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Home , Herculaneum, Mount Somma, Nola, Pompeii (novel), Sorrento Peninsula

Heinemann Ancient and Medieval History Louise Zarmati

Pompeii and

hi.com.au/ancient Contents

Introduction ...... iv Outcomes and objectives ...... v Chapter 1 Geographical setting ...... 1 Chapter 2 A brief history of and Herculaneum ...... 11

Chapter 3 Written sources for the 79 AD eruption ...... 19

Chapter 4 Scientific analysis of the 79 AD eruption ...... 28 Chapter 5 Discovery and early excavation ...... 37 Chapter 6 Australian researchers at Pompeii ...... 51 Chapter 7 Evidence of life and death ...... 61 Chapter 8 Public spaces ...... 74 Chapter 9 Private houses ...... 90 Chapter 10 Aspects of social life ...... 104 Chapter 11 Ancient wonders: modern problems ...... 117 Solutions ...... 129 General references ...... 129 Index ...... 130

III Introduction Pompeii and Herculaneum is a part of the Heinemann Ancient and Medieval History series and was written to address the requirements of the new Core Study in the 2004 New South Wales Ancient History syllabus. The topic is also relevant to the new Ancient History syllabus in Queensland.

To the student

• Each chapter begins with a summary of the content covered, followed by a list of key terms and concepts introduced within the chapter. Definitions are placed close to relevant text so that you can quickly absorb them and apply your understanding to the context of the general discussion. References to selected websites at hi.com will lead you to further investigations. • ‘Review and revise’ questions at key places in the text will help you compile factual answers in your notes, which will help with revision for examinations. • Critical inquiry questions and activities are designed to lead you into an examination of historical evidence that produces conflicting, and sometimes controversial, interpretations of the past. You are invited to examine the evidence and evaluate your findings. You will also be prompted to make judgements about which source is the most reliable, as well as develop your own theories and interpretations. • ‘Dig deeper’ activities at the end of the chapter consolidate your learning and challenge you to evaluate information and apply your knowledge to wider contexts. • Further reading and general references invite you to undertake additional research on current issues relating to Pompeii and Herculaneum that appear in the media, books and journals and on the Internet. A summary of the knowledge and skills addressed is provided at the end of each chapter. • Additional classroom activities and quizzes can be found on the companion CD-ROM.

The German literary genius Goethe wrote: ‘Many a calamity has happened in the world, but never one that has caused so much entertainment to posterity as this one.’ May this book entertain, as well as educate.

Louise Zarmati Sydney 2005

IV Heinemann Ancient and Medieval History: Pompeii and Herculaneum Outcomes and objectives New South Wales The following Knowledge and Skills Outcomes specific to the Core Study of the Ancient History Stage 6 syllabus are provided at the end of each chapter. The Principal Focus of the Core Study is for students to ‘investigate the range and nature of archaeological and written sources available for the study of the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum through an exploration of issues relating to reconstruction, ownership and custodianship of the past.’ H1.1 describe and assess the significance of key people, groups, events, institutions, societies and sites within the historical context H2.1 explain historical factors and assess their significance in contributing to change and continuity in the ancient world H3.1 locate, select and organise relevant information from a variety of sources H3.2 discuss relevant problems of sources for reconstructing the past H3.3 analyse and evaluate sources for their usefulness and reliability H3.4 explain and evaluate differing perspectives and interpretations of the past H3.6 plan and present the findings of historical investigations, analysing and synthesising information from a range of sources H4.1 use historical terms and concepts appropriately H4.2 communicate knowledge and understanding of historical features and issues using appropriate oral and written forms Board of Studies NSW Ancient History Stage 6 Syllabus 2004, p. 11. NSW syllabus topics covered in this book: Chapter/s stages of occupation 2 brief historical overview up to and including the eruption of 79 AD 2 early discoveries and brief history of the excavations 5 representations of Pompeii and Herculaneum over time 5 physical environment: the geographical setting, natural features and resources of Pompeii 1 and Herculaneum plans and streetscapes of Pompeii and Herculaneum 8 range of available sources, both written and archaeological, including ancient writers 3 limitations, reliability and evaluation of sources 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 eruption 4 economy: trade, commerce, industries, occupations 9, 10 social structure: men, women, freedmen, slaves 9, 10 local political life 8 everyday life: leisure activities, food and dining, clothing 9, 10 health 7, 8 baths, water supply and sanitation 8, 9 public buildings: basilicas, temples, forums, theatres, palaestra, amphitheatres 8 private buildings: , houses, shops 9 influence of Greek and Egyptian cultures: art, architecture, religion 10 religion: temples, household gods, foreign cults, tombs 10 changing methods and contributions of nineteenth-, twentieth- and twenty-first-century 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 archaeologists to our understanding of Pompeii and Herculaneum changing interpretations: impact of new research and technologies 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 issues of conservation and reconstruction: Italian and international contributions and 11 responsibilities, impact of tourism ethical issues: study and display of human remains 11

V Queensland The following Themes of the Queensland Studies Authority Ancient History Senior Syllabus are addressed in each of the 11 chapters of Heinemann Ancient and Medieval History: Pompeii and Herculaneum.

Themes 1 Studies of 4 Studies of the everyday lives of people in ancient societies 7 Studies of religion 8 Studies of the arts 10 Studies of technologies, innovations and inventions 22 School-based theme – Cities of Vesuvius: Pompeii and Herculaneum

General objectives Planning and using a historical research process • identify issues or problems for investigation • locate and use a variety of primary and secondary sources • maintain a coherent record of research Forming historical knowledge through critical inquiry • understand the explicit content of sources • understand the nature of historical sources of evidence, assumptions about the problematic character of historical sources, and the tentative and interpretive qualities of historical knowledge • analyse what is explicit and implicit in a wide variety of sources, including themes, values and interrelationships within and among sources • evaluate the worth of sources. This will involve students in assessing the reliability, authenticity, representativeness, relevance and accuracy of the sources and in identifying value positions, perspectives and standpoints in their historic context • make decisions, i.e. making a judgment about a question or hypothesis, based on the interpretation and analysis and on the evaluation of sources. This will involve students in: • synthesising evidence into a coherent whole • reaching a conclusion or proposing a solution that is consistent with the interpretation and analysis and with the evaluation of the sources • justifying the conclusion by providing sound reasoning and logical argument in support • demonstrate an attitude of reflection on and revision of judgments made. Communicating historical knowledge Using both written and non-written communication: • recalling significant information, defining and describing key concepts, events, development and people • providing explanations of and justifications for the finding/results of research, including the problematic nature of historical sources, the interpretive nature of historical inquiry and the tentative nature of historical judgment • producing written and non-written responses in a variety of genres • incorporate accurate definitions, abstractions and concepts, and relationships between key concepts, events and historic developments • substantiate claims by reference to sources of evidence. Adapted from Queensland Studies Authority Ancient History Syllabus, 2004, pp. 7–8.

VI Heinemann Ancient and Medieval History: Pompeii and Herculaneum Chapter 1

Geographical setting

Chapter focus Important dates

Pompeii and Herculaneum were once thriving cities c.15 000 BC Vesuvius forms in collapsed cone of in southern until they were destroyed by the Mount Somma. eruption of in 79 AD. The eruption 1800 BC ‘ pumice’ eruption destroys had a devastating effect upon the economy, society villages around Nola. and topography of the surrounding area, destroying 700s BC Oscans establish a village at towns, villages, villas and farms. The landscape, Herculaneum. including the coastline and the course of the Sarnus 500s BC Greeks settle around the Bay of River, was changed dramatically. and establish trading posts at In this chapter you will examine the geographical Herculaneum and Pompeii. Etruscans setting of Pompeii and Herculaneum in order to arrive and compete with Greeks understand their environments before the eruption. for control. You will look at the resources of the Vesuvius area 474 BC Greeks defeat Etruscans at naval to understand why the area was occupied for such battle of . a long time. You will also assess the impact of this 424 BC Samnites move from the mountains key historical event on the geography and economy to the coast and become the of the region. dominant ethnic group. 79 AD First recorded eruption of Vesuvius.

Focus questions Terms/Concepts 1 What was the Vesuvius area like before the eruption? basilica page 8 2 Who were the early settlers? cardines page 8 3 What were the main geographical features and collegium page 10 resources? fullones page 10 4 What do sources reveal about changes over time fullonicae page 10 to the Vesuvius area? garum page 9 lararium page 7 lares page 7 topography page 2 via page 4 Figure 1.1

The writer Statius was about 34 years old when Mount Vesuvius erupted in 79 AD and may have witnessed the eruption. The landscape was already unrecognisable when he wrote, ‘Will future generations believe, when crops and these now deserted places once more thrive again, that cities and peoples are buried below and that ancestral lands ITTAALYALY Adriatic have disappeared, having shared in the same fate? Not Sea yet does the mountain-top cease to threaten death.’ Romeme (Silvae 4.4.78–85) During the 79 AD eruption the mouth of the Sarnus River and the shallow bay to the south were filled in CAMPANIAMPANIAANIA by volcanic deposits, which pushed the coastline of Pompeii outwards by more than one kilometre.

Gaius Cornelius (c.56–c.117 AD), Roman historian. His surviving works are Life of Agricola, Germania, Histories and Ionian Annals. Tacitus wrote about the eruption of Vesuvius and the death Sea of about 25 years after the event. He wrote to his friend, , asking for an accurate description of events: ‘Thank you for asking me to write to you about my uncle’s death, so that you can pass on a more accurate account to future generations.’ See Chapter 3, page 21.

R Volturnus Gaius Plinius Secundus (23–79 AD), known as Pliny the Elder, was born in Como, northern Italy, to a noble Roman family. He was Mt Vesuvius Neapolis educated in by his father’s friend, the poet and military Puteooli NuceriaNu Misenumm HerculaneuHerculaneum commander, P. Pomponius Secundus, who inspired him with a R us Bay of Pompeiieii Sarn lifelong love of learning. At 23 he began his military career and Stabiaeae Naples 0 200 km served in , rising to the rank of cavalry commander. Of his writings only the Natural History survives. At the time of the eruption of Mount Vesuvius, Pliny was commander of the imperial fleet at the naval base of Misenum, one of two Roman naval bases Italy as it is today. Inset: the region of Campania. protecting Italy.

Publius Papinius Statius (c.45–c.96 AD), writer born in Naples. He is best known for his collection of poems called Silvae, meaning ‘Cities and peoples are ‘forests’ or ‘groves’ in . buried below’ Today it is difficult to imagine what the Vesuvius The formation of area looked like before the eruption of 79 AD as the topography of the area has changed substantially. Mount Vesuvius This is the result of the devastation caused by the Today Mount Vesuvius sits inside a much larger and 79 AD eruption and many others that followed over older eroded cone called Mount Somma; half of the centuries. The Roman historian Tacitus tells us, which is still visible on Vesuvius’ east side. The oldest ‘ used to look out over a very beautiful bay, dated rock indicates that Mount Somma formed about before the eruption of Mount Vesuvius changed the 300 000 years ago. About 17 000 years ago it collapsed region’s appearance.’ (Annals 4.67) and Vesuvius formed in its centre. Very little information about Pompeii and Herculaneum is recorded before the eruption in topography Surface features of a place or region, such as hills, 79 AD. Written sources rarely mention the settlements mountains and rivers.

2 Heinemann Ancient and Medieval History: Pompeii and Herculaneum before the time of the emperor . The Augustus (63 BC–14 AD), Roman emperor from 27 BC, rose ancient writer was one of the first to realise to power as Octavian, great-nephew and adopted son of Julius that Vesuvius was a . Either he, or his Caesar. He was named Augustus in 27 BC by the senate in source of information, climbed to the summit and recognition of his restoration of peace and stability in the observed its interior. He incorrectly concluded that (see Figure 2.2). it was inactive. Strabo of Pontus (c.62 BC–c.24 AD), Greek geographer and historian, wrote Geographia in 17 books.

Figure 1.2 Figure 1.3

Vesuvius as it might have been prior to the eruption in 79 AD.

Vesuvius after the eruption in 79 AD. The Campanian coast today looking south towards . Over the years the coastline has been pushed westward into the sea and has increased in height by at least 20 metres in some places.

Review and revise

1 Briefly describe what the Vesuvius area looked like before the 79 AD eruption. 2 List the ancient historians who were alive when Vesuvius erupted. Vesuvius today showing the two peaks. 3 Explain why the ancient Romans did not know Mount Somma appears as a crater on the eastern side. Vesuvius was an active volcano.

Mount Vesuvius has changed much over time.

Geographical setting 3 Early settlements in the

Vesuvius area , Roman version of Herakles, was the greatest of all Greek heroes. He was the son of the god Zeus and the mortal Alcmene. Hercules was most famous for his 12 labours, which he had to Destruction of Bronze Age perform as a punishment for killing his wife and children. He was settlements later adopted by the Romans who portrayed him as a bearded, middle-aged prize-fighter. Archaeological excavation has revealed that a The Oscans were one of various ethnic groups occupying the catastrophic eruption preceded that of 79 AD and southern part of the Italian peninsula not settled by Greeks. wiped out the densely populated settlements of the Oscan speakers adopted the Etruscan alphabet around the seventh Vesuvius area. Evidence of the earlier eruption was century BC, but the first evidence of the Oscan alphabet did not discovered during the construction of a shopping appear until the fifth century BC in the form of inscriptions on coins. centre in 2001. Italian archaeologists discovered a Such inscriptions were found at Pompeii, which indicates that they still retained their own language, even though they had integrated Bronze Age village near Nola, a few kilometres from with the original locals. Vesuvius. The eruption occurred between 1800 and The Etruscans were one of the most important indigenous people 1750 BC, and is known as the ‘Avellino pumice’. It living in Italy before the Romans. They occupied the area north and destroyed several settlements. The remains of huts, west of the Tiber River up to the Arnus River. During the seventh pots and pans, and even livestock are in a remarkable century BC they expanded south into Campania. They thrived in this state of preservation. By the time the Romans settled area during the sixth century BC. in this area, there was no longer any evidence of these Pelasgians is a name given by Greek writers to an ancient seafaring earlier settlements. people they thought had lived in various Greek lands.

Early inhabitants Influence of the Greeks According to legend, Herculaneum was founded by the Greek hero Hercules and took its name The influence of the Greeks is evident in the from him. This legendary connection to the ancient layout of Pompeii and Herculaneum. Parts of both Greeks has led some scholars to suggest that the area were designed according to the principles of town was first settled by Greek traders during the sixth planning developed by the Greek architect Hippodamos. century BC. They either came from Cumae, the first Greek colony in Italy, or from Parthenope, Cumae’s Roads and buildings in Pompeii were set into a sub-colony, which later became known as Neapolis regular geometric grid. Gates on the north, south, east (Naples). and west sides linked the town to nearby towns and It is difficult to say who controlled the settlements ports (see Source 6.8 on page 59). There were two main longitudinal streets;Via dell’Abbondanza (Street between the seventh and early fifth centuries BC, but ancient writers, like Strabo (Geography 5.4.8) of Abundance) and Via di Nola, crossed at right angles and Pliny the Elder (Natural History 3.60–2), tell by Via Stabiana. These street names are not the us the population was a mixture of Greeks, Oscans, original ones; all names used today are modern. Etruscans, Pelasgians and other groups. Etruscan The Greeks also constructed the Temple of Apollo, presence is confirmed by artefacts dating from the near the area that later became the Forum, and a shrine dedicated to Minerva and Hercules in the seventh to the fifth centuries BC. They were eventually defeated by the Greeks at the naval battle of Cumae Triangular Forum. in 474 BC and from then onwards Pompeii slowly declined as a trading port. Hippodamos, a Greek architect of the fifth century BC from Miletus in Asia Minor. He introduced order and regularity into the planning of cities by designing a series of broad, straight streets that cut one another at right angles. He also planned the harbour town of Piraeus in Athens during the time of Pericles. Minerva, Roman goddess of handicrafts, was widely revered and regularly identified with the Greek goddess Athena. She was often worshipped in the same temples with Jupiter and Juno.

via Latin word for ‘street’.

4 Heinemann Ancient and Medieval History: Pompeii and Herculaneum Domination by the Samnites Florus (Epitome 1.16) tells us that the region of Campania was very beautiful and was famous for Regardless of who established and controlled the its temperate climate (see Source 1.2). The Bay of area in earlier periods, recent excavations show that Naples was located 220 kilometres south of the by about 475 BC the peaceful situation had changed capital, Rome – roughly the same distance between and there was a renewed threat from the outside: Sydney and Newcastle. The bay measured defensive walls were built around Pompeii. 16 kilometres wide and 32 kilometres long. Both In 424 BC the Samnites swept down from the Pompeii and Herculaneum were linked to Rome by mountains of Campania and settled in the coastal sea and land routes, and Pompeii was an important towns. They appear to have dominated the previous trading post for goods supplied to Rome. ethnic population in all settlements except Neapolis, which remained essentially Greek. They became The Roman author Publius Annius Florus (second century BC) known as the Campani, and the area as Campania. published a brief work on the history of the Roman empire during The presence of the Samnites is evident in the reign of the emperor Hadrian (117–138 AD). the Samnite-style houses in both Pompeii and The Bay of Naples was called Sinus Cumanus in Roman times. Herculaneum that were already over 300 years old when the eruption occurred. Inscriptions in osco, the language of the Samnites, were found at both Pompeii and Herculaneum, and indicate that the language was Home away from Rome still being spoken and written alongside Latin at the time of the eruption. By the first century AD the Campanian coast had become a retreat for wealthy Romans, including emperors, who wished to escape the fast pace of the The Samnites were a warlike, Latin people who, like the Romans, capital. Strabo commented that the large number of occupied during the fifth century BC. The Romans fought three wars with the Samnites, finally defeating them in villas lining the coast of the Bay of Naples gave the 290 BC. The Samnites spoke the Oscan language. impression of one continuous town. Campania was also known as Campania felix, meaning ‘lucky Although Pompeii was politically independent country’ in Latin. It refers to the crescent-shaped volcanic plain because of its status as a province, it still had a close that extends from the area between the ancient Volturnus River political relationship with Rome. In the hot summer in the north and the peninsula in the south. Today, months the government of Rome virtually moved to Campania is a much larger region. the Bay of Naples. The weather was probably much like it is today; long springs and autumns and brief winters. Coastal breezes made the summers temperate. The bay was so suited to boat travel and anchorage Review and revise that the Roman fleet was stationed at the north of the bay at Misenum. 1 List the different groups that inhabited the At the time of the eruption the area around the Vesuvius region from the seventh to the fifth bay was booming. The coastal plain was well centuries BC. watered and the minerals in the volcanic ash 2 What evidence is there of the influence of the deposits made it one of the most fertile regions ancient Greeks on Pompeii? of the Italian peninsula. The economy of Pompeii 3 How do we know that the Samnites became the and Herculaneum was primarily based on agriculture dominant group in Pompeii? and fishing. The waters were full of fish and a variety of other seafood. Puteoli, located on the north of the bay, was one of the biggest ports of trade in the Mediterranean. Much as it is today, it was a beautiful The Bay of Naples place to live. What was the area around Vesuvius like before the eruption, and why did so many people choose to live in the shadow of this ‘sleeping giant’?

Geographical setting 5 Source 1.3 Refer to Source 1.2. 1 List five reasons given by Florus to explain why people wanted to live in the Vesuvius area. 2 What does Florus mean when he says, ‘Liber and Ceres try to outdo one another?’ 3 Compare Florus’s description of Mount Vesuvius to Strabo’s in Source 1.1. List aspects mentioned by both writers.

Refer to Source 1.3. 1 What does the position of the wall painting in the lararium of the House of the Centenary tell us about the importance of Mount Vesuvius to the lives of the owners of the house? Give possible reasons why the painting was placed there. 2 Explain the presence of the god Bacchus in the wall painting. What does he represent? 3 In which industry might the family of the house have been involved? Support your conclusion with evidence. 4 Refer to Sources 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3. Which product of the region appears in all three sources?

Wall painting in the lararium of the House of the Centenary, Pompeii. It shows Mount Vesuvius as a classic, cone-shaped mountain. Beside it stands Pompeii: trading town Bacchus, covered with grapes, and below him coils a bearded serpent, the ‘good god’ (agathodemone), on the Sarnus protector of the household. Pompeii was located about nine kilometres south of Vesuvius on a low hill formed by a volcanic eruption The House of the Centenary was excavated in 1879 and named in prehistoric times. It was only a few days’ journey to commemorate the eighteenth centenary of the destruction of Pompeii. Painted messages on its street front suggest that the from Rome by wheeled vehicle and also accessible owner may have been A. Rustius Verus. by boat. By the first century AD it had become a commercial town relying on trade along the Bacchus is the Roman god of wine, son of Jupiter and Semele. Sarnus River and the coastal road between Cumae and Campania. Strabo wrote, ‘Nola, Nuceria and Acherrae have as their port Pompeii on the River Sarnus, which transports goods in both directions.’ Critical inquiry (Geography 5.4.8)

Refer to Source 1.1. 1 What did the summit of Mount Vesuvius look like in Strabo’s time? How did it differ in appearance to the slopes? 2 According to Strabo, why was the soil of the Vesuvius region so fertile? 3 How reliable do you consider Strabo’s description of Mount Vesuvius? Support your view with lararium lares evidence. household shrine dedicated to the ; their images were kept and worshipped there. lares Roman guardian spirits of the house and fields.

Geographical setting 7 Population estimates Early in Herculaneum’s history its waterfront was fortified by a massive wall to protect it from Population estimates for Pompeii are difficult as no invaders as well as pounding waves. The wall was census records have survived – if they were ever taken. later dismantled when it was no longer required Various scholars have calculated the population of for defence, and the luxurious Pompeii to be anywhere between 6400 and 30 000, and the Sacred Area were built on the waterfront. but most agree on a figure of around 20 000. The Archaeological evidence uncovered along the calculations are based on a comment by the ancient waterfront in the 1980s indicates that the main historian Dio Cassius that when Vesuvius erupted industry of Herculaneum was fishing. ‘the people were seated in the theatre.’ It is assumed that by ‘theatre’ he meant ‘amphitheatre’. This source is not reliable for estimating Figure 1.5 population numbers because we know from other written sources that the amphitheatre drew its audiences from surrounding towns as well. Likewise, similar methods of calculation have estimated the population of Herculaneum at around 5000, but are equally unreliable.

Dio Cassius or Cassius Dio Cocceianus (c.155–c.235 AD) was a Roman historian and senator. His great work was a history of Rome written in Greek covering the earliest times until Dio Cassius’ own period. Only 19 of the original 80 books survive in full.

This was the ancient waterfront of Herculaneum. The houses to the left would have had a magnificent view Herculaneum: seaside over the Bay of Naples and the beach below. The modern town of Resina in the background was built resort for the wealthy on more than 20 metres of volcanic deposit. Spectacular views By the first century AD, Herculaneum had become The rich and famous a holiday resort for rich Roman traders from nearby Written and archaeological evidence indicates that Neapolis. Located on a hill with waves lapping at its Herculaneum was a desirable town in which to live. base, the broad coastline of Herculaneum overlooked Many high-status Romans either had permanent or the Bay of Naples to the west and gave easy access to seasonal residences there. Nonius Balbus, one-time the sea. Mount Vesuvius stood about 7 kilometres to governor of Crete and Libya, owned a luxurious house the east. Via Antiniana, the main road connecting the in Herculaneum. Portraits of his whole family were major cities around the bay, ran nearby. Houses were found in the Basilica. Calpurnius Caesonius Piso, built on terraces that extended to the edge of the cliff father-in-law of , owned the of the and vaulted passages led from the cardines to the Papyri on the northern outskirts of town. waterfront. The views from these houses across the The emperor Tiberius may have owned a large bay must have been spectacular. villa near Herculaneum and the emperor may also have visited Herculaneum shortly before the

cardines (s. cardo) Roman surveying term for north–south eruption. It is likely that his physician Apollinaris had streets in a Roman town. recently been in the so-called ‘House of the Stags’, because a scribbled message on the wall of the toilet basilica In Roman times, this was a large rectangular building used as a meeting place and for the dispensing of justice. It has reads: Apollinaris medicus Titi imperatoris hic cacavavit bene since come to refer to Christian churches because they were [Apollinaris, physician of the emperor Titus, here often built over Roman basilicas and followed the same layout shitted well]. and design.

8 Heinemann Ancient and Medieval History: Pompeii and Herculaneum The Roman writer Suetonius says that Titus was Florus’s comment in Source 1.2 that, ‘Spring comes so affected by the enormous loss of life and property with its flowers twice a year.’ during the eruption that he ‘selected by lot some senators of consular rank to regenerate Campania, Wine production and allocated the property of those who had died in the eruption and who had no surviving heirs to In ancient times Vesuvius was viewed as one large the renewal of the afflicted towns.’ (Titus 8.3) vineyard. The Campanian region was famous for its wine, which was exported to Rome, southern , and North Africa. The wine was known Titus Flavius Vespasianus (39–81 AD) was a Roman general who for its potency rather than its flavour. Pliny the Elder became emperor shortly before the eruption in 79 AD on the wrote that, ‘it has been observed that Pompeian wines death of his father, . are rather dangerous as they may cause a headache Gaius SuetoniusTranquillus (c.69– c.160 AD) was a close friend of which lasts till noon on the following day’, (Natural Pliny the Younger. He practised law for a short time and became History XIV 70). Wine presses and fermentation rooms chief secretary to Roman emperor Hadrian (117–138 AD). His best- were found in the of ancient houses in the known biographical work is The Twelve Caesars. Vesuvius area.

Figure 1.6 Review and revise

1 What are the population estimates for Pompeii and Herculaneum? 2 How reliable are these estimates? Explain why. 3 In what way does the geographical position of Pompeii differ from that of Herculaneum?

Resources and produce of the area Apart from the mild climate and magnificent views, Reconstructed wine-press found in the Villa of the the Bay of Naples area was rich in the typical products Mysteries, Pompeii. of a Mediterranean culture – oil, wine, and fish. Written and archaeological sources from Pompeii and Herculaneum show that significant numbers of people Fishing industry from these towns were involved in these and other Fishing was an important industry in the area. local industries. Pompeii was famous for its strongly-flavoured fish sauce garum, an essential ingredient for many Roman Olive oil production recipes. Archaeologists from the Anglo-American Project in Pompeii recently discovered a house At Pompeii there is evidence of a substantial olive containing several possible fish tanks. In the residue oil industry. Oil presses for extracting oil from of one of the tanks they found an intact fish skeleton, were found in houses in Pompeii and about the size of a sardine. Herculaneum, as well as in villas located in the fields around Mount Vesuvius. The whole Campanian region was also famous in antiquity for its perfume, the basic ingredient of which was olive oil. This would imply that an abundance of garum Fish sauce produced by taking the guts of the fish, flowers were grown in the area and is supported by soaking them in salt and draining off the rotten liquid.

Geographical setting 9 The find is important because, although hundreds of ancient fish bones have been found in the Review and revise excavations, it is the first intact fish to be discovered in Pompeii and may support the theory that fish were 1 Draw up a chart like this in your notebooks and left to rot in these tanks to make sauce. Tests are being fill in the details. carried out on the fish skeleton by Dr Andrew Jones, lecturer in archaeological sciences, in order to test the Resource/product Archaeological and/or theory. A large volume of fishing nets, hooks and written evidence other fishing gear were also found at Herculaneum. Olive oil Perfume Wool and textiles Wine Fishing Wool and textile production was another important industry of the Vesuvius area. Archaeological and Wool and textiles written evidence shows that Pompeii was a regional Fruit and vegetables centre for cloth making and dyeing. A building provided by the priestess Eumachia was the 2 Review the focus questions at the beginning of headquarters of the collegium of fullones, and there this chapter. Write your answers in your notebook. were many fullonicae scattered around the town (see Chapter 10, page 105). Sheep were bred in the Vesuvius area and Seneca mentions that a flock of 600 sheep was killed by the earthquake of 62 AD Dig deeper (Natural Questions VI 3).

Imagine it is the year 60 AD. You are a wealthy Roman,

Seneca Lucius Annaeus Seneca (c.4 BC–65 AD), a Roman living in a villa in Pompeii or Herculaneum. Write a philosopher and also Nero’s minister. Best known for his one-page letter to a friend in Rome encouraging him Dialogues, he became interested in the natural world toward the or her to move to the Vesuvius area. end of his life. His Natural Questions was intended as a scientific encyclopaedia covering all natural phenomena. He describes the earthquake of 62 AD in this work. Summary of learning

Fruit and vegetables In this chapter you have learned about: Written sources tell us that the production of fruit • the geographical setting, natural features and and vegetables was an important part of the local resources of Pompeii and Herculaneum economy. The fertile volcanic soils were especially • changes to the physical environment of the suited to growing cabbage and onions. At Pompeii, Vesuvius area over time. election posters mention local market gardeners and You have also learned to: greengrocers who were for public office. • analyse archaeological and written sources Archaeological evidence of market gardens has been relevant to Pompeii and Herculaneum found north of the amphitheatre. • examine different representations of Pompeii and Herculaneum over time.

collegium Council made up of members of the same trade or industry. Their aim is to protect the interests of the industry itself and the members. Web links fullones Latin for ‘fullers’; washers and dyers of fabrics. For a full list of relevant websites go to fullonicae (s. fullonica) Roman washing and dyeing workshops. hi.com.au/ancient. One of the best known is the fullonica of Stephanus in Pompeii (see page 105).

10 Heinemann Ancient and Medieval History: Pompeii and Herculaneum