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Understanding Ethnic Violence: the 2007-2008 Post-Election

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Understanding Ethnic Violence: the 2007-2008 Post-Election UNDERSTANDING ETHNIC VIOLENCE: THE 2007-2008 POST-ELECTION CRISIS IN KENYA Sarah Ann Jenkins Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of PhD Department of International Politics Aberystwyth University 2012 DECLARATION This work has not previously been accepted in substance for any degree and is not being concurrently submitted in candidature for any degree. Signed ...................................................................... (Sarah Ann Jenkins) Date ........................................................................ STATEMENT 1 This thesis is the result of my own investigations, except where otherwise stated. Where *correction services have been used, the extent and nature of the correction is clearly marked in a footnote(s). Other sources are acknowledged by footnotes giving explicit references. A bibliography is appended. Signed ..................................................................... (Sarah Ann Jenkins) Date ........................................................................ [*this refers to the extent to which the text has been corrected by others] STATEMENT 2 I hereby give consent for my thesis, if accepted, to be available for photocopying and for inter- library loan, and for the title and summary to be made available to outside organisations. Signed ..................................................................... (Sarah Ann Jenkins) Date.......................................................................... Abstract The field of ethnic conflict studies is dominated by top-down approaches and elite-centric analyses that emphasise the social construction of group grievances, fears and hatreds, and that highlight the central role played by political entrepreneurs in the manipulation of ethnicity and the organisation of violence. Whilst offering valuable explanations of the macro-context of conflict, existing theories obscure local level agency and oversimplify the nature and dynamics of violence on the ground. The aerial perspective creates the illusion of homogenous ethnic groups waging battle along a clearly defined and stable cleavage line, and it fails to account for localised manipulations of, and individualised resistance to, the macro- ethnic divide. This thesis offers a view of violence from below, complexifying, problematising, and nuancing existing theories through a close-grained, thick descriptive analysis of a particular case. A detailed ethnographic exploration of the localised dimensions of the 2007-2008 post- election crisis in Kenya reveals socio-spatial variations in violence dynamics, as well as localised and individualised contradictions in involvement and participation, that are not easily explained by the dominant perspective. It argues that territories with a clear ethnic majority experienced more intense violence than ethnically mixed spaces, which remained relatively calm and demonstrated greater levels of inter-ethnic cooperation. It further highlights the ambiguities of individual involvement, arguing that local level actors can transcend the meta-narrative of ethnic animosity for a variety of reasons and in a variety of ways. The thesis concludes that cases of ethnic conflict are not marked by singularity and uniformity, but rather by multi-vocality and complexity. They are not coherent and singular conflicts but rather are constituted by multiple locally-ethnicised clashes. Thus, the thesis contributes to the broader project of generating more comprehensive and representative understandings of ethnic violence by exploring the localised processes of identity production and negotiation in the Kenyan case. Contents ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................................. I ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................................................................. IV INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................ 1 RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND OBJECTIVES ........................................................................................................... 4 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS ..................................................................................................................... 5 SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS ................................................................................................................................... 6 KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS ........................................................................................................................... 7 ORGANISATION ................................................................................................................................................... 8 CHAPTER ONE: MACRO-LEVEL STORIES OF ETHNIC VIOLENCE: A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE .................................................................................................................................................... 11 THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF IDENTITY ....................................................................................................... 13 ELITE MANIPULATION AND THE NEO-PATRIMONIAL STATE ............................................................................. 20 GROUP GRIEVANCE: HORIZONTAL INEQUALITIES AND HISTORICAL INJUSTICE ................................................ 26 GROUP FEARS: THE SECURITY DILEMMA AND THE CONSTRUCTION OF FEAR .................................................. 34 ECONOMIC INCENTIVE, GREED, AND THE ‘BANALITY OF ETHNIC WAR’ .......................................................... 40 CONCLUSION: THE LIMITATIONS OF EXISTING EXPLANATIONS ........................................................................ 46 CHAPTER TWO: NEGOTIATING THE FIELD: CONDUCTING SENSITIVE RESEARCH IN A POST-CONFLICT DIVIDED SOCIETY ........................................................................................................ 48 THE PROBLEM OF SENSITIVE RESEARCH .......................................................................................................... 49 RESEARCHERS, COLLABORATORS AND ASSISTANTS......................................................................................... 52 ACCESS ............................................................................................................................................................. 54 SECURITY ......................................................................................................................................................... 62 AUTHENTICITY AND VERACITY IN SENSITIVE RESEARCH ................................................................................. 68 RESEARCHER SUBJECTIVITY ............................................................................................................................. 73 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................................................... 77 CHAPTER THREE: EVERYDAY ETHNICITY: SOCIAL SPACE, EVERYDAY LIFE AND THE CONSTRUCTION OF IDENTITY .................................................................................................................. 80 ETHNIC CONSCIOUSNESS .................................................................................................................................. 81 EVERYDAY LIFE AND THE SEGREGATION OF SPACE ......................................................................................... 89 ETHNICISED SPACE ......................................................................................................................................... 107 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................................................. 112 CHAPTER FOUR: NEGATIVE ETHNICITY, EVERYDAY CONFLICT AND THE NORMALISATION OF VIOLENCE ............................................................................................................ 114 NEGATIVE ETHNICITY AND SPEAKING PREJUDICE .......................................................................................... 116 STRUCTURAL VIOLENCE AND HORIZONTAL INEQUALITIES ............................................................................ 125 CULTURAL VIOLENCE AND THE DISCOURSE OF AUTOCHTHONY .................................................................... 134 THE NORMALISATION OF VIOLENCE ............................................................................................................... 139 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................................................. 146 CHAPTER FIVE: ETHNICITY, VIOLENCE AND THE LOCAL POLITICS OF KENYAN ELECTIONS ..................................................................................................................................................... 149 THE PERSONALISATION OF KENYAN POLITICS ............................................................................................... 150 HABITUS, ETHNIC VOTING PATTERNS, AND SOCIAL PRESSURE ...................................................................... 163 CLIENTELISM, PATRONAGE AND KENYAN POLITICS ....................................................................................... 165 INDIVIDUAL AGENCY, MORAL ETHNICITY AND DISRUPTIONS TO THE HABITUS ............................................
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