Plan of Action is still in the formu- Women’s Bill. two new punishable offences introduced by lation stage. The National Commission for Efforts are also being made at different the 2000 Act, and there are provisions for Women, a statutory body set up in 1992, has levels to ensure that women are free from all protecting the identity of the victims. This the mandate to safeguard the rights of wom- kinds of legal discrimination. These include law covers many forms of violence against en. The Commission, however, has no power increasing public awareness through advoca- women including abduction, confinement, to prevent discrimination in the private or cy programs, posters, documentaries, street- rape, ransom, dowry and more. The Act public sector. dramas and informative media broadcasts.

80 BEIJING BETRAYED ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

Public Awareness Box 15. The Nayakrishi Andolon Farmers Movement In a developing country like Bangladesh, massive poverty, illiteracy and survival prob- lems are so overwhelming that building hu- Nayakrishi Andolon, in existence since 1994, on the market for seeds means the man rights awareness is a comparatively low is a mainly women-led farmers movement displacement of women from the control government priority. Therefore no compre- in Bangladesh. More than 150,000 farm- of a crucial technology that is the heart of hensive or even rudimentary human rights ing families are involved. It believes in a agriculture. Once women lose that control educational programs or curricula are on biodiversity-based agricultural system of they are disempowered and dispossessed. record. However, the Government does not production, with control of resources by Women generally do not own land. Posses- object to or hinder such programs, and ad- the community—particularly by women. sion of seed, therefore, is crucial for them vocacy efforts for grassroots mobilization are a continuous process by NGOs, civil society Nayakrishi Andolon is about ecological to assert their positive and powerful role and human right groups. However, laws and agriculture, production of food without any in agrarian culture. Nayakrishi farmers information relating to women’s rights are chemicals and pesticides and using new reject hybrid and genetically modified seeds not publicized or disseminated. organic technologies. because, among other reasons, these dis- The national security and armed forces are Seed preservation, conservation and empower farming communities by creating more oriented towards war and suppression germination have been primarily women’s dependence on companies for the supply of movements against the Government. The work in agrarian societies for thousands of seeds. rights to protest and to hold rallies are being of years. This highly intricate knowledge Nayakrishi is about real life activities and ruthlessly violated by the police and other transmitted from mothers to daughters, the pleasure of living, enjoying and growing law-enforcement authorities. from sisters to sisters, from mother-in- up with all the entities around us, visible In India, there is no comprehensive hu- laws to daughter-in-laws, from grandmas or invisible. Agriculture is not a factory or man rights education program in place to granddaughters and from one village industry. It is not merely a sector of food that raises awareness among women. Some universities have human rights courses, but to another. Unless one is familiar with the production. Agriculture is a way of life, a women’s rights are peripheral. A few NGOs delicate wisdom of seed conservation and cultural practice, with all the implications are engaged in imparting legal literacy. No propagation, it is hard even to guess why of the word “culture”. The emergence of guidelines are in place on how to use legis- some seeds should be dried under bright Nayakrishi is important as it acknowledges lation to exercise individual rights. Gender sun and others under shade. the contribution of women in agriculture sensitization programs, including awareness Women feel strongly that the loss of seed and natural resource management. about women’s rights, are organized for the from the household also means the loss of Source: WEDO Global Monitoring Report police personnel in most of India. women’s power. Dependence of the farmers Questionnaire, Bangladesh In Pakistan, gender sensitization (orienta- tion and training) of government function- economic, political and sometimes cultural en vulnerable to various forms of violence aries, including the police and judiciary, is norms. In the last 10 years, statistics on vio- and exploitation. being carried out, and human rights educa- lence show a drastic increase despite efforts The women’s movement is very outspoken tion is being proposed. NGOs are continu- by governments to address it. Political vio- against all forms of violence against women. ing advocacy work, organizing workshops lence has been rampant, and social, public Women’s groups are frequently on the streets and publishing materials for creating human and domestic violence has multiplied. In protesting against incidents while the media rights awareness. most cases women become stigmatized and is sensitive towards reporting violence cases. A number of NGOs have published infor- do not dare to file complaints fearing neg- Women’s legal groups and human rights or- mation on how to use legislation to exercise ligence and harassments in police stations, ganizations are very active in taking up cases individual rights. NGOs usually have these courts and the society. Even the law-enforce- of violence against women. translated into the main local languages. ment authorities find themselves ineffective Domestic violence is a major social problem Adult literacy is covered under the Education to contain gang rape, acid violence, dowry in Bangladesh and women of all economic Sector Reforms (ESR). deaths, trafficking, even teasing to the extent strata are vulnerable to the maltreatment and In Nepal, both human rights groups and of compelling young girls to commit suicide. abuse of husbands, in-laws and other family the National Human Rights Commission are In the face of such crimes against women, the members. According to the UN Population working on the issue of human rights edu- victims find very little legal redress because of Fund (UNFPA) Bangladesh ranks first in the cation. However, there is little government procedural difficulties in access to legal ma- world in wife beating, as 47 percent of adult support. Some laws and guidelines are trans- chinery as well as further harassment during women report physical abuse by their male lated into indigenous and local languages by the process of trial. counterparts. local and international NGOs. In Bangladesh, religious and cultural Dowry violence is prevalent in many parts norms, discriminatory and defective laws, of the country, both rural and urban. Murder Violence Against Women denial of appropriate property rights of or attempted murder for dowry is almost a Bangladesh is a typical South Asian coun- women, non-implementation of inter- regular phenomenon. Although dowry de- try with a class-based patriarchal society national instruments relating to women’s mand is illegal according to the 2000 Act, the where violence against women are common rights and other related factors have cre- practice persists in rural communities. phenomena. Such violence is deep-rooted, ated a negative environment for women. In both rural and urban areas it is com- widespread and a result of various socio- These factors consequently rendered wom- mon for women to be verbally and physically

WOMEN’S ENVIRONMENT & DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION 81 ASIA AND THE PACIFIC assaulted by the relatives of their husband. law side, there is no legislation to prevent and en to work towards peaceful solutions to the One of the causes of such acts of violence is punish for domestic violence. civil conflicts. women’s inability to give birth to children There are programs for judges, lawyers, po- In Pakistan, the Government theoretically or specifically to a male child. Torture by lice and the general public on violence against subscribes to the Resolution, but practi- in-laws is one of the few types of violence women. A number of NGOs are organiz- cally no steps have been taken to ensure its against women in which the perpetrators of ing training programs. The National Crime implementation. Women’s groups have been the violence are themselves often women. Records officecollects and compiles data on among the leadership in the civil society ini- In recent years, there has been a tre- crimes against women and publishes it peri- tiative over the last decade for promoting mendous rise in the number of suicides of odically. Some women police stations exist. peace, particularly for building bridges with women. Many victims of sexual harassment Women subjected to violence are pro- neighbors. The most successful experiences and violence who feel trapped in unbear- vided with free legal aid and there are have been taking a women’s delegation by road to India, the formation of an India- Pakistan Women for Peace platform, holding A recent trend is that of “forced suicides” by rape victims, a women’s theatre festival, and a substantial presence in all peace related forums in the who don’t receive support from the state or community. country and region. able situations have resorted to suicide to short-stay homes for such women. Given Asylum Seekers, Refugees, end their oppression. Another recent trend the enormity of the problem, the support Internally Displaced is the suicide of rape victims who do not services are inadequate. India is not a signatory to the Refugee Con- receive sufficient support from the state In Pakistan, specific measures highlighted vention. There are no laws or policies in place or community. These are generally termed in the National Policy for Development and to address refugee and internally displaced “forced suicide”. Empowerment of Women include Adopting women and girls. There is an influx of people Violence in the workplace, including sexu- a zero tolerance policy regarding violence from across the border, particularly from Ban- al harassment and rape, is a recent epidemic. against women. The Women in Distress and gladesh. They are treated as illegal immigrants Violence against domestic workers is a com- Detention Fund provides legal and financial and as such always fear expulsion from the mon occurrence. Economically disadvan- assistance to the victims of human rights vio- country. The Government has no programs taged domestic workers are in dire need of lations. In 2000, the Government declared that facilitate their integration into society. work and wages and therefore at the mercy “honor” killings to be murder and an ordi- Nepal is also not a party to the Refugee of their employers, who may use and abuse nance against it. The death penalty is applied Convention. There are around 100,000 Bhu- them as they desire. to persons guilty of public rape. Women po- tanese refugees in Nepal and the majority are A recent study by the Acid Survivors Foun- lice stations and complaint centres at police women. The refugees have no legal protec- dation reveals that land disputes account stations have been set up. tion against summary expulsions as they are for 27 percent of acid attacks, followed by There is no legislation in place to prevent treated as illegal immigrants and not as refu- 18 percent for family disputes, 10 percent and punish domestic violence. Crisis centers gees fleeing persecution. The Government for refusal of sex, 8 percent for refusal of a run by the public and private sectors provide has no policies in place to help their integra- romantic relationship, 5 percent for dowry services to a minimal number of women vic- tion into Nepali society, and in fact is trying conflicts, 4 percent for marital disputes, 3 tims of violence. to send them back to their homeland. The percent for refusal of a marriage proposal, 2 In Nepal, legislation is not in place to pre- State does not have any law that addresses percent for political enmity and the remain- vent and punish domestic violence. Regard- forced migration. ing 23 percent for unknown reasons. ing traditional and contemporary culture- The living conditions of refugee women In a society that holds a woman’s chastity based violence against women, allegations are not very good, as most camps are with- sacred, rape crimes are particularly injurious on practicing witchcraft are prevalent and a out proper sanitation facilities, and health to a woman’s self-identity and social future. significant national issue. Mostly rural, un- care and education facilities are also not ad- In 2002 rape was the most predominant re- privileged and older women are victims of equately provided. ported form of violence against women, with torture, battering and abuse. To date, there is Due to the Maoist insurgency many wom- a total of 776 reported. Reported rape inci- no policy or law to deal with violence against en and their children are internally displaced. dents have increased from 564 in 2000 and refugee or internally displaced. The court of law provides them with shelter 605 in 2001. and other facilities, including protection of The failure of the police to investigate and PEACE AND SECURITY human rights. However, most internally dis- take legal action against perpetrators of vio- placed women and girls live with their families lence against women has engendered a cli- Security Council Resolution 1325 in slums, ghettos and temporary shelters with mate of impunity in Bangladesh. In South Asia, public awareness about Secu- little or no access to basic social services. India condemns violence against women rity Council Resolution 1325 is extremely For refugee women and girls in Pakistan but it is on the increase in both the public limited. The Indian Government subscribes there are no policies or laws to protect their and private sphere. Of late, the Supreme to it on paper only, taking no action to- human rights. There are two kinds of refu- Court, in addition to penalizing the accused, wards enforcement. gee camps in Pakistan: the registered and the has been granting compensation to women. In Nepal, despite minimal representation unregistered. Refugee women and girls in The existing legal regime governing domestic of women in the peace process, there have the former camps have access to provisions violence is that of criminal law. On the civil been tremendous efforts by grassroots wom- that the UN Refugee Agency (UNHCR)

82 BEIJING BETRAYED ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

specifi es. However, there are resource short- tions of governance. Earlier there were nomi- ticians; socio-political and religious factors ages and lack of access to sanitation, water, nations but now women are directly elected. that deprive women from exercising their schools for girls and medical care. Th ose in With 33 percent reservation in these bodies, rights to vote as well as to contest elections the unregistered camps do not get any of the over 10,00,000 women fi nd space in the Pan- at all levels; lack of commitment to imple- handouts, and these families have to fend for chayati Raj Institutions—Village Panchayats, ment international conventions relating to themselves. Women from these camps often Panchyat Samities and Zilla Parishad (that women’s empowerment; and lack of an ef- have to resort to begging and girls to scaveng- is, District Council—and urban local bod- fective quota/reservation system. ing in public waste bins. Th e Government ies (Municipalities and Municipal Corpora- Reforms proposed by women’s groups in- does not have programs that facilitate their tions) both as members and chairpersons. clude that all political parties should ensure integration of refugees into society. In the State Legislative Assemblies and Par- reservation of 33 percent for women represen- liament, the representation is extremely low. tatives at all levels; that budgetary allocations The International Criminal Court In Parliament it has not exceeded 9 percent. are available to ensure resources for women’s None of the reporting countries are parties In the Lower House (House of Representa- empowerment and representation at all deci- to the Rome Statute of the International tives) in the elections held in 2004, the num- sion-making levels in the public sector; and Criminal Court. In India, any interest is ber of women actually declined from 49 to that Election Commissions support setting mainly academic, with limited awareness 44. In the Upper House (Council of States), up a fund to facilitate women’s participation among human rights activists. In Nepal and however, it increased from 20 to 28 of the in the mainstream political arena. Pakistan, the awareness level on the ICC is total of 250 members. Persistent patriarchal In Pakistan, government policies are often also negligible. attitudes, traditional gender roles, criminal- inconsistent. On the one hand, discrimina- ization of politics, use of muscle and money tory laws are on the statute books reinforc- POWER AND DECISION-MAKING power are major obstacles to women’s full ing misogynist attitudes and norms; on the political participation. Only candidates with other, a government decision to enlarge the Representation resources can manage to get on party tickets space for women’s political participation has From 1995-2004, for women’s empower- and contest elections. made it possible for women to overcome a ment and rights in decision-making in Ban- Women’s groups continue to push for a 33 number of cultural barriers. However, the gladesh were very nominal. percent reservation of seats in the State As- Government has not ensured that the provi- Since 1997, women have been elected semblies and Parliament. sions are fully followed. In areas where cul- directly in the reserved seats in the Union In other areas of decision-making there tural practices have prevented women from Parishad (bottom-tier of the local govern- have been minor gains. In the Audit and voting or contesting elections the Govern- ment), municipality and city corporation. Account Service, the increase is from 19.94 ment has failed to act. One-third seats are reserved for women at all percent to 22.31 percent ;in the Economic Th irty-three percent of seats are allocated stages of the local government level. Th ese re- Service, it is from 16.24 percent to 21.56 for women in Union Councils, Tehsil Coun- forms only occurred after pressure from the percent; in the Statistical Service, the increase cils and Zila Councils. Nearly 40,000 women women’s movement. is from 7.71 percent to 12.94 percent; in the have been elected as councilors. Th e number In the National Parliament, 30 of 300 Administrative Services, there is a marginal of seats for women in the National and Pro- seats (recently it has been proposed to be- increase from 10.22 percent to 10.42 come 45) are reserved for women. But in percent; and in the Police Service it these seats women are nominated not elect- is as low as 3.83 percent. Entry in all ed by voters. Th erefore, these women parlia- these services is on the basis of com- mentarians are not accountable to the vot- petitive examinations. In the Foreign ers, and serve the interests of the ruling party Service, the increase is from 11.43 rather than of women. Th e few (six) directly percent to 13.38 percent. elected women are not allowed participate in In Nepal, 5 percent of candidacy national delegations. level seats are secured constitutionally A combined action plan of four Ministries for women in the Parliament, and 20 has been developed for a project called “Ca- percent of seats are secured for women pability-Building for Gender Mainstream- at the ward level of local self-govern- ing” to ensure the participation of women in ment. Political parties have not fully

both politics and administration. demonstrated their commitment to Women in Bangladesh mobilized for action. In the judiciary system the numbers of mainstream women in decision-mak- women in decision-making has increased. ing levels of their respective party hierarchies. vincial Assemblies and the Senate have been Several women have been selected and pro- Th ere are special capacity-building programs raised to a total of 60 seats in National As- moted to the post of District Judge, and have been initiated for the elected female sembly, 128 in Provincial Assemblies and 17 since 1995 women have been appointed to representatives at various levels. in the Senate. Also, women judges have been the High Court and as female judges. Th ere Barriers to women’s representation in- appointed to the High Courts. are also various instances of women taking clude: corruption; lack of resources; a cul- Th e representation of women has increased part as decision-makers in the private sector. ture of violence, which discourage women in local and national governments due to ef- In India, a silent and historic revolution from political participation, including con- fective advocacy and lobbying by NGOs has taken place in regard to the representa- certed public character assassinations and over the last decade. Women’s participation

PANAP PHOTO FILES tion of women in rural and urban institu- intimidation of female candidates and poli- has also increased in administrative services

WOMEN’S ENVIRONMENT & DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION 83 ASIA AND THE PACIFIC due to these being opened to women. How- en and made recommendations for necessary and regarding “Honor Killing”. Another one ever, only a very small percentage of women amendments to these. The Ninth Five-year has tabled a Domestic Violence Bill in the reach higher levels of decision-making. The Plan (1997-2002) adopted a Women’s Com- Punjab Provincial Assembly. formation of the national Commission of ponent Plan to ensure that benefits from Women’s presence in the political domain the Status of Women has created the oppor- other development sectors do not bypass in greater numbers has created broader accep- tunity for women to have a say in decisions women. An appraisal of the Plan revealed tance for their participation. Women are now affecting them. that the goal could not be fully realized. members of the parliamentary Standing Com- Several public and NGO programmes— The Tenth Five-year Plan has set out cer- mittees, in the cabinet and sent on official del- such as the National Program for Women’s tain monitorable goals that directly have a egations. Their impact varies depending upon Political Participation, Voters Education bearing on women, be it the reduction of where they are placed, their political affiliation Project on the Importance of Women’s Vote poverty (by 5 percentage points by 2007 and and their social/economic background. and the Citizen’s Campaign for Women’s There is a Ministry of Women Develop- Representation in Local Governmen—have ment that steer the follow-up of the Beijing been launched. The shortcomings of reserved process. It successfully mobilized NGOs to seats for women in legislative bodies include write the national report for Beijing with that women were indirectly elected and cho- government counterparts, included several sen by political parties for reasons other than NGOs in the official delegation, and set up merit (sisters, wives, daughters of leaders). At a government/NGO mechanism for the col- the local government level, while the women laborative development of a National Plan of were directly elected, a fairly large proportion Action (NPA) for implementation of the Bei- were put forward by families and were there- Demonstration in jing commitments. The NPA, adopted by the fore inexperienced. South Asia. Cabinet, is the official framework for women’s The political parties have started the pro- empowerment and development policies and cess of having women participate in their 15 percentage points by 2012); reduction of activities in the country and reinforced the ranks but this is slow moving. gender gaps in literacy and wage rates by at demand for mainstreaming gender. The Na- The electoral and campaign finance sys- least 50 percent by 2007 and reduction in tional Policy for Women’s Development and tems in the country are not well organized; the infant mortality rate to 45 per 1,000 live Empowerment (NPWDE-2002) and the Na- usually the activities are sponsored by the births by 2007. Women parliamentarians tional Commission on the Status of Women candidates themselves. As they do not con- have had their share to contribute but it is (NCSW) as policy and institutional mecha- trol the finances, women are at strategic dis- the relentless efforts of the women’s move- nisms were both steered by the Ministry. advantage. As a consequence, only women ment that can be credited for the gains that Among shortcomings is the fact that the from the better off social strata of society are have been made. Ministry is still not considered important in involved in the process. Women politicians prioritize varying is- the government. Its effectiveness has always sues. Women at the national level put a pre- been determined by the strength of individu- Impact of Representation mium on social, economic, constitutional als who head it. Further, the NPWDE and In Bangladesh, women’s empowerment and and legal issues, whereas at the local level NCSW provisions do no meet the expecta- rights to make decisions have been included issues of infrastructure (schools, hospitals, tions of women’s organizations. in the 14 clauses of the 1997 Women Devel- roads) have priority. opment Policy declaration. Birth registration It is neither a common nor a regular fea- POVERTY ERADICATION is highly important. Radical steps have been ture for women politicians to take a position taken by incorporating the mother’s name in across political parties on gender issues. Macroeconomic Policies, all academic certificates, voter lists, job ap- The Department of Women and Child Development Strategies plications, passport and admission forms of Development is not an independent minis- In Bangladesh, women remain unrecog- educational institutes. try and it is under the Ministry of Human nized in major economic and finance plans Though many changes in laws, policies and Resource Development. It continues to focus and policies. Insufficient attention to gender actions have been taken, there are no guide- on project implementation rather than act- analysis has meant that women’s contribu- lines on how to disseminate these laws. Spo- ing as a catalyst for policy changes and law tions and concerns are too often ignored in radic efforts by NGOs to publicize CEDAW reforms. The consultation mechanisms with economic structures such as financial mar- and the Beijing Platform are on record, but civil society groups are equally very limited. kets and institutions. are totally insufficient. From a cultural per- In Pakistan, women’s representation in Par- Although globalization of the economy spective, women are far behind in empow- liament is a relatively new occurrence (since may create employment opportunities for erment and decision-making in Bangladesh. 2002), therefore their impact thus far is lim- women, these jobs tend to be characterized by As women do not get equal rights to fam- ited. Women are still primarily trying to find low wages, few labor standards, and very poor ily property, they are always placed behind their feet and space. Most are interested in de- working conditions, resulting in women’s oc- in the process of decision-making. Revising velopment funds for their constituencies (for cupational health hazards, low skill levels and FILES PHOTO WEDO the laws regarding inheritance and national- schools, roads, infrastructure, etc.). A few are lack of job security and social security. ity would be a first step to lead women to interested in constitutional/legal issues. One The main gender implications of globaliza- empowerment and decision-making. of the women legislators has tabled a bill on tion was in terms of the feminization of the In India, the National Commission for women’s empowerment that includes the re- labor force, especially due to the growth of Women has reviewed 35 laws affecting wom- peal/amendment of the Hudood Ordinances the export-based readymade garments and

84 BEIJING BETRAYED ASIA AND THE PACIFIC light manufacturing industries in export quent natural disasters. As in other countries, in this industry. Due to globalization, Ban- processing zones (EPZs). women in Bangladesh are the poorest of the gladesh garment industry is likely to face In Pakistan, no measures exist to ensure poor and also disproportionately represented many competition. that national policies related to international among the poor. There is a considerable dif- Meeting these challenges will require a and regional trade agreements do not have ference between women’s and men’s access to transition from the present low-wage pro- an adverse impact on women, nor has there economic opportunities. ductivity regime to a new regime where been gender-impact analysis of economic Women typically work more hours per day higher productivity and better job quality policies and programs. In 2003, the Finance than men irrespective of income and class. with other strategic interventions to diversity Ministry did have gender perspectives in- They also have less leisure time than men. of garment products, markets and establish- cluded in the Poverty Reduction Strategy On average in Asia, including Bangladesh, ment of backward linkage industries will be Paper, a minor advance. women work 13 hours more per week than the elements to remain competitive in the men. Women wage-workers are often paid in global challenge. Access to Public Services and Resources kind, which normally equals a third to half of Women have to live under more vulner- In Bangladesh, micro-credit programs prefer men’s wage, on the grounds of their suppos- able situation due to natural disasters illness women only because they can be coerced for edly being less productive. Women’s earnings re-productive fairness and desertions. They weekly repayments. While micro-credit is are about 42 percent of men’s earnings. The face a relatively greater degree of insecurity supposed to be a form of economic support female wage rate is 60 percent of the male due to violence such as, assault, rape, murder to women, it is actually being used by the wage rate in urban environments and 57 and also suicide (in some cases) than men (Re male members of families while women take percent in rural environments. Women face thinking rural poverty a case of Bangladesh. the responsibility of repayment. several barriers in the workforce, including The Ready Made Garment Sector is in In Nepal, women still have to get permis- lack of adequate transport, lack of childcare, operation for 25 years. It started in 1977- sion from male family members in order to overtime work, night travel and night work, 78. The total number of garment factories get credit facilities. sexual harassment and abuse, and lack of is 3,749. The total number of workers is 1.8 In Pakistan, there are a number of micro- health care. Funding is required to address million (80% are women) according to BG- credit programmes run by NGOs and semi these issues. MEA estimation. The number is more ac- autonomous institutions to promote wom- Due to he difficult economic situation and cording to the Garment workers Federation. en’s earning capacity in the public sector. their lack of bargaining power many women It is 2.0 million of which 25% are under 18 There are women’s Technical Training Cen- have been forced to accept low pay and poor years of age. ters in provincial capitals providing training working conditions. Women’s acceptance of The total annual foreign exchange earnings in office management and secretarial skills. low wages has made them preferred workers is 6 billion US dollars, which is 76.57% of The First Women’s Bank organizes raining over men. country’s total export earning. Bangladesh is in credit management for women they pro- The changing nature of employment in the 6th largest suppliers of RMG in the USA vide credit to. Bangladesh has in some cases led to a loss of and 5th largest suppliers in the UK. Women have the legal right to inheritance, jobs even for professional and skilled women. Women’s unemployment is a serious the shares are determined by Muslim per- Many women have entered the informal sec- problem. Migrant female workers remain sonal law. However, in reality women seldom tor due to lack of other opportunities. the least protected by labor and immigration have control over their inheritance. The garment industry in Bangladesh has laws. Women with young children, particu- Defense expenditures and debt repayment grown substantially in recent years, and cur- larly those who are also heads of households, are always the largest items in national bud- rently employs about 1.5 million workers, have extremely limited employment oppor- gets. Expenditures on social sectors are al- 90 percent of whom are women. Both the tunities for reasons of inadequate sharing of ways low (e.g. 0.8% on health, 2% on educa- low opportunity cost of female labour and family responsibilities by men in households tion). Despite being primarily an agricultural non wage factors such as docility account and society. country, Pakistan’s allocations for agriculture for entrepreneurs’ preference for employ- Discrimination in education and training, have declined over the years. ing young women and keep the wage level hiring, remuneration, promotion and hori- Access to training, credit and informa- in the garment industry very low—amongst zontal mobility practices as well as inflexible tion is better and relatively easy in urban the lowest in the world. For instance, the working conditions, lack of access to produc- areas. Savings and credit schemes reach out hourly wage level is 50 percent 42 percent tive resources, family responsibilities com- to women in rural areas but unevenly; legal and 33 percent of that of Nepal, India and bined with lack of insufficient services such literacy taught by NGOs only reaches urban Sri Lanka respectively. as child care continue to restrict employment and rural women in small pockets. Women Although garment manufacturing is a high- and other opportunities. in the poorest and remote areas do not have ly labour intensive process some studies found The majority of women work in “non- access to any of the above. that labour cost comprises only a modest pro- standard” work such as temporary, casual, There are no quality free or low-cost portion of the total cost of production. multiple part-time and home-based employ- legal services provided by the Government; However, the garment industry is depen- ment. Women’s participation in the formal only a few NGOs are working towards dent on imported raw materials. Nearly and non-formal labour market has increased this objective. 90% of the woven fabrics and 60% of knit- significantly during the past decade. Women ted fabrics are imported. Bangladesh may continue to work in the agriculture and fish- Employment Patterns, Women’s Work face a supply shortage of required fabrics as eries sectors. They have become very visible Bangladesh is faced with landlessness, unem- current suppliers move to production. As a in employment areas such as garments, con- ployment, illiteracy, malnutrition and fre- result women workers may also lose this job struction, overseas migrant work and even

WOMEN’S ENVIRONMENT & DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION 85 ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

Box 16. The Rights of the Dalit People BY FATHIMA BURNAD, TAMIL NADU WOMEN’S FORUM

Dalits, the lowest caste in India, experience intense opression and They have weak uteruses and therefore suffer from prolapses. discrimination. Representing 16 percent of the total population, They carry heavy loads and are anaemic. Since they are agricultural they are treated as untouchables, and they are forced to do all workers and their work is to bend they get back pain. Some Dalit kinds of inhumane activities in society. Only 15 precent of Dalits are women are left with a ‘hunch’ as from bending so much. Agricul- literate. They are landless and have no access to common resources. tural work means always standing in water-filled fields. They get Dalits are segregated and are forced to live separately from the sores on their toes, skin rashes and diseases due to pesticide poison- main villages. Dalits perform the lowest jobs in society, working ing and are infected with water borne diseases. Most of the Dalit as employed as manual scavengers, street sweepers, housemaids, women suffer from cervical cancer and have white discharges for bonded laborers, garbage collectors, and shoe makers. They are life, as well as infectious diseases. also given the tasks of cleaning cow sheds, burning dead bodies, A Dalit women’s life is not valued. She lives in a society working in the mortuary, skinning and removing dead bodies and where her life is constantly at risk. Dalit women are raped and human fecal matter. sexually exploited. Dalits are not allowed water from common water sources or to The State forces Dalit women to be sterilized or to use long- move freely in the streets. Separate glasses are kept in teashops for acting, dangerous, hormonal contraceptives. them. Dalits are not allowed to take baths in common wells or wear Due to the globalization process, Dalit women are often unem- shoes on their feet in the streets of others. Dalits are refused entry ployed and struggle hard to earn their living. Many Dalit women to temples. They have no right to go to the barber or be seen at bus have entered prostitution to make ends meet. stops, in the park, at hotels. Separate seats are kept for Dalit children Article 17 of the Indian Constitution states that untouchability in schools. They are forbidden to marry anyone from another caste. has been eradicated. However, untouchability continues to be Dalits are served food and water in their hands and are not allowed practiced in the villages. The protection of Civil Rights Act (P.C.R. inside the houses of other castes. Act) of 1995 explains the offenses for various forms of untouch- 78 percent of Dalits households have no electricity; 90 percent ability. There are special courts and agencies where cases of have no sanitation; in the rural areas 49.48 percent of Dalits live untouchability can be reported. The Prevention of Atrocities Act of below the poverty line and in the urban areas 48.11 percent; 60 1989 declares untouchability to be an atrocity. While commissions percent of Dalit children under four years of age are malnourished and committees at all levels have been established to address the and infant mortality rates are 90 per 1000 births. More than 15,000 problem, these actions mean little to Dalits because there is no cases of atrocities are committed against Dalits every year. This political will at the judicial and bureaucratic level to see that laws includes 513 murders, 4,000 grievous injuries, 439 cases of arson, are strictly implemented. and 787 case of rape. Today, Dalits are struggling for their human rights and a new Dalit women, who constitute 49.96 percent of the 160 million identity. Dalits have mobilized to form their own movements. Yet, Dalits in India, face even more atrocities and greater discrimination these movements are not strong enough to fight against the root than Dalit men. As agricultural workers women are paid half of what causes of caste discrimination and untouchability and have not the men are paid. They are often gang raped at the workplace. They involved Dalit women. Dalit women, as a result, have created their have to clean dry latrines without wearing gloves. They carry human own autonomous movements. They are working to eradicate the excreta on their heads in baskets, which leaks all over their faces. caste system and untouchability. In order to succeed, the Dailt They work in very unhygienic conditions and are very weak, malnour- women must be joined by all people’s movements. ished. Dalit women are frequently sick because they take very little Originally published by Lola Press; excerpted food because they feed the family first and only take what is left. Lola Press Africa, P.O.Box 1057, Lenasia 1820, Johannesburg, South Africa. as entrepreneurs. They have also become Women’s unremunerated work includes, care, and a persistent gender gap in educa- increasingly involved in micro, small and among many other things, caring for chil- tion are severe constraints on the country’s medium-sized enterprises in rural and urban dren and older persons, managing food for economic growth. areas. Women have also joined the Federal the family, protecting the environment, and Nepali women also play a vital role in the Chamber of Commerce, as well as forming providing voluntary assistance to vulnerable economy through unpaid work in the home, their own associations. and disadvantaged individuals and groups. though their contributions to household in- Despite many limitations and hardships, Women’s work in these areas is never mea- comes go undocumented. Interventions to women’s share in the labor force continues sured in quantitative terms and not valued in strengthen women’s economic participation to rise and almost everywhere women do re- national accounts. are based on the assumption that bolstering munerated work outside the household and In Nepal, women are generally in infor- women’s contributions to household income make substantial contributions to their fami- mal work and are paid less than men. In the will increase their influence over decisions lies. Women migrant workers, as well as do- agricultural sector, they are key participants, related to household spending. Research has mestic workers, contribute to the economy responsible for 60 to 70 percent of output, shown that women are more likely than men of the sending country and receiving coun- and work more than three hours longer each to spend income on nutrition, health care try. Women produce goods and services for day than men (an average of 11 hours a day, and education, so putting money in their the market and look after family handicraft compared with 7.5 for men). The greater hands through micro-enterprise should result enterprises. This work is often under-valued work burdens that women bear, their gener- in households spending more on the family’s and unrecorded. ally poor health and limited access to health well-being. Additionally, groups of women

86 BEIJING BETRAYED ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

brought together in economic empowerment EDUCATION NGOs are acknowledged as key imple- groups will remain active participants long menting partners in the non-formal educa- after completing a literacy program. International Agreements tion sector and gender sensitization initiatives. While women’s contributions to the na- Bangladesh is a signatory to the World Dec- Th e Government does not directly support tional economy had previously gone unrec- laration on Education for All (EFA) and women’s groups and NGOs in publishing ognized, in the last nine years their contribu- prepared a comprehensive EFA National and disseminating the above information. tions have been acknowledged in some areas. Plan of Action (1995). Th is highlighted the Th e national labor survey recognizes the Government’s commitment to ensure basic Public Policy economic value of work done by women in education for children, adolescent and adults National action plans in Bangladesh address the agriculture sector. Women’s work in the in the context of EFA 2000 goals. equality and equity in education. However, informal sector has also been recognized in Following the EFA Conference in Dakar there is no specifi c mechanism to measure sex a national audit. In addition, the design pro- in 2000, the Government designed an exten- discrimination in education. Th ere are poli- cess of new economic and poverty alleviation sion plan named Education for All: National cies to protect women and girls from sexual programs gives due consideration to women’s Plan of Action II (NPA-II 2002-2015) in or- harassment in schools, but there is no strat- economic contributions.Th e challenge now der to further expand, strengthen, continue egy for implementation. Besides, the role of is to institutionalize this concept within both and complete the work in progress. In addi- law enforcing agencies is very weak. national and local planning processes. tion, the objective of this plan is to improve Some NGOs are providing vocational Having ratifi ed Internatonal Labour Orga- quality and attain full equity in basic educa- training for both boys and girls. At second- nization Convention 100, Pakistan is com- tion in all respects to achieve the EFA goals, ary level there is vocational and technical mitted to enact laws for equal remuneration as reaffi rmed at Dakar, by the year 2015. training for both boys and girls as per gov- for men and women for work of equal value In order to achieve education for all, Ban- ernment policy. and to provide protection against sexual ha- gladesh had taken up some programmes in Th ere was a national literacy program rassment. Th e laws still await passage. Never- the fi rst National Plan of Action (1995) to aimed at adult (both men and women) run theless, business centers have been set up in broadly increase enrolment rates, reduce by Directorate of Non Formal Education the major cities to identify, promote, encour- dropout and illiteracy rates, improve basic (DNFE). However, this has been abolished. age and assist women entrepreneurs in busi- learning competencies, ensure equity and A Non Formal Education (NFE) framework ness activities, and several schemes for micro- more. A notable increase in girl’s enrolment is being developed by the Government, credit and training opportunities for women over the years has been achieved. In 1991, the which is likely to contribute to the literacy of are in place. However, the cultural barriers male/female student ratio in primary school women. Th ere are still several adult literacy to women’s economic activity are immense, was 119.8:100, but at present the ratio is programs in the country that are run by na- and limiting their economic participation 103.8:100. Boys’ enrolment rate is 51 percent tional and local NGOs. and forcing them to work from home at ex- whereas girls’ enrolment rate is 48.9 percent. Pakistan’s policies on education do not ploitative rates. During drafting of NPA-II participation have a multicultural gender perspective. Th e Laws providing for equal pay for equal of all levels was not ensured. Another work or work of equal value and protection major constraint in implementation is Dalits experience intense oppression and discrimination. from sexual harassment in the workplace the limited accessibility and control over but has not yet been enacted. Th ere is a law resources by the Government. Resource concerning maternity benefi ts for pregnant allocation is done as per donor’s require- women (three months paid leave). ments. Th ere is no institutional support Th ere are no laws in place to promote mechanism by the Government for pub- equal economic opportunities for indig- lishing and disseminating national and enous, internally displaced, immigrant or international norms related to women’s refugee women. equal rights and education. Women’s participation rates in the formal Pakistan has ratifi ed the international sector are at about 9 percent (men: 48%). recommendations in the Education for Unemployment levels are at 17 percent for All agreement and Millennium Devel- women and 6 percent for men. Th e offi cial opment Goal 2 on education. Steps taken Education Sector Reforms have, however, Labour Force Survey fails to refl ect women’s to achieve the targets include: promulgation placed overcoming the gender gap in literacy economic participation as it only records of the Compulsory Primary Education Or- and primary level enrolment as the central el- women’s formal sector employment. dinance in 2002 and of free and compul- ement. Th e target is to achieve universal pri- Women in the informal sector working as sory primary education in a phased man- mary education by 2015, to reduce the rates domestic help or involved in other income- ner envisaged in National Education Policy of female dropouts at the secondary level and generating activities from their home, and 1998-2010. Programs for providing neces- double the number of women in higher edu- women in the agricultural sector, are not sary infrastructure for primary education are cation. Female enrolment has increased but accounted for. Yet 62 percent of women are being developed throughout the country by the gender gap is still at 30 percent. Incen- reportedly are contributing family work- the Ministry of Education. Gender-sensitive tive-based schemes have also been initiated ers (compared to 17% of men), 24 percent learning materials are being developed by the for female enrolment, and donor funds for as salaried workers and 14 percent self- Government, and crash literacy programs NGO sector involvement for quality educa- employed, reinforces the invisibility of wom- focused on rural girls, illiterate women and tion are also available.

PETER WILLIAMS / WCC en’s employment. out-of-school children are being initiated. Th e Government has encouraged the start-

WOMEN’S ENVIRONMENT & DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION 87 ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

It is now recognized that women are im- In Pakistan, families are now more eager to educate portant contributors to food security in Ban- gladesh through their role in increasing yield daughters and the number of girls’ schools is being potentials of agricultural production, in post- harvest operations, in homestead or home- increased, but women still find it difficult to access training. based activities, in resource conservation and in agricultural decision-making. However, ing of women’s studies courses in higher The desire in families to educate daughters the policies on labor, livestock, forest, agri- education institutions and is supporting five has increased. The number of girls’ schools is culture, population and more give very little women’s studies centres in the major public being increased, coeducation at the primary or no coverage to women’s concerns. In these sector universities in the country. NGOs school level has become the policy, and the policy documents, women have been given a have worked substantially for this. NGO sector is being involved at a wider secondary consideration as beneficiaries. No Guidelines for training policies in vocation- level with availability of donor funding for specific statement or objectives on women’s al education have been established to achieve the education sector. The private sector is development or participation is include in a quality education with equal opportunities also encouraged to expand the number of the policies, nor do they envisage measures for women, though the spread of such insti- educational facilities. Curricula are regularly to eradicate the existing gender disparities. tutions is limited. There is a national adult under review but progress on this is not seen Women remain largely absent at all levels literacy programme that includes women. as adequate. of policy formulation and decision-making Information on the labor market and in natural resources and environmental man- Access and Changes in Practices training is not easily accessible for women, agement, conservation, protection and reha- In Bangladesh, steps that have been taken to though information on training is relatively bilitation, and their experience and skills in promote access to education for all women easier to access in urban centres. advocacy for and monitoring of proper natu- and girls. Sixty percent of vacancies in teach- There are no laws in place regarding the ral resource management too often remain ing will be filled by female teachers. particular educational needs of refugees. Dis- marginalized in policy-making and decision- The Primary Education Stipend Pro- placed girls come under the ambit of com- making bodies, as well as in educational in- gramme was launched in 2002 to enable pulsory education. stitutions and environment-related agencies poorer rural families not only to enrol and at the managerial level. Women are rarely to retain their children in school, but also NATURAL RESOURCES trained as professional natural resource man- to provide an incentive to those children ex- AND ENVIRONMENTAL SECURITY agers with policy-making capacities, such as cluded by poverty to complete their primary land use planners, agriculturists, foresters, schooling rather than working. Decision-Making marine scientists and environmental lawyers. Since 1994, the Government has been The Bangladesh Government’s interest in Often women are not equal participants in implementing four girls’ stipend projects. women’s participation in environment and the management of financial and corporate The Female Secondary Stipend Programme natural resources is reflected in the Fifth Five institutions whose decision-making most sig- of 2002 is a plan to extend the existing Fe- year Plan 1997-2002. nificantly affects environmental quality. Fur- male Secondary Stipend Assistance Program During 1996-2001 the Minister for Envi- thermore, there are institutional weaknesses (FSSAP), for girls of 11 to 12 years of age, ronment and Forest was a woman. However, in coordination between women’s NGOs to implement an additional new program for the representation of women at the decision- and national institutions dealing with en- poor families of rural primary age children. making level of the two departments under vironmental issues, despite the recent rapid The Ethnic Minority Framework was de- the Ministry (environment and forest) is still growth and visibility of women’s NGOs veloped to provide access and quality edu- very low. In the Forest Department, of the working on these issues at all levels. cation to the children of ethnic minorities, 173 posts there are only 13 women appoint- In India, at the national level, women’s with particular attention to those children in ed, mainly at the lower level of decision-mak- representation in community-based organi- Hill Tracts and other tribal communities in ing. In the Ministry itself, only the Deputy sations (CBOs) has been incorporated in Mymensingh, Dinajpur and Rajshahi, with Chief and a research associate are women. programme guidelines. In most cases, one support and promotion of their culture, lan- The National Policy for Women’s Advance- third of the seats on such CBO committees guage and community values. ment addresses the role of women in sustain- have been reserved for women. There is compulory education at the pri- able development, though this issue is almost At local levels, the quality of implementa- mary level, which is free for both boys and forgotten at the government level. tion has been variable and depends on the girls. School fees are charged for boys at the Participation of women in the develop- competence and commitment of the field secondary level. ment and construction of irrigation and staff. In areas with active gender-sensitive In Pakistan, education is compulsory flood control infrastructure was found to NGOs, implementation has been more effec- at the primary level with no school fees in be insignificant in the past. Currently, lo- tive than in others. In the majority of cases, public sector schools. Books and uniforms, cal women are working along with men as however, although women’s names may have however, are the responsibility of the fam- construction workers in the Food for Works been put on lists as per specified norms, their ily, and the costs often act as an obstacle for programme, embankment construction, tree actual participation in decision-making has poorer households. plantation and other projects implemented remained negligible. Women generally re- Achieving educational equality at the pri- by the Water Development Board. Indig- main uninformed about official policies and mary school level is the priority. Relatively enous communities have little representation their entitlements. more modest targets are set for other levels. in the decision-making processes. In recognition of the fact that simply as-

88 BEIJING BETRAYED ASIA AND THE PACIFIC suring women’s representation in CBO com- and the environment—be it land, water or matic change. Disasters have a different effect mittees is inadequate by itself, the strategy of forests—are literally “manned” by techno- on men and women. Women play a critical organizing women’s self-help groups (SHGs) crats with there being only a small minority role in the kinship and reciprocity networks, within participating communities has be- of women with the requisite qualifications. which in rural and fishing communities mit- come a major government-promoted ap- None of the concerned ministries yet have igate the burden of poverty, risk and crisis. proach. However, these have largely not been any gender units or specialists for ensur- These networks are able to mobilize and re- effective. Under the common guidelines for ing that gender-differentiated priorities are distribute resources, labor and information, the Government’s Watershed Development mainstreamed in their functioning. thereby increasing the families’ survival ca- Programme, while huge subsidies are provid- In Pakistan, the only space for women’s pacity. The role played by women in these ed to user groups of private land owners for participation in the environmental sector networks needs to be better documented, undertaking soil and moisture conservation is through the local government tiers where understood and appreciated in order to con- works on their lands, the landless women are there is a critical mass of women. There is, tribute to equitable and sustainable manage- organized into SHGs for savings and credit however, no assessment of the extent or ment of marine-coastal resources. or artisanal production for sale. The SHGs quality of women’s participation on environ- Surface and groundwater are used in rural receive a miniscule percentage of the total ment issues. areas for households and irrigation purposes. budget, the returns from their activities are There are very few women in govern- Tube well water is mainly used for drinking poor or unviable, and these often have no ment decision-making bodies on the en- as it is widely beloved to be a safe source. relationship with natural resources manage- vironment. Gender policies have been de- Only recently are villagers learning about ment. Although poor women may benefit veloped by NGOs, and the National Plan the danger of arsenic in water collected from from short-term wage employment on wa- of Action for implementing the Beijing shallow tube wells. Arsenic has serious im- tershed development activities, due to plan- commitments includes a chapter on women plications for women’s health and the conse- tations being undertaken on village common and the environment. quences are also severe in terms of their social lands, in the longer term they often end up Women’s interests are generally repre- and economic lives. Women face stigma once losing access to the commons for grazing and sented through the Women’s Ministry; or they are affected by arsenic contamination. firewood collection due to these being fenced by NGOs. There are no national monitoring Although there are treatment facilities avail- off for protecting the new plantations. systems related to the environment that are able, women’s preferences are not yet clearly Women remain excluded from Participa- sex-disaggregated. Success stories are docu- taken into account. Other household chores, tory Irrigation Management (PIM) programs mented in the NGO sector. The main ob- including washing, bathing and cleaning,are through Water Users Associations (WUAs) stacle for women’s full participation is that still done using ponds and river water, which due to the canal irrigation laws of most states both environment and women are not high could be the reason behind the prevalence of permitting only land owners to become on the political/policy agenda. water-borne diseases. members of WUAs. They therefore cannot Among the hill peoples, it is usually wom- participate in any decision-making related Gender Impacts en who do the seed selection work and have to local level water use and management. In In Bangladesh, degradation of natural ma- the most detailed knowledge about crop vari- Gujarat, an NGO promoting gender-sensi- rine coastal resources (decreased fish or crus- eties. Furthermore, their involvement in food tive approaches to natural resource manage- tacean populations and mollusk banks, con- production gives women an elaborate knowl- ment was successful only in getting women tamination of lagoons and coasts by tourism, edge of its nutritional and medicinal proper- accepted as non-voting members of WUAs harbors and the oil infrastructure) and soil ties. Little attempt has been made to tap or in the state. Women’s typical gender roles infertility forces men and women to migrate enhance this knowledge and understanding. make them responsible for multiple uses of to places where fish or seafood are supposed The degradation of natural forests also results water (for drinking, bathing, washing, cook- to be plentiful, whether or not these are pro- in the disappearance of women’s knowledge ing and cattle), but these water uses tend to tected zones. In addition to creating legal and of natural resources. Thus the impact of de- receive relatively less attention by the WUAs environmental conflicts, this also increases forestation on indigenous women can be ar- which primarily focus on irrigation. environmental deterioration. gued to have affected not just their economic In the case of agriculture, the sector employ- Because of the combination the sexual di- well-being and health, but their status in the ing the largest number of women, most gov- vision of work and the feminization of pov- society. Indigenous women, through their ernment policies and programs have further erty, women are frequently the ones who are traditional role as de facto managers of the marginalized women from their traditional most affected by the impact of environmen- rural household are involved in virtually all role of seed selection and decisionmaking re- tal degradation. It should not be forgotten household and outside activities. lated to which crops to cultivate through the that the environmental impact also affects In India, there do not seem to be any promotion of “green revolution” technolo- reproductive aspects. sex-disaggregated national monitoring sys- gies and their market orientation. Even where The reduction in soil fertility and the de- tems relating to the environment. Various government policies make a commitment to crease in food, water, fodder and firewood, research studies have examined the gender- enhancing women’s agriculture-related skills, entail an increased workload for women, differentiated impacts of environmental deg- parallel policies promoting mechnization of extending the time and energy required to radation. While these have certainly helped agricuture with the help of subsidies have been gather these resources from places that are in the design of specific programmes that are displacing the poorest women even from work further and further away. more gender sensitive, there is no systematic opportunities as wage labor. It is becoming increasingly evident that integration of these learnings into central or Practically all government agencies and marine-coastal zones are highly vulnerable state policies. departments dealing with natural resources to natural disasters as a result of global cli- In Pakistan, there is no systematic informa-

WOMEN’S ENVIRONMENT & DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION 89 ASIA AND THE PACIFIC tion available regarding the impact of envi- and among communities. Poor women in use or distribution. As a result women’s ac- ronmental degradation on women’s work. A the cities suffer from severe scarcity of water cess has shrunk. participatory poverty assessment carried out for drinking and washing purposes. Water is managed by the Government but in some of the poorest communities across The adoption of the new national Water there are endemic shortages for domestic use the country in 2001 indicated that environ- Policy in 1999 addressed the questions of that women usually manage. In urban areas, mental degradation has made women’s work good governance in the water sector in Ban- water has to be bought at higher rate—usually more time-consuming and tiring. Access to gladesh. The draft National Water Manage- from the same agencies that supply it. There fodder and fuel has become particularly dif- ment Plan (NWMP) is awaiting procedural is no organized women’s campaign on this. ficult, and water shortages create problems finalization and official adoption and imple- Gender is not taken into consideration in of fetching as well as of managing household mentation. The water supply services are go- new strategies to access and benefit sharing chores with the limited amounts available. ing to be privatized, which will take control of genetic resources and biodiversity with re- Resources that used to be free in the past out of women’s hands. gards to ownership and patents. Intellectual have to be paid for. In India, no specific gender policy has property rights have not been asserted and The impact on women’s health is also not been developed for water resource manage- are not even recognized formally. systematically assessed anywhere, but stud- ment, although the policy of ensuring that ies have shown that the use of pesticides and distribution of land to the landless should HEALTH chemicals in agriculture has been hazardous be either in women’s names or in the joint for women, especially those who pick cotton names of husband and wife has been in place Access and Affordability and when the pesticide-infested crop residue for quite some time. Even so, in many states According to the Bangladesh Demographic is used as fuel. Children too are exposed as this policy continues to be practiced in the and Health Survey (BDHS), 80 percent of they accompany women in the fields. Indus- breach. Some states have adopted more pro- women feel that not having a health care fa- trial effluents have been dumped into water gressive gender policies on their own. For cility nearby is an obstacle to accessing health courses contaminating water bodies. Women example, Andhra Pradesh has had a land care. Half of the women mentioned that lack get exposed when using the water for their purchase scheme for many years to enable of confidence in the services and gettinh to household or personal use. The quality of wa- landless women to acquire some land in the health center are problems in accessing ter has deteriorated and is equally damaging their own names. care. Seventy-one percent of women say that to the health of women, men and children. Initiatives for developing gender policies getting money for treatment and 44 percent Women’s incomes are affected because of generally come from outside the concerned say that getting permission to go are obstacles the lack of time available for craft and other ministries, either from women’s organisa- in access to health care. The Fifth five-year production that women carried out for per- tions or the Ministry for Women and Child plan’s main objective was to ensure universal sonal income. Also the raw material, such Development. They are also promoted by bi- access to essential health care and services as reeds and grasses, that they could get free lateral and multi-lateral agencies like the UN of acceptable quality, and to further reduce of cost to produce marketable items is now and the World Bank. A major initiative being population growth. Reduction of infant and no longer available as more and more land pursued by most of them has been the intro- maternal mortality and morbidity, improve- is getting waterlogged and saline. Scarcity of duction of gender budgeting and collection ment of nutrition levels and reduction of fodder also means the number of livestock is of gender-disaggregated data. This, however, fertility with quality care remain important reduced and so also is income. has poor integration of women’s rights and basic objectives of the Fifth plan. entitlements over natural resources. The Government accepted the Primary Right to Natural Resources In some areas with active NGOs, issues Health Care approach as a strategy to achieve In Bangladesh, water issues are very much related to women’s rights and entitlements— the goal of health care for all. The basic health gender issues as well water for household for example, to collect and process non-tim- needs of the population, especially the need purposes is collected, stored and used al- ber forest products from forest—have been of children, women and the poor are taken most entirely by women and children. The taken up through a combination of agitation, into consideration. health of the entire family depends on how lobbying and policy advocacy. Some NGOs While poverty, gender discrimination and efficiently they carry out this important in Maharashtra and Gujarat have also taken inadequate food supply and distribution are task. Women in many parts of the coun- up the question of women’s independent major contributors to malnutrition, and try undergo severe physical hardship while rights to water. To date, however, these con- improper breast feeding and weaning prac- collecting water from distant places under cerns have found limited reflection in imple- tices aggravate the current situation. Women unfavorable weather conditions. They face mentable policies. and children are the majority of those suf- social restriction on where and when to go In Nepal, a recent amendment to the 1964 fering from malnutrition. Earlier this year, for water collection. A significant amount of Land Act allows women to obtain tenancy the Government adopted the National Food women’s time and effort is taken up by water rights but states that only unmarried women and Nutrition Policy in an attempt to sig- collection, 75 minutes a day on average. This are entitled to the exercise of such rights. nificantly improve the nutritional status of means less time available for other household In Pakistan, women’s right of access to the people, particularly vulnerable groups and income-generating activities. land and water used to be either in the prop- including the elderly, and contribute to an The ever increasing competition for wa- erty held by the family or in the commons. improvement in the quality of life and socio- ter affects the poor most, especially women The commons, however, have vanished over economic development. and girls who have to walk further in search the years as they have either been gradually Analysis of the 1996-1997 BDHS data of water to meet minimal household needs. appropriated by the powerful in the commu- demonstrated that gender discrimination in Scarcity causes conflict within households nity or taken over by the Government for its health care utilization is present, with levels

90 BEIJING BETRAYED ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

of discrimination depending on the specific sector. While there is an excellent structure behavior by maternal education and wealth health service. for health on paper, in practice it does not status, with less educated and poorer women Gender discrimination is responsible for deliver and the poorest, particularly in the being less likely to seek qualified preventive most cases of maternal mortality. The major- rural areas, have to rely on unqualified medi- and emergency obstetric care. Greater ef- ity of women are never taken to a doctor be- cal practitioners. Women of reproductive age forts are needed to ensure that the poorest cause of social or religious restrictions. Early are particularly vulnerable as emergency ob- women have equitable access to high-quality marriage does not help either as they result in stetric facilities are only available in tertiary safe motherhood services. The challenge is teenage pregnancies that add to the risks. hospitals located in large urban centres and not only to reach poorer women, but also to In Bangladesh, of the 32 million adoles- the only accessible and affordable health reach the two million pregnant women each cents, 51 percent are girls. Half of girls aged service provider is the untrained traditional year who do not receive any antenatal care. 15-19 years are married. 70 percent of the birth attendant. Not surprisingly, the mater- In Bangladesh, abortions are allowed un- pregnant girls under age 20 receive no ante- nal mortality rate is at a high of 350-500 per der special circumstances, although it is not natal care while 97 percent of birth occurs at 100,000 and has bee so for the last decade. legal. 5,000 women die every year in the home. Young women lack knowledge about The quality and gender sensitivity of country due to abortion and MR performed their reproductive health and have poor ac- health care services is poor both in urban and by unskilled midwives. Abortion is done in cess to health services. rural areas with a few exceptions. The needs the name of menstrual regulation as a family Adolescents have been bypassed by all planning method. Women going to the fam- programs and consequently their needs have Women raising their voices ily planning centers can obtain abortions but neither been assessed nor addressed. Health in the People’s Caravan. are given a long-term contraceptive method services for the adolescent girl have special in exchange. This is happening not only in significance in South Asian countries, where the government clinics; many national and there is a strong son preference. Such services international NGOs are promoting contra- would not only improve the health of the ad- ceptives in exchange for abortions. olescent girl but would also have long-term Bangladesh has the highest maternal mor- inter-generational effects by reducing the risk tality rate among developing countries and of low birth weight and minimizing subse- this now accounts for 37 percent of all deaths. quent child mortality rates. About 20,000 women die in the country ev- There are laws and policies related to num- ery year due to pregnancy and childbirth-re- ber environment and public health. Howev- of girls and adolescents have recently been lated causes. The main causes for this are the er, they are not being implemented in prac- recognized but are not adequately addressed. lack of antenatal and care after delivery, lack tice. The occupational health sector is being Laws exist to address pollution and its impact of access to health services and lack of aware- neglected and environmental health hazards on health and occupational health hazards. ness of patients and their families. are not being monitored properly. They are, however, outdated. Social and religious restrictions further All these laws also need to be either modi- impair rural women’s changes of accessing fied or strengthened to better address wom- Reproductive Health the health delivery system. According to en’s environmental concerns. In Bangladesh, access to information for- statistic collected by various social welfare There is a constitutional guarantee of the women and girls regarding sexual and re- organizations, the government health care right to health but this is not substantiated productive health is lacking. The society has facilities are accessible to only 10-15 percent by any specific law and therefore cannot be a culture of silence on the issue of sexual of rural people. exercised properly by any citizen. Most of health. To talk about sexual health or to get Most pregnant women in rural areas are the laws are obsolete because of the changes information on it or even to complain about uneducated and do not appreciate the use- in the social, economic and political condi- it is a social taboo for women. The values of fulness of antenatal care. tions. Moreover, new laws and policies are modesty and virginity are highly valued by Women and girls in Pakistan have very required to deal with the latest situation in the society. This concept of modesty is a big little information about their sexual and re- relation to health care and health practices, threat to woman’s reproductive health. productive rights. Family planning services health education, experimentation of safe To date, insufficient attention has been have improved—the Contraceptive Preva- drugs and medicine, safe food, safe agricul- given to maternal care. Although the physi- lence Rate has more than doubled in the last ture, industry, occupations and the environ- cal infrastructure is in place, the concept decade—but still there is an unmet need for ment in general. of the safe motherhood initiative and the over 30 percent among women. There is no Since the 1960s, the introduction of the provision of essential obstetric care are yet to special information in the current system for “green revolution” or chemical-based agricul- be implemented. adolescent girls, and sex education is not part ture using chemical fertilizers, pesticides and The Government has reaffirmed its com- of school curricula. Abortion is illegal unless extraction of ground water has caused enor- mitment to reducing maternal mortality the life of the mother is threatened, hence mous health hazards, including arsenic poi- in the recently finalized Poverty Reduction most abortions are unsafe. Eleven percent of soning. But there is hardly any law that can Strategy Paper (PRSP), which points to the maternal deaths are estimated to be due to deal with this situation. These newer aspects slow decline in the maternal mortality rate unsafe abortions. In addressing the conse- need to be addressed properly and ethically. together with decade-long plateau in fertility quences of unsafe abortion, the only option Health delivery systems in Pakistan are as having negative implications for poverty is to take complicated cases to the tertiary very poor across the country. Eighty percent reduction. The study provides clear evidence public or private hospitals that have the fa-

PANAP PHOTO FILES of health services are provided by the private of persisting disparities in health-seeking cilities and capacity to deal with complica-

WOMEN’S ENVIRONMENT & DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION 91 ASIA AND THE PACIFIC tions. The latter are costly and beyond the adolescents and youth (15-24) years of age and Initiative for Peace in South Asia (WIPSA); reach of the poor. 4 percent infants and children (0-14 years of Mona, International Planned Parenthood Fed- Prenatal/postnatal services have improved age). These numbers do not reflect undetected eration (IPPF); Nalina Jiwnani, Bahai Centre; over the last decade due to the provision cases nor those detected at private clinics. In Pam Rajput, South Asia Women’s Watch; Ra- of trained Lady Health Workers (70,000) 2000, there were approximately 13,000 per- zia Ismail, (ICRA); Ruth Manorama, Indian National Alliance of Women (NAWO); Sunila in the remote and previously un-serviced sons living with HIV/AIDS in the country. Singh, South Asia Research Network (NCAS). populations. But in the absence of accessible Bangladesh has some of the highest risk Nepal: Anjana Shakya, Beyond Beijing Com- emergency obcetric facilities, improved pre- factors in the region. Commercial sex work- mitte; Pakistan: Khawar Mumtaz, Shagufta natal/postnatal services do not reduce ma- ers have the highest client turnover rate (18- Alizai, Shirkat Gah Women’s Resource Centre. ternal mortality. 44 per week) and the lowest condom use Since the International Conference on in South Asia. Their rates of syphilis remain Sources Population and Development (1994), the high. The current low prevalence situation Bangladesh National Women Lawyers Asso- Government has made efforts to collect could possibly mask an increasing prevalence ciation, “Violence Against women in Bangla- data relating to maternal health; has enacted in the general population. Factors relating to desh,” 2001 and 2002. health and population welfare policies to the porous border between Bangladesh and Centre for Policy Dialogue, “Macroeconom- identify the problems; and has tried to ad- India, gaps in health care delivery, heavy la- ic Policies,” National Policy Forum, Dhaka, dress the problems. It has initiated a num- bor migration and poverty have been recog- 2001. ber of model programs in selected districts, nized, among other causes, to promote the Chen and D’ Sarma, “Sex Bias in Allocation which begin with setting baselines and moni- spread of HIV infection. of Food and Health in Rural Bangladesh,” tor implementation. These need to be scaled Most health care providers have not re- Population and Development Review, 1981. up for greater impact. ceived formal training and are not sensitized Hossain, Shawkat Ara, Women’s Participa- There are no laws made to discourage to provide for the medical needs of people liv- tion in Electoral Politics, Empowerment, early marriage amongst young women. The ing with HIV/AIDS. There are very few user- vol.1, 70. minimum age of marriage under the law is friendly health services for youth and elders. Mahmud, S., “Gender Aspects and Mortal- 16 for girls. Various NGOs and international institu- ity Among Children in Rural Bangladesh”, tions are conducting and funding projects to Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies HIV/AIDS track MDG 6 on HIV/AIDS and to meet Research Report, 636, 1987. In Pakistan, there is a National HIV/AIDS its target. Rahman, H.Z., “Rural Poverty: A Case for Action Plan under which initiatives have been Challenges include the lack of an over- Bangladesh”. taken by the Government to inform the public all monitoring and evaluation system, and Salahuddin, Khaleda, Rural Women in Poverty about HIV/AIDS through the media. Aware- of communication and coordination across and Women in Urban Informal Sector, 1992. ness programmes are also run by NGOs. The sectors; that only NGOs are implementing Sen, A.K., “Family and Food: Sex Bias in issue has been made a high priority by the targeted interventions; neglect of vulnerable Poverty,” 1981. Government. However, treatment facilities communities like prison inmates, external mi- Sen, Binayak, “Politics of Poverty Allevia- have not yet come and there are no laws and grants and children living on the street; lack tion by Crisis in Governance: A Review of policies to protect people with HIV and AIDS of disaggregated data, technical assistance, Bangladesh Development,” 1997; Centre for against discrimination. There is a lack of infor- support infrastructure and use of mass media; Policy Dialogue, Dhaka, 1998. mation about the disease, preventive methods lack of fund transfer and accountability mech- Shibly Noman Khan, ANM, “Women’s Par- or treatment across the board. anisms among departments and ministers; ticipation in Economic Activities by Em- Bangladesh was one of the earliest coun- and lack of knowledge among policy makers powerment,” Women for Women, vol. 9, 57- tries in the region to develop a comprehen- and weak coordination and monitoring. 74, 2002. Steps Towards Development, January-March sive policy on issues related to HIV/AIDS Authors 2002. and Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs), Bangladesh: Kohinur Begum, Bangladesh with key policy statements that recognize National Women Lawyers Association; Sul- UNCTAD, UNIFEM South Asia, “Options as integral parts of HIV prevention: human tana Akhter Rubi, Samata Anjuman Akhter, for Women in Textile and Handloom Sector rights; gender equity; information, educa- Women Ending Hunger; Asrafunnahar Mun- Project: Gender and Trade,” “Spinning in the tion and communication; behavior change; ni, Mahmudha Khatun Sheuly, Narigrantha Women’s Way: Challenging World Trade,” July, 2003. confidentiality for test results; the need for Prabartana; Farida Akhter, Mahfuza a multi-sectoral and decentralized response; Tawheda, Bangladesh’s Policy Research Group United Nations Development Program the role of NGOs in implementation and co- for Development Alternatives (UBINIG); (UNDP), “A Pro-Poor Agenda, Overview,” Jahanara Huq, Khaleda Salahuddin,Latifa Report on Human Development in Bangla- ordination; a non-discriminatory approach; desh, 1996. blood safety; and STD treatment. Akhand, Women for Women; Jahanara Kha- tun, Samia Afrin, Nari Pokko; Prodip Roi, In Bangladesh, HIV/AIDS-related health World Bank, “Bangladesh: From Counting Sufia Sheuly,Kormojibi Nari; Salina Hossain, the Poor to Making the Poor Count,” Pov- services and information are available to all, but writer; Samia Ahmed, ActionAid-Bangla- erty Reduction and Economic Management there is still a low level of HIV/AIDS aware- desh; Sayyida Akhter, Narigrantha Prabarta- Network, South Asia Region, Washington ness. The level of political awareness is far high- na; Shima Das Shimu, Sramabikash Kendra. D.C.,1998. er than the level of project implementation. India: Anuj, SAMA; Aparana Basu, All India India: CEDAW Reports; Government Re- Among the HIV infection cases reported, Women’s Conference (AIWC); Indira Jaising, ports and Country Reports (1995,2000); 80 percent were men, 51 peercent among re- Priya, Tripti, Lawyers Collective; Madhu Sa- Ministries Annual Reports; National Com- turning emigrant workers, 12 percent among rin , Geetha MP, Priya; Mohini Giri, Women’s mission Reports.

92 BEIJING BETRAYED ASIA AND THE PACIFIC SOUTHEAST ASIA Lacking Political Will and Resources, Implementation Lags

n Southeast Asia since the Beijing Conference, there have been were further swallowed up by external debt in many cases. Economic varying levels of legal advances, with the greatest struggles be- liberalization led to a reduction in the more stable forms of regu- ing those of indigenous, minority and immigrant women. With lar employment and the growth of informalized work or temporary success in the crafting and passage of laws, however, implemen- and part-time employment. Women have been entering the labor tation and enforcement has been grossly uneven if not absent. force in increasing numbers, while they also accounted for the ma- There remain inadequate monitoring mechanisms and indicators to jority of unpaid family workers. Low-skilled women workers in the measureI the effect of government policies and programs—especially agricultural and industrial sector are more vulnerable to market risk at the local level—and the impact of laws and administrative direc- and potential exploitation, including long work hours and unsafe tives and regulations. working conditions. The relative decline in the share of social ser- Entrenched gender inequalities throughout existing social, reli- vices increases the amount of work women do in the unrecognized gious, cultural and political structures pose a great obstacle to poli- care economy, as they strive to provide services that the government cies being put into practice. Lack of implementation of policy gains should have been offering. There is also a trend towards feminization post-Beijing is also attributed to the continued inadequacy of Gov- of migration and its attendant problems, including violence against ernment resource allocation, compounded by the financial crisis in women migrant workers. 1997 that adversely affected government social spending and con- The countries discussed in this section of the report are Cambodia, sumers’ ability to pay for goods and services. In addition, resources Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam.

HUMAN RIGHTS women. A Royal Decree established the incorporates a comprehensive catalogue of Cambodian National Council for Women in human rights, but legislative, judicial and CEDAW Compliance 2000, which assists the Government in mon- administrative measures to implement those All reporting countries have ratified CEDAW. itoring and evaluation of laws, regulations provisions are still lacking. Only Cambodia, Lao PDR and Philippines and policy from a gender perspective and is The concluding observations and com- ratified without reservations. Reservations responsible for the promotion of the status ments of the 1997 CEDAW Committee re- were as follows: Indonesia and Vietnam: of women. However, in reality social cultural port on the Philippines (CEDAW/C/1997/ Article 29 (Dispute between State Parties); norms and weak enforcement impose heavy L.1/Add.8) noted that the major economic Malaysia: Article 2 (Commitment to Eradi- burdens on implementation.2 policies undertaken by the Government— cate Discrimination), Article 5 (Elimination Since the ratification of CEDAW in the the direction towards economic liberaliza- of Stereotyping), Article 7 (Elimination of Philippines, the women’s movement has suc- tion and privatization—may have serious Discrimination in Political and Public Life), cessfully lobbied that the Constitution have implications for the economic position of Article 9 (Citizenship), Article 11 (Employ- a gender equality provision and guarantee women in the free trade zones and in rural ment and Labor Rights ) and Article 16 women’s rights in relation to working con- areas. The Committee expressed concern (Marriage and Family); and Thailand: Arti- ditions, representation in local and national that the trend towards feminization of mi- cles 9, 10 (Education), 11, 16, 29. Thailand’s legislative bodies and equal citizenship rights. gration and its attendant problems, includ- reservation on Article 9, para 2 was subse- The Philippines passed laws to correct- dis ing violence against women migrant work- quently withdrawn.1 crimination against women in employment, ers, may be exacerbated. Indonesia, Philippines and Thailand rati- remove obstacles to women’s entry into the fied the Optional Protocal. Cambodia signed police and military, and criminalize sexual National Law but has not ratified. The general public and harassment in schools and in the workplace. Vietnam is a signatory to the International a great number of government officials have Milestone legislation on violence against Convention on the Rights of the Child, and little to no awareness and understanding of women was also passed, covering trafficking, a number of national laws addressing chil- CEDAW and the Protocol. rape and various forms of abuse in marital, dren’s issues. The 1997 Directive on Assign- In Vietnam, existing laws have been revised dating and common-law relationships. ing Responsibilities aims to take appropriate and new laws drafted to better meet CEDAW The Philippine Government established measures preventing trafficking of women standards, including the Penal Code, Labor a national Commission on Human Rights and children. The Plan of Action for the Pro- Code, Marriage and Family Law and Land (CHR), which includes a Women’s Rights tection of Vulnerable Children emphasizes Law. The main obstacles to implementation Program Center. The Philippine Develop- protecting girl children from sexual abuse include poverty and the gap in living stan- ment Plan for Women (1989–1992), fol- and exploitative labor. These laws and others dards. Vietnam is also still influenced by lowed by the 30-year perspective plan, the are implemented by various authorities and Confucianism, whose values contribute to Philippine Plan for Gender-Responsive De- agencies, and enforcement is scrutinized by gender inequalities such as women’s lower velopment (PPDG) (1995–2025), were de- the press and mass organizations and NGOs. status in the home, son-preference and the veloped to translate the provisions in the in- After the Beijing Conference, the Vietnam failure of men to fully share household and ternational commitments into specific policy Government launched the National Strategy family responsibilities. and program measures. In the Framework for the Advancement of Women in Vietnam In 1998, the Cambodian Ministry of Plan for Women for 2001–2004, the Gov- by the Year 2000. To aid its implementa- Women Affairs was expounded into full ernment pursues more vigorously women’s tion, a National Plan of Action by the Year fledged ministry to work on the status of rights in the economy. The Constitution 2000 (POA1) was approved. In early 2002,

WOMEN’S ENVIRONMENT & DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION 93 ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

Government proclaimed the National De- A Cambodian Government regulation made prostitutes cade for Filipino Indigenous People (1995- 2005); the launch of comprehensive agrar- responsible for condom use with their customers. It did not ian reform to improve tenure of indigenous communities to ancestral lands; adoption work, as most sex workers don’t report abuse. of measures to ensure inclusion of human rights courses at all levels of education; the Government adopted a second National In Cambodia, there has not been a sin- and the creation of “writeshops” on peace Strategy for the Advancement of Women by gle review of laws to assess discrimination education, which included participation by the Year 2010. The Plan of Action by the against women. Civil society organizations members of indigenous communities. Also, Year 2005 (POA2) was also developed to have not been successful in pushing for elec- the Republic Act 8371 and the Indigenous guide the implementation of the Strategy toral reform, such as a quota for women or Peoples Rights Act of 1997 provides for the in the first five years. The National Strategy listing of women candidates in an alterna- recognition, protection and promotion of and POA2 contain fewer, but more focused, tive slot as election candidates for political the rights of indigenous cultural communi- objectives in the areas of employment, edu- parties. Prostitution is illegal in Cambodia; ties and peoples. cation, health care, women’s participation in however, the punishment falls on the brothel leadership and strengthening the machinery owners rather than men customers. The “100 Public Awareness for the advancement of women. condom use” regulation, passed three years In Vietnam, there are gender awareness train- In 2004, there was a mid-term review of ago as a measure to combat the HIV/AIDS ing courses for various target groups imple- POA2 (2001-2003). Based on the reports epidemic, made women responsible for the mented by the National Committee for the submitted from 21 ministries/agencies and enforcement of the use of condom with their Advancement of Women (NCFAW), Com- 47 provinces/cities, as well as the findings customers. This measure was ineffective, as mittees for the Advancement of Women that from supervision trips, the POA2 is being most sex workers tend not to report abuse operate at the ministerial and provincial level implemented fairly well. In 4 out of 20 in- for fear of incrimination. Local laws fail to and the VWU. The Ministry of Education dicators, the targets have not been achieved: protect minors from sexual exploitation; and Training has introduced concrete mea- unemployment rates in urban women (7.2% most sex workers are under the age of 18. sures to gradually remove gender stereotypes vs. 5-6%); rate of maternal death relating Enforcement of laws has been rather weak, in school textbooks. The mass media have to pregnancy (91/100,000 vs. 80/100,000); as most brothel owners are backed by pow- many programs featuring the issue of gender percentage of health centers where midwives erful security officials. Enforcement of laws equality, contributing to a change in social have high school certificate (49% vs. 50%); on child pornography has also been incon- awareness on women’s roles and rights. and representation of women in the National sistent. Corruption and ineffective imple- The Vietnam National Political Publishing Assembly (27.3% vs. 30%). For some indi- mentation remains the major obstacle to the House publishes all important UN Conven- cators, the targets have been surpassed, such protection of Cambodian children. No law tions to which Vietnam has acceded. NC- as the percentage of female laborers receiving has been put in place to protect the rights FAW circulates copies of CEDAW, leaflets vocational training (30% vs. 20%). of the indigenous, minority and immigrant on the Convention’s contents, gender statis- The national machinery for the advance- women population. tics leaflets and many other gender-related ment of Vietnamese women is consolidated There have been significant obstacles to the documents in English and Vietnamese. Af- and extended at the lower levels. The Viet- implementation of the Government Action ter submitting country reports at the UN on nam Women’s Union (VWU)—a mass Plan. No steps have been taken to create or the implementation of CEDAW, NCFAW organization with nearly 12 million mem- strengthen independent national institutions always holds a conference to make public bers—continues to conduct programs aimed for the protection and promotion of women’s and circulate thousands of copies of the re- at women’s development and progress. It is human rights. Domestic violence laws have port. In 1998, the Prime Minister approved a developing the Center for Women and De- failed to pass and be put into practice for the program to set up law “bookshelves” in com- velopment and will soon develop an Institute past four years. Legal training for women at munes, wards and townships to provide local of Women Studies. The Board for Women the grassroots level has been implemented, authorities and people with better access to Affairs under the Vietnam Labor Confedera- and monitoring of women’s human rights legal information. In 2003, the Prime Minis- tion, has been further strengthened to pro- abuses has been undertaken by local NGOs ter approved the Program of Law Dissemina- tect the rights and interests of women labor- in collaboration with the Cambodian UN tion and Education from 2003 to 2007, in ers. The foundation of the Vietnam Women Center for Human Rights. Women’s shelters which women are one of the target groups. Entrepreneur Council (VWEC), under the have been opened for victims of trafficking A program on human rights (60 hours) for Vietnam Chamber of Commerce and Indus- and domestic violence. They are, however, key high-ranking Party and State officials has try, is a significant event protecting the inter- few in number. been taught in the Ho Chi Minh National ests of women entrepreneurs in domestic and In Philippines, with the revision of the Political Academy since 1998. international trade relations. Ethnic minority Civil Code and the enactment of the previ- In Cambodia, human rights education women are guaranteed fundamental rights ously cited laws, the women’s movement has programs that raise awareness among women through laws and are entitled to benefits and achieved significant advances. But there is are mostly sponsored by NGOs. There are no social programs. The Government issued a still more to be done, including efforts to pass guidelines in place there at this time on how decree in 2002 in which gender discrimina- a divorce bill and on reproductive rights. to use legislation to exercise individual rights. tory customs among ethnic minorities, such Regarding policies protective of indig- The Philippine’s Commission on Human as polygamy, are prohibited. enous and minority women, the Philippine Rights (CHR) has prepared a national Plan

94 BEIJING BETRAYED ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

of Action for human rights education for Philippines) were able to provide statistical mation could be an under-representation of specific target audiences. Strategies include: information on areas such as domestic vio- the real incidence. It has been documented trainers’ training, organization of networks, lence and rape, this information was usually that police insensitivity and the associated integration of human rights in all educa- derived only from available police records. In social stigmatization are significant barriers tional curricula, utilization of village-level most instances, indicators on violence against to women reporting rape.7 officials to reach out to the community, pro- women from this source are unreliable due to Very few countries have reported review- motional campaigns including artistic and under-reporting because of due to the social ing and implementing new legislation on cultural activities, and the development of and cultural stigamtization associated with violence against women since Beijing, and monitoring and evaluation systems. The violence. This in turn underestimates the even fewer countries have national laws that CHR, in cooperation with the Department extent of the problem. In countries such as provide women with protection against vio- of Education, developed a human rights Indonesia and Thailand, one reported barrier lence. In Vietnam, the 1999 Penal Code has education curriculum for elementary and was that the issue of violence against women measures to protect women and also increases secondary school levels as well as a Human was still viewed as an individual or domestic the sentence imposed for offense against a fe- Rights Education Facilitator’s Manual for the problem rather than a public health and hu- male victim. In 2002, the Ministry of Justice Training of Teachers. man rights issue.5 and VWU signed an agreement to carry out For countries like Cambodia, Indone- a joint program of law education and legal Violence Against Women3 sia, Thailand and Vietnam, information assistance for women. At the moment there Violence against women is a critical concern on the prevalence of domestic violence was are two centers that are very active in pro- in Southeast Asia. Though some concrete only available through small-scale studies. viding legal assistance for women. Advisory legislation, policy and services have been For example, in Cambodia the Ministry of service centers, conciliation teams, hotlines introduced, progress towards achieving the Planning has revealed that 25 percent of the and domestic violence shelters (only in Ho Beijing goals has been slow. There were some population was affected by domestic violence Chi Minh City) have been established to deal efforts by governments to address the issue and 19.1 percent by sexual violence. Marital with violence against women. However, the in National Plans of Action on women. For rape has not been recognized yet as an of- services are insufficient to meet the demand. example, in the Philippines, violence against fence despite advocacy efforts of the women In countries such as Cambodia, Malay- women has been addressed extensively and a activist NGOs. Similarly, in Thailand the sia and the Philippines, there was increased chapter was dedicated to it in the Philippine Friends of Women Foundation, an NGO, recognition of domestic violence as a seri- Government’s action plan to implement the reported that 59 percent of mar- Beijing PFA and the Philippine Plan for Gen- ried women were battered daily der-Responsive Development (1995-2025). while 11.5 percent were battered The Malaysian Government attempted to weekly. Malaysia was one of the address the issue in its Action Plan for Wom- few countries that was reported to en in Development, formulated in 1997 as a have carried out a nationwide sur- follow-up to its National Policy on Women vey on domestic violence even be- (1989). However, it did not merit a chapter fore the Beijing Conference. This of its own. Instead violence was discussed un- 1992 survey found that 39 percent der the “Women and Family” chapter, which of women were estimated to have unfortunately limited it to the family context. been battered. In the Philippines, Both Thailand and Vietnam made efforts to dealt with by the Department of include concerns on violence against wom- Social Welfare and Development Women farmers en in their national plan of actions, but the from 1991-1997 concerned do- against protectionism. recommendations proposed were general in mestic violence.6 nature. For example, Thailand’s Women and Most country reports were not able to pro- ous problem by both the governments and Development Plan (1999-2001) addressed vide up-to-date prevalence rates of rape, al- NGOs. This was an outcome of the lobbying the issue in the context of strengthening fam- though an increase over the years was report- efforts of women NGOs and activist groups. ily and community ties, whereas the Vietnam ed by both Lao PDR and Vietnam. In Lao However, to date Malaysia is the only coun- National Plan of Action (1997) addressed it PDR, for example—where violence against try in Southeast Asia to have a Domestic in the context of protecting the rights and in- women was yet to be considered a major Violence Act, which was passed in 1994 and terests of the girl-child. For other countries, public problem, and hence no appropriate implemented in 1996. Although this is a sig- there was no report of any efforts to include measures had been taken to deal with it—the nificant piece of legislation, it is reported to concerns related to violence against women reported incidence of rape increased from 21 have its limitations as it only considers physi- in National Plans of Action on women.4 cases in 1996 to 48 cases in 1997. Similarly, cal abuse and the threat of physical abuse as Although Beijing strongly emphasized the in Vietnam there had been 1,685 reported an offence, not psychological violence. The need to document the prevalence of violence rape cases involving 324 children from Janu- Philippines has made efforts to introduce a through research and statistics compilation, ary 1993 to July 1995. In 1996 alone, there domestic violence act. In 1997, a Presiden- all the country reports (with the exception were 847 reported cases of rape. In Thailand, tial Directive on domestic violence was is- of Malaysia) were unable to provide national it was reported that children 15 years and un- sued calling on all government officials to prevalence data for the different areas of vio- der made up 46 percent of the rape victims. campaign against violence against women. lence against women. Even in cases where Since the statistics reported were usually As for the other countries, some provisions

PANAP PHOTO FILES some country reports (for example, the based on available police records, the infor- for offences of family violence exist in the

WOMEN’S ENVIRONMENT & DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION 95 ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

Penal Code but these were considered weak and to ensure the privacy and safety of rape with livestock, with total disregard for hy- in terms of ensuring protection and legal re- survivors. Philippines not only reclassified giene, much less the vulnerability of women dress for women. Nevertheless, in countries rape from a private to a public offence, but and girls to sexual abuse. such as Indonesia, Thailand and Vietnam, it also broadened the definition of rape, gen- In Vietnam, women’s initiatives are en- women’s groups and NGOs are reported to der-sensitized the law and considered marital couraged to promote peace and security. For be reviewing issues and legislation concern- rape as an offence, though with the inclusion example, the Vietnam Women’s Union just ing violence against women as well as pro- of a clause that nullifies the crime if the wife signed agreements with its counterparts in viding training and education to sensitize the forgives the husband of the offence. Cambodia and Lao PDR on cooperation for public and judiciary system.8 Generally, marital rape is considered a stable and peaceful borders, especially coop- Programs to train judicial, legal, medi- private affair between couples by most coun- eration in stopping trafficking cross border. cal, social, educational, police and immi- tries—hence the lack of legislative measures to deal with this crime. All the other Asylum Seekers, Refugees, Fiery speech at rally countries, except for Cambodia, re- Internally Displaced in Malaysia. port having some provisions on rape In Vietnam, favorable policies are in place in their Penal Codes. In 1997, Thai- for victims, including sick and disabled vet- land proposed amendments to broad- erans and dioxin victims, of the war with the en the Penal Code’s narrow definition United States. Women who lost husbands or of rape.9 stayed single due to the war have been pro- In Cambodia domestic violence vided with land or houses and may have chil- laws have been debated for the past dren without facing discrimination. three years but have failed to pass, In Philippines, there is no comprehensive as most legislators felt that the laws legislation that grants refugee and asylum would violate family privacy and in- status. Approximately 1,800 asylum seek- dependence. Trafficking of women ers from Vietnam are living in the country grant personnel about dealing with violence is exacerbated by poverty, weak laws, cor- although they have been denied refugee against women in Cambodia are performed ruption of law enforcers and the culture status. There is significant popular support only by NGOs since the government has of gender inequality. Trafficked women in for allowing permanent residency to those created a special unit to deal with its prob- Cambodia are treated as illegal immigrants, who do not wish to repatriate and are in- lems, but lack resources and capacity to act and then poorly by their communities if they eligible for resettlement in other countries. effectively. No particular support services are return home.10 The Government continues to encourage available for migrant, immigrant and minor- voluntary repatriation but has not ruled out ity/indigenous women who have been sub- PEACE AND SECURITY forcible repatriation. jected to violence. Shelters for handicapped The continuing armed conflict between girls who are victims of domestic violence Security Council Resolution 1325 the Government and the Islamic separat- are not available. Even the NGO shelters do Awareness of Security Council Resolution ist groups in the South and communist not accept this category of victims because 1325 is weak throughout the subregion. In guerillas in other parts of the country have they lack the funding for the long-term care Cambodia, even women NGOs working on inflicted hardships to civilians. According these girls require. peace issues do not use this measure. Women to international and domestic NGOs more Very recently, after almost a decade of are strong advocates for the weapons reduc- than a million people, many of them wom- advocacy of the women’s movement in the tion program, working with local authorities en and children, have been displaced due to Philippines, milestone legislation on violence to encourage communities to turn in weap- the hostilities. against women was passed. The Anti-Traf- ons. A recent survey shows that 50 percent of In the Ecumenical Commission for Dis- ficking in Persons Act (2003) establishes pol- men and 70 percent of women in rural areas placed Families and Communities (ECDFC) icies, necessary institutional mechanisms and are involved in the weapons reduction pro- estimated that in Mindanao alone 203,000 sanctions and penalties for traffickers and gram. In urban areas, women’s participation families in 578 communities were displaced those who support them so as to eliminate is lower, at 50 percent. The survey finds that as a result of 42 separate incidents.12 trafficking in persons, especially women and women play important roles as peacemakers Uncertainties in the peace process have children, and protect and support trafficked as well as conflict mediators.”11 lead to a long and protracted displacement, persons. The Anti-Violence Against Women Muslim women in Philippines have been while damaged housing, and lost livelihoods and their Children Act (2004) aims to pro- engaged in peace advocacy since former have forced more and more people into tect women and their children from physical, President Joseph Estrada declared a “war on evacuation centers where problems abound, psychological and economic abuses in the terror” in 2000 and focused attention on including limited food supply, poor shel- context of marital, dating and common-law conflict-ridden communities, where military ters and health and sanitation facilities, and relationships. The Anti-Rape Law (1997) re- and rebels occasionally exchange fire. Peace lack of organized activities for children and defines and expands rape from being a crime advocacy has become the major weapon of adults. The 436 evacuation centers are able FILES PHOTO PANAP against chastity to being a crime against the women’s groups to combat sporadic armed to accommodate only about half the non- person. The Rape Victim Assistance and Pro- clashes in Central Mindanao. Women advo- combatant refugees. Poor sanitation and in- tection Act (1998) establishes rape crisis cen- cates have also spoken out against the situ- sufficient and unsafe drinking water have led ters in every province and municipality, to ation in evacuation centers where women, to disease, and lack of food to malnutrition. provide counseling and free legal assistance men and children are lumped together, along Many children have developed diarrhea, dys-

96 BEIJING BETRAYED ASIA AND THE PACIFIC entery and respiratory ailments. Most of the Box 17. Asserting Our Right to Land and Food children who died in the evacuation camps were under two years of age. The indigenous communities of Luzon In November 2000, women, peasants, of pesticides and genetic engineering and have suffered devastating impacts from the indigenous people and other grassroots resistance to agricultural transnational Philippine Government’s low-intensity con- groups and support NGOs from Asia em- corporations (TNCs). In each of the 16 flict against armed insurgents—the militari- zation of the countryside not only disrupted barked on a 17-day People’s Caravan. With countries visited in Asia and Europe, com- agricultural production, but also both sides the theme “Citizens on the Move for Land munities condemned corporate agriculture of the conflict took to using the delivery of and Food Without Poisons” the Caravan and the dumping of highly subsidized health and other services as a method of po- visited some 200 villages in Bangladesh, food and agricultural products from North litical conversion. India, Indonesia, Japan, Korea and Philip- America and the European Union, which pines, convening seminars, public meet- is wiping out local food producers and The International Criminal Court ings, dialogues with local officials, rallies, inceasing food insecurity. The demand for Cambodia ratified the Rome Statute in 2002. film festivals, exchange of seeds, cultural food sovereignty is now being put forward It has also taken steps to establish an Interna- presentations and food festivals as it by organizations of small and middle tional Genocide Tribunal to deal with crimes moved from one country to another. The scale producers, agricultural workers, rural committed in the country in the past, which Caravan influenced many farming commu- women, indigenous communities and helped create a more positive environment nities to practice sustainable agriculture support NGOs who are also asserting the for the Government to support the ICC. However, there is very little public awareness and reject pesticide use. right to safe, culturally appropriate foods about the Court.13 Four years later—and one year after the production. The Philippines and Thailand signed in derailment of the WTO talks in Cancun, The People’s Caravan is calling for an In- 2000 but have not yet ratified. Indonesia, Mexico—the People’s Caravan for Food ternational Convention on Food Sovereign- Lao PDR, Malaysia and Vietnam have not Sovereignty: Asserting our Rights for Land ty in order to enshrine the principles of signed the Rome Statute.14 and Food took place in September 2004. food sovereignty in international law and In Philippines, ratification has stalled. Demanding the right to land and food, institute it as the principle policy frame- President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo has failed the People’s Caravan 2004 called for the work for addressing food and agriculture. to bring the matter before the Senate to com- World Trade Organization (WTO) to stay For more information: Pesticides Action Network Asia plete the ratification process despite the urg- out of food and agriculture, elimination and the Pacific www.panap.net ing of both houses of government. There is considerable support for the ICC from vari- in local levels of power and decision-making. 551 districts and Khanhs across the coun- ous sectors, such as the legislature, academia, Women account for 6.4 percent, 4.9 percent tries, an increase from two women holding legal professionals and human rights and and 4.5 percent of the provincial, district and deputy chief positions in the district in 1993 peace advocates. However, the Department commune leaders respectively. to five women in 1998.15 of Foreign Affairs has signed an executive To increase the number of women mem- Cambodian women are generally not agreement with the United States to enter bers in the National Assembly 11th Legisla- considered suitable for public positions, es- into a bilateral agreement that would grant ture, the National Committee for the Ad- pecially in politics, because politics has until immunity to U.S. soldiers from prosecution vancement of Women (NCFAW) organized recently been violence-ridden and therefore under the ICC. The Government has also a training course for 216 women candidates. something women “can’t handle” and are not stated that it is not likely to endorse ratifica- For the 1999-2004 People’s Council Elec- thought of as educated for.16 tion as long as there are internal conflicts in tions, NCFAW and the Vietnam Women’s The Philippines was the first country in the country. Political analysts have suggested Union (VWU) organized leadership train- Asia to give women the right to vote. Wom- that the President will not ratify the ICC be- ings for 18,000 women candidates. A na- en have entered the political arena in recent cause she is afraid the U.S. will withdraw its tionwide media campaign was also launched years. In 2001, of the 38 elected women offi- military aid. to mobilize votes for women. As a result, the cials in the House of Representatives, 19 won percentage of women in People’s Councils at the elections under the shadows of male poli- POWER AND DECISION-MAKING all levels increased in comparison with the ticians who are family members. Seventeen 1994-1999 term: 22.5 percent at provincial were the wives, daughters or sisters of former Representation level (2.15 percentage point increase), 20.7 congressmen or senators, two were related to In Vietnam, the number of women in legisla- percent at district level (up 2.6 percentage former mayors. Of the two elected women tive agencies is increasing. The proportion of point) and 16.34 percent at commune level. Senators, one is a sister of a former Sena- women in the National Assembly has contin- In Cambodia, 12 percent of the National tor and sister-in-law of the former President uously increased during recent legislatures. In Assembly members were women from 1993 C.C. Aquino, while the other is a TV person- 2002, 136 out of 498 deputies were women. to 2003. This number is an improvement ality and the wife of a former politician. However, the rate of women in executive from 6 percent in 1993. In the Senate, 13 per- Along with many other citizens, Muslim agencies is low. Women only account for cent of the members appointed are women. women argue that the method of election of 11.9 percent of ministers or equivalent and There are still no women provincial or mu- senators from a nationwide list favors estab- 8.1 percent of vice ministers or the equiva- nicipal governors. There is a slight improve- lished political figures from the Manila area, lent. In addition, women are less represented ment in the number of deputy chiefs in the to the disadvantage of Muslims. Election of

WOMEN’S ENVIRONMENT & DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION 97 ASIA AND THE PACIFIC senators by region would require a constitu- concerns in national policy. Recently the Na- POVERTY ERADICATION tional amendment; such an amendment is tional Assembly has carefully discussed matters favored by many Muslims and members of related to women’s retirement age, increasing Macroeconomic Policies, other underrepresented groups. There are no women’s participation in elected bodies, and Development Strategies Muslim senators or cabinet members. How- preventing social evils including prostitution. The Philippines’ foreign debt has grown from ever, the House of Representatives has nine National Assembly women deputies meet to- $30.6 billion in 1990 to $53.9 billion by the Muslim members. gether during bi-annual meetings to discuss end of 2002. Since 1998, its external debt As of June 2001, 21 percent of the judges women’s issues. The National Committee for has been at least 60 percent of its gross na- in Philippine courts are women. There has the Advance of Women in Vietnam (NCFAW) tional product (GNP) and more than double only been one woman in the 15-member Su- was established in 1993; their most significant its exports.21 The debt burden continues to preme Court since 1993. The gender propor- success has been to complete the organiza- compromise the growth and anti-poverty tion is most equal in the Metropolitan Trial tional structure for, design and implement the programs of government, as interest pay- Court, where 28 out of 55 judges are wom- National Plan of Action for the Advancement ments are preempting an increasing share of en. However, the Sandiganbayan, (Muslim) of Women. the national budget. Shari’a District Courts and Circuit Courts In Cambodia, women have not been given The defense budget registered a double- have remained all male. the opportunity to participate in decision- digit-percentage increase from 2000 while There has also been an increase in the making bodies in the political parties. They economic services contracted by 6 percent percentage of women running for elective are seen as having a token presence only.19 and social services only expanded by 9 per- posts. Nineteen percent of those who ran The Ministry of Women’s Affairs has devel- cent. This decline in the share of social servic- for senatorial posts in 2001 were women, oped a strategy for national mainstreaming, es will affect the amount of work women do compared to 15 percent in 1998. Similarly, but the responsibility for implementation in the informal care economy, as they strive 14 percent of 2001 candidates for congres- lies within each individual ministry. Only to provide for services that the Government should have been offering, such as health and day care services. In the Philippines, the debt burden and an escalating In 2000, the poverty incidence rose to 34.2 percent.22 This translates to an additional defense budget compromises the growth and anti-poverty 704,000 poor families from the 1997 level programs that help women . for a total of 5.2 million poor families. Opin- ion polls that report self-rated poverty place the poverty figure as 16 percentage points sional posts were women, an increase from 10 Ministries have gender focus groups in higher than the official figure. The situation 12 percent in 1998.17 Women occupy less their institutions; the level of implementa- in rural areas continues to be more serious than 20 percent of all elective posts at the tion varies from one ministry to another. than urban areas. national and local levels.18 Gender mainstreaming in ministries tends to Although the Philippines has a policy on At present, while the Philippines has a be donor driven.20 Donors working with spe- gender-responsive budgeting, the compli- woman Head of State and 10 women in the cific ministries use and promote different ap- ance rate is low among government agencies. Cabinet, women’s participation in electoral proaches in the individual projects that they The National Commission on the Role of politics and governance remains low com- support, making the impact of the project Filipino Women (NCRFW) reported that pared with men’s. There are only three wom- less effective. 123 agencies submitted gender-responsive en senators out of 24 and 33 representatives The Philippines does not have a Ministry agency plans in 2001. While this is an im- out of 200 House Representatives. At the of Women’s Affairs. It does have a national provement from the 19 agencies that submit- local level, women occupy 13 to 17 percent machinery: the National Commission on the ted in 1995, it only represents a 37 percent of elective posts as governors, vice-governors, Role of Filipino Women (NCRFW), which compliance rate. Low compliance is due to mayors and vice-mayors. is under the office of the President. Gen- policy ambiguity, absence of sanctions and Pending in both houses of the Philippine der Mainstreaming Evaluation Framework minimal involvement of civil society in the Congress are bills that seek special mea- (GMEF) tracks the progress government budgeting process. The lack of compliance is sures: the proposed Women’s Empowerment agencies have made with gender mainstream- problematic because it perpetuates ambigu- Act, which seeks to require a minimum of ing, and provides the framework that guides ity in interpreting the policy, downplays its 30 percent representation of women in all in designing a gender mainstreaming strategy. importance and does not achieve the purpose decision-making positions in government, GMEF looks into the financial and human of improving women’s lives. and House Bill 5708, “Gender Balance in resources allotted for gender mainstreaming In Vietnam, while the market economy Political Participation Act,” which aims to and gender-sensitive programs, projects and creates some opportunities for women, down- progressively increase women’s participation activities and the overall capacity of the agen- sides persist. For example, low skilled women in elective and appointive posts to at least 33 cy and its personnel for gender-responsive workers in the agricultural and industrial sec- percent and to reach 50 percent by 2012 at planning, implementation, monitoring and tor are more vulnerable to market risk and executive levels. assessment. NCRFW uses GMEF to moni- potential exploitation, including long work tor compliance by government agencies on hours and unsafe working conditions. Impact of Representation gender mainstreaming, including the policy According to the survey of the Ministry Women comprise 27 percent of the National to allocate 5 percent of the agency budget for of Labor, Invalid and Social Affairs and the Assembly in Vietnam and represent women’s gender mainstreaming. International Labor Organization (ILO) in

98 BEIJING BETRAYED ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

2001, working women account for three change their eating pattern to Hmong girls, Thailand. fourths of the low skilled jobs. As a result, cope with the situation. the restructuring and privatization of state- Sixty-nine percent of poor owned enterprises affect women more than families had access to safe men, because they are the first to be laid off. drinking water in 1999, rep- In 2000, vocational training was given resenting an increase from 66 to more than 1 million people, including percent in 1998. Similarly, the long-term training to more than 160,000. use of sanitary toilets increased For some subjects that many women at- from 66 percent in 1998 to 68 tend—such as post and telecommunication, percent in 1999. These figures transport, garment making—the job place- contrast with access for non- ment percentage is as high as 90 percent after poor families, among which the training. 86 percent have access to safe As a result of a report from the Ministry of drinking water and 92 percent Finance released a report on public expendi- used sanitary toilets in 1999. ture in Vietnam, one part of which is a gen- The Department of Agrarian der assessment. The budget allocation was Reform issued a directive ensuring the rights hours per week on their paid work compared increased in social welfare fields, including of wives to ownership of land and requir- to 40.2 hours per week by men. However, education, health care, hunger elimination, ing the issuance of Emancipation Patents or much of women’s work is not valued and is poverty reduction and building capacity for Certificates of Land Ownership Award in the unpaid. Women work longer hours, com- human resources. In addition, the Ministry name of both the husband and wife. Married bining economic activities with domestic allocates an annually budget for activities for women may now lease or purchase public activities. Filipino women continue to bear the advancement of women. lands without written permission from their the socially-ascribed burden of social care, in- husbands. From January to September 2001, cluding maintaining the household and en- Access to Public Services and Resources female beneficiaries accounted for 27 percent suring the well-being of household members In Vietnam, the revised Land Law (2003) of the beneficiaries of the Comprehensive through providing health care, adequate food and Marriage and Family Law (2000) require Agrarian Reform Program (CARP). and nutrition, safe drinking water, sanitation that the names of both the wife and husband and shelter. be on land use certificates. A 2002 Decree set Employment Patterns, Women’s Work Women’s estimated earned income is the target of providing more loans to poor In Vietnam, the Government Decree (2002) about 58 percent that of men’s.24 The 1997 women. In 2000, the Agriculture and Rural on salary stipulates equal pay for equal work UNDP Human Development Report, citing Development Bank and the Vietnam Wom- and expands compulsory social insurance 1994 figures, states that the earned income en’s Union (VWU) signed a joint resolution to laborers in collective and private sectors. share of women is 30.7 percent compared to on providing loans to women. Female workers can take a paid 60-minute 69.3 percent for men. In the Philippines it is critical to note the breast-feeding rest each day for 12 months. lack of official data analyzing the gender di- Where it is not applicable, employers can EDUCATION mensions of infrastructure support. This may give an allowance instead. be attributed to the perception that infra- In Philippines, there has been a reduc- International Agreements structure is gender-neutral; however, the im- tion in formal, stable employment and an Vietnam signed the Convention on the Rights plications vary for women and men. increase in work in the informal economy of the Child in 1991 and ratified the Millen- The Government allocates nearly one third due to economic liberalization and the ef- nium Declaration in September 2000. of its budget to social services, the bulk of fects of globalization. There is, however, “Education for All” remains critical for which goes to education. The most crucial little information on the magnitude of the the Philippines despite the high literacy rates services for social reproduction—namely informal sector. for both women and men. Women and men health, housing and community develop- For displaced women workers and workers have almost equal status in access to educa- ment—accounted for only 3 percent of the in the informal sector, the Kasanayan-Kabu- tion and women are able to penetrate tra- 2001 national budget. Compared with the hayan (Training-Employment) One-Stop ditional male-dominated educational areas. 1997 expenditure program, the share of so- Shop was set up to act as a referral facility The positive developments are due in large cial services in 2001 declined.23 and provides information to expand em- part to the supportive approaches carried The sub-task force on the girl-child of the ployment opportunities. It offers skills as- out such as the revision of textbooks, cur- Council for the Welfare of Children (2002: sessment, career counseling, information ricula and instructional materials as well as 16) reported that adolescent girls receive the on support services in overseas and local teaching methods to eliminate gender biases least amount of nutrients compared to other employment, skills training and retraining, and stereotyping. members of the household, but are exposed scholarship grants on information commu- Literacy is at 94 percent for women and to more domestic work. Food consumption nication technology and entrepreneurship 93 percent for men. Women outnumbered is among the first things that households development training, and capital and credit the men in terms of enrollment at both the sacrifice when the economic situation dete- availability and networking. secondary and tertiary levels. riorates. Of the poor families reporting that Data from the National Commission on While gender bias is still evident in edu- their situation has deteriorated, 49 percent the Role of Filipino Women (NCRFW) cation, this is being addressed. The Depart-

KEITH RICHARDSON said that changing they had been forced to (2002) show that women spend about 41.0 ment of Education has developed teaching

WOMEN’S ENVIRONMENT & DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION 99 ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

Box 18. Indigenous Women Clamor for Peace Vocational and technical schools have ac- In Central Mindanao, Philippines tively pursued the enrollment of females in traditionally male-dominated courses. Gender biases in education differ among In 2000, alarmed by the increase in hos- In the Arumanen Manobo tribe, women cultural groups. For instance, Lumad (in- tilities between the government armed are sent to the enemy to settle conflicts, digenous peoples) and Muslim groups favor forces and the Moro Islamic Liberation a mediating role they see as crucial in sending their sons to school while keep- Front (MILF) on the island of Mindanao, 30 community life even at the risk of sacrific- ing their daughters at home. The Muslim women formed the Mindanao Council of ing their own lives. Ironically, according to struggle, however, has greatly affected the Women Leaders (MCWL) and began a peace Marsh Daul, an expert in the oral history education of young boys and men who have offensive with the slogan, Look at Peace tradition of the tribe, Arumanen Manobo been drawn to fight for rebel groups. While through Women’s Eyes. men have another view of women as peace literacy rates among population 10 years or The Council met with leaders from negotiators—they send their women older hover around 90 percent or more, that both sides of the conflict, urging them to ahead as sugal or as pawns to the enemy for the Autonomous Region of Muslim Min- cease their provocative military acts, and because women are deemed dispensable danao (ARMM) is a low 74.5 percent, with male literacy rate (75.6%) exceeding that for advocated for women’s participation and to the tribe. In the Matigsalug tribe women females (71.4 years). perspectives to be included in all aspects of only talk during meetings if they have a the search for peace. The chair of MCWL has specific responsibility. Public Policy been appointed to the government panel In the ongoing conflict in Mindanao, Current enrolment rates in Vietnam for pri- negotiating peace with the MILF. women have to struggle against the mary education are approximately 92 per- The Council, consulting widely, has notion that their role as community cent, placing the country close to the 2005 organized conferences and workshops with peace mediators is just an extension of national target of 97 percent. More impor- representatives of conflict communities, their role in the kitchen—to keep the tantly, the primary education completion local government officials and Muslim peace within the family and contain conflict rate has increased from 68 percent in 1998 leaders and professionals, with high level among children and family members. to 77 percent more recently. government participation. These events Currently, two out of five government The major challenge, as highlighted in the have highlighted MILF issues of ancestral negotiators are women while the MILF side Education for All National Action Plan, is improving the quality of education. Teachers’ domain and human rights, and education has no women members at all. When the training has been emphasized as a priority and promotion of women’s participation negotiating table is dominated by men, to improve standards. In 2001-2002, about in peace processes. it can easily become an extension of the 8 percent of all teachers received in-service A Mindanao Peace Summit, held in battlefield in the form of legal rhetoric and training; only 50 percent of teachers in pri- 2002 in Davao City, examined the survival diplomatic bullying on weapons, territorial mary education received the teachers’ guide. strategies of indigenous women of the integrity, political power, self-determina- Achieving the 99 percent net enrolment rate Bangsamoro peoples and women settlers tion, constitution, power sharing, elections, in primary education by 2010 will require in the conflict-affected areas. In August international laws and a politically negoti- the integration of ethnic minority and dis- 2004, a gathering of Moro women leaders ated settlement. abled children. Some 33 percent of disabled and Mindanao organizations in Marawi Women peace advocates, on the other children have never attended primary school City tackled Muslim women’s role in peace- hand, bring to the table the human face and of those participating, only 15 percent building and development. of the conflict—the experiences of their finished primary schooling. In 2000, Vietnam implemented a nation- Maranao women from the Bangsamoro families in the evacuation centers, food wide literacy program. Every year, 60,000 peoples view themselves as tiglimpyo sa blockades, sick children, orphans, widows, to 100,000 people (of whom 38-40% are mga hugaw sa katilingban (cleaners of the destroyed homes, schooling, medicines, women, and girls) attend classes to learn dirt of the community). Women are well trauma and broken relationships. Having post literacy skills. According to the latest respected and influential in the community, more women at the negotiating table, will data from the Vietnam Households Living playing the role of mediators in rido or fam- change the equation of the negotiations. Standards Survey (VHLSS) 2002, the adult ily feuds. Within Maranao culture, women They will introduce practical, workable solu- literacy rate is about 91 percent. Preliminary do not consider themselves oppressed or tions to the conflict in Mindanao. data from the VHLSS 2002 suggests over 94 percent women below 40 years of age were exploited because they value their specific Source: WEDO Global Monitoring Report Questionnaire, roles and place within the community and Philippines literate, although rates among women in this the confines of their culture. age group from ethnic minorities were sig- nificantly lower at around 75 percent. In Cambodia, there are fewer girls than exemplars to integrate gender into the basic Policies and programs in universities and boys on all educational levels. At the lower education curricula of both elementary and educational institutions have also been de- secondary school level, girls make up 39 per- secondary levels. Gender issues are included veloped to address campus-based problems cent of total dropouts. Seventy-four percent in the five learning areas of 2002-revised edu- like sexual harassment and discrimination of students are boys while 26 percent are cational curriculum. in enrolment and access to scholarships. girls. The Government does not have an affir-

100 BEIJING BETRAYED ASIA AND THE PACIFIC mative system that supports more girls who priority sector’s goals and targets: effective ment estimates, this share has declined to less want higher education and are prepared to partnership toward education for all; in- than 60 percent. take on more responsibilities in their home crease equitable access to education services; and in society. improve the quality and efficiency of educa- NATURAL RESOURCES In Philippines, 95.1 percent of the popu- tion; enhance management of the education AND ENVIRONMENTAL SECURITY lation was literate in 2001. There were no services; and increase resource allocation to significant differences in the literacy rates of the education sector. Right to Natural Resources males and females. However, literacy rates Major problems in implementing these Many problems are reported in the provision are lower in rural than in urban areas. policies are the capacity of the Government of safe water facilities. In Lao PDR, only 51 The Asian financial crisis and the El Nino to collect revenue to increase the salary of percent of the population had access to safe phenomenon in 1997 sharply limited the ac- teachers and education administrators and water; in Indonesia, 79 percent; and in the cess of poor families to education, particu- the unavailability of educational materials in Philippines, 65 percent overall but only 46 larly at the tertiary level. The Government rural areas. percent in rural areas. In Vietnam, in 2003, operates only 19 percent of tertiary schools In Philippines, tertiary-level enrolment is 60 percent of the urban population and compared to 60 percent and 91 percent of female-dominated, outnumbering men by 54 percent of the rural population could schools at the secondary and elementary almost 0.3 million. Male enrolment, how- access clean water. Malaysia has 89 percent levels, respectively. Only 54 percent of high ever, has been catching up. Career choices of the population covered by national water school graduates in 1997-1998 were able to of women and men continue to differ, but supply services. go to college. Women concentrate in aca- the differences have not been as marked as The quality and safety of water is more dif- demic areas that do not pay as much as the in earlier years. For instance, agriculture, for- ficult to assess. In Indonesia, Malaysia and fields that men specialize in. For instance, estry, fishery and veterinary medicine—fields the Philippines, urban water supply is often women take nursing, pharmacy and midwife- that were ones regarded as masculine—are of poor quality, and implementation and ry, while men go into medicine and physical now being “feminized,” as women constitute monitoring of water standards and environ- therapy. With the increased demand for nurs- about 47 to 50 percent of enrollees. Math- ment legislation needs improvement. No na- ing and physical therapy overseas, however, ematics and computer science are fields that tional data exist on accessibility of safe water medical school graduates have been known to are attracting more women (over 55 percent) specifically for women and it is assumed in- return to school to enroll in these courses. In than men.27 correctly that this is a gender-neutral area.28 engineering, similar gender tracking had been There is no special unit in the Depart- observed.25 Third, career counseling in high ment of Education and Sports (DECS) that HEALTH 29 school seems to reinforce gender stereotyping focuses solely on girl’s education. DECS has of career choices. a Gender and Development (GAD) Focal Access and Affordability Point that is in charge of gender mainstream- In Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malay- Access and Changes in Practices ing among its various offices. Efforts to pro- sia, Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam, there In Vietnam, in schools of all levels, male and mote research and data collection regarding was no apparent increase in the availabil- female students share the same class, curri- girls and women’s education are inadequate ity, accessibility and affordability of primary cula and educational conditions without any to monitor women’s education and training health services. Inadequate government re- discrimination. Some classes for adults are and job matching. source allocation, compounded by the 1997 open exclusively to ethnic and mountainous The Government has devoted consider- financial crisis, adversely affected health bud- women, with reduced curricula to help them able resources to the education of children; gets and consumer ability to pay for services become literate more quickly. the Department of Education has the largest and medication, particularly in Indonesia In order to bridge the gap among areas budget of any cabinet department. Primary and Thailand.30 and regions of the country, the State has put and secondary education are free and com- Other obstacles include the lack of a gender in place a policy of education fee reduction pulsory, but poor families are often unable perspective; insufficient political will and com- and exemption, provided educational means, to meet costs for uniforms, supplies, shoes mitment by governments; inadequate data opened boarding schools for ethnic students, and transportation. Poverty forced many and information; privatization and the impact and provided extra allowances for teachers in children to drop out of school; where 96 per- of health sector reform on women’s health and remote and mountainous areas. cent of school-age children were enrolled in lives; and lack of creative planning.31 There is no separate unit in the Ministry elementary school and 70 percent in second- Privatization of health services in the wake of Education and Training that focuses solely ary school, only about 66 percent of children of health sector reform increased the cost of on girls’ education. The Ministry’s Commit- completed sixth grade, and only 50 percent health services in Indonesia, Malaysia and tee for the Advancement of Women is the of all children finished secondary school. Vietnam, including the cost of childbirth focal point of gender equality in the educa- The overall graduation rate (students who services and medication in Indonesia. The tion service. Most data and statistics kept and start elementary school and graduate from costs of contraceptives spiraled in Indone- processed by the Ministry, as in many other secondary school) was 71 percent. The Asian sia in 1997, further compromising women’s agencies, are sex disaggregated. Development Bank expressed concern over a ability to afford them. In Makasar the cost for In Cambodia, the ratio of girls to boys growing inequity in educational opportuni- injectable contraception before health sector in tertiary education has increased recently ties for the poor as public spending per pu- reforms was Rp5,000 (Rp1=US$0.0001) from 19 percent in 1997 to 37 percent in pil declined. In the 1980s, public spending and this was raised to Rp12,000. The cost 2001.26 The Government has approved five covered 80 percent of the cost of elementary of contraceptive pills also rose from Rp1,000 strategic policies to insure achievement of education; however, according to govern- to Rp2,500.32

WOMEN’S ENVIRONMENT & DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION 101 ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

It is difficult to monitor the accessibility shift from public to private services for those services that incorporate birth spacing and of health services to women because health who can afford it, which may reflect a level sexuality; safe motherhood and a reduction statistics are not disaggregated as proposed of dissatisfaction with the quality of services of maternal and prenatal morbidity and mor- in the Beijing Platform for Action, but provided in the public sector. There has also tality; and improved maternity care services. across the region health services for women been an exodus of doctors, specialists and In Lao PDR, there is no comprehensive re- are utilized mainly by married women of re- nurses from the public to the private sector. productive health policy; however, it does productive age. Reproductive cancer screen- Since foreigners are charged higher rates have policies on maternal and child health, ing for younger, unmarried or older women than the local population, it is almost impos- include the issues of safe motherhood (1997) is still largely inaccessible in some countries, sible for migrant women to access treatment, and birth spacing (1995). the exceptions being Indonesia, Malaysia, often leaving them to resort to self-medica- Indonesia has also focused on safe moth- Philippines and Thailand. Similarly, contra- tion without proper medical guidance. Since erhood, launching a Mother-Friendly Move- ceptive information and services are acces- 2003, it has been compulsory for low skilled ment (Gerakan Sayang Ibu) in 1996 to reduce sible through government services only to migrant workers to undergo a medical ex- maternal mortality rates and enhance the married women. amination upon arrival. quality of women’s lives through community In Thailand, a women-centered health re- A national adolescent health policy intro- involvement in women’s health programs, search project at the Centre for Health Policy duced in 2001 focuses only on prevention of but insufficient funding due to the 1997 fi- Studies at Mahidol University found that substance abuse and balanced nutrition and nancial crisis has stalled implementation.35 women were sometimes reluctant to seek does not address access to education and in- In Vietnam, maternal and child health and health care services because they were shy to formation on sexual and reproductive health. family planning are seen as important com- discuss health problems considered shame- The Government does not provide contra- ponents of reproductive health along with ful or were embarrassed about exposing their ceptive services to unmarried individuals, adolescent reproductive health concerns, bodies to medical personnel.33 including adolescents, hence the provision of older peoples health, abortion rights, treat- In Indonesia, the 1992 Law on Health ad- sexual and reproductive health services rests ment of RTIs and STDs, and HIV/AIDS.36 dressed the right to a high standard of health solely on NGOs and the private sector. In Indonesia and Malaysia, reproductive for both women and men, but there has been rights debates have been contentious, espe- minimal progress in achieving this objec- Reproductive Health cially pertaining to contraceptive services for tive. Availability and accessibility of maternal In Southeast Asia, there are still many aspects unmarried women and adolescents, the defi- health and quality family planning services of women’s reproductive health that need to nition of family and gender equality within remains a problem, let alone the integration be addressed. These include awareness-build- the family, largely due to cultural, religious of infertility, abortion, reproductive tract in- ing and systemization of the concept of re- and patriarchal values. fections (RTIs), sexually transmitted disceas- productive and sexual rights; reproductive A trend towards Islamic fundamentalism es (STDs) and reproductive cancer services. cancer screening and treatment; treatment of in Malaysia has it made politically difficult Still recovering from the aftermath of STDs and RTIs; family planning needs and for Government to carry out progressive long periods of war in the 1970s and 1980s, availability of safe methods of modern con- policies and services in the area of sexual and women heading households in Cambo- traception; and unsafe abortions and mater- reproductive health rights. The low contra- dia and Lao PDR suffer a high incidence nal morbidity. ceptive prevalence rate and low utilization of of war-related mental health problems and Since the Beijing Conference, Philippines available pap smear services can be attributed stress. There are also an insufficient number and Thailand have designed policies and pro- to cultural barriers. of health care providers and few qualified grams that incorporate much of the broader Philippines has included the concept of re- nurses and midwives.34 areas of reproductive health. The Philippine productive rights in its health, population and In Vietnam, access to health care services Plan for Gender-Responsive Development family planning policies and programs, but is still extremely difficult for ethnic minori- (1995-2025) gives priority attention to the Department of Health faces challenges in ties in the remote and mountainous areas. women’s reproductive health, acknowledging moving the concept into concrete programs.37 Regarding young women, the Philippines’ Young Adult Fertility and Sexuality II Study Privitization in the health sector has further compromised on youth sexual practices found that a sig- nificant number of young Filipinos engage in women’s ability to access reproductive services. pre-marital sex at the average age of 18 years. A 1997 Care International study in Vietnam More than 80 percent of women from this that reproductive rights are fundamental to found that 71 percent of men and 32 percent population deliver at home, compared to their achievment. Similarly, Thailand’s 1996 of women surveyed thought that Vietnamese less than 30 percent of the majority popula- reproductive health policy comprised 10 ar- men and women were having sexual relations tion. This may be partly attributed to lack eas of reproductive health and involved both before marriage. In 1999, the Malaysian Min- of information on the risks of pregnancies, women and men. istry of Health piloted an education program but the major problem is lack of adequate Cambodia and Lao PDR have integrated in some schools, which included concepts of health facilities. some reproductive health concerns into poli- sexuality (although this could not be openly In Malaysia, 88.5 percent of the popula- cies and programs, but mainly in maternal discussed) and reproductive health.38 tion live within five km of a health facility and child health. In Cambodia, the Gov- None of the countries have legalized gay and most public health services are heavily ernment’s policy statement on reproductive rights. Sexuality remains a taboo subject in subsidized. However, there has been a steady health as a right emphasizes accessible health most, especially when it focuses on adoles-

102 BEIJING BETRAYED ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

cents’ or young women’s sexual rights. Once Traveling by river again, cultural and religious abjections re- in North Vietnam. mained significant barriers.39 The maternal mortality ratio (MMR) is high for all countries except Malaysia, where 96.1 percent of births were attended by trained health personnel, a critical factor in lowering the MMR. In Cambodia, Indone- sia and Lao PDR, the high number of unsafe home deliveries without trained midwives and the absence of systematic maternal and prenatal audits make it difficult to ascertain the main cause of the high incidence. In Cambodia, for example, 85 percent of de- liveries took place at home but only about half of these were assisted by traditional birth attendants. In Lao PDR, 91 percent of all deliveries took place at home and 80 percent of pregnancy-related maternal deaths also oc- curred at home, most women being without access to equipped hospitals. In Indonesia, the Government reported that the number of women giving birth at home attended by traditional birth attendants increased af- when a pregnancy is life-threatening), and government health programs to empower ter the Beijing Conference. The Philippines no allowances are made in cases of rape or women, especially married women.46 also reported that two thirds of deliveries incest. Malaysia permits abortion to save Control and prevention of STDs has been occurred at home, with traditional birth at- a woman’s life and for physical or mental recognized as a major strategy in the preven- tendants assisting approximately 41 percent health reasons Thailand allows abortion to tion of HIV/AIDS. Some countries, such as of the births.40 save a woman’s life or for physical health Lao PDR, Malaysia, the Philippines and Viet- There is a large unmet need for contracep- reasons, including for pregnancies caused nam, provide information on STD manage- tives. In most countries, contraceptives are by rape. The Philippines is the only country ment, screening and treatment programs or available through government and family that prohibits abortion.43 services. For example, in Lao PDR a national planning associations, although not neces- There are no national up-to-date data on STD Management Unit was established and sarily widely accessible due to cultural, reli- the prevalence of safe and unsafe abortion in integrated into the National AIDS Program. gious and political factors. In Cambodia, less any of the countries, making it difficult to as- Furthermore, a National Policy and Strategy than 1 percent of women use contraceptives sess whether unsafe abortions have decreased for the Prevention and Care of STD was de- or birth spacing methods. In Malaysia, the since the Beijing Conference as an outcome veloped and approved by the Government in prevalence of contraceptive use, including of greater access to safe and effective family 1998. As for the Philippines, it was report- traditional methods, is moderate (54.5 per- planning methods or the availability of ex- ed that the National Program on STD had cent in 1994). In the Philippines, only 47 tended health care.44 130 clinics available for STD treatment and percent of married women aged 15 to 49 management, although most of these were in years reported using some form of contra- HIV/AIDS urban areas.47 ception in 1997.41 In Lao PDR, contracep- In Southeast Asia, HIV/AIDS is increasing In Indonesia, preventive programs—in- tives were free for married women until the among women. In Cambodia, 10 percent cluding awareness-building media campaigns 1997 financial crisis prompted severe budget of the 30,000 sex workers are infected with in schools, workplaces, health facilities, and cuts. In Thailand, efforts to encourage men the virus. In Lao PDR, the highest rate of community settings—are being implement- to take responsibility for safe sex appear to prevalence is among young people between ed.48 In Vietnam, information has been dis- have failed as indicated by the low level of the ages of 20 to 29, of whom 44.1 percent seminated about prevention and care, but condom use.42 are women.45 communication with youth and adolescents Cambodia legalized abortion without any In most countries, existing primary health needs to be further enhanced, especially safe restriction in 1997, but access is problematic care facilities are inadequate to meet the sex education. Most people living with HIV/ due to the high cost of abortion services. In needed level of STD and HIV services. AIDS do not currently have government ben- Vietnam, where the law also allows for abor- There is a lack of trained workers and re- efits. Also, there is still stigma and discrimina- tion without any restrictions, the National sources are scarce. tion against them, thus limiting the popula- Committee for the Advancement of Women Cambodia and Lao PDR reported a huge tion’s involvement in HIV/AIDS activities. in Vietnam (NCFAW) has reported a decline gap in the delivery of basic health care ser- The Malaysian AIDS Council (MAC) in the number of women suffering from in- vices, let alone health care services for HIV/ makes available brochures and fact-sheets in fection and hemorrhage. AIDS. Thailand has a national AIDS policy three languages (English, Malay and Man- In Indonesia and Lao PDR, abortion is but lacks a strategic plan for implementation. darin), with Tamil possibly forthcoming.

KEITH RICHARDSON legal only under certain conditions (e.g. As a result, there are no community-based Information, education and communication

WOMEN’S ENVIRONMENT & DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION 103 ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

(IEC) material content is developed by com- Sources 18. Ibid. 19. Khus, Thida. Cambodia Country Monitoring Report, munity-based organizations for their own Asian-Pacific Resource & Research Centre SILAKA, 18. communities with technical and funding for Women (ARROW). “Women’s health 20. UNIFEM, World Bank, Asian Development Bank (ADB), support from MAC. Financial and techni- Needs and Rights in Southeast Asia – A Bei- United Nations Development Program (UNDP), Department for International Development, United Kingdom (Dfid UK), cal support via partner organizations is pro- jing Monitoring Report”. Malaysia, Septem- Ministry of Women’s Affairs, Cambodia Gender Assessment vided for direct services like drop-in centers ber 2001 Report, April 2004. 21. ADB 2003. targeted at drug users, sex workers (female Rashidah Abdullah et al. “ICPD Ten Years 22. National Statistics Office (NSO), 2003. and transgender) and the transgender com- On: Montioring on Sexual and Reproductive 23. Philippines National Statistical Coordination Board munity. Partner organizations also provide (NSCB), Women and Men in the Philippines: 1999 Statistical Health and Rights in Asia: A Draft Regional Handbook, 1999. shelter services for people living with AIDS, Overview.” ARROW. Malaysia. 2004. 24. UNDP, Human Development Report, 2002. infected and affected women and their chil- Country Gender Assessment, PHILIP- 25. Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport of the Government dren, and infected orphans and women drug of Cambodia: Education Statistic, 2002. PINES, Asian Development Bank, Southeast users. These shelters are limited in number 26. Asian-Pacific Resource and Research Centre for Women Asia Department, 2004. (ARROW), Women’s Health Needs and Rights in Southeast and geographic spread. Asia—A Beijing Monitoring Report, September 2001, 9. There is no specific anti-discrimination Notes 27. Ibid., 8. 28. Ibid, 10. law to protect people living with HIV/AIDS. 1. United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) The Code of Practice on the Prevention and East and Southeast Asia, “Signatory States of CEDAW in East 29. This section includes excerpts from the ARROW report, and Southeast Asia”; available from http://www.unifemeseasia. Women Health Needs and Rights in Southeast Asia—A Beijing Management of HIV/AIDS in the Workplace org/resources/others/domesticviolence/PDF/signatory.pdf. Monitoring Report, 2001. is a voluntary code developed by the Minis- 2. UNIFEM, World Bank, Asian Development Bank (ADB), 30. Ibid, sec.11.1, 25. United Nations Development Program (UNDP), Department 31. Abdullah, Rashidah et al, ICPD Ten Years On: Monitoring try of Human Resources (Labour Ministry) for International Development, United Kingdom (Dfid UK), on Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights in Asia: to protect and promote their rights in the Ministry of Women’s Affairs, Cambodia Gender Assessment Countdown 2015: Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights for Report, April 2004. All, ARROW Draft Regional Overview, 2004, sec.11.1, 26. workplace. There are still needs for cheaper 3. This section includes excerpts from the ARROW report, 32. Ibid., 30. Women Health Needs and Rights in Southeast Asia—A Beijing treatment, more voluntary counselling and 33. Ibid, 13. Monitoring Report, 2001. testing sites, HIV/AIDS-specific legislation 34. Ibid., 14. 4. Asian-Pacific Resource and Research Centre for Women that sets out punitive repercussions for dis- (ARROW), Women’s Health Needs and Rights in Southeast Asia 35. Ibid. crimination, and training of paramedical – A Beijing Monitoring Report, September 2001, 23-24. 36. Ibid., 15. staff in the delivery of HAART (HIV/AIDS 5. Ibid., 24. 37. Ibid., 15. 6. Ibid. drugs). At present, this treatment is only 38. Ibid., 15-16. 7. Ibid. 39. Ibid., 17. available in urban centers. 8. Ibid., 24-25 40. Ibid. 9. Ibid., 25 41. Ibid., 18. Contributors 10. Khus, Thida, Cambodia Country Monitoring Report, 42. Ibid., 18-19. SILAKA, 21. Cambodia: Thida Khus, SILAKA/Social Watch; 43. Ibid., 20. 11. Ibid. Malaysia: Rathi Ramanathan, Asian-Pacific 44. UNAIDS, “Epidemiological Fact Sheets on HIV/AIDS 12. Summary of Proceedings of a Round Table Discussion on and Sexually Transmitted Diseases,” 1998; available from Resource & Research Centre for Women (AR- “Internally Displaced Persons: Collateral Damage or Victims of http://www.unaids.org. Human Rights Violation,” Balay Research, Documentation and ROW); Philippines: Daphne Roxas, Asian Information Program (Balay-RDIP), 23 November 2000. 45. Ibid., 20. Women’s Network on Gender and Develop- 13. Coalition for the International Criminal Court, 30 46. Abdullah, Rashidah et al, ICPD Ten Years On: Monitoring ment / Philippine Women’s Network in Politics September 2002; available from http://www.iccnow.org. on Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights in Asia: 14. Ibid. Countdown 2015: Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights for and Governance; Vietnam: Pham Hoai Giang, All, ARROW Draft Regional Overview, 2004, sec.7, 17. 15. Ibid., 14. Vietnam Women’s Union. 16. Ibid., 7. 47. Ibid. 17. National Commission on the Role of Filippino Women 48. Ibid., sec.9, 19. (NCRFW), 2002.

104 BEIJING BETRAYED ASIA AND THE PACIFIC AOTEAROA/NEW ZEALAND Women Make Progress but Face Backlash and Some Troubling Trends

otearoa/New Zealand is a functioning representative refugee women, women with disabilities, Pacific Islands women and PACIFIC democracy with a relatively liberal history in terms of older women also confront distinct issues. women’s empowerment. It was the first country in the Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) in Aotearoa/New Zea- world to grant women the right to vote in parliamen- land have a constructive working relationship with the Government tary elections, and at present has a reasonable number and its bureaucracies, as embodied in the 2001 Statement of Gov- of women (although only women of Pakeha, or European ancestry) ernment Intentions for an Improved Community-Government Rela- Ain positions of power and authority. They include the current Prime tionship. The Statement underscores the need for strong and respect- Minister, Chief Justice and Governor General. ful relationships between Government and community, voluntary At the same time, violence against women and children and sexu- and tribal-based/Maori organizations. However, these interactions ally transmitted infections are distressingly widespread, and far from continue to be problematic. NGOs have recently come under attack being effectively addressed by the Government. Pay inequality con- over their right to advocate on policy direction when receiving gov- tinues, and work-life balance is becoming an increasing problem, ernment funding in the same area. particularly for women, who make up the majority of the voluntary Both the Government and civil society women’s organizations gen- sector. Among women as a group, the experiences of Pakeha and in- erally agree that progress has been achieved in the last 10 years, but digenous Maori women are vastly different in all areas, from power opinions vary regarding its degree, the success of particular actions, and decision-making status through health statistics. Migrant and the gaps that remain and where the priorities lie.

HUMAN RIGHTS man Rights in New Zealand Today.” Since Other laws pertaining to women include the report failed to address women’s equality, Sections 123 and 131 of the 1993 Films, CEDAW Compliance or women’s rights or refer to CEDAW, these Videos and Publications Classification Act, Aotearoa/New Zealand’s Ministry of Wom- issues do not appear in the action plan. which prohibit child pornography. The 2002 en’s Affairs was established in 1984 to advise It is unclear whether this was a strategic Parental Leave and Employment Protection government ministries on gender. It also decision by the Commission, or whether it Amendment Act provides paid parental leave. reports on the Convention on the Elimina- considers women’s equality no longer an area The Civil Unions Bill and the accompanying tion of All Forms of Discrimination against of focus. However, the consultation process Relationships (Statutory References) Bill nar- Women (CEDAW). A small ministry with and research methods that produced the re- rowly passed their first reading in Parliament an uncertain future, given the opposition port and plan did not have an explicit gender in 2004, attempt to address gaps in the rights party’s stated lack of support, it still man- framework beyond ensuring women’s repre- of lesbian, gay and transgender people with ages to work proactively. In March 2004, sentation among the participants. regard to guardianship, custody and access the Ministry released Action Plan for New The Commission does report that there rights, next of kin, and in-hospital and pa- Zealand Women. It was the result of a long are now laws that ensure women are not tient care rights. Conservative interest groups and open process of consultation with a wide treated unfairly in Aotearoa/New Zealand. in New Zealand are attacking both bills as range of groups; follow-up meetings were These include the 1990 New Zealand Bill promoting gay marriage and being a threat held around the country. of Rights Act, which enshrines the right to the institution of the family. New Zealand signed CEDAW on July 17, of all to be free of discrimination from the The Human Rights Commission is con- 1980, and ratified it on January 10, 1985. Government and anyone carrying out a ducting some work in schools, but there is Two reservations relate to women in combat public function. The Human Rights Act no comprehensive human rights education and paid maternity leave. The introduction of of 1993 prohibits discrimination on the program in New Zealand, least of all one a paid parental leave scheme has recently al- grounds of different personal characteristics, that raises human rights awareness specifi- lowed the Government to lift the latter. Prep- including sex. cally among women, or about women and arations that include NGO consultations are The 2003 Prostitution Law Reform Act their reduced ability as a group to realize underway for the next CEDAW report. decriminalized prostitution, established their human rights. On September 7, 2000, at the UN Mil- health and safety requirements, and set the Following the 1998 Burton Report, a lennium Summit, New Zealand became minimum age for prostitution at 18. There gender integration audit, the New Zealand the ninth state party to the new Optional is significant ongoing opposition to this Defence Force has undertaken the human Protocol to CEDAW. However, it is fair to act from conservative and largely Christian rights education of both military and civilian say that public awareness of the Protocol is members of the public, based upon the mis- personnel. Training has focused on equal em- very low and little effort has been made on conception that it legitimizes prostitution as ployment opportunities and the elimination public education. a form of employment and increases its prev- of discrimination and harassment. A review alence. Supporters maintain that the act was of the implementation of the Burton Report National Law critical for reducing the exploitation of sex is currently underway. Two branches of the The New Zealand Human Rights Commis- workers, and improving health and security Defence Force–the Royal New Zealand Air sion was set up in 1978 to promote human for them and the wider community. Some lo- Force and the Royal New Zealand Navy– rights. In October 2004, the commission re- cal body authority bylaws do not reflect the have won awards for their initiatives. The leased its National Action Plan for Human statute’s intention, however. It will be revis- defence force also trains all personnel on the Rights, which was based upon its report “Hu- ited after three years. prohibition against torture (United Nations

WOMEN’S ENVIRONMENT & DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION 105 ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

Committee Against Torture, 2002), and has violence. The 2002 Victims Rights Act guides ing kept away from their children, and that introduced anti-homophobia training.1 the treatment and protects the rights of vic- women are fabricating and exaggerating male tims. It requires the police to work closely violence. While there is absolutely no basis to Violence Against Women with Victim Support. these claims, some judges, Members of Par- A 2002 report from the Ministry of Women’s Despite progressive laws, however, women liament, church groups and the media have Affairs stated that in the previous 12 months, who are victims of violence report that they taken them up. 15-21 percent of women reported having ex- are losing confidence in the judicial system. Their influence has resulted, for example, perienced physical or sexual abuse, and 44- Violence against women and children is in policies and programs related to violence 53 percent reported having experienced psy- continuing unabated, even as men are being against women that consistently ignore the chological abuse.2 Domestic violence is the prosecuted for assaulting women and both issue of gender. Every effort has been made to fifth leading cause of death from injury, and men and women are prosecuted for abus- use “gender neutral” language in documents 50 percent of all female homicides are com- ing children. This illustrates the limitations such as Te Rito, the family violence strategy. mitted by the woman’s partner or ex-partner. of legislation in addressing the problem. The This approach seriously inhibits analysis of Of particular concern is that Maori women Ministry of Education has shown a lack of the problem and diminishes the potential ef- interest in engaging with gov- fectiveness of prevention measures. Women making traditional tapa cloth. ernment initiatives related to Women’s advocates conclude that fathers’ violence prevention, and thus has rights claims have specifically affected a num- done very little in terms of train- ber of judicial practices. It is more difficult ing or curriculum change. for women to get emergency protection There is currently no collection from domestic violence, and women are be- of data related to violence that ing pressured into allowing violent fathers to would allow ongoing monitoring. have access to their children. The effects of Although the Accident Compen- psychological violence on women and chil- sation Corporation4 National In- dren is minimized in civil and criminal pro- jury Prevention Strategy has just ceedings. Women also have to battle against established recommendations for stereotypes about vindictive women, mali- routinely monitoring injuries, it cious mothers and alienating parents. has adopted definitions of injury Financial capacity limits women’s access to are more likely than non-Maori women to that will not capture the majority of inci- justice, as more than half of those who ap- experience abuse and violence, and to use dents against women. This is a lost opportu- ply for court orders to stop family violence refuge services. nity. As a consequence, analysts will continue have to pay the legal costs themselves. This The Government is quite clear in its con- to rely on service-based statistics as a proxy is particularly problematic for refugee and demnation of family violence and violence (e.g., police and shelter statistics). Because migrant women, who also face language and against women and children. Current policy only a small percentage of women use these literacy problems, uncertainty over the safety on family violence is outlined in Te Rito: New services, the scale of the problem will remain of approaching police and the justice system, Zealand Family Violence Prevention Strat- significantly underestimated. The police esti- and cultural backgrounds that do not protect egy3, released in 2001. The strategy sets out mate that they attend only 50,000 calls a year women against domestic violence. principles, goals and objectives for a five-year related to domestic violence. The patriarchal beliefs and institutions period. One goal is to ensure that approaches Other obstacles to fighting domestic vio- that underpin violence exacerbate the diffi- to family violence are culturally relevant and lence are regional inconsistency in the appli- culties for wmen. Widespread beliefs still in- effective for indigenous, Pacific and other cation of legislation and domestic violence clude the notions that men should head the ethnic populations, including refugee and policies, and the lack of training for govern- household; that marriage is the only appro- migrant women. By 2004, however, Te Rito ment personnel. In the justice and legal sec- priate context for raising children; that men had come to seem long on rhetoric and short tors, training and domestic violence aware- have the right to punish women and chil- on action. Very limited funds have been put ness programs are minimal and inconsistent. dren in order to teach them lessons; and that into implementation. NGOs, rather than the When police, lawyers, judges and court staff domestic violence is a private matter. Some Government, lead the way in shaping pub- do not receive this kind of training, myths of these ideas have had increased public dis- lic awareness and responses to this massive about women, misunderstandings of vio- cussion recently, given the higher profile of social problem. lence and personal prejudices negatively af- father’s rights and fundamentalist Christian Several forms of legislation on gender- fect how they respond. groups. It is not surprising that in this social based and domestic violence are in place. The Exacerbating the situation is New Zea- context, some in government and civil soci- 1995 Domestic Violence Act is a thorough land’s backlash against feminism. Amidst a ety organizations are seeking to repeal Clause and progressive law providing for legal pro- general, misguided belief that there is now 59 of the Crimes Act prohibiting corporal tection and prioritizing safety for victims. It gender equality in Aotearoa/New Zealand, punishment of children, a move that others seeks to hold violent offenders accountable groups of disaffected fathers have been pro- are strongly opposing. while offering steps to help change their be- moting father’s rights, claiming that the Gov- Women who have experienced violence CARLIN JOCELYN havior. Other provisions include the 1989 ernment has given women too many rights have access to a range of community and gov- Children, Young Persons and Their Families and freedoms so now men are suffering. They ernment support services. Women’s Refuges, Act; the 1961 Crimes Act; and Ministry of also contend that women are just as violent a network of groups around the country, pro- Health guidelines for screening for domestic as men, that large numbers of men are be- vides shelters (safe-houses), crisis lines, advo-

106 BEIJING BETRAYED ASIA AND THE PACIFIC cacy, outreach and community services, and Timor-Leste and Bougainville, Papua New staff to address their needs. education programs for women and their Guinea, where the force worked with NGOs On arrival, resettlement assistance is avail- children. A network of rape and sexual abuse to help establish women’s cooperatives and able only to United Nations mandated quota centers across the country also offers crisis action groups to generate incomes and stabi- refugees within the first six months. Asylum lines, counseling and support. lize communities. In Bougainville, the force seekers and refugee family reunion members The main issues concerning women’s ad- established links with senior women in vil- must pay for their own resettlement needs. vocates include the low government fund- lages and recognized the matrilineal customs There is a general expectation that exist- ing for women’s support services, especially of the land. ing families, communities and mainstream refuges and rape-crisis centers. Seventy-five It still needs to be clarified whether the agencies will provide health, social and percent of workers at Women’s Refuges are force has a formal policy on Resolution community support and development. The unpaid. Other problems are the lack of 1325, including on how to work with wom- spouses, dependent children, parents and availability of specific services for Maori, en in communities experiencing conflict, siblings of refugees comprise approximately Pacific Islands, Asian and refugee women, or on the participation of women in formal 2 percent of new immigrants in the interna- and the lack of government action to ad- peace processes. The experience of NGOs tional humanitarian and family-sponsored dress imbalances in male power and privi- has been that Defence Force peacekeepers migrant streams.5 lege as well as men’s responsibilities (rather are not properly trained in gender analysis Resettled refugees spend their first six than men’s rights). of their own work. While women participate weeks in a refugee reception center where in peacekeeping missions, few are leaders. they are provided with comprehensive medi- PEACE AND SECURITY Furthermore, the force appears to have a low cal and dental care, and psychological sup- opinion of NGOs in the field, although this port. The Refugee Education Centre offers Aotearoa/New Zealand has not experienced may be changing with the recent initiative to introductory adult English language training, war on its own land since the Land Wars in hold meetings with NGOs on civil-military an orientation to Aotearoa/New Zealand so- the mid-19th century. But it is still undergoing relations in complex emergencies. ciety, a pre-school, and a special program for a process of peace- and nation-building fol- In early 2004, the Defence Force began an children and young people to prepare them lowing the wars and colonization. It has also evaluation of its progress on gender integra- for mainstream schooling. The Refugees as participated in numerous wars and conflicts tion. It is due for completion in early 2005. Survivors Centre offers a trauma counseling through the New Zealand Defence Force, But according to Air Marshall Bruce Fergu- service as well as therapeutic activities for extending from service in the South African son, Defence Force chief, training “is not children and adults. The Refugee and Mi- War over 100 years ago to the present. In re- gender-specific and operations are not gen- grant Service handles immediate social sup- cent years, operations to support peace have der-constrained…all training is conducted port and links resettled refugees with trained become a major element of Defence Force on an equal opportunity basis.” volunteers for resettlement support for the operations, including in Bougainville and first six months after arrival.6 Timor-Leste. Personnel currently serve in 19 Asylum Seekers, Refugees, There is evidence that many new migrants missions around the world, from Afghanistan Internally Displaced experience racial discrimination, harass- and the Gulf of Oman to Antarctica, where A 2001 Ministry of Health publication, Ref- ment and abuse. In general, the inclusion they provide logistical support. ugee Health Care: A Handbook for Health Pro- of refugee populations and ethnic minority fessionals, accurately describes the experiences communities in mainstream Aotearoa/New Security Council Resolution 1325 of refugee women in Aotearoa/New Zealand Zealand social services is ambiguous. In While Aotearoa/New Zealand was one of and of refugees in general. The handbook spite of universalist claims in health legisla- the governments promoting the passage of also covers refugee services and needs, but tion, for example, in practice there are dif- UN Security Council Resolution 1325 on does not fully identify the gaps in services ferent terms and conditions compared with women, peace and security, pubic awareness and the problems women face. other populations. An examination of health of the resolution remains very low. Even the Quotas for refugees are organized ac- rights and practices indicates some adjust- Ministry of Foreign Affairs does not gener- ally consider it particularly relevant to Aote- Women MPs cross party lines on issues like pay equity aroa/New Zealand, according to discussions with staff in the New Zealand Agency for and, with male colleagues, have formed a lobby group to International Development and the Human Rights Division of the Ministry of Foreign advance sexual and reproductive health and rights issues. Affairs and Trade. Since there are no formal peace processes in the country, the relevance cording to three categories, one of which is ments over time, but the net effect is a series of 1325 lies in how the Government applies “women at risk,” which accounts for approxi- of partial gains compromised by deficits. For it to activities related to conflicts and peace mately 10 percent of annual intake. These are instance, while the law specifies that non- processes in other countries. women and their children who have particu- English speaking health consumers have a In response to questions sent to it, the lar protection problems and find themselves right to a competent interpreter in all public New Zealand Defence Force stated that in without traditional support mechanisms. and private health services, the application conducting peace support operations, it has Despite their specific vulnerabilities, these of the “Act does not extend to purchasing a history of working in accordance with women are provided with no special services, decisions”.7 There has been a partial estab- the principles expressed in the Resolution. although there are a variety of gender-aware- lishment of interpreting services for publicly It drew attention to the deployments in ness training tools to encourage government provided health services only.8

WOMEN’S ENVIRONMENT & DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION 107 ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

Box 19. Women’s Participation Rates women were elected mayor out of 74 posi- Reveal Lopsided Share of the Pie tions–16 percent, compared with 26 percent in 1998 and 20 percent in 1995. The per- centage of women elected to local authori- Directors of Publicly Listed Companies 5.04% ties in the 2001 elections was 28 percent, Legal Partnerships 14.12% compared with 29 percent in 1998 and 28 University Professors and Associate Professors 15.82% percent in 1995. At the ministerial level, women have tend- Directors of Publicly Listed Companies 16.39% ed to hold female-oriented portfolios, such Members of Parliament 29.16% as health. There has been one female finance minister (a neo-liberal advocate) and a few Directors of Crown Companies 35.07% others have held positions more traditionally Labour Force Participation Rate 59.50% offered to men. Women politicians tend not to organize across party lines, but there are Source: Human Rights Commission, New Zealand Census of Women’s Participation in Governance and Professional Life some examples of this, such as in support of pay equity and paid parental leave. In addi- The incorporation of refugees in Aote- proving electoral processes. They have in- tion, Members of Parliament, including men, aroa/New Zealand society through support creased women’s formal political activity and have formed the New Zealand Parliamentar- and settlement assistance has largely been left the representation of Maori. While women ians for Population and Development. It to NGOs and volunteers. However, funding remain a minority in government, the in- lobbies for the International Conference on for non-governmental resettlement organiza- fluential notion of “substantive equality” Population and Development goals on sexual tions has been historically sporadic and inad- has helped make government at every level and reproductive health and rights. equate. In terms of the provision of critical more inclusive and approachable, especially Across all areas of the public education sys- mental health services, needs are nowhere after the 1984 founding of the Ministry of tem, men continue to dominate in positions near being met. NGOs help to fill this gap, Women’s Affairs. of responsibility, particularly within tertiary but it is estimated that less than 5 percent Pakeha women are currently well repre- education. By contrast, voters seem to regard of needed services are provided. There have sented in the upper levels of political decision- health as primarily the business of females been a variety of intersectoral projects, but making, but they are not as well represented (as traditional/biological nurturers and care these tend to be pilots with no ongoing gov- in the private sector or in political parties. givers). Hospital board membership is always ernment funding. Maori women are not yet well represented disproportionately female, compared with In terms of employment, refugee women within Parliament or in positions of author- every other sort of elected office. Forty-four face particular barriers. They are less likely to ity in government departments. They have to percent of those elected to the new District be educated or speak English, have higher illit- battle two forms of oppression that Pakeha Health Boards are women. eracy rates, and find it more difficult to access women do not: their lack of visibility within With so many laws affecting women’s is- training on English as a second language. national women’s organizations, and those sues already in place by 1994, the need for More information needs to be provided elements of their own culture that are tradi- additional legislation has diminished, though about the economic, social and cultural tionally patriarchal. Migrant women are also vigilance is required to protect the gains that contribution of migrants and refugees, and poorly represented. The high profile of a se- have been made. There were recent attempts about the different cultures of refugee com- lect group of Pakeha women leaders therefore to change the Care of Children Bill to limit munities. This will help foster informed masks women’s overall low participation and the privacy and confidentiality of children debate and harmonious relations. To date, ethnic power disparities. Many of the coun- seeking sexual and reproductive health ser- there is an absence of statistical data on the try’s younger women tend to take the current vices, and when the issue of reforming abor- experience of refugees that seriously hinders situation for granted, so that efforts to advance tion law resurfaces, feminist networks are understanding and planning for successful gender equality are losing momentum. likely to also reactivate. integration and rehabilitation. In terms of public policies, there has been Representation9 no clear prioritization according to gender. The International Criminal Court As part of the 2004 National Action Plan Since January 2002, the Government has Aotearoa/New Zealand is a party to the In- for New Zealand Women, the Ministry of required all papers going before its Cabinet ternational Criminal Court, but there is low Women’s Affairs has set a goal of achieving Social Development Committee to include public awareness of it, particularly in relation 50/50 representation on government statu- gender implication statements, supported by to its relevance to women. tory boards and advisory and regulatory gender analysis and prepared by the Ministry committees by 2010. In 1989, the figure was of Women’s Affairs. The purpose is to ensure POWER AND DECISION-MAKING 20 percent. In 2003, it was 40 percent, al- that social policy advice to ministers has gen- though again, this achievement is marked by der analysis and includes an assessment of the Aotearoa/New Zealand has a robust demo- ethnic disparities. impact of policies and programs on women cratic system for national and local govern- Overall, women’s representation in local and men.10 Significantly, gender implica- ments. A number of women’s organiza- government has been steadily increasing, tion statements are not sent to the Cabinet tions over the past 30 years, particularly the from 3.7 percent in 1962 to 31.5 percent Economic Development Committee or the Women’s Electoral Lobby (which recently in 1998. There are inconsistencies, however. Cabinet Government Expenditure and Ad- disbanded), have been instrumental in im- At the 2001 local authority elections, 12 ministration Committee.

108 BEIJING BETRAYED ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

The increasing presence of women inside Macroeconomic Policies, nomic improvement needs to be understood government has had some effect on the way Development Strategies in relation to culture and a history of coloni- its business is run. Among many small chang- Since 1984, governments have based na- zation. Maori culture, akin to feminist analy- es, there is now a provision for women Mem- tional budgets and development strategies sis, emphasizes that women’s economic situa- bers of Parliament to take leave to breastfeed on a neo-liberal economic paradigm sup- tion needs to be addressed comprehensively, their infants, and the traditional “Male Only ported by both major political parties. While in conjunction with other social, cultural and Pool Table Rooms” have been turned into not without some merits, this approach has spiritual needs. The Government therefore public spaces. Improvements in institutional been a major factor in increasing inequality needs to systematically change its approach culture and attitudes by male Members of by ethnicity and class, with disproportionate to economic policy, reorienting it around Parliament have been inconsistent, and oc- impacts upon women, who tend to bear the social justice and social development. There casionally sexist remarks are still voiced. brunt of family and child poverty. Some so- needs to be a partnership approach between The Ministry of Women’s Affairs is the pri- cial policies and programmes have been put Maori and the Government whereby Maori mary institutional mechanism for women. in place to mitigate the negative impacts on are included in decision-making from the As an advisory and research body, it has a low-income individuals and families, includ- onset, and not just considered as part of the limited mandate and faces challenges from ing family support, the minimum wage and consultation process following the drafting of minority political parties, conservative re- housing policies. policy programs or strategies. A fundamental search and advocacy organizations, and a re- But the main directions of macroeconom- shift must take place so that Maori no lon- lentlessly negative press. ic policy have far outweighed the effects of ger feel dictated to, but are part of a fair and The Ministry’s new action plan aims to these initiatives. Maori and Pacific women, equitable process that honors the Treaty of make concerted efforts to address inequity in particular, are overrepresented in part- Waitangi, signed between the British Crown and discrimination, and contribute to meet- time, casual and low-wage work. The impact and Maori tribes in 1840. ing Aotearoa/New Zealand’s international on female-dominated unions and their low- obligations, especially under CEDAW. It paid members has been devastating, with the Employment Patterns, Women’s Work provides a mechanism for the Government recovery of union membership and rights Although women’s participation in the paid to deliver a coordinated response both to the since the 1980s both slow and partial. workforce has increased, it is still character- CEDAW Committee’s concerns and to the There has been very little analysis of the ized by part-time work, low pay and marked priorities identified in the CEDAW consul- impact of trade and finance policies on occupational segregation. Growing numbers tation process. It remains to be seen whether women, and what does exist is very prelimi- of women are holding multiple jobs. Work/ the relevant ministries will translate the plan nary and insufficiently critical.11 Although life imbalances, women’s overrepresentation into policies and programs, and bring about it has become more widely accepted that in informal and voluntary sectors, and con- actual change in women’s lives. women’s disproportionate share of the bur- tinued pay inequalities are serious concerns. The Ministry is in a precarious position den of unpaid work should be considered Accounting for women’s work is limited to due to the backlash against feminism. A in policy formation, the neo-liberal frame- the partial analysis of the formal sector. This significant and vocal segment of the public works are assumed to contribute to “shared results in a lack of understanding about appears to consider women’s empowerment prosperity for all”. women’s contributions to the economy and as having received sufficient advocacy. The Poverty in Aotearoa/New Zealand is often national development at both micro- and center-right New Zealand National Party, viewed as a social concern that is geographi- macroeconomic levels, and to ill-informed the main opposition party, has recently ap- cally located, and results from personal ir- policy responses. pointed a spokesman for men’s health, based responsibility and a decision not to work. Women’s work in the unpaid sector remains on the belief that the rise in women’s rights is This view is biased in terms of gender and invisible in the national income accounts, overshadowing men’s needs. The Ministry of ethnicity. It exacerbates poverty, especially in even though women continue to carry the Women’s Affairs’ status and existence may be Pacific Island and Maori communities and major responsibility for unpaid work. Al- threatened by future changes in government. female-headed households, by increasing so- most 70 percent of women’s work time is un- cial isolation and psychological barriers to so- paid, compared to 40 percent of men’s work. POVERTY ERADICATION cial services. According to a 2003 Ministry of Women’s unpaid work averages 4.8 hours Social Development report, just over 23 per- per day, with an estimated value of over $25 The Government undertakes little to no gen- cent of all families were below the minimum million in 1999.13 It is now a long-standing der impact analysis at the macroeconomic adequate income, which is approximately 60 concern that there is a lack of recognition of level and, despite the efforts of the Ministry percent of the median household income. care-giving as a valuable social good, and that of Women’s Affairs, gender mainstreaming Based on this measure, New Zealand women’s current work-life balance is unten- has had little impact on macroeconomic pol- ranked 12th out of 20 Organisation for able. Fundamental aspects of decent work are icy. As a result, there are no measures in place Economic Co-operation and Development necessary to support work-life balance. These to ensure that national policies related to in- (OECD) countries in 1998. This means include fair pay, good leave provisions, secure ternational and regional trade agreements do that New Zealand has a higher proportion employment and reasonable hours of work, not have an adverse impact on women. In of households with a relatively low income supported by quality, affordable childcare. addition, women’s unpaid work in the vol- than the majority of European countries and Since the Ministry of Women’s Affairs sub- untary or informal economic sector is not Canada, is on a par with Australia, but has mits gender implication statements to the reflected in national income accounts, which a low proportion than the United Kingdom Cabinet Social Development Committee, but continue to be based on the traditional paid- and the United States.12 not to the Cabinet Economic Development labor economy only. For indigenous Maori women, socio-eco- Committee, it is highly unlikely that women’s

WOMEN’S ENVIRONMENT & DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION 109 ASIA AND THE PACIFIC needs and roles will be reflected effectively in within the home. More than one in five Sexual harassment, although lessening over macroeconomic policy and programmes. mothers (22%) finds limited access to child- the last few decades, persists despite extensive Aotearoa/New Zealand’s European history care to be a barrier to employment, and 47 public information and training programs. is rooted in the almost total destruction of percent of these give lack of affordability as The repeal of the Employment Contracts remaining forests for intensive farming. Ag- the reason.16 This is despite government in- Act and the introduction of the 2000 Em- riculture remains the most important source vestment in early childhood education and ployment Relations Act were essential steps of national income. Some research has been childcare for four to five year olds. in halting the attack on collective bargaining. done on women and farming, although Women continue to earn less than men As the Pay and Employment Equity Task- no distinction is made between Maori and despite legislation in 1972 that introduced force noted, collective bargaining is strongly Pakeha. The majority of self-employed rural the concept of equal pay for equal work, and linked to improvements in women’s pay and women are farmers. despite the 1993 Human Rights Act, which conditions. However, employers can still find A 1993 comparative study of rural manu- protects women from discrimination in em- ways to undermine the Act. facturing and farming14 provided informa- ployment. Based on Statistics New Zealand’s For the most vulnerable groups of women tion on the levels of women’s ownership and Income Survey, women’s average hourly earn- in precarious work, a number of pressing is- decision-making by looking at 30 case studies ings were 84 percent of men’s in June 200117, sues must be addressed, including uncertain of farms and rural businesses in Southland, although the gender pay gap has improved 5 hours or conditions of work; low wages; in- Wairarapa and Waikato. Women were partial percent since 1984. For Maori women com- effective protection against discrimination; or co-proprietors in 60 percent of the rural pared with Maori men, the gap is 93 percent. job insecurity, often meaning no accrued en- factories and 76 percent of the farm busi- For Pacific Islands women compared with titlement to “standard” employment benefits nesses. Of the women proprietors, 78 per- Pacific Islands men, it is 91 percent. Taking such as sick, domestic, bereavement and pa- cent of the manufacturers and 54 percent of all part-time and full-time wage and salary rental leave; limited opportunities to gain and the farmers had an active role in the business, earners together, women’s weekly average retain skills through access to education and including activities such as office administra- earnings were only 60 percent of men’s.18 training; and dangerous or unhealthy work. tion, accounts, market research, production, Much of the difference is due to the fact The Department of Labour has consulted hiring of staff, sales, purchases, design, and that more women work part-time. It is not widely on these problems, but has announced management of some operations and staff. known to what extent this is because of the no policy or legislative provisions. On average, the women proprietors worked lack of other supports for work-family bal- fewer hours than their male partners. ance. Given current skill shortages, however, EDUCATION As a crude measure of the extent to which pay inequities have resulted in acute recruit- women were truly involved in controlling ment and retention issues in a number of International Agreements the business as opposed to working for it “feminized” industries, including nursing Aotearoa/New Zealand has ratified the inter- or being a non-participating partner, the and teaching. national recommendations in the Education study looked at five parameters. The woman The usefulness of the New Zealand Wom- for All agreement and endorsed the Millen- was: nominated as a major business advi- en’s Action Plan towards achieving pay and nium Development Goals, including the sec- sor; nominated as a major financial advisor; employment equity in the public service, ond on education. Having already achieved frequently involved in formal and informal public health and education sectors will de- the goal domestically, Aotearoa/New Zea- business meetings; able to approve and sign pend on the Government’s willingness to de- land uses it to guide overseas development business checks; and/or involved in setting liver the level of funding required. Unions and assistance in education. prices. On this basis, 72 percent of the wom- women’s groups remain committed to pay eq- en manufacturers were actively involved in uity for private sector workers as well, and the Public Policy power sharing, compared with 46 percent of to need for legislation to achieve this goal. Although girls and women have access to women farmers. Since 2002, the Government has encour- equitable and quality education, the Govern- The number of self-employed women aged employers to provide breast-feeding ment has done little in practice to address grew by 11.3 percent between 1986 and breaks and accommodate breast-feeding sexual harassment or provide gender aware- 1991, with the largest increases in the fi- mothers when they return to work. The 1987 ness through education. Many women and nance, insurance, real estate and business Paid Parental Leave and Employment Protec- girls face obstacles to education in terms of industries, and in community, social and tion Act was amended in 2002 to provide 12 cost, and the system has not yet adequately personal services. Female self-employment weeks paid parental leave to a mother in paid grappled with the limited access to, and low increased in all regions except Gisborne employment who worked at least 10 hours per levels of, English literacy in immigrant popu- (where it remained the same) between 1986 week on average and had been with the same lations, factors that exacerbate social and eco- and 1991, while nine of the 14 regions re- employer for 12 months. Mothers are able to nomic problems for this vulnerable group. corded a fall in male self-employment. Small transfer leave, in part or in full, to their part- As in other areas, the Government has businesses run by women are as likely to sur- ner, and it will be increasing to 14 weeks in approached education with an ostensibly vive as those run by men. In each occupa- December 2005. As it currently stands, how- even hand. The rhetoric, however, is more tional group, however, the median income ever, the paid parental leave scheme excludes progressive than the reality. The National for self-employed women was lower than for women in part-time jobs that are seasonal Education Guidelines, created by the Min- self-employed men.15 or less than 10 hours a week, self-employed istry of Education in 1990, set forth goals The Government’s health and disability women, and short-term or casual women for the state education system, the opera- strategies are dependent on community pro- workers who do not continuously work for tional and administrative requirements for vision of services, including those provided six months before giving birth. schools, and national curriculum state-

110 BEIJING BETRAYED ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

ments. Achieving “equal educational op- but they do ask for voluntary portunities” and “non-sexism,” including donations, and there are a a “gender-inclusive curriculum,” are recog- range of other costs required, nized objectives. Administratively, schools which can be prohibitive. The are required to “analyze barriers to learning Human Rights Commission, and achievement,” including attitudes to in its report “Human Rights women. Moreover, Boards of Trustees must in New Zealand Today,” cor- ensure a safe physical and emotional envi- rectly noted that cost can be ronment for students. These goals allow for a barrier to girls and women programmes and explicit policies to combat at all levels. sexual harassment and promote equitable In April 2004, the New relationships. But few schools appear to be Zealand University Students’ progressively pursuing them. Association submitted a claim Although the charters of educational in- to the New Zealand Human stitutions acknowledge gender issues, there Rights Commission that the is no unit within the Ministry of Education 1992 Student Loan Scheme devoted to the education of girls. In 1999, discriminates against women a study was commissioned that addressed because they pay consider- gender in education, entitled “Explaining ably more for their education and Addressing Gender Differences in the than their male counterparts New Zealand Compulsory School Sector: through interest repayments A Literature Review.” It was motivated by on their loans. The submis- an increasing concern among policy mak- sion of that claim was accept- ers and practitioners that the education of ed, and now the Government boys was at risk. The specifications required must prove, as set out in the a particular focus on primary, Mäori and 1990 Bill of Rights Act, that At work in fish processing factory. Pacific Islands students, as well as disparities women paying considerably by gender in participation, achievement and more for their education than men is “a rea- undertaking tertiary study as parents would social outcomes. sonable limit on their right to be free from be impossible. Evidence from this review demonstrated discrimination, prescribed by law, which is At present, females represent only 6.6 per- the importance of attention to issues of gen- demonstrably justified in a free and demo- cent of the participants in the Modern Ap- der, difference and equity. The research made cratic society.” prenticeship Scheme, which provides free it clear that relational issues of gender, eth- The Student Loan Scheme was established on-the-job training for many workers. The nicity, social class, sexuality and identity are to provide loans to tertiary students to cover Tertiary Education Commission, working inter-linked. But very few studies have been fees, course-related costs and living expens- with the Industry Training Organizations, done on gender and education, and for the es. After graduation, however, the gender aims to promote women’s participation, and Ministry of Education to focus on the needs pay gap forces women to take much more will report progress by November 2005. of boys before the needs of girls reflects a time than men to repay their loans (other There are concerns across all areas of the wider social backlash against women. significant factors are the decreased work- public education system that men dominate Sexuality education within the school cur- force participation of women and the time positions of authority, particularly within riculum receives inconsistent and relatively taken out of employment to care for chil- tertiary institutions. A senior lecturer at the insubstantial attention. While it is one of dren). On average, Paheka women require University of Canterbury recently lodged a seven “key areas of learning”, it falls only 11.6 years to repay their student loans com- claim with the Human Rights Commission, within the health and physical education pared to 7.5 years for Paheka men; Maori arguing that women are still constrained by section of the national curriculum. In some women take 11.6 years compared to 8 years a male hierarchy when progressing to posi- schools, the lack of monitoring and low for Maori men; and other women need tions of academic responsibility. Only 28 funding foster abstinence-only sex educa- 13.9 years compared to 9.7 years for other percent of the university’s 653 academic staff tion. Given the country’s high teenage preg- men.19 Through increased interest payments, are women, including just two professors and nancy rates, abortion rates and incidence of women end up paying thousands of dollars four associate professors. sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), this more for their tertiary education than men, Women also run up against discrimination area requires greater leadership, consistency despite having enjoyed fewer economic ben- in the allocation of research funding. This is and evaluation. efits for their qualifications. at least partly due to the Performance-Based The Tertiary Women’s Focus Group also Research Fund system of rating researchers, Access and Changes in Practices notes that there are significant issues for stu- which is biased toward men. The process dis- The 1989 Education Act allows free enrol- dent single parents, who are predominantly criminates against women who had, for ex- ment and education for every person who is women. From April to November 2003, the ample, taken parental leave or other breaks not a foreign student from the ages of five to group and the students’ association surveyed in duties to tend to family responsibilities. 19 at any state school. With few exceptions, 200 university students with dependent chil- For most women academics, those years of- children must be in school from the age of dren. Many respondents noted that if it was ten considered to be the most productive in

JOECLYN CARLIN six to 16. State schools do not charge fees, not for the generosity of family or friends, terms of research are those that coincide with

WOMEN’S ENVIRONMENT & DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION 111 ASIA AND THE PACIFIC them being out of the workforce. In a society ronment Act, which established the Ministry Right to Natural Resources still largely dominated by gendered divisions for the Environment and the Office of the Access to and control of natural resources is of labor, male academics tend to avoid child- Parliamentary Commissioner for the Envi- bound up in political struggles relating to care responsibilities. ronment, nor the 1991 Resource Manage- the country’s history of colonization. There For refugees, research has indicated that ment Act specifically mentions women or are fundamentally different understandings many do not have the means to pay for Eng- includes any gender perspective. And while of ownership and environmental security lish as a second language education, despite there is general awareness that indigenous between Maori rural communities and Pak- having the greatest need.20 Of the UN quota people have different—and on occasion con- eha farmers, for example. Despite a broad refugee intake since 1999, 40 percent were flicting—perspectives, that awareness rarely acknowledgment of the special attachment not literate in any language and a further 40 extends to concrete understanding and re- of indigenous peoples to the land, there is percent had some literacy skills in their first sponse. Even more rare is appreciation of the little awareness of the environmental issues language, but not in English.21 particular role and position of indigenous particular to indigenous women. Women refugees are disproportionately il- women, who are active advocates on vari- Maori women are active voices with regard literate in any language, have poor English ous environmental and resource platforms to biodiversity, indigenous people’s rights language skills and low educational levels, around the country. and genetic resources, but are conscious of and face high unemployment.22 A number Aotearoa/New Zealand has two govern- having to constantly fight colonial hegemon- are women-at-risk who need additional re- ment environmental agencies: the Depart- ic ideologies to have their views heard and gain decision-making power. Aotearoa/New Zealand is doing poorly with regard to ensur- Sexual and reproductive health is not among ing indigenous women are visible and active decision-making participants in managing the top priorities of the national health strategy. environmental security and the protection of and access to natural resources. settlement support. Many have difficulty ac- ment of Conservation and the Ministry for Conflict over access and control has grown cessing English classes, mostly due to a lack the Environment. Pakeha women are well in the past year around the question of own- of childcare and problems with transport. represented in policy-making on formal en- ership and access to the foreshore (the part Muslim women who wear veils face discrimi- vironmental management, including at se- of a shore covered at high tide) and seabed. nation in the workplace and, at times, hostil- nior levels. In contrast, Maori women have Current legislation, such as the Foreshore and ity in the community. very little decision-making power. Seabed Bill, is exacerbating the sense of alien- Children who arrive as refugees have par- The Resource Management Act24 strong- ation and disconnectedness for many Maori ticular educational and settlement issues that ly emphasizes public participation to help women. Particularly young Maori women see need to be addressed before they can settle achieve sustainability in New Zealand. The the legislation as confiscating their customary into the national education system. An Eng- act draws together laws governing land, air lands by eliminating Maori ownership claims lish as a second language programme for and water resources, and concentrates on the to foreshore and seabed in customary use. non-English speaking students has been in environmental effects of human activities. Furthermore, the law is discriminatory. It place since 1998 but, unlike in Australia and Women are involved in implementing the removes the right of Maori to privately own Canada, there is no overarching language Act as NGO volunteers and staff as well as foreshore and seabed while allowing existing policy. Researchers, teachers and language members of affected communities. private ownership that is non-Maori. advisers agree that, although there is now However, the procedures are often semi- From an indigenous cultural perspective, much greater support than in the past, fur- judicial, and dominated by “experts,” a barri- Maori women are the kaitiaki or caretakers ther systemic improvements would enhance er to women and civil society groups. While of the environment, bound and born of Pa- student learning.23 the Act provides for public participation, it patuanuku, the Earth Mother. There are ritu- does not directly cater to women and their als and values that women pass on to their NATURAL RESOURCES AND needs in family and community. In an effort young to continue the tradition of women as ENVIRONMENTAL SECURITY to manage resources impartially, the relation- nurturers of the land. ship of women and the environment is inevi- The Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, The Government response to the question- tably marginalized. Moreover, legislation and through the Sustainable Farming Fund, re- naire from the UN Commission on the decision-making procedures tend to reflect cently issued a grant for a project that may Status of Women on implementation of the male worldviews. indicate a change in social awareness. The Beijing Platform for Action did not address The Government is committed to giving project, entitled He Wahine–He Whanau–He access to and control of natural resources and greater protection to wetlands, as it recogniz- Whenau, focuses on the leading role and environmental security. This section briefly es that there has been a significant reduction potential of Maori women in agriculture. sets out the issues at stake. in them. It hopes to protect remaining areas It will address issues such as governance, through a proposed national policy statement the impact of history, unemployment and Decision-Making on indigenous biodiversity. However, legisla- knowledge acquisition. The Government generally fails to consider tive protection has not yet been extended Much remains to be done in Aotearoa/ the gender dimensions of access to and to certain wetlands despite specific require- New Zealand regarding women and the en- control of natural resources, reflecting the ments to recognize them. The Government vironment. Before legislative measures can widespread gender blindness in this area of has undertaken none of the Convention’s be taken to strengthen and protect women’s national importance. Neither the 1996 Envi- gender commitments. environmental roles, the need for such ac-

112 BEIJING BETRAYED ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

tion must be widely felt. Currently, there is ers and domestic violence; and mortality implementation of programs and associated not much awareness of how the empower- and morbidity due to suicide and self harm. promotional material. ment of women can improve environmental Many of these disparities evolved from the management overall. economic reforms of the 1980s, which cut Reproductive Health spending on health care. The Maori health In general, there is comprehensive access to HEALTH models increasingly being adopted are help- maternal health care, including emergency ing to redress some of these. obstetric services, emergency contraception Access and Affordability Refugees and migrants also encounter and safe abortion. However, hindrances to Health inequalities persist, especially between problems with health care. Although there access include rural isolation; cost for those ethnic groups, for those with disabilities and are some primary health care providers spe- who are low-income earners, especially if they along the rural-urban divide. Pacific Islands, cializing in refugee and migrant health, the live in remote areas; and inconsistent sexual- indigenous Maori, refugee, migrant and ru- health system is in general not well adapted ity education, despite it being formally intro- ral women face specific barriers to health care to their needs, including some specific men- duced in 2002 on a national basis through services. Rural women are often geographi- tal and gynecological health concerns (for public high schools. cally isolated from primary health care as example, female genital mutilation). Poor sexual and reproductive health indi- well as specialists. Pacific Islands and Maori Full health screening, including psycholog- cators among the general population high- women’s health status is considerably lower ical assessment and referral, is available to all light a gap in public policy and government than non-Maori across all indicators; Maori refugees on arrival, making the refugee health action. Areas of particular concern include: women’s health status tends to be lower than system more generous than in other resettle- evidence of increased sexual risk-taking be- that of Pacific Islands women. ment countries. While refugees and asylum havior compared to 10 years ago; high rates Health care services have increasingly rec- seekers are eligible for all publicly provided ognized that culture and gender are determi- health services, considerable obstacles to ac- nants of health, and that alternative models cess include the limited use of interpreters. need to be given space. One particular mod- Other issues of transportation, knowledge of el, Mason Durie’s Whare tapa wha, or the the bureaucracy and cost heighten the bar- four cornerstones of Maori health (spiritual, riers for refugee women. There is a low level mental and emotional, family and commu- of knowledge and skill in the national health nity, and physical) has made some progress care workforce with respect to the experienc- towards mainstream acceptance. Health ser- es of, and resettlement challenges for, refu- vices provided for and by Maori and Pacific gees and their families. Islanders are seen as the most appropriate The universal health rights that accord way of improving the response of the health refugees the same rights and entitlements as system to diverse needs, and these providers other New Zealanders are partially counter- are having great success in many areas. How- acted by the omission of their health needs ever, these initiatives require advancement in population-based funding plans and strat- and greater support from the Government. egies, and the failure to recognize these needs The health system must also improve its re- in national health strategies. sponsiveness to other ethnic groups. Feeding into the primary health care system Maori women’s current health status re- are two important cancer-screening programs: flects the fact that they are among the most BreastScreen Aotearoa, established in Decem- deprived groups in Aotearoa/New Zealand. ber 1998, and the National Cervical Screen- Even when deprivation is controlled for in ing Programme, established in 1990. The first statistical calculations, their health status program offers free mammograms to asymp- remains low. Maori women are more likely tomatic women between the ages of 45 and Maori woman wearing than non-Maori women or men to come 69. This age range was recently widened from the traditional moko. from a low income bracket, to smoke, to ex- the previous 50-64 years due to organized lob- perience domestic violence and to have poor bying by younger women with breast cancer. of abortion, particularly among specific com- nutrition. As a result, Maori women have The second program targets women between munities; high incidences of chlamydia and lower life expectancy and higher rates of lung the ages of 20 and 69. Since the program be- increasing rates of gonorrhoea and syphilis, cancer, cervical cancer, cardiovascular disease gan, the rates of disease and death from cervi- with rates of chlamydia highest for Maori and diabetes than non-Maori women. cal cancer have significantly declined. and Pacific Islanders aged 15–24 years; and In some geographical areas, Maori expe- However, both screening programs have teenage pregnancy rates that are at the same rience a double burden due to their rural difficulty reaching Maori and Pacific Islands high levels as in 1981, along with an increas- isolation from services and their ethnicity. women. The cervical program covers 73 ing number of teenage abortions. Particular differences for Maori women re- percent of women of European origin, but Sexual and reproductive health rated at late to: access to abortion services; receiving only 50 percent of Maori and Pacific Islands number 32 among the New Zealand Health appropriate treatment for meningococcal women. Efforts are underway to improve Strategy, which has a negative impact on fund- disease, respiratory infections, asthma and these figures. Importantly, they are focussed ing. Despite the launching of the Sexual and cardiovascular disease; being victims of ho- on the participation of Maori and Pacific Reproductive Health strategy by the Minis-

JOCELYN CARLIN micide, injury deliberately inflicted by oth- Islands women in the planning, design and try of Health in 2003, there is no nation-

WOMEN’S ENVIRONMENT & DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION 113 ASIA AND THE PACIFIC ally consistent approach law and practice, including HIV/AIDS to sexual and reproductive licensing institutions for the All HIV/AIDS medical services and testing health. Delivery remains performance of abortions are free, after the general practitioner charge. fragmented, and there and appointing certify- This includes antiretroviral therapy along with are no clear timelines, or ing consultants to consider viral load and CD4 testing. Some antiretro- monitoring and evaluation cases.25 The Committee col- virals are not available through the govern- systems. lects, monitors and com- ment pharmaceutical purchasing/regulating Currently, the Ministry piles data made available body, and must be privately purchased from of Health funds the Family to the public in an annual overseas. Government benefits are available Planning Association’s 35 report. The data provides to anyone who is unemployed or unable to clinics around the coun- the only reference to the ab- work because of illness or disability, which try, and 30 outreach and solute numbers of abortions includes HIV/AIDS illnesses. school link clinics. All of authorized each year. While HIV/AIDS remains largely an issue the Association’s clinics It is legal for a woman of for men having sex with men, an increasing provide free primary sexu- any age to seek, or refuse number of women have become infected al and reproductive health Basket weaving: to consent to, an abortion. with HIV through sexual contact. earning an informal income. services for patients under However, there are cer- Overall, there have been 22 children diag- 22 years old and to those with a Commu- tain criteria that must be met in order for nosed with HIV acquired from an infected nity Services Card, which indicates low-in- an abortion to be legal. Section 187A of the mother at or around the time of birth. Of the come earners. The Ministry of Health’s 2004 1961 Crimes Act outlines the conditions that 13 children diagnosed from 1999-2003, five Summer Sexual Health Campaign aimed to must be present. First, the pregnancy must were born to women whose HIV status was increase safer sex to reduce the incidence of not be of more than 20 weeks gestation. As not recognized when they were pregnant. sexually transmitted diseases in 15-19 year well, it must be clear that the continuation There is a gap in core public funding for olds, particularly Maori and Pacific Islands of the pregnancy would result in serious dan- promotion and prevention efforts on HIV youth. It was developed with a number of ger to the life, or to the physical or mental and sexually transmitted infections targeted NGOs expert in sexual and reproductive health, of the woman or girl; or there is a to women and heterosexuals. HIV/AIDS has health and rights. substantial risk that the child, if born, would been viewed as a predominantly male ho- Even with initiatives like these, however, the special needs of girls and adolescents are not being fully met. Aotearoa/New Zealand No legislation exists to counter environmental and has yet to provide fully accessible sexual and reproductive health services and education occupational hazards particular to women, even though the to young people. Sexual health education is not compulsory and is only taught in high Occupational Safety and Health Service acknowledges that schools up to year 10. Parents can take their working conditions can impair conception and pregnancy. children out of this part of the curriculum. The fact that some schools offer “abstinence only” sexuality-education, and schools are be seriously handicapped; or the pregnancy mosexual issue. Small amounts of funding only required to teach this part of the cur- is the result of incest or rape; or the woman have been provided to ensure HIV/AIDS is riculum once over a three-year period, defies or girl is severely subnormal. included in general sexual health promotion international research. The research shows Many hospitals will not provide abortion to heterosexuals and women, but the funding that achieving responsible and safe sexual services beyond the first trimester, but the has not increased in line with the impact of behavior is more likely when there is com- termination can be arranged privately. Un- HIV/AIDS on women. prehensive sexuality education that encom- safe abortion is not a common event, largely In relation to pregnant women, the cur- passes abstinence, delay and contraception. because of decriminalization and the avail- rent policy is to offer HIV testing to women A government review of sexuality education ability of services in metropolitan areas. But thought to be at high or uncertain risk, but this is slated for 2005. it has been reported in remote areas such is inconsistently implemented. Eighty percent Another area that requires concerted at- as the West Coast and Southland, where of maternity providers rarely or never assess tention is that of the reproductive rights of no services are available, and among illegal HIV risk in their antenatal patients because of women with disabilities. Infringements of immigrants. The public health system and the personal nature of the questions, a reluc- their rights continue through medication, hospitals have the capacity to address the tance to cause anxiety in pregnant women and invasive surgery and forced sterilization. consequences. the low prevalence of HIV among women. A There are difficulties in ensuring that women No legislation exists to counter environ- report has recently been released that should with disabilities get access to information on mental and occupational hazards particular promote this kind of testing. sexuality, relationships and employment. As to women, even though the Occupational Partly as a response to the threat of HIV/ a result, they are especially vulnerable to ex- Safety and Health Service acknowledges that AIDS, sex workers have run their own sup- CARLIN JOCELYN ploitation and abuse. working conditions can impair conception port organization since the late 1980s. As a Statistics on abortion are comprehensive. and pregnancy. Their website simply suggests result, HIV/AIDS is extremely low among The Abortion Supervisory Committee with- that, if concerned, one should seek advice sex workers. They report good access to free in the Ministry of Justice monitors abortion from a doctor. screening at sexual health centers and special

114 BEIJING BETRAYED ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

New Zealand Prostitutes Collective clinics, A community-based national coordinator Ministry of Women’s Affairs, Annual Report which are run in collaboration with local position for Positive Women, a charitable 2003; available from http://www.mwa.govt. sexual health services. trust, has recently been established. This will nz/pub/annual/2003/MWA_Annual2003. Transgendered individuals report that they increase the profile of HIV-positive women pdf. use safe and knowledgeable providers such and strengthen advocacy for issues specific to New Zealand Defence Force, http://www. as clinical staff of sexual health centers and women and children. To date, women have nzdf.mil.nz the New Zealand AIDS Foundation. Man not had a high profile in the design of HIV/ to woman transgendered people are seen AIDS services that they use and need. New Zealand Statistics, available from http:// and cared for as women if that is their wish. The views expressed in this report may not www.statistics.govt.nz The foundation provides free counseling and necessarily represent the views of FPAID or Notes support to those with identity or transgen- other contributors. 1. Human Rights Commission, Human Rights in New Zealand der issues, and has initiated a Whakawahine Today; available from . Authors 2. http://www.mwa.govt.nz/pub/annual/2003/MWA_ (the Maori word for transgendered individ- Annual2003.pdf. ual) Health Promoter to improve the sexual Coordinating Editor: Nicci Simmonds, Family 3. http://www.msd.govt.nz. health, rights and well-being of this com- Planning Association International Develop- 4. The Accident Compensation Corporation (ACC) munity. There are some smaller support net- ment (FPAID), assisted by Nicola Li.. administers New Zealand’s accident compensation scheme http://www.acc.co.nz/about-acc/accident-compensation- works for transgender groups, but no com- scheme/, which provides personal injury coverage for all New Contributors Zealand citizens, residents and temporary visitors to New prehensive and integrated services. Zealand. In return people do not have the right to sue for Refugee and migrant health services have Annette Mortenson, Auckland Regional Public personal injury, other than for exemplary damages. virtually no funding for HIV/AIDS educa- Health Service; Beth Wood, UNICEF, New 5. New Zealand Immigration Service, New Zealand Immigration Programme Before and After - September 2001; tion and health promotion. Although they Zealand; Camilla Belich, Tertiary Women’s Fo- available from http://www.immigration.govt.nz/migration/. have responded to increasing need by ex- cus Group; Elspeth Preddey, previous member of 6. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Refugee Resettlement: An International Handbook to Guide Reception and panding their volunteer base, a critical point the Women’s Electoral Lobby of New Zealand; Integration, October 2002; available from http://www.unhcr. of inadequate capacity has been reached. Emma Williams,Sustainable Industry, Minis- ch/cgibin/texis/vtx/template/ ++wLFqZpGdBnqBeUh5cTPeUz Urgent funding is needed to avoid a rapid try for the Environment; Jack Byrne, Council knwBoqeRhkx+XX+eRhkx+XX+BdqeIybnM, 73. 7. Health and Disability Commissioner Act, 1996; available transmission increase both within and from of Trade Unions; Janet Fanslow, School of Pop- from http://www.hdc.org.nz/page.php?&page=theact. these affected communities. There is a -cur ulation Health, Auckland University; Janine 8. Auckland District Health Board, The Strategic Plan for Auckland District Health Board 2002-2007. Hei Oranga Tika rent proposal to screen all immigrants for Ahie, YWCA, New Zealand; Jessica Hutchings, Mo Te Iti Me Te Rahi, Healthy Communities, Quality Healthcare, HIV from next year. This proposal is- op Te Mata o Te Tau, Massey University; Jo Fitz- 2002. posed by the Refugee and Migrant Service, patrick, Women’s Health Information Service; 9. Human Rights Commission, New Zealand Census of Women’s Participation in Governance and Professional Life, 2004. Jo Spratt, FPAID; Kate Dewes, Disarmament the main NGO working on resettlement 10. Ruth Dyson’s address on CEDAW; available from http:// issues. The New Zealand AIDS Foundation and Security Centre; Kate Mitcalfe, Royal For- www.beehive.govt.nz/publications_recent.cfm. decries that “the policy framework within est and Bird Protection Society of New Zealand; 11. http://www.scoop.co.nz/mason/stories/PO0210/S00135. which refugees, asylum seekers, family reuni- New Zealand AIDS Foundation; Nicci Sim- htm>. 12. The Ministry of Social Development, Social Report, 2003; fication applicants, work visa applicants and monds, Advisor to Pacific Team, 1000 Women available from http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/ immigrants are dealt with in New Zealand is for the Nobel Peace Prize 2005, Information documents/APCITY/UNPAN016299.pdf. 13. Ministry of Women’s Affairs, http://www.mwa.govt.nz/pdf/ still haphazard, and there remains a need for and Research Analyst, FPAID; Prue Hyman, Statement_of_Intent_2002.pdf. further coordination, streamlining and effi- Department of Women’s Studies, Victoria Uni- 14. Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, http://www.maf.govt. ciency improvement.” versity; Rae Julian, Council for International nz/mafnet/rural-nz/people-and-their-issues/demographics/ change-and-diversity/change09.htm. The Human Rights Act protects those Development; Sheryl Hann, Women’s Refuge. 15. Ibid. who have HIV or AIDS infection from 16. Department of Labour, Childcare, Families and Work, The discrimination in the following areas: em- Sources New Zealand Childcare Survey 1998: A Survey of Early Childcare Education and Care Arrangements for Children, 1999, 46-47. ployment; accommodation; access to pub- Hann, Sheryl, The Implementation of the Do- 17. New Zealand Statistics, http://www.statistics.govt.nz/. mestic Violence Act 1995, A report from the lic places; provision of goods and services; 18. Ministry of Women’s Affairs, 2003. education facilities; partnerships; decisions National Collective of Independent Women’s 19. Ministry of Education, 2002; available from http://www. made by the legislative, executive or judicial Refuges Inc, August 2004. minedu.govt.nz/. 20. Ministry of Education, “Towards a Strategy for Adult branches of government; and industrial and Health and Disability Commissioner Act, ESOL Provision in New Zealand: Consultation Document,” professional associations, qualifying bod- 1996, available from www.hdc.org.nz/page. August 2002; Ministry of Education, The Adult ESOL Strategy, ies and vocational training bodies. How- May 2003, 12. php?&page=theact. 21. Ministry of Education, The Adult ESOL Strategy, May ever, there is evidence of discrimination. Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade, http:// 2003, 13; available from http://www.minedu.govt.nz/. Of the 226 HIV-positive people enrolled 22. New Zealand Immigration Service, Refugee Voices: A Journey www.mft.govt.nz/. in the HIV Futures New Zealand study, Towards Resettlement, June 2004. 23. Ministry of Education, Improving English Language 12 percent reported discrimination in re- Ministry of Health, Refugee Health Care: A Outcomes for Students Receiving ESOL Services in New Zealand lation to housing, and 31 percent in rela- Handbook for Health Professionals, November Schools, With a Particular Focus on New Immigrants, June 2003; available from http://www.minedu.govt.nz; accessed on 20 tion to health services. The most common 2001. April 2004. forms of discrimination in the health service Ministry of Social Development, http:// 24 New Zealand Ministry for the Environment, /. were additional infection control measures www.msd.govt.nz. (48%)—presumably that those interviewed 25 Auckland Medical Aid Trust, . felt were unnecessary—confidentiality prob- New Zealand Women, March 2004 26 HIV Futures New Zealand, .

WOMEN’S ENVIRONMENT & DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION 115 ASIA AND THE PACIFIC THE PACIFIC ISLANDS AND TERRITORIES In Traditional Settings, Women Are Gaining Broad Support for Change

overing one third of the earth’s surface, the Pacific Ocean tion and often poor leadership, have led to political and economic contains approximately 7,500 islands that comprise 22 destabilization, the collapse of governments, the migration of the political states and territories with a total population of skilled workforce, and in some cases armed insurrection, most no- six million people. These small, isolated land masses— tably in the Melanesia subregion, and to some extent Micronesia. with, by world standards, minuscule populations—share Countries in the Polynesian area have been somewhat cushioned the vibrancy, variety and vulnerability of 1,000 different cultures by their close economic and citizenship ties with New Zealand, Cwhose existence dates back 25,000 years. the United States and France, and their ability to send surplus Weak transportation and communication systems and lack of tech- populations abroad. nology have constrained development. When home is a country like For women in the subregion, new and ongoing challenges include Tuvalu, with a total population of 11,000 living in eight remote, low- domestic and civil violence, lack of political participation and in- lying islands, and telephone/Internet connection is cut because of volvement in decision-making, lack of property rights, and the ef- budget shortages, or the only inter-island boat is being repaired and fects of globalization and trade liberalization. Women, particularly the airline is grounded due to routine maintenance, your ability to in- disabled and migrant women, suffer the highest rates of poverty and teract with other parts of the country as well as the world is extremely HIV/AIDS. Limited sex-disaggregated data and gender statistics ex- limited. Nevertheless, despite their difficulties, island communities arcerbate the situation. Throughout the Pacific, women remain en- on the whole are lively, natural, family oriented and happy. They have trenched in a patriarchal world reinforced by religion (predominantly much to teach the world. Christianity), out-of-date colonial laws and legal practices, and West- Since the European invasion in the 1800s, the region has been at ern-style governance. There is, however, a groundswell of pressure for the mercy of global forces—colonization, religious missions, mili- change, including wide acceptance of new roles for women. tarization, global trade, the pirating of resources and environmen- Women are challenging governments to provide many more hu- tal mismanagement. Modern economic developments have eroded man and financial resources for institutional mechanisms, policies, a communal, easy-going lifestyle and added inequitable trade-offs legislation and programs to support and promote gender equality. for resources: namely, land privatization, cheap imports and In this little-known, vulnerable region, women are lobbying hard unlimited alcohol. for change and confidently opposing the attitudes and practices that Restless youth, plus reckless political spending, political manipula- hold them back.

HUMAN RIGHTS ownership headed by chiefs, and the role of been the only independent island country to children and women in society. ratify it. CEDAW Compliance CEDAW ratification highlights persistent CEDAW reporting has been slow in most In 1995, as a subregion, the Pacific had the colonial relationships. France and New Zea- countries due to lack of political will, poorly world’s largest number of countries that land ratified in the 1980s on behalf of their six qualified government personnel and dif- had not yet ratified CEDAW. Since the UN territories: New Caledonia, French Polynesia, ficulties in collecting information. Fiji has Fourth World Conference on Women, a con- Wallis and Futuna, Niue, the Cook Islands finished the initial and periodic CEDAW certed NGO and donor effort has resulted in and Tokelau. Guam, the Commonwealth of reporting process, and Samoa and Vanuatu four more states—Tuvalu, the Solomon Is- the Northern Marianas and American Samoa have completed but not presented their re- lands, Kiribati and the Federated States of are territories of the United States, which ports to the CEDAW Committee. Other Micronesia—signing on. Tuvalu, the Solo- means they could ratify as individual states, countries, with little support or guidance mon Islands and Kiribati have completed but CEDAW would not have the force of law from their own foreign affairs and national formal ratification. until the U.S. Senate ratifies the treaty. There planning departments, have lagged behind, By 2004, 14 out of 22 island states and is nothing to stop territories from incorpo- despite substantial donor assistance and tech- territories had ratified CEDAW or are cov- rating the salient provisions of CEDAW into nical assistance. ered under a territorial administration (see their territorial/commonwealth statutes, but Tuvalu NGOs compiled a shadow report chart). Four independent countries, Palau, this has not been done. that seems to have stimulated efforts to pro- the Marshall Islands, Nauru and Tonga, have The governments of the Federated States duce an official government report. But only not attempted ratification. The NGOs in of Micronesia and the Marshall Islands, both Fiji NGOs have both prepared and presented Tonga and the Marshall Islands have worked former territories of the United States, have a shadow report to the CEDAW Committee. particularly hard to educate and lobby for shown interest in ratifying, but both have In general, a great deal of misunderstanding ratification, with little success. been held up by internal government proce- exists about the shadow report process. Civil Even in countries that have ratified dures. In the Federated States of Micronesia, society organizations often lack knowledge CEDAW, suspicion lingers that “individual there seems to be confusion about CEDAW of alternative reporting mechanisms, while rights” are “foreign flowers” and therefore treaty arrangements, although both countries governments consider shadow reporting an contrary to traditional and religious beliefs have ratified other international treaties that unnecessary duplication that wastes scarce and practices. Pacific countries have noted a the U.S. hasn’t, like the Convention on the resources, especially if they have used a con- number of reservations to article five. This is Rights of the Child. sultative process to produce the government due to cultural, religious and legal practices Most Pacific countries are unaware of the report. Because of small populations, the dis- that relate to hierarchical structures, land Optional Protocol. The Solomon Islands has tinctions between government and NGOs is

116 BEIJING BETRAYED ASIA AND THE PACIFIC more blurred than elsewhere. In many cases, history. In many cases, gender inequalities in Box 20. CEDAW the same people collaborate on both reports. customs, laws and the interpretation of laws Compliance at a Glance Furthermore, the resources to provide a shad- undermine women’s human rights. The situ- ow report require government acquiescence, ation is more serious in some countries, and Country/Territory Date Ratified which is not always forthcoming. the rate of positive change varies. Training, advocacy and technical support Overall, there is an ongoing conflict be- New Caledonia, 1983 French Polynesia, by France to influence CEDAW ratification, imple- tween customary laws for communities and Wallis & Futuna mentation and reporting has come from the national laws designed to protect individual Regional Rights Resource Team, a regional rights. Culture and religion are often used to Cook Islands 1985 by New Zealand human rights institution. It has published justify discrimination against women. For The CEDAW Roadmap, a comprehensive example, in the Solomon Islands, the tra- Niue 1985 by New step-by-step guide to the CEDAW report- ditional value of cementing and respecting Zealand ing process. In collaboration with the United communal relationships through bride price Tokelau 1985 by New Nations Development Program (UNDP) and arranged marriages has been denigrated Zealand and UNIFEM Pacific, the team has also pro- to male ownership and rights. On land and Samoa 1992 vided rights-based training, workshops and resource ownership, men often lead the ne- Papua New Guinea 1995 educational material on CEDAW, the Mil- gotiations, marginalizing women’s contribu- lennium Development Goals (MDGs) and tions and role in decision-making despite the Fiji 1995 the reporting requirements. tradition in some communities of matrilineal Vanuatu 1995 Generally, knowledge and use of human accession. With poor education, women lack rights treaties remains limited. Even coun- confidence and knowledge of how to address Tuvalu 1999 tries that have ratified these treaties give little these issues. Solomon Islands 2002 attention to the rights of women or main- The basic legislative actions that need to be Federated States of 2003 but waiting streaming gender. For example, the region taken in all countries include: a constitution- Micronesia UN acceptance needs to comprehensively revise family laws, al definition of discrimination; protection of put in place new acts for children, and make women’s human rights in the Bill of Rights; Kiribati 2004 much more progress on common law. And constitutional inclusion of affirmative action Marshall Islands 2001 govt many areas of governmental policy still lag provisions targeting vulnerable groups; laws accepted in principle but behind convention requirements. to protect women against domestic violence; ratification process The Regional Rights Resource Team has better protection for women on maternity ongoing done some work to demystify key human leave in terms of pay and length of leave; Nauru Not ratified rights instruments. Through a community laws against sexual harassment; and family paralegal training program, it has trained laws codified and amended to reflect wom- Palau Not ratified 1 over 200 Pacific Island teachers, women and en’s changing situation. A growing concern Tonga Not ratified youth leaders in seven countries. The impacts is that women may lose bargaining power CNMI U.S. must ratify on have included higher levels of awareness, leg- and residual-use land rights with the huge their behalf islative and policy revisions, and attitudinal push from the international community to changes that have come from challenging register property as a step towards individual Guam U.S. must ratify on their behalf negative assumptions about human rights. property rights. A regional NGO, the Pacific Foundation In particular, legislation and policy work American Samoa U.S. must ratify on for the Advancement of Women (PACFAW), overlooks issues related to Pacific women and their behalf has reproduced statistics and disseminated girls with disabilities. They are seldom- in Compiled by D. Goodwillie for WEDO Global Monitoring reports on CEDAW implementation in the volved in the development, implementation Report Cook Islands, Kiribati, Papua New Guinea, and monitoring of legislation, conventions, relationships may be the appropriate pathway Tonga, Tuvalu and the region at large. UNI- policies, programs and services at any lev- to sustainable development and peace. CEF and the Save the Children Fund com- el—local, national, regional or international. Regional NGOs; UN agencies such as pliment the CEDAW work with awareness- Immigration and refugee laws and practices UNIFEM Pacific, UNICEF and UNFPA; raising among high-level government officials sometimes use disability as grounds for deny- and the Regional Rights Resource Team have and community workers about reservations ing refugee or migration status. taken a leading role in conducting research related to “individual” versus “community” Civil society organizations, with support on rights, offering community legal literacy rights, particularly in terms of the Conven- from bilateral and multilateral agencies, have services and helping to strengthen human tion on the Rights of the Child, which all been much more proactive than governments rights institutions. They have partnered with Pacific countries have ratified. in promoting action on women’s human and a variety of national and provincial NGOs, legal rights. Countries with civil unrest such whose work is independent of but coordinat- National Law as Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, ed with (and sometimes supported by) the Most Pacific countries fail to fulfill the Fiji and Vanuatu have higher levels of con- agencies. Although focused on human rights goal of integrating gender perspectives and sciousness and advocacy around law and or- in general, the Pacific regional law stud- women’s rights into legislation, and public der and governance issues. Many groups are ies program of the University of the South policies and programs. Laws and their ap- starting to see that human rights-based con- Pacific has been instrumental in addressing plications vary widely, depending on colonial cepts of respect, responsibility and communal children’s and women’s rights.

WOMEN’S ENVIRONMENT & DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION 117 ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

Workers’ unions, the International Labour fisheries, culture and the family, and Doing the Dishes Organization (ILO) and some women’s rights indigenous people’s rights. in Nonouti, Kiribati. groups like the Fiji Women’s Rights Move- Achievement of the ambitious ment have advocated improved employment goals in the Pacific Platform has been rights for women. The last has produced an low due to the lack of desegregated Economic Employment Rights Kit to edu- data, inadequate budgets and support cate women on employment rights and the from governments, minimal political law, and highlighted the issue of sexual ha- representation and changing issues rassment. A 2002 national workplace survey in land ownership. Weak national found that 33 percent of the women inter- machineries are another factor, along viewed had been sexually harassed. with the fact that those who ratify Women’s rights are not included in school conventions or review legislation are curricula, although in countries like Fiji, the frequently no longer around to direct Human Rights Commission is working on the follow-up action.3 curricula revisions to include information on grams and issues in various countries. The governance and human rights. The Regional Violence Against Women network now links 23 civil society organiza- Rights Resource Team and the Fiji Women’s Violence against women is serious and com- tions in 10 countries and convenes a triennial Crisis Centre, have established training pro- mon in the Pacific Island countries and ter- regional meeting on violence. grams for police and magistrates, but funds ritories. It is under-reported, especially in In Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Is- are limited. Some external donors are more rural areas, where chiefs deal with it in male- lands, Vanuatu, Kiribati, Fiji and Samoa, prone to using their own consultants than dominated, customary ways. In Papua New popular theatre has successfully conveyed engaging with national resource persons. Guinea, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu, messages about family conflict and gender Some progress on women’s rights legisla- female children are considered inferior to violence. In the Federated States of Microne- tion has been made. In Fiji, the Family Law male children. Men use bride payment as a sia, a television drama series draws attention Act of March 2003 provides, among other justification to beat their wives. Alcohol or to problems, causes and appropriate ways to things, for the establishment of a Family in some cases kava4 is often used as an excuse mediate conflict. These activities have helped Court that will have a mediation mecha- for male behavior. sway public opinion towards supporting ac- nism. Fiji also has a Bill of Rights; a Human Violence goes largely unopposed by church tions against gender violence. However, there Rights Commission that employs an officer and social structures, and remains mostly un- is an urgent need for significantly more re- specializing in gender equity cases; and a checked because of entrenched cultural and sources as well as policy initiatives by govern- Law Reform Commission, which will re- legal norms. Even though it is costly in fi- ments and the private sector. view domestic violence legislation in 2004– nancial and human terms, violence has been Some Pacific governments have taken 2005. Papua New Guinea recently passed a trivialized as a natural part of family life, one limited actions on violence against women. law that made rape illegal in marriage, while that does not call for outside interference. Six countries have conducted policy-related the Solomon Islands plans to enact a Bill In recent years, however, there has been an studies of social changes relating to family is- of Rights in its new Constitution and de- increase in awareness, services and reported sues. But Fiji has been the only country to velop a gender equity policy for recruiting cases. For example, in Vanuatu there was a develop comprehensive policy changes. police officers.2 five-fold increase in the reported incidence Fiji enacted legislation on gender vio- Although most countries have national of family violence from 1993 to 2001, from lence after hard lobbying by various women’s plans of action on gender and development, 853 cases to 5,506. NGOs and in particular the Fiji Women’s some are more formalized and accepted by Combating violence has mainly been tack- Rights Movement. In addition to establish- governments than others. Specified priorities led by NGOs funded by donors. Although ing a Human Rights Commission with pow- tend to be economic empowerment, health, women’s departments are sympathetic, gov- ers to take court action, the Fiji government education and training, violence against ernments have provided few resources or passed the 2003 Family Law Act. This new women, shared decision-making and envi- forms of technical assistance. From a very law guarantees the protection of women and ronmental issues. small base in the early 1990s, NGO-led fam- children, and addresses women’s rights, in- In addition to the Beijing Platform and ily and women’s counseling centers now exist cluding by recognizing women’s non-finan- CEDAW, Pacific women have a regional in almost every Pacific country. cial contribution to marriage and marriage agreement on women’s rights—the 1995 Pa- The Fiji Women’s Crisis Centre has pio- as an equal partnership. It defines family to MARC OVERMARS, SOPAC PHOTO FILES PHOTO SOPAC OVERMARS, MARC cific Platform for Action. The two overlap in neered research, awareness-raising, and na- include de facto relationships. many areas, although some of the priorities tional and regional services. It established the In addition, the Fiji Police Force, pushed are different. The Pacific Platform does not first Web site for Pacific women; assisted the by NGOs, has adopted a “no-drop” policy consider the Beijing critical areas on “stereo- formation of family counseling centers; or- for domestic violence cases, meaning that typing of women and inequality in women’s ganized male trainers to address gender vio- any complaint received by the police must access to and participation in all communica- lence; created newsletters, posters, and media be prosecuted. Newspaper reports document tion systems, especially the media”, and “per- awareness-raising campaigns; and trained that violent husbands, partners and fathers sistent discrimination against and violation counselors, police, military and the judiciary. have now been charged, convicted, fined and of the rights of the girl child.” The Beijing A newsletter of the Pacific Women’s Network sentenced for acts of violence. Platform does not include such critical ar- Against Violence Against Women, circulated A review of laws relating to domestic vio- eas in the Pacific Platform as agriculture and widely throughout the region, outlines pro- lence will accompany a draft bill to the Attor-

118 BEIJING BETRAYED ASIA AND THE PACIFIC ney General and Minister for Justice in mid- Generally, there is little knowledge of taken place, particularly between the French 2005, while a new Fiji Industrial Relations or actions to implement Security Council territories and from the Polynesian islands Bill, covering sexual harassment at work, is Resolution 1325 on women, peace and se- to New Zealand, Australia and the United being developed.5 curity. Although women brokered peace in States. Other forms of migration result when A new model of government and non- Bougainville, Papua New Guinea and in the people find their island homes threatened by governmental cooperation on violence pio- Solomon Islands, they were relegated to ob- environmental changes. neered in Papua New Guinea last year could server status at the formal peace talks, and The legal status of migrant women work- be widely applied in the region. The Papua have been sidelined continually ever since. ers is an emerging concern. For example, Fiji New Guinea Family and Sexual Violence FemPacific, a Fiji-based women’s media and women on temporary visitor’s visas provide Committee adopted an integrated, multi-sec- peace NGO, has circulated information care for children and the elderly in Australia toral approach, with six long-term strategies and discussion papers related to Resolu- and the United States, or Filipino and Chi- to strengthen the institutions that deal with tion 1325, but regional UN agencies tend nese women are given only temporary visas family and sexual violence; ensure an effec- to leave any work on engendering peace to so they can be used as garment and tourism tive and appropriate legal response; provide UNIFEM rather than mainstreaming it into industry workers in Guam, Palau and the coordinated and effective services for victims; their own initiatives. Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas. change the behavior of perpetrators and po- UNIFEM Pacific has launched a woman, There is no evidence of women being tential perpetrators; strengthen community peace and security program in the Solomon trafficked internationally, but the precondi- level prevention and response; and increase Islands, Bougainville, Vanuatu and Fiji, but tions exist. understanding of family and sexual violence gaining government approvals and coping A recent SPC paper on migration con- through systematic data collection, research with UN and government bureaucratic slug- cluded by saying: “There is a general lack and monitoring.6 gishness has delayed implementation. of information, research, study, policies and A growing concern is how armed conflict UNESCO and the Regional Rights Re- programs of action on the issue of migrant and ethnic tension in the Pacific has fostered source Team conduct regional programs for women workers. Women are often taken to a climate of violence, including increased in- peace education in schools. In the Bikitawa other countries on false pretences and often cidents of rape and sexual assault. Economic Declaration of 2000,8 the Regional Pacific under unfair employment terms and condi- collapse and the diversion of donor funds to Forum Annual Leaders Meeting affirmed its tions, and suffer many difficulties and dis- stabilize the law and order situation reduces commitment to principles of peace, gender crimination without proper recourse.” 10 resources available for family support centers. and ethnic equality, and justice, and outlined Reports of sexual abuse and violence against a number of strategies for maintaining peace The International Criminal Court children are also rising. and security. Few people know about the International Research in the Solomon Islands has Criminal Court. Since a noted Samoan dip- found that “violence against women has Asylum Seekers, Refugees, lomat and lawyer has a seat on the court, been exacerbated by widespread and en- Internally Displaced there is greater awareness in Samoa. trenched discrimination against women.... Papua New Guinea has the largest number Whereas violence against men, such as tor- of refugees in the subregion—around 8,000. POWER AND DECISION-MAKING ture and the killing of prisoners was often They come across its western border with In- publicly discussed, violence against women donesia. Many have clan relatives living on Representation was marginalized if not ignored. Their ex- both sides of a line drawn by colonial powers. The tradition of male representation of perience includes internal displacement and The United Nations High Commissioner for women’s interests prevails at all levels of gov- lack of healthcare after being subjected to Refugees (UNHCR) has assisted 45 percent ernment, and there is little political will to acts of violence.”7 of the Indonesian refugees.9 Along the east- implement policies and fund projects directly ern border, about 1,000 people fled to the aimed at increasing women’s participation in PEACE AND SECURITY Solomon Islands during the time of the crisis public life. Women lack skills in public speak- in Bougainville. ing and debating, and cultural norms rein- Security Council Resolution 1325 Although other countries occasionally have force the idea that a women’s place is at home Since 1993, three Pacific countries have ex- to deal with refugees landing on their shores, or behind her husband, not in Parliament.11 perienced violent civil conflict: Papua New by far the largest influx has been instigated by In spite of role models like former Deputy Guinea, the Solomon Islands and Fiji. Inter- the Australian Government’s so-called “Pa- Prime Minister Taufa Vakatale of Fiji, New nal political clashes and in some cases politi- cific Solution”, which provided payment to Caledonia’s Vice President Dewe Gorode cal assassinations have caused disruptions in the governments of Papua New Guinea and and Palau’s past Vice President Sandra Pier- Vanuatu, Tonga, Samoa and Palau. Despite Nauru to set up refugee camps for asylum antozzi, the Pacific Islands continue to have women’s instrumental roles in peace-mak- seekers arrested by Australian authorities. some of the poorest figures for female po- ing—generally through family and com- Internal displacement of people often oc- litical representation in the world.12 This is munity networks and civil society organiza- curs within Pacific countries. During social a particular problem in Melanesia, where, as tions—they have not been included in formal unrest in the Solomon Islands, an estimated of June 2004, there is only one female politi- high-level, post-conflict processes for restor- 25,000 people (5.7% of the population) cian in Papua New Guinea’s 109-seat legisla- ing peace. Fiji, Papua New Guinea and the were relocated. After the May 2000 coup, ture, one in Vanuatu’s 53 seats and none in Solomon Islands in particular have effective displacement of Indo-Fijian farmers also oc- 50 seats in the Solomon Islands. The Cook groups working on peace and conflict resolu- curred. Islands has two woman members out of 24 tion where women are active participants. Migration to other countries has always seats; Niue two out of 20 seats; the Marshall

WOMEN’S ENVIRONMENT & DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION 119 ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

local politics is because local government fre- quently comprises a mixture of hereditary or appointed members based on tradition and elected members. Although women can hold traditional leadership offices in some Pacific countries, relatively few do. In most coun- tries, women do not have an accepted role in local government. Papua New Guinea’s laws allow each local government council to appoint a representa- tive of women and youth. In principal, the women’s representative is the president of the district women’s council, and there is a sys- tem of district councils of women who elect the national council of women. In practice, the model has problems. Women are only organized into functioning councils in some districts and provinces. Some countries like Samoa have a “paral- lel” local government for women, the wom- en’s committee. In recent years, these com- Sharing ideas in a participatory community workshop. mittees have fragmented due to distances between villages and travel costs. However, Islands one out of 33 seats; Samoa three out percent in 1995 to 47.5 percent in 2001. the traditional councils of chiefs (all men of 49 seats; and Tokelau four out of 25 seats. In New Caledonia, the municipal elections in most villages) have stayed together. The The situation has not changed much over the held in March 2001 boosted the portion councils elect a mayor from among their past decade. of women from 10.4 percent to 28.9 per- number, and the mayors meet monthly, in The Commonwealth of Northern Mari- cent.13 The territory now has both a female a national council of mayors, with various anas, Fiji and the French territories have in- president and vice president. The 2004 New government agencies to coordinate rural creased women’s leadership in decision-mak- Caledonia election for 76 seats in three pro- development and administrative matters. In ing by legislating quotas and making changes vincial assemblies resulted in 40 men and 2004, the Samoan government decided to to voting practices. During the Common- 36 women taking office (47%). In 2002, establish a national council for the women’s wealth of Northern Marianas’ Constitutional French Polynesia elected its first woman to committees to operate on similar principles, Convention in 1995, the Women’s Affairs the French Assembly. although the women’s committee representa- Office embarked on a major effort to en- The Cook Islands and the Commonwealth tives will be paid only half the amount allot- courage and support female candidates. The of Northern Marianas have 10 and six senior ted to their male counterparts. result was the largest ever turnout of female level female political party officials respec- Modern women’s committees have three candidates for any public office. tively. Tonga and Tokelau do not have po- sections: the daughters of the village, the In 1999 more women were elected when litical parties, but Tonga has chosen to focus wives of untitled men, and the wives of chiefs Fiji changed from “first-past-the-post vot- on women in politics as its major gender and orators. Committee leaders are usually ing” (where whoever captures the majority of strategy for 2004-2005, aiming to encourage elected on the basis of traditional rank. For the total vote wins) to “preferential voting” more women to vote and stand for election. the council, each village will have one elected (where voters rank their choice and elections The Federated States of Micronesia, Kiribati, women’s committee representative. Given results weigh the ranking if there is no clear Niue and Samoa each report one woman in a the fact that some committees have split majority). Eight women supported by the high position in a political party. apart, some villages will have to resolve how NGO Fiji Women in Politics and UNIFEM, Papua New Guinea’s Constitution allows to choose a representative. Despite initial were elected to the 52-seat Lower House, the for three women to be nominated to Parlia- difficulties, however, the new system could main legislative chamber. This gain was not ment. No appointments have been made strengthen women’s role in local government, sustained, dropping to four out of 70 in the since independence in 1975. The issue is now and enable the government to communicate MARC OVERMARS, SOPAC PHOTO FILES PHOTO SOPAC OVERMARS, MARC next election. under discussion, with debate as to whether more effectively with women and include In the French territories, France’s Parité the government should make the nomina- them directly in national programs. Law, which requires political parties to put tions, or whether women’s organizations Some countries have achieved a degree of forward an equal number of male and fe- should elect representatives. Bougainville will gender equity in appointments to the boards male candidates, is having a major impact have three elected posts reserved for women of statutory bodies and state-owned enter- on politics and decision-making. For 40 in the 2005 provincial elections. prises. For example, in the Commonwealth years, the number of women in office in Women’s participation in local govern- of Northern Marianas, there is a law in place New Caledonia, French Polynesia, and Wal- ments is at similar low levels with the excep- that sets a quota of at least one female repre- lis and Futuna remained low, but as a di- tion of Niue, which has elected 25 women sentative for boards and commissions, wbut rect result of the new French law, municipal as local government councillors since 1993. each representative’s period of engagement is office holders more than doubled from 22 Often the reason women cannot succeed in short so the turnover is high, thus the con-

120 BEIJING BETRAYED ASIA AND THE PACIFIC tinuity of services and programs alter with ference on Pacific Women proposed that ductions and downgrade the status of these each new government administration. For countries should take affirmative action by departments. Women’s departments tend to example, to date there is only one presid- legislating quotas of 30 percent for women; be located in ministries with low national ing judicial officer. Likewise, the number of require political parties to put forward equal priority, and lack the resources and structural women representatives in the legislature has numbers of male and female candidates for position within the government to effectively varied from zero to two. elected office; ensure equal participation of promote gender policies and mainstream- The Cook Islands and Nauru have achieved men and women in public life, political par- ing. Governments expect donors to fund some amount of gender equity in member- ties, statutory bodies and boards, and man- women’s programs in most countries, and ship of state-owned enterprises. Nauru has agement roles in governments, the private only provide resources for wages and over- 13 female board members in 14 companies, sector and civil society organizations; and heads. In some countries, even this support although this figure implies that each has involve key government ministries, includ- is minimal. Some governments claim that a predominantly male board. Kiribati, the ing those for women, finance and national gender concerns have been mainstreamed in Federated States of Micronesia and Samoa planning, in working together to mainstream sectoral programs, that women’s departments specifically allow for female representation gender issues and concerns throughout pub- are handling the issues, and that there is no on some boards of statuary bodies and state- lic policies and programs. The conference need to provide additional resources. owned enterprises. This issue needs further also proposed lobbying Christian Churches Without women’s departments, however, data collection and analysis to adequately to promote equal opportunities for women there are few or no focal points for women’s measure progress. within their hierarchies, and establishing initiatives. Many women’s departments have In many cases, women require a greater un- public education programs in Pacific com- harnessed the skills of motivated volunteers derstanding of the importance of participat- munities to promote and strengthen the and taken advantage of the expertise of ing in parliament and other decision-making practice of shared decision-making within NGOs to mobilize women on issues critical bodies. Although strategic political plans for families and communities. to women’s development. campaigning are increasing, they are still few Closer working relationships have devel- At the August 2004 SPC conference, wom- in number. Support for good women lead- oped between governments and NGOs, but en asked: “Why do we know the number of ers is often marred by women’s lack of coop- governments themselves lag behind NGOs cows in dairy production but not the number eration, and voting frequently follows tribal, and continue to be suspicious about their of men and women in the dairy industry?”15 clan and extended family lines. Some elected activities and criticisms. In recent years, Delegates called upon governments to estab- women have little awareness of gender issues NGOs have made a big impact on women’s lish gender focal points in every department and quickly follow the male model for po- lives, working tirelessly to deliver services or ministry to make regular reports to a well- litical caucusing. Voter education for women in education, literacy and health care. Only resourced, high-level women’s policy advi- to understand the voting procedures, register recently have governments invited women’s sory board with the capacity to contribute to and use their vote wisely is critical, but apart NGOs to participate on government delega- all forms of planning, budgeting and policy from UNIFEM, there is little available fund- tions to international events, largely due to development. Separate gender planning and ing for these or other programs for women donor pressure. policy units within high-level planning or fi- in politics. Women are now calling on governments nance ministries were requested to encourage Women are also finding out they will have to upgrade their national machineries for ser- the collection of sex-disaggregated data and to guard legislative and other advancements. vice provision, and provide qualified staff for research on gender, coordinate focal point There is some concern in New Caledonia, for example, that parties representing indigenous Women asked, “Why do we know the number of cows Melanesians (who make up about 45 percent of the total population) are likely to use fe- in dairy production but not the number of men and male candidates as proxies for men because of cultural expectations that women may women in the dairy industry?” only act with the permission of husbands, fathers and brothers. programs targeted to women in all govern- activities within other ministries and target The Marshall Islands has an active civil ment departments. Gender auditing at the legislative change. society organization working for women, senior policy, planning and research levels is Government machinery in general needs Women United Together for the Marshall seen as key to women’s advancement. upgrading so that all ministries have the Islands, which runs a women-in-politics means to carry out policies and ensure gen- program and campaigns for women in lo- Impact of Representation der mainstreaming. Most senior women of- cal government and national elections. In All Pacific Island countries and territories have ficials within ministries are highly motivated Papua New Guinea, Women in Politics is an some form of national women’s machinery, and increasingly successful in managing their NGO that has campaigned, mainly without generally a women’s division or department. tasks, but when it comes to issues that par- success, for a number of women candidates In some cases, there is a higher level Ministry ticularly affect women, they lack the means in national and provincial elections since of Women’s Affairs. Since 1993, donors have to carry out their vision. Women at the SPC 1993.14 UNIFEM has held a series of leader- provided technical assistance for building the conference also asked: “Why should a small ship training workshops and published a re- capacity of women’s departments and main- department getting between 0.002 to 1 per- source manual for the Pacific Islands, Women streaming gender. cent of the budget be responsible for pro- and Political Empowerment. Government reforms and budget deficits, grams for 50 percent of the population?” In 2004, the SPC 9th Triennium Con- however, have been used to justify staff re- A major task of national machineries for

WOMEN’S ENVIRONMENT & DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION 121 ASIA AND THE PACIFIC women is to organize the response to nation- lynchpin of a sustained gender-responsive the environment and labor standards. With al, regional and international commitments approach to policies. the support of the South Pacific Regional to the advancement of women, including Recent studies have found increasing in- Environment Program, some countries and the Beijing Platform, the Pacific Platform, equality and poverty in the sub- the MDGs, national action plans, the Com- region. In 2001, 37 percent of the Fetching water monwealth Plan of Action and CEDAW. population in Papua New Guinea from the well. But women’s departments and organizations had insufficient income to meet should not be expected to do this in isola- minimum food energy requirements tion. The Pacific Platform calls for action per adult; 93 percent were from ru- across the board and support from national ral areas.17 A quarter of households and local governments, political parties, civil in Fiji live below the poverty line, society organizations, regional and multilat- and wealth is unevenly distrib- eral organizations, and bilateral donors. uted.18 Melanesia has some of the Regional and international requests to highest poverty rates in the world, complete surveys and provide information while Polynesia has some of the low- and reports strain the already limited re- est. But migration, a cause of minus sources of national mechanisms. Many Pa- growth rates in the Polynesian coun- cific women are fed up with endless reports tries, steals skilled people and causes and international meetings. The strategies increased dependence on overseas that have worked have been homegrown ini- experts, which is only somewhat off- tiatives to lobby and promote attitudinal and set by the high level of remittances legislative changes.16 sent home by migrants.19 Many governments are still reluctant to territories have ratified international conven- POVERTY ERADICATION recognize poverty as a major national issue, tions to protect the environment from harm- because supportive kinship networks remain ful trade and investment practices. Other is- Macroeconomic Policies, a strong element of island culture, along with sues include the exploitation of female labor Development Strategies the concept that everyone has land to feed and erosion of labor standards, and liveli- In a technical sense, most Pacific Island wom- their family. The Asian Development Bank hood displacement. In countries with signifi- en know little about macroeconomic policies has conducted both participatory and eco- cant tourist industries, traditional women’s and their implications for countries, com- nomic studies of poverty in Vanuatu, Papua handicrafts are being replaced by cheaper munities, families and livelihoods. Some of New Guinea, Tuvalu, Kiribati, the Federated imported Asian substitutes that are marketed the reasons for this include: limited involve- States of Micronesia, the Republic of the as indigenous crafts. ment of women’s groups and organizations Marshall Islands, Tonga, Fiji and Samoa. The A particularly complex issue is food im- at the national economic policy level; lack reports, which considered gender, noted the ports. Women are the major producers and of consultation with women on the poten- lack of data for measuring and monitoring sellers of food, and sales of food and produce tial impacts of policies; the absence of a gen- poverty in most Pacific Island countries and are often the only source of income they con- der perspective on development issues and territories. The bank is working with SPC to trol. But consumers are increasingly choos- women’s priorities, such as family and social help governments improve data collection, ing to buy cheap, low-quality, imported obligations; and the lack of public awareness develop poverty reduction strategies and food. While this lowers the cost of living for programs about development issues. monitor MDG implementation. the poor, it also deprives poor women of a Raising awareness and understanding of In trying to analyze the impact of glo- livelihood. Further, this trend is accelerating gender issues in policies is central to achieving balization on Pacific women, several issues dietary change linked to rising rates and costs greater government accountability in resource highlighted globally could be used to assess of diseases such as diabetes and high blood allocations. In the Pacific, there are several macroeconomic impacts in the region.20 Pos- pressure.21 Imported foods are cheap and women’s organizations, all based in Fiji, at the itive effects include the reduction of tariffs, easy to prepare, but also low in quality and forefront of this kind of advocacy. The Pacific which has led to a wider range of relatively high in fat. In most countries and territories, Gender and Trade Network researches issues cheaper food. Trade liberalization policies there are no national food standards to moni- related to women and trade so as to build the have increased the possibilities of expansion tor and control the quality of foods and other knowledge of Pacific women on trade issues of business to overseas markets, improved consumer goods. MARC OVERMARS, SOPAC PHOTO FILES PHOTO SOPAC OVERMARS, MARC and provide substantial statistics and infor- skills, and increased women’s participation The competitive nature of trade liberaliza- mation to women’s advocacy programs. The in manufacturing, tourism and service ac- tion has curtailed previously subsidized do- Fiji Women’s Rights Movement is currently tivities. Employment opportunities have also mestic industries like chicken production, conducting a study on the gender impacts of resulted from investment policies granting but increased demand for the product, even trade agreements in Fiji, focusing particularly concessions to multinational companies, as many women find themselves less able to on manufacturing and agriculture. Develop- such as tax-free periods of operation. In Sa- produce quality family foods. Additionally, ment Alternatives for Women in a New Era moa, Yazaki Eds Limited provides employ- the nature of farm work is changing to in- (DAWN) is instrumental in providing policy ment to more than 1,000 women, especially volve pesticides and herbicides, increasing research and analysis in a number of areas. those who have dropped out of school and the risk of health and environmental hazards Nevertheless, government accountability for have few special skills. arising from improper safety provisions. gender equality commitments remains the Negative effects of globalization threaten Other problems include unemployment

122 BEIJING BETRAYED ASIA AND THE PACIFIC caused by mobile international companies, nity leaders and families, need to be aware of demanding their rights. While unions and improved mechanization and mass lay-offs. women’s development needs and concerns if employment associations provide limited The migration of young workers leaves the el- we want to improve family lives and women’s services, there are few legislative frameworks derly isolated at home to fend for themselves, equal participation in development.”23 to protect women, including laws on equity while the intrusion of working schedules into There has been some progress in connect- in employment, sexual harassment, or con- personal lives leads to stress and upsets tra- ing national budgets to gender needs and ditions for part-time and casual workers. ditional family dynamics. Some production inequalities. In 2002–2003, the govern- NGOs like Vanuatu Women and Develop- lines result in more jobs for women than ments of the Marshall Islands, Samoa and ment Scheme and Women in Business in men. At times, imbalances in the distribu- Fiji agreed to pilot initiatives for using the Samoa have modelled ways to train women tion of jobs between the two sexes depends national budget to integrate gender into poli- to improve business skills and gain access to on which gender dominates the sector fa- cies and programs. The Asian Development credit, but governments and regional agen- vored by trade rules. Bank provided technical assistance. cies channel few resources into these efforts. Even if multinational companies adapt Pa- The Marshall Islands subsequently focused The increasing numbers of educated wom- cific Island business and social environments, on integrating gender into the public expen- en in most countries over the past 10 years traditional attitudes result in women having diture management system, while the Samo- would suggest women’s presence in the paid to endure long working hours and sexual ha- an pilot looked at ways to incorporate both workforce is also expanding.25 But the low rassment. Most factories and companies do women and young people. Fiji conducted an economic growth or even economic decline not have sexual harassment policies in place, audit to determine whether gender concerns affecting most Pacific Island countries and and some countries have yet to adopt inter- were being mainstreamed into national poli- territories has suppressed growth in employ- national conventions on equal employment. cies and programs in accordance with the na- ment opportunities, particularly for young tional Women’s Platform of Action. women and men.26 Access to Public Services and Resources A regional framework for gender respon- Women’s share of non-agricultural em- Economic reforms are starting to reduce so- sive budget initiatives includes a checklist of ployment is an indicator for the third MDG, cial services. Studies during the past three the types of government expenditures that on gender equity, and is regarded as a mea- years chronicle the numerous impacts of potentially have significant and different im- sure of economic development and women’s structural adjustment programs.22 In the Sol- pacts on women and men, boys and girls.24 roles in the “modern” economy. Normally, omon Islands, for example, these programs In 2004 the Pacific Secretariat’s Women’s when women’s share is larger in non-agricul- are considered a factor triggering recent ten- Bureau sent a questionnaire to its 22 member tural employment, they are more economi- sions. In the Cook Islands, adjustment pro- governments and regional organizations that cally empowered women. But country data duced a massive rise in unemployment and made more explicit links between budgets requires informed interpretation. For exam- out migration of young and skilled workers, and progress on the platform. It covered all ple, women’s larger share of non-agricultural with cuts in education and health budgets. categories of government expenditure that employment in Fiji probably reflects the fact The wages of government workers in the need to be assessed if a gender perspective is that women’s role in agriculture is under- Marshal Islands dropped by one-third, and a to be incorporated throughout the budget. counted, but Fiji also has the most diversi- wage and job freeze was applied. Papua New The findings showed very few attempts by fied economy in the Pacific region as well as Guinea’s mostly lower ranking civil servants, member states and territories or by agencies a relatively large urban population, so there especially women, were retrenched. With the of the Council of Regional Organizations of are more opportunities for women to work privatization of water in the capital of Papua the Pacific to link gender issues and inequali- in non-agricultural employment. New Guinea, many find safe drinking water ties in budgets. Nine of the 22 countries In most Pacific Islands, more males than unaffordable. In Fiji, restructuring policies surveyed reported specifically targeted ex- females are classed as “economically active.” created low-wage book industries based on penditures to women and girls in the form of However, there is a narrower gap between female labor and a visible growth of poverty. funding for women’s affairs mechanisms. For women and men in the category of paid em- A survey of over 900 people from 10 Pacific its 2003 budget, Samoa reported the highest ployment. In most countries, slightly more countries indicated a desire for governments allocation of the total budget at two percent, men have paid employment than women, to recognize the advocacy function of civil but most countries and territories were under but in Samoa there are more employed society organizations, and to forge meaning- one percent: .0035 percent for Niuee, 0.24 women than men. ful, well-resourced partnerships to deliver so- percent for the Solomon Islands, and 0.2 Increased investment in labor-oriented in- cial services or acquire policy advice. NGOs percent for Tonga. dustries has boosted the number of employ- are flexible, innovative and resourceful. They The conclusion drawn is that Pacific Island ment opportunities for women, although have gained growing respectability for their governments still demonstrate gender re- mostly in the form of lowly paid, blue collar ability to deliver services efficiently, often in sponsiveness mainly by small allocations that jobs. Some industries do not have working sensitive areas, and for their focused, quick support extremely limited efforts to retain conditions suitable for women and demand responses to emergencies as well as ongoing women’s affairs ministries or desks. long working hours. poverty needs. Pacific women do not enjoy equal pay for NGOs have also been the most outspoken Employment Patterns, Women’s Work work of equal value. There has only been on macroeconomic policies and their ef- The Pacific Platform recognizes women’s a modest improvement towards equal pay fects on the poor, and on making the links economic participation as a major concern. for professional women. The Fiji Women’s to women. As Sarah Garap, in Simbu, Papua Women lack knowledge of economic sys- Rights Movement has been lobbying the New Guinea, has said: “All who work for tems and management, while limited confi- government for almost a decade to change social change, politicians, planners, commu- dence prevents many from speaking up and labor laws, particularly those governing the

WOMEN’S ENVIRONMENT & DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION 123 ASIA AND THE PACIFIC garment industry. Its work in collaboration that the nature of women’s work in many tives into curricula is still in the early stages, with the Ministry of Labor has resulted in communities is changing. For example, in and there is a tendency for males and females the current draft Employment Relations Melanesia and Micronesia, rising male mi- to study gender stereotypical subjects. Wom- Bill, which addresses, among other things, gration from rural to urban areas leaves more en are most under-represented in physics and maternity protection, sexual harassment and women as heads of households. Once men’s chemistry, but accounting is an increasingly nursing mothers. labor is diverted from the household and popular subject choice.30 Most countries have streamlined policies subsistence activities, women’s workloads in- In an SPC survey, four of the 10 countries and legislation to provide employment oppor- crease in the home, the community and in responding indicated they had done a gender tunities that eliminate discrimination against paid work. review of the primary and/or secondary cur- women in the workplace through ratification ricula, but no information is available about of some ILO principles/conventions. Howev- EDUCATION follow-up. A separate study from the Cook er, the monitoring and enforcement of these Islands (which completed a gender curricula policies and laws remains a challenge. International Agreements review) reported that old materials contain- Up to 80 percent of the island populations All Pacific governments have endorsed the ing stereotypes are gradually being phased are self-employed in farming and fishing for Education for All initiative spearheaded by out. Some women’s issues have been included domestic consumption and commercial sale. UNESCO and other partners. The regional in school and teacher’s training curricula.31 Rural people often have many sources of in- Forum Secretariat’s Basic Education Ac- Teacher training courses and universities come, but available census data for Samoa, tion Plan recommends a gender analysis of have limited expertise or interest in pursuing Kiribati and the Federated States of Micro- education access and quality towards the gender studies. Some courses are offered in nesia indicate that self-employment accounts development of policies for gender equality. Papua New Guinea and in overseas institu- for a very small proportion of the economi- Although education ministries have strategic tions, but the University of the South Pacific, cally active population. The self-employment plans for education, most governments con- which draws students from 12 Pacific coun- sector is dominated by women in Samoa and sider gender the lowest priority among the tries, offers only one single-semester course Kiribati, and by men in the Federated States six targets. in women’s studies. UNIFEM Pacific has re- of Micronesia. cently initiated talks to develop a more com- Available census data also indicates that Public Policy prehensive program with the university, but women predominate in subsistence employ- Few parents, teachers or ministries seem to the process is quite slow. The result of the lack ment in the Federated States of Micronesia, support the notion that gender parity in ed- of tertiary level gender courses is that there except in the age group 15–19, and in Fiji ucation is crucial to positive national devel- is no systematic learning, academic research and Kiribati across all age groups. The sex opment. They don’t associate the educated or development of capacity in gender issues. difference in subsistence production is not mother with her role in raising a healthy Countries therefore look to short training very significant in Vanuatu, but in Samoa family, which minimizes health costs and courses or offshore consultants, not always men predominate. However, this data may contributes to the economic development aware of cultural innuendos, to help them reflect cultural bias that renders women’s of everyone. develop gender policy and programming. work invisible. For example, while agricul- Most countries and territories lack sex-dis- In Vanuatu and the Solomon Islands, ture and fishing are indeed definitively mas- aggregated figures, which is a major obstacle UNICEF’s Child Friendly Schools focus on culine occupations according to Samoan to gender equality in education. Census data assisting teachers and communities to intro- cultural values, women and girls are likely to do agricultural work at peak seasons, women and children are more likely to sell Increased investment in labor-intensive industries has surplus produce, and women do much of boosted employment opportunities for women but mostly the in-shore seafood gathering that is not classified as fishing. in low-paid jobs with poor conditions and long hours . The Pacific Platform for Action calls for mainstreaming gender planning in agricul- is generally more reliable than school enroll- duce child-centered learning practices, with ture and fisheries, and ensuring that extension ment data, which may not be carefully moni- an emphasis on “no smacking” policies. It services and training programs are directed to tored. School principals at times inaccurately is hoped that these will ensure a less violent women. The Marshall Islands, Palau, Tonga inflate enrollment, including for girls, to se- community in the future. Almost all the par- and Fiji have adopted policies accordingly. cure more resources.28 ticipants are women, who acquire important The platform also specifies the need for gen- Fiji and Samoa have the most comprehen- leadership training skills and learn about der disaggregated data and the development sive educational data in the region, but Van- child development. of monitoring mechanisms. Departments of uatu is the only country that has analyzed its agriculture and fisheries should be asked to educational sector from a gender perspective. Access and Changes in Practices keep records and provide data on the number The analysis found that the slow progress on At the primary level, most countries are of female and male clients visited or assisted gender equity—an integral part of the World reaching parity in enrollment. They have in- by agricultural and fisheries extension agents. Bank sponsored economic reform program troduced policies to encourage girls to attend In terms of the division of labor, in most commonly referred to as the Comprehensive school and are making significant headway. countries women are assigned to the domes- Reform Program—stems from ineffective But there are worrying dropout rates for girls tic sphere whereas men make decisions in the government machinery to drive change.29 It in secondary schools, particularly in Papua public sphere.27 But there is some evidence noted that the integration of gender perspec- New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu

124 BEIJING BETRAYED ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

non-formal education is also an issue, with severe limitations on the systems in Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and parts of Micronesia. Governments turn for assistance to churches and other com- munity institutions. Other limitations come from growing youth populations (up to 40 percent of the total population is under 15 in Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu) and civil unrest (as in Fiji, the Solomon Islands and Bougainville in Papua New Guinea). Generations of young men and women with little schooling have grown up with disrespect for elders and create major social problems. The ILO and UN agencies have had various initiatives to encourage im- proved rural training, with an emphasis on income-generation. Several regional reports have noted that Cooking fish in Kiribati. non-formal and vocational training favors males, and emphasizes agriculture, engineer- and some Micronesian countries. Enroll- prevented from continuing their studies.35 ing and other stereotypically male occupa- ment data often masks high absenteeism, Some tertiary institutions—for example, tions. Training for women tends towards tra- high drop-out rates, and low achievement nursing schools in Fiji—do not allow stu- ditional subjects like cooking and sewing. and completion rates. dents who become pregnant to continue A study on women and science indicated In the Francophone, American and New their studies.36 that social and cultural factors contribute Zealand territories, where education is com- A successful Fiji Women’s Rights Move- to the limited presence of Pacific women in pulsory and free until year 10 or 12, literacy ment initiative has been the Emerging Lead- physics, engineering, and information and rates are also high. In independent countries, er’s Forum, a year-long program for young technology, but not in biology and chemis- particularly in Melanesia, literacy rates are women that created and widely distributed try. In 1999 at the University of the South low, especially among women. Schooling, Girltalk, a girls’ journal, and “Headstrong”, Pacific, 593 male and 155 female Fiji stu- even if accessible, is expensive for families a series of essays on role models with the dents took physics. Technology showed an scraping out a subsistence existence. strength to make healthy choices. even greater disparity, with 755 male and 28 There appears to be reasonable gender eq- The Girl Guides movement and the female students. Mathematics and comput- uity in the allocation of scholarships, except YWCA traditionally have provided young ing also proved to be a male bastion with in Vanuatu, the Solomon Islands, and pos- women’s leadership training, but their out- 3,422 males and 1,820 female students.37 sibly Papua New Guinea, where disparities reach and appeal has waned. In schools, Samoa, with the help of AusAID, UNDP, may reflect the overall gender inequity in counseling and support services for young UNV and UNESCO, has made consider- education at all levels.32 In the Polynesian women are limited and sporadic, with no able progress with the integration of disabled countries and Fiji, girls increasingly get bet- regional initiatives or back-up. Donors have children into the school system. This relieves ter results than boys and stay in school longer. assisted NGOs to develop role model books some of the responsibilities of mothers and Yet even when girls do well in school, females for girls in Papua New Guinea, Fiji and Van- other female caregivers, and allows addi- are less likely than males to have a tertiary uatu, such as Girls Can Do Anything, but tional educational opportunities for disabled education.33 This generally reflects lack of education departments have not reproduced girls, who are often held back from schooling money for school fees, and entrenched views the materials once the initial NGO distribu- due to protective attitudes stemming from of women as wives and mothers who do not tion was completed. cultural and religious beliefs. The activities need careers or further education. Sometimes In secondary schools, boarding facilities include in-service teacher training and the parents do not allow their daughters to pur- for female students are usually inadequate. establishment of child special needs centers sue education because of economic or labor Accommodations need to be secure for the in six schools throughout the country. needs in the household. In other cases, par- safety of residents, but careful management Reform pressures from globalization and ents are concerned for their daughter’s physi- is important—in a tragic fire in 2000, Tuvalu trade agreements are changing education, cal safety in a new environment.34 lost 18 young women and a matron who were especially on the tertiary level. Students are An ongoing issue is the development of trapped inside a locked hostel at the nation’s opting for distance education courses or girls’ confidence and self esteem. Girls who only secondary school. Some parents send continuing education studies within their lack knowledge of their bodies, sexuality and their children to relatives living overseas, or own countries. The University of the South health needs find it difficult to negotiate safe from rural to urban areas, leaving the girls Pacific pioneered the use of distance educa- sex and protect themselves from exploita- vulnerable to exploitation and sexual abuse. tion using satellite telecommunications, but tion by family males and in casual encoun- Adequate provision of appropriate voca- women’s enrollment has never been equal to ters. Teenage pregnancies are on the rise, and tional training for boys and girls is a con- that of men, and access to telephones, com-

MARC OVERMARS, SOPAC PHOTO FILES pregnant students are often discouraged or cern across the Pacific. Quality formal and puters and electricity are basic requirements

WOMEN’S ENVIRONMENT & DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION 125 ASIA AND THE PACIFIC that disadvantage rural people, women even only three included discussions about impacts women was evident in the Pacific Island pre- more so. on women. This may reflect the limited vi- sentation to the World Summit on Sustain- In terms of the employment of women in sion of women’s ministries and departments, able Development in Johannesburg, South education, women teachers have lower posi- where staff tend to have training in the social Africa in 2000. The idea that gender is an tions and pay, and are often silent in union sciences rather than in biology, physical sci- overarching, cross-cutting issue related to negotiations. In Fiji, women teachers com- ence and engineering, and are less likely to basic sustainable environment principles and prise 57 percent of the primary school work- make links to environmental concerns. practices encountered stiff resistance. The ar- force and 48 percent of the secondary school The Asian Development Bank and UNI- workforce, but only 22.5 and 14 percent of FEM have supported various gender audits principals, respectively.38 Women also have a of environmental programs in the region. In subservient role in teacher’s unions. Fiji, an audit of staff positions in the Ministry Many schools have management commit- of Agriculture found that women make up tees that make use of fundraising by mother’s one quarter of the staff: 24 percent of senior clubs, but rarely have women among their executives, 13 percent of technical experts executives. Girl students do not have impor- and 44 percent of non-technical posts. The tant role models to follow, while women can- audit stated: “Although women play a central not fully utilize their own education or help role in the Fijian economy, their contribu- girls to attain higher aspirations. Gender tion to agricultural production is largely in- training is not included in pre-service teacher visible in national statistics and is, thus, over- training and refresher courses. looked in both economic analysis and policy formulation. The fact that agricultural sector NATURAL RESOURCES AND planners rarely take rural women’s needs into ENVIRONMENTAL SECURITY consideration can have a serious impact on

food security, agricultural training and ser- Young woman Decision-Making vices not targeted at rural women, despite the at water tank in An increasing number of women are involved fact that they grow a significant amount of Marshall Islands. in environmental decision-making, although the food for family consumption.”39 they gravitate less to the hard sciences. Wom- Fiji went on to set up focal groups with- guments included the notion that all issues of en were delighted when a woman was ap- in the Department of Agriculture to raise equity and sustainable development needed pointed to head the South Pacific Geological gender issues in key planning exercises. But to be addressed, not just gender equity. It was Commission, the regional geo-science organi- ministry planners lack the expertise, data and felt that the term gender is being over-used zation. NGOs and to a lesser extent govern- tools to work on gender issues. Extension and is a commonly accepted UN concern ment environmental agencies have women in workers in agriculture, forestry and fisheries requiring no re-emphasis. A case was put middle-level management positions. tend to neglect services that target women’s forward that the Pacific should only pursue A growing number of university courses needs. While gender mainstreaming has been a few critical issues distinctive to the region, on environmental issues is increasing the introduced in some places, it often does not because concerns such as HIV/AIDS, pover- presence of trained young professionals in survive ministerial changes. ty and gender will be picked up by other re- regional agencies, governments and NGOs. A 2002 meeting on water held by the gions. A final argument proposed that there But jobs are scarce, and it is especially dif- South Pacific Geological Commission yield- is little gender distinction in values, use and ficult for young women to gain a foothold. ed no strategy to directly work with women relationship with the natural environment, Civil service jobs within environmental min- or women’s machineries, or to encourage so gender is not essential in promoting sus- istries offer little scope for significant input women’s departments or NGOs. Similarly, tainable use and management of land, ocean into policy decision-making, as these minis- the Environmental Vulnerability Index, and coastal resources in the Pacific.41 tries tend to have lower status and impact. It developed by the University of the South is still rare to see a woman as a research leader Pacific with support from a conglomerate Gender Impacts for scientific studies, although there are some of regional environment and conservation In 1995, the Pacific Platform for Action exceptions to the rule. Women’s leadership organizations, outlined no target to collect identified the potentially destructive effects and voice is more effective at the grassroots. gender-desegregated data, or to measure the of mining and logging operations on com-

Beyond serving as focal points on gen- vulnerability of women, who are among the munities and the environment. But a decade PHOTOFIILES SOPAC OVERMARS, MARC der and the environment, women need to first and most heavily affected by natural di- later, deforestation continues in Papua New be more proactively promoted as natural sasters. Both men and women are theoreti- Guinea and the Solomon islands at rates that resource managers and environmental plan- cally informed about what should be done threaten serious consequences through the ners. Authorities at all levels should be per- when a disaster warning is received. But gov- loss of biodiversity. Phosphate mining has se- suaded to make women’s involvement and ernments and some NGOs need to be con- verely affected the environment of Nauru.42 participation easier and more attainable. This vinced that disaster management planning Althoughthe consequences of global could start by injecting sufficient resources and decision-making will have better results warming were not fully appreciated a decade into ministries for women and the environ- with women involved, particularly on en- ago, climate change and rising sea levels have ment that allow them to hire qualified staff. vironmental protection, water supply, safer drastic environmental implications for some According to SPC research, six countries housing and food security.40 Pacific Island countries and territories. They have conducted environment research but The tendency to sideline strategies for are facing coastal damage, seawater intru-

126 BEIJING BETRAYED ASIA AND THE PACIFIC sion, increased storms and storm damage. men, and as keen to sell out to loggers and and aggressive rather than being due to the Given the ways that subsistence populations other interests, though both sexes are now acknowledgment of an inherent right. How depend on oceans and forests, food security starting to understand the short-term nature much 200 years of church activity and co- is also an issue. The biodiversity value of the of instant cash. Women do voice their con- lonialization is responsible is hard to gauge Pacific region, which is global in nature, is cerns about unabated resource extraction, because women have internalized their roles threatened by, among other things, fishing, increased water pollution, waste dump- so much. Even in matrilineal landholding, tourism, infrastructure development, waste ing, sanitation problems stemming from women have given over many of their rights disposal, climate change and the introduc- improper environmental management and to men–for example, in Ponape, the Feder- tion of exotic marine organisms. crowded human populations. Therefore, it is ated States of Micronesia, and Bougainville The Oceans Policy issued by Pacific Island surprising that advocates for gender equity in Papua New Guinea. nations states: “Concern for the health of the often have such limited connection with With the push for government reform, ocean unites the (Pacific island countries and those pursuing conservation and environ- privatization of commodities has begun, territories) like no other issue. This Ocean mental management. mainly affecting urban populations depen- supported the movement of our forbears both dent on electricity and telephones. Access as a medium for transport and as a source of Right to Natural Resources to safe water varies between countries, with food. More recently it has made a significant Despite the decline in land and sea resources, Papua New Guinea at the lower end of the contribution to our economic development. few people notice and many lack under- scale–it has 70 percent of all Pacific Islands Responsibly managed, it has the potential to standing of what to do about environmental people. Water access is a good proxy for the support additional commerce and provide problems. Women in particular depend on availability of other services such as sanita- food security for those generations that will natural resources, especially in rural areas tion, transport and health care, but in some follow us.” 43 where they need firewood, water, good soil cases, the figures may not be accurate. There Degradation of the environment is often for gardens, sea and bush foods. But they are is evidence that in some countries and terri- caused by bad management, inappropriate often unaware of or lack understanding of tories, community water supply systems have choice of technologies and lack of environ- the importance of legal protections. been installed but failed due to lack of main- mental impact studies. Other concerns in- Reflecting regional concern about threats tenance.47 Poorly maintained water systems clude a rising population and scarce land; the to traditional knowledge and intellectual may supply water, but it may not be safe, as intrusion of sea water into fresh water sup- property rights, for example, women from recent studies in the Federated States of Mi- plies; the loss of wild products used for food, New Caledonia have complained that their cronesia have shown.48 medicines, income and cultural rites; the indigenous kanak dress design is now used exploitation of coral reefs and rain forests; for dresses made in Asia and sold back to HEALTH reckless use of fire within farming and land the people in the islands. Some recommen- clearing practices; exploitation of terrestrial dations have called for tough and gender Access and Affordability and marine resources by industry with few sensitive measures to guarantee support for The structural weaknesses of health systems benefits going to local communities; lack of women and men’s differential knowledge and in the Pacific have become increasingly evi- regulatory frameworks to protect indigenous skills, and for clans, groups or communities dent, even as the demand for community sea and land rights; unsafe sewage processing; that are the creators, repository, custodians and national health services has grown. The lingering after effects from colonization such and trustees of traditional knowledge and UNDP Pacific Human Development Report as cancers related to nuclear testing; deple- expressions of culture. Also needed are clear notes that common problems are declining tion of natural resources by logging; and se- and specific international intellectual proper- funding, non-supportive macroeconomic curity issues arising from unsustainable gold ty standards for protecting traditional knowl- policies, growing poverty, the emergence of and copper mining in Papua New Guinea.44 Some partnerships among national and Some cultures do not acknowledge the existence of HIV, international agencies have taken a com- munity-based approach to analyze women’s believing “it only happens to others.” control of resources and encourage women to understand and take responsibility for edge and expressions of culture to ensure the lifestyle related diseases and the resurgence of their land and sea resources. A good example continuance of their collective creation and infectious diseases. comes from Fiji, where rural women were up- communal ownership. Any non-customary It is difficult to evaluate the quality of set that agricultural drainage had destroyed use of traditional knowledge must be with the health services on the basis of the overall sta- their culturally significant wild rushes, called consent of the owners and benefit them.46 tus of public health, because health services kuta. With the help of the World Wildlife In general, women’s access to natural re- are only one element in determining health Fund, the women were able to establish sus- sources varies immensely by country or status. Other factors include a healthy envi- tainable practices and local rules to upgrade even the tribe, and depends in part on the ronment, social harmony, absence of poverty, and protect the harvesting sites, which led sensitivity of women leaders to the issues at and good diet and food supply. Endemic dis- to a broader initiative in wetlands conserva- hand. Extended family holdings are osten- eases like malaria in Papua New Guinea and tion.45 Canada sponsored a major regional sibly the right of the owning families, but the Solomon Islands or the prevalence of dia- initiative for improved fish handling that fo- there is a pecking order, and the male head of betes in Nauru are important variables. cused on women. the strongest family usually has the final say. The resources that a country can spend Unfortunately, women are sometimes just There have been cases of women prevailing, on health services directly also affects qual- as far behind in environmental awareness as but that’s more because someone is strong ity and outcomes, including life expectancy

WOMEN’S ENVIRONMENT & DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION 127 ASIA AND THE PACIFIC rates. New Zealand, Australia and New unable to do so. Doctors are usually concen- countries not only have resource and orga- Caledonia have high life expectancy rates for trated in one or two towns. In Nauru and nizational problems in providing all women women and men, but also have the highest Samoa, rural people can easily go to town with midwifery services, but they also have gross national incomes per capita and pur- for medical services, but in most countries endemic malaria, which entails risks for chasing power parity rates in the Pacific. At people cannot. The outer islands of Tonga, women who are pregnant or giving birth. The 73.8 and 71 years respectively, Samoa and Tuvalu, and Kiribati usually have a nursing Solomon Islands currently has the highest ma- Tonga have the highest female life expectan- station, but in remote parts of the Solomon ternal mortality rate, overall fertility rate and cies among the Pacific island countries and Islands, Vanuatu and Papua New Guinea, teenage fertility rate, but Papua New Guinea territories, due to accessible health has the highest infant mortality rate, services, safe water supplies, ad- closely followed by Kiribati. Mater- equate nutrition and relatively few nal mortality is lowest where most serious endemic diseases. births are medically supervised. Another criterion to evaluate Child mortality has declined sig- health is whether services are avail- nificantly throughout the region, able to everyone. Health resources but reports are usually not disag- tend to be concentrated on curative gregated by sex. Infant mortality services provided at hospitals, mainly has also dropped, although the lev- in towns. els remain high. More women now In some countries, this is because have adequate prenatal, delivery preventable infectious diseases have and post-natal care, but on average, declined following the introduction three Pacific Island women die each of better hygiene, immunization, day (1,000 per annum) due to com- better housing, clean water and toi- plications during childbirth. lets. However, as people live longer, In some countries, improvements and as their diet and way of life in child survival are being more than changes, more are getting non-infec- balanced by increased adult mortal- tious illnesses such as diseases of the ity stemming from lifestyle diseases, heart, veins and kidney, and diabe- accidental deaths, and the resur- tes. In Fiji the incidence of common gence and emergence of infectious, cancers tripled between 1966–1969 environmental and vector-borne and 1997. Diabetes in Kiribati is diseases. Sexually transmitted infec- estimated to be two to three times tions also continue to climb. more common than it was in 1981. All Pacific Island countries and The proportion of adults living in territories provide family plan- rural Samoa who are classified as Girl collecting firewood. ning services, although accessibil- obese tripled for men and doubled ity varies. Abortion is universally for women between 1978 and 1991, sub- there may be no functioning services acces- prohibited except in most countries to save stantially increasing the risk that they would sible to women. the mother’s life. Pacific women continue develop diabetes. Immunization coverage rates may be inac- to die from medical complications after There are often major differences between curate because of faults in health systems. In unsafe abortions. the needs of people in towns and those in some provinces in Papua New Guinea, for Nauru, the Cook Islands, Niue, Samoa villages, especially in countries where the example, inadequate refrigeration hinders the and Fiji allow for abortions on the grounds population is dispersed on many small is- maintenance of rural vaccination programs. of preserving a woman’s physical and mental lands. While people in towns are more likely Civil disturbances in Papua New Guinea and health, but often this is not defined and left to need expensive curative health services, the Solomon Islands have made it unsafe for to the discretion of doctors in communities rural people are more likely to need preven- nurses to make maternal and child health vis- that can be steeped in religious anti-abortion tative health care, including clean water and its to villages. rhetoric. Abortion on the grounds of rape or sanitation. These services are less expensive The Cook Islands, Nauru, Vanuatu and incest, fetal impairment, economic or social than curative care, except in countries with the Solomon Islands indicate they carry out reasons, or on request is not allowed. MARC OVERMARS, SOPAC PHOTO FILES PHOTO SOPAC OVERMARS, MARC rugged terrain, many small islands, and few research on woman-specific illnesses, but do Sex education is often bypassed, even roads or transport services. In general, the not specify what these are. Since 1993, SPC when it is officially in the curriculum. There cost of treating non-communicable diseases and other agencies have researched non-com- are very few programs for young women is beyond the resources of most countries municable diseases that disproportionately who need help to understand their bodies, and territories, so health education is a nec- affect women, such as diabetes mellitus, in their sexuality and their ability to say “no” to essary investment. the Cook Islands, Nauru, Niue, the Marshall sex. Programs within schools are not evenly While 80 to 100 percent of people may Islands, Tonga and several other countries. administered. For example, in the Cook Is- theoretically have access to health services, lands, Family Life Education is compulsory many rural health centers are understaffed or Reproductive Health and adapted for use at primary and secondary lack medicines or both. Rural women may Maternal mortality is high in Papua New school levels to combat teenage pregnancy, need to travel to obtain services, but are often Guinea and the Solomon Islands. These but the curriculum has not yet successfully

128 BEIJING BETRAYED ASIA AND THE PACIFIC been put in place, and there is ongoing dif- extremely difficult to map the full extent of Team (RRRT); Ethel Sigamanu, Permanent ficulty in providing essential information on the pandemic.52 Secretary for Peace, Unity and Reconciliation, sexuality in a timely fashion. The attitudes of It is clear that rates of infection from Govt of Solomon Islands; Vanuatu: Andonia parents and teachers seem to be the main ob- mother to unborn child are increasing, par- Piau-Lynch, Gender and Disabilities Consul- stacle. Pregnant girls are allowed to continue ticularly in Papua New Guinea. Approxi- tant; Seman Dalesa, Women’s Policy Planner, their schooling, but the level of support for mately 50 percent of all new infections are Govt of Vanuatu. this varies from family to family and school among young people. Since between 40 and Polynesia: Cook Islands: Rongo File, Cook to school.49 60 percent of Pacific islanders are under the Islands National Council of Women; French Sterilization is available to women in all age of 25, HIV prevention remains a pressing Polynesia: Anne Marie Pommier, Centre Ter- countries except Kiribati. Samoa does not concern. ritorial d’Information des Droits des Femmes provide contraceptives to unmarried women, People with sexually transmitted infec- et des Famille (CTIDFF); Samoa: Rowina although what this policy really means is that tions such as gonorrhoea are more vulnerable Faatauvaa Vavatau, Samoa Umbrella for Non teenagers not in a conjugal relationship can- to HIV infection, so when the rate of these Government Organization (SUNGO); Viopa- not easily get contraceptives, in keeping with infections is high there is cause for concern pa Annandale, Health and Gender Specialist; Samoan cultural values concerning female that HIV infection rates will climb as well. Adi Tafunai, Women in Business; Lemalu Nele premarital chastity. In practice, if a young “In Vanuatu, pregnant women have chroni- Lelua, Small Business Consultant; Tokelau: woman visits the town family planning cen- cally high levels of some sexually transmit- Lise Hope–Suveinakama, Tokelau’s National tre and asks for contraception, she may be ted infections: 28 percent have Chlamydia Office in Samoa; Tonga: Luseane Ofa, Langa- given it. However, many young women, even and 22 percent have Trichomonas infection. fonua a fefina; Tuvalu: Suzie Saitala Kofe, Tu- in countries where contraception is available Some six percent of pregnant women are in- valu National Council of Women, (TNCW); on request, are too embarrassed or ill-in- fected with gonorrhoea, and 13 percent with Annie Homasi, Tuvalu Association of NGOs formed to seek the service, and some health syphilis. About 40 percent of the women had (TANGO); workers are unwilling to provide contracep- more than one sexually transmitted infection. Micronesia: Federated States of Micronesia tives to a woman they suspect is unmarried Similarly, in Samoa 31 percent of pregnant (FSM): Tina Takashy, FSM Women Association or without a partner. women had Chlamydia and 21 percent had Network (FSMWAN); Jane Elymore, Women’s The Cook Islands, Tonga, the Solomon Is- Trichomonas infection. Overall, 43 percent Bureau Advisor; Kiribati: Aren Ueara Teanna- lands, Vanuatu and Samoa report they have of pregnant women had at least one sexually ki, AMAK (National Council of Women); Pole research programs on reproductive health transmitted infection.”53 Atanraoi Awerika, RRRT; Maere Tekanenen, and family planning, and it is likely that A gendered approach to HIV/AIDS and Kiribati Gender Specialist; Marshall Islands: research has also been done in Papua New human rights is critical for an effective re- Marie Madison, Women United Together in Guinea since 1993. sponse to the HIV/AIDS epidemic. Cor- the Marshall Islands (WUTMI); Palau: Ma- recting structural and cultural barriers, along ria Gorretti Masayos, Belau Women’s Resource HIV/AIDS with even distribution of the benefits of de- Centre; Commonwealth of the Northern Mari- Cultural and gender inequalities pose chal- velopment, would greatly promote gender annas: Laura Tenorio-Fejeran, Adolescent lenges and opportunities for responding to equity and reduce women’s vulnerability.54 Therapist, Peter-Palican, Special Assistant for HIV/AIDS. Stigma surrounding HIV/AIDS Women’s Affairs. is mostly “compounded by the general lack of Authors knowledge and fear.”50 Some cultures do not Diane Goodwillie, Community Development Notes acknowledge the existence of HIV, believing and Gender Specialist, with: Penelope Schoef- 1. Seeto-Dubain, “Pacific Islands Status of CEDAW 51 Implementations,” Pacific Foundation for the Advancement of it “only happens to others.” Cultural and fel, Socioeconomic Consultant and Shelly Ema- Women (PACFAW), 2004. religious taboos prevent people from talking lin Rao, Pacific Gender and Globalization 2. Schoeffel, Penelope, “Pacific Platform for Action: An openly about sexual matters, including high Specialist. Evaluation of the Thirteen Critical Issues and the Status of rates of sexually transmitted infections. Oth- Pacific Women,” 9th SPC Conference on Pacific Women (Triennial), Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC), July er factors fanning HIV/AIDS are the lack of Contibutors 2004. strong health infrastructure, a multitude of Dr. Helen Tavola, Forum Secretariat; Adi Da- 3. SPC Conference on Pacific Women, L.Taylor Report, languages and scattered populations. vila Toganivalu, UNICEF Secretariat of the PACFAW, 2004. Women are affected by HIV/AIDS be- Pacific Community, UNIFEM Pacific, UNDP, 4. Kava is a habit forming traditional non-alcoholic drink. cause of their low social status and sexual Regional Rights Resources Team, Pacific Foun- 5. Sudhakar-Herman, Deveena, “Women’s Rights in the subordination. Their vulnerability can be dation for the Advancement of Women. Pacific - An Overview,” Fiji Human Rights Commission at the Amnesty International Inaugural Human Rights Conference, linked to youth, poor health status, mobility Brisbane, 2004. and urbanization, lack of infrastructure and Melanesia: Fiji: Shelly Rao, Eccumenical 6. Shoeffel, SPC, 2004. basic services, limited education and lack of Centre for Research Education and Advocacy 7. Amnesty International, “Solomon Islands: “Women employment opportunities. (ECREA) and Pacific Network on Globalisation Confronting Violence,” Australia, November 2004. Cases of HIV and AIDS have risen steadily (PANG) and Virisila Buadromo, Fiji Women’s 8. Shoeffel, SPC, 2004. in the Pacific, with 800 deaths as of 1999, Rights Movement; Papua New Guinea: Eliza- 9. ESCAP, 1999. but officially reported cases remain low com- beth Cox, Health, Education, Literacy Program 10. For further information refer to papers by Schoeffel, Huffer pared to other regions. HIV/AIDS is well (HELP), Resources Inc; Grace Dom, PNG Dept and Rokduru presented at SPC 9th Triennia Conference on Pacific Women, July 2004. established in Guam, Papua New Guinea, of Attorney General; Freda Talao, PNG Law 11. PACFAW, Pacific Islands Implementation of Commitments New Caledonia and French Polynesia, but and Justice Sector Program, AusAID; Solomon to the Beijing and Pacific Platforms for Action, 2003. inadequate data in many countries make it Islands: Florie Alalo, Regional Rights Resources

WOMEN’S ENVIRONMENT & DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION 129 ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

12. International Parliamentary Union; available from http:// 24. Sharp, Rhonda, “Governments Budgets and Gender 40. SOPAC Report 282, “Gender, Households, Community www.ipu.org; accessed June 2004. Equality in the Pacific Islands,” 9th SPC Paper, Australia, July and Disaster Management: Case Studies from the Pacific 13. SPC Crossroads, Issue 04 19, Noumea, New Caledonia, 2004. Islands,” February 2002. August 2004. 25. Schoeffel, P., Pacific Platform for Action: An Evaluation of 41. Patrina Dumaru Ecowoman News, 2001. 14. Women in Politics recently campaigned for Mrs. Nahau the 13 Critical Issues and the Status of Pacific Women 1994-2000, 42. Asia Development Bank, MDG in the Pacific: Relevance and Rooney, one of the few women in Papua New Guinea ever SPC, 2004. Progress, 2003. to hold a seat in the national parliament, to be elected by 26. The reasons for this trend vary between countries, but 43. SPC, “Pacific Islands Regional Ocean Policy;” available Parliament as Governor General. Unfortunately Mrs. Rooney the overall trend is the populations are growing faster than from http://www.spc.int/piocean/forum/New/welcome.htm. was excluded on the first round of votes, and a number of male economies, thus governments have less resources to meet the parliamentarians who endorsed her candidature did not vote needs of larger numbers of people. 44. Robinson and Mosely, Parkinson Lectures, 2002. for her. 27. Commonwealth Secretariat, “Women and Natural 45. Lechte, R., Goodwillie D., and P. Dumaru, Community 15. Plenary discussions and personal comments recorded by Resources Management, a Manual for the South Pacific Environment Workshop Handbook for Women, ECOWOMAN, the author from Pacific women leaders attending the SPC 9th Region,” 1996. 2000. Triennium meeting in Nadi Fiji, July 2004. 28. Schoeffel, SPC, 2004. 46. Schoeffel, SPC, 2004. 16. Personal responses to request by author to participate in the 29. Strachan, Jane, Department of Women’s Affairs: A Gender 47. Schoeffel, 1995. WEDO Global Monitoring Survey. Analysis of the Education Sector in Vanuatu, Ministry of 48. Asian Development Bank Omnibus Infrastructure 17. Lightfoot, Ryan Quitazol, “PNG Poverty Assessment,” Asia Education, Vanuatu, November 2002, 17. Development Project Study, Globalworks, 2004. Development Bank Pacific Operations Centre, March 2001; 30. Ibid. 49. PACFAW, “Implementation of Commitments To the Elizabeth Cox, Asian and Pacific Development Centre Poverty Beijing and Pacific Platforms for Action 2002-2003,” 12. Paper on Papua New Guinea, 1989/90. 31. PACFAW, Cook Islands 2003 Status of Women, April 2004. 32. Schoeffel, SPC, 2004. 50. Rarabici, V., “Pacific Women and Aids,” Pacific AIDS Alert, 18. United Nations Development Program (UNDP), vol. 18, 1999, SPC, Noumea, New Caledonia, 1999, 3. Government of Fiji, Fiji Poverty Report, Suva,1997. 33. Ibid. 51. Ibid., 25, 3. 19. Pacific Human Development Report 1999, 19. 34. Nagatalevu-Seniloli, Mereseini, “Pacific Monitoring Report 52. Lakshman, Chaitanya, “SPC Pacific Women Bureau 9th 20. Malua, Margaret, “Globalisation and Trade and the Impact on the Implementation of the Beijing and the Pacific Platform for Action,” PACFAW, 2003. Pacific Women’s Conference (Triennial) and the 2nd Pacific on Women,” KVA Consult Report for the PSC 9th Women’s Women Ministers Meeting (2PAWMM) Report,” Institute Conference (Triennial), July 2004. 35. Ibid. of Justice and Applied Legal Studies (IJALS), Suva, Fiji, July 21. Schoeffel, P., “Gender and Development in the Pacific 36. Fiji Women’s Rights Movement (FWRM). 2004. Islands, Strategic Issues and Approaches,” Asia Development 37. UNESCO Women and Science, “Fiji Government, 53. Ibid. Bank Pacific Strategy 2005-2009, Bangkok, October 2004. Learning Together: Directions for Education in the Fiji 54. Kerr, Sprenger and Symington, The Future of Women’s Rights 22. PACFAW, “Gender Impact Study on Economic Reform in Islands,” 2000, 256. Global Visions and Strategies, The Association for Women’s the Pacific and Gender Impact Study on Trade in the Pacific,” 38. Ibid. Rights in Development, London, 2004. 2004. 39. Fiji Government, Ministry of Agriculture, “Sugar and Land 23. Garap, Sarah, “Women And Development: Efforts, Resettlement,” ADB and Ministry for Women, Social Welfare Programs, Opportunities,” Simbu Women’s Resource Center, & Poverty Alleviation, 2003. Simbu Development Forum, Papua New Guinea, August 2001.

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