President, Kasia Metkowski Editor-in-Chief, John Dethlefsen Lead Designer, Leo Elyon

Editor, Anashe Barton Editor, Ionela Maria Ciolan Editor, Caitlin Cozine Designer, Alexandra Dubinin Designer, Kylen Gensurowsky Editor, Alexandru Groza Administrative Assistant, Kevin Lasek Editor, Elizabeth Levinson

Interested in submitting? Contact us at: [email protected]

1 now, Before We Begin a Letter from the President,

This publication is ate career. Our grad- curacy of the content. made possible by sup- uate students partic- The opinions and Dear reader, port from the Institute ipate in the life of the views expressed in of Slavic, East Europe- Department (study- this publication are For this edition, we at Troika distinguished ourselves by picking a an, and Eurasian Stud- ing, teaching, run- those of the authors, theme that directly addresses the embittered temperament that, over ies at the University ning the library, and do not necessarily the past year, has crept into our lives. By “celebrating disillusion- of California, Berkeley, organizing film reflect the opinions ment,” we challenge this temperament. with funding from series, perfor- and views of the Troi- the US Department mances, colloquia, ka editors. Troika of Education Title conferences), in the does not endorse any This year, Berkeley students have grown especially weary, faced VI National Resource life of the Universi- opinions expressed by with constant protests and security measures surrounding both con- Centers Program. ty, and in the pro- the authors in this troversial speakers and unpopular election results, as well as the fession (reading pa- journal and shall not continual struggle against an unresponsive bureaucracy. Additionally, University of Cal- pers at national and be held liable for any millennials across the country have continued to experience decreas- ifornia, Berkeley, international- losses, claims, expens- ing job prospects, increasing debt, and a political system that is dis- Graduate Program conferences). es, damages, and other tant from everyday realities. in Slavic Languag- More informa- liabilities caused ei- es and Literature: tion: http://slav- ther directly or in- Instead of subduing these feelings and frustrations, we channel them The graduate pro- ic.berkeley.edu/ directly in con- into fresh and innovative work. We hope that by celebrating instead gram is designed to graduate.html nection with, in of hiding, at least in print, we can encourage others to step away train future schol- relation to, or aris- from complacency. ars and teachers Disclaimer:ing out of the use of of Slavic languag- The Troika edit- the content in Thank you for picking up this edition of Troika. We hope that in es and literatures. ing team makes this publication. Students concentrate every effort to en- each of the pages, you can feel the weight of our dynamic group of either in literature and sure the accuracy disillusioned historians, artists, and students. culture or in linguis- of the information tics; they combine a contained in our Kasia Metkowski + the Troika Team core curriculum with journals. However, Spring 2018 independent research we make no war- early in their gradu- ranties as to the ac- 2 3 Artistic Analysis 8 Melissa Foote Revolution and Edification in Mayakovsky’s Mystery Bouffe

14 Grace Vedock Beyond the Black Square: Malevich’s Ideological Development Manifesto 22 Anya Kulikov Peredvizhniki: Art through Folktales Politics 32 Luke Panciera Russia’s New Glasnost: A Comparative Study of the 1999, 2011, and 2016 Duma Elections

42 Greta Bedekovics Interview with a Hungarian Freedom Fighter for the 50 Denisa Elena Montenegro’s Accession Vlasceanu

Op-Ed 58 Ionela Maria EU’s good governance Ciolan model in the Eastern Neighborhood - what’s next? 60 Alexandru Groza Classicization: READER The Avant-garde paradox This is for the disillu- tion your reality. Find 62 Kasia Metkowski Crossed Paths: A Reflection sioned historians and what you seek in the artists, researchers and work of your peers. Original Compositions citizens, who feel im- 64 Benjamin Epstein Два Брата / Two Brothers patient with the world. TROIKA stands against 66 Alexey Isayev Девятсот Девятнадцать лет/ comfort, platitude, sim- Nine Hundred Nineteen Years We bring forth the plicity, obedience, yes- 72 Călina-Maria Thus Spoke Tzarathustra Moldovan untold stories of a men. We promote your misunderstood world right and duty to speak, 74 Lillian Avedian Ծնունդ / Birth -- Eastern Europe, to voice ideas, to argue 76 Ioana Marinescu Forced Evictions Russia, Central Asia, your perspective. Come the Caucasus -- and with us. Be TROIKA. 79 Aleksey Calvin Translation of Akhmatova’s Requiem nail them to the fore- Appendix head of the world. If you are against the tenants we propose: 86 Come with us. Ques- thank you and shut up. 5 анализхудожественный Artistic Analysis Translation: who-doe-zhest-veh-knee ah-nah-lee’s pronounced LADIMIR Maya- ty and underscores his passion To get there The Unclean pass kovsky’s contribu- for and propagation of world through Hell, Paradise, and the tions to the political revolution as it is essentially an Land of Chaos before ultimate- strategy of agitprop agit-template in which one can ly reaching the Man of the Fu- -- that is, the use of agitation exercise their struggle. Maya- ture’s kingdom “which is earth- Vand propaganda to shape and kovsky’s final arrangement of ly, not heavenly” (The Complete incite public opinion -- during Mystery-Bouffe consists of six Plays 1968). The Promised Land the Russian Revolution were acts in which a flood inundates is abundant with everything far from slight. Rather, his ar- the world. The survivors include The Unclean need: food, tools, tistic offerings infused with his seven pairs of The Unclean shelter, electricity, and most devotion to the revolution took and seven pairs of The Clean. importantly no bourgeoisie to the form of illustrated posters, That is to say, fourteen prole- hinder them. The play ends slogans, films, and plays. Agit- tarians and fourteen bourgeois. with a victory chorale sung plays were often ephemeral Alongside these twenty-eight by The Unclean in which they and according to Lynn Mally, characters are a Compromiser emphatically declare: “We “were designed to educate au- who represents a Menshevik, who were naught, today are diences about important pol- an Intellectual, and an oppor- all” (The Complete Plays 1968). icies or events and perhaps tunistic Lady. They all convene even to inspire action” (Mally at the North Pole where The Although a devout atheist him- 2003). Mayakovsky’s inaugural Unclean build an ark that is self, Mayakovsky utilizes the Socialist play Mystery-Bouffe quickly seized by The Clean flood myth of Noah as well as was written and produced in and the three auxiliary char- the parable of Christ walking 1918 and later expanded upon acters. The ark functions fleet- on water to construct his play. in 1921. Mystery-Bouffe breaks ingly first as an autocracy, then His use of biblical narratives with the fleeting nature of as a democratic republic, when within a theatrical work finds agit-plays but is in accordance finally The Unclean overthrow its origins in the mystery play with the same means to an The Clean -- quite literally over -- a type of drama practiced in end as agitprop. While Mys- the edge of the ark and into Europe during the Middle Ages tery-Bouffe can be considered the water. They venture over which was put on by members a farce, Mayakovsky careful- the earth in their ark in search of the church in consecrated ly constructs his work using of the Ararat mountains where arenas, usually in Latin. By the the didactic intent of the me- they encounter an entity walk- 13th century the strict religi- dieval mystery play, the ab- ing on water: the Man of the osity of the mystery play be- surd qualities of the opéra Future. He tells them of the gan to wane as acting guilds bouffe, and his experience Promised Land where “labor is began to perform outside of with creating agitprop in or- sweet” and electricity is abun- the church, in the vernacular, der to push forward the goals dant (The Complete Plays 1968). of communism by illustrating the proletariat’s rise to power.

In the 1921 version of the play, Mayakovsky indicates that “In the future, all persons per- forming, presenting, reading, or publishing Mystery-Bouffe should change the content, making it contemporary, im- mediate, up-to-the-minute” (The Complete Plays 1968). This dec- laration gives the play plurali- 9 and increasingly added apoc- earth starts to flood, or “leak”, somewhat more diluted, underworld, to Hell. Although le of Mystery-Bouffe. Accord- tell the devils of their “earth- ryphal ingredients. Satirical el- Mayakovsky subverts the nar- a little bit slipperier. The Unclean go to Hell in Act ing to Sharon Aronson-Lehavi, ly torments,” specifically the ements were introduced -- go- rative and has the characters Then, what a downpour! III, their journey is inverted. mystery plays which end in atrocities of World War One, ing as far as mocking monks construct the ark in response The streets were brimful; Instead of down, they go up a utopian vision of the world slavery in British colonies, and and priests -- which ultimately to the event. The flood itself is melted buildings collapsed on through the clouds. Still fur- make use of “...a communal factory related injuries. A voice other buildings. led to the demise of the mys- apocryphal as it is continuously ther they ascend through the sharing and merging between from among the devils responds: The whole earth, tery as the church no longer described as both wet and dry. smelted in the open hearth clouds into Paradise, and fur- stage and audience [which] supported the dubiousness of When the German appears of revolution, ther up into the Land of Chaos signifies belief in the perfor- No more! the new interpretations. More- in Act I he speaks oxymoron- poured down like one big water- until they meet their ultimate mativity of this [type of] fu- It makes my fur stand on end! over, the mystery play was not ically of a waterless flood that fall. (The Complete Plays 1968) ascension into the Promised ture” (Aronson-Lehavi 2009). These stories leave me numb! concerned with linearity in soaked him to the skin. He re- Land. Being that the Prom- As the barrier is broken the (The Complete Plays 1968) terms of time, space, and ac- ports: “I looked around me: ev- Here Mayakovsky uses the dra- ised Land is “earthly, not heav- theater itself becomes utopi- Here Mayakovsky satirizes the tion. Rather, multiple locations erything was dry, yet it poured, matic and wide-reaching nature enly” it is as if The Unclean an as “...it creates a space that conditions of Russia as being or climates could be represent- and poured, and poured” (The of the flood in order to illus- instead make a cyclical jour- is ‘no place’” (Aronson-Lehavi worse than Hell while simulta- ed at once in juxtaposition to Complete Plays 1968). Both The trate revolution as a process. He ney that places them back on 2009). Mayakovsky’s inclusion neously empowering The Un- each other (“Mystery Play”). Clean and The Unclean speak demonstrates laws and ideolo- earth, albeit a revolutionized of the audience in his social- clean through the experienc- disjunctively of their respective gies dictating the ebb and flow one. Mayakovsky not only uti- ist utopian vision signifies a es they have endured. Hell is Mayakovsky utilizes these ele- countries being inundated but of the everyday while the red lizes the concept of the play propagation of his ideologies no match for what they have ments of mystery to their full- also of no rainfall whatsoever. -- that is to say, Communist-red genre but also the visual meth- onto the audience. The per- seen or encountered on earth est extent. First by employing Speaking to the confounding -- glow of the sun steadily nur- ods it employed. The staging formers and spectators imag- and march forward toward the both Old and New Testament phenomenon that is a waterless tures a change in tide. The flu- of mystery plays included a ine the future collectively thus Promised Land. Furthermore, narratives while concurrently flood, the Intellectual chimes in idity is a gradual process; first bisection of space and use of “...turning the performance opéra bouffe also relies on turning them on their heads. with what is the key to May- becoming diluted, then a bit mechanical elements such as into a rehearsal of a ‘real’ fu- characters from everyday life. Although Mystery-Bouffe has a akovsky’s flood narrative as slippery, until finally a full on a trap door or zip-line. Histori- ture” (Aronson-Lehavi 2009). The Unclean are essentially sil- religious framework, the play’s a symbol of world revolution: fiery flood takes control. Maya- cally, the English pageant wag- houettes of a stock character secularity is seen in the Christ kovsky also exemplifies revolu- on and the Russian vertep -- a Additionally, and implicit in type Mayakovsky’s audience figure, played by Mayakovsky At first tion as a process in the rising two-level puppet booth -- both the title, Mystery-Bouffe is also would have recognized or iden- himself, as a “manifestation of everything was simple, action of The Unclean on their functioned as roving multilev- utilizing the genre of opéra tified with. Unlike the Clean the collective proletarian spirit” with day following night-- journey to the Promised Land. el stages used for the produc- bouffe -- a type of 19th century they have no cultural designa- (Purkey 2011). A line in the ep- except the sunset red was much In order to survive and make tion of mystery plays (Von Gel- French operetta characteristic too bright. tion which further purports ilogue, spoken by Mayakovsky, their way to the Man of the dern 1993). In Mystery-Bouffe, of comedy, satire, and farce. But then the notion of world revolution. also illustrates his satiric and Future with his knowledge of dual-level stages connected by Mayakovsky’s comedic and sa- laws, The audience’s identification atheist disposition: “It was I the Promised land they must a trapdoor were constructed tirical elements are found in ideas, with The Unclean is integral who stuck my finger into the first seize the ark and defeat to transition the characters his absurdities and hyperbole. beliefs, to the agitprop quality of Mys- sky: I proved that He’s a thief!” the granite heaps of the capital The Clean. Subsequently, they through these realms. One set In Act III when The Unclean tery-Bouffe. The Unclean con- (The Complete Plays 1968). cities, have to pass through three functioned as the ark itself are in Hell, the Blacksmith sistently band together during Rather than using the Old Tes- and even the steady red glow of separate realms in order to which revealed a clear class di- turns to the lead devil Beelze- their journey and often speak tament’s device of divine inter- the sun itself-- reach their destination where vide when The Clean initially bub who is attempting to in- simultaneously in a manner vention instructing the charac- all things become more fluid, as the socialist dream is achieved. took control and banished The timidate The Unclean and says: ters to build an ark before the it were: Unclean to ship’s hold. A sec- that is sloganesque. That is to say, similarly to the slogans In line with the medieval mys- ond two-tiered set operated as In Moscow they’d pay you for all on agitprop posters made by tery, Mayakovsky does not the division between Heaven that firewood. Mayakovsky and others for the heed to reliable narratives -- as and Hell (Von Geldern 1993). There, people get sick from the Russian Telegraph Agency, or demonstrated in the use of the freezing weather. But the temperature’s fine here ROSTA. These posters, known flood myth -- or alternatively, Moreover, the divide between in Hell. as Window ROSTA, were orig- in sensical representations of stage and spectator -- between It’s a seventh heaven: inally displayed in empty shop geographic space. To transition performance and reality -- was you all go around au naturel. windows but as their popular- The Unclean into alternate disregarded as audience mem- (The Complete Plays 1968) ity increased they were found realms Mayakovsky employs a bers were invited to join the in railway stations, clubs, and katabasis -- a descent into the actors onstage during the fina- The Farmhand also goes on to 10 11 various public venues duced. One facet of the NEP A thread of agitprop-like slo- his agitprop work, Maya- (Deák 1973). Russian au- was that it returned agriculture gans are riddled throughout kovsky wrote: “Window dience members would to private ownership in order The Unclean’s script. In Act ROSTA was a fantastic have been familiar with to help stabilize the economy V -- which was not included thing...It meant men of the calls to action found (“New Economic Policy”). Fig- in the first iteration of Mys- the Red Army looking at on Window ROSTA and ures 5 and 6 state: “Worker, a tery-Bouffe -- an anthropo- posters before a battle and recognized this attribute new front has opened...Quickly, morphized Steamship and going to fight not with a in the collective expres- go fix the farming equipment!” Locomotive are dying which prayer but a slogan on sions of The Unclean. Fig- Similar calls to action for work rouses The Unclean to inter- their lips” (Deák 1973). Al- ures 1 through 6 depict a that rewards the proletarian vene. In chorus they declare: though Mystery-Bouffe is series of Window ROS- are present in Mystery-Bouffe. steeped in a religious myth TA made by Mayakovsky In Act II, after The Unclean Lift your mattock, light as down! The Unclean react like- and Mikhail Cherem- meet the Man of the Future Swing your pick with all your wise to the Red Army sol- nykh in 1921, the same who provokes them to find the might! diers, always with slogans Drive your drill into the ground! year that the second ver- Promised Land, voices from and never with prayers. Be a Stakhanovite! sion of Mystery-Bouffe The Unclean say in unison: (The Complete Plays 1968) was produced. In Mayakovsky imbues this series titled “All Mystery-Bouffe for Farming Equip- with the edifying ment Repair Week!” notion that through Mayakovsky and collective work Cheremnykh alert and discipline the Figure 5: Worker! A new front has Figure 1: Those are the weapons our facto- workers to a new proletarian will suc- opened! library.brown.edu ries used to produce, library.brown.edu opportunity for em- ceed. His methods ployment: repairing agitate the spectator farming equipment to be on the side in preparation for of The Unclean the cultivation of and his goal is re- spring crops. They alized at the end rouse workers with a of the play when “new kind of weap- the actors and au- on” -- the symbol of dience create their hammer and sickle ‘no place’. The -- which represents use of historical- a socialist work- ly didactic theater er-peasant alliance. techniques coupled Similar to the char- with his political acter types within mindset make Mys- Mystery-Bouffe the tery-Bouffe an en- Figure 3: For Spring’s arrival we must pre- Figure 4: Get the plow and harrow in full figures rendered in pare, library.brown.edu repair, library.brown.edu during piece of ag- the posters are general- itprop ready to be adapted ized and non-individual- This verse could easily be ren- to present or future class istic. This Window ROS- struggle. The subversion So that we can get there faster, dered into a series of illustra- TA series was likely in of religious allegory cou- raise your hammers high! tions for Window ROSTA with response to the inaugura- Lift up your axes! each line dictating an image pled with agitprop tac- tion of the New Econom- Dress ranks! of a productive worker, or tics become a forum for ic Policy (NEP) that the The ark is cracking! Stakhanovite, handling their Mayakovsky’s political Figure 2: Now we have a new kind of weapon Figure 6: Hurry! Go fix the farming equip- 10th Party Congress in- Salvation lies in discipline! tool similarly to the design in ideologies and served to to use, library.brown.edu (The Complete Plays 1968) ment! library.brown.edu troduced the same month figure 6. In 1928, speaking to instruct his audience and these posters were pro- possibly even inspire them. Written by Melissa Foote 12 13 AZIMIR Malevich was not always a Suprematist. Once a young Cubist and eventually a prisoner of the Kstate, Malevich lived a spo- radic, fluid life rife with ideo- logical transformation. He is most well-known for his Black Square, a repudiation of virtu- ally all elements of design. His Suprematist manifesto made him one of the most prominent and how he fits into the Rus- incomprehensible sound-words figures in Russia’s early-twenti- sian and European narratives and neologisms. Most nota- eth century avant-garde move- of art, history, and philosophy. ble is the application of zaum ment. Though bookmarked by in Aleksei Kruchenykh’s 1912 periods of radically different Between 1910 and 1914, a group poem “Дыр бул щыл,” in which ideological persuasions, Malev- of Moscow poets and artists -- zaum is a “universal poetic lan- ich’s Suprematism -- specifical- first associated with the Jack guage,” yet simultaneously in- ly, the Black Square -- is un- of Diamonds exhibit society -- comprehensible (Lawton et al. doubtedly his claim to fame. embraced Fauvism; in Russia, 183). Unlike Esperanto, which However, a complicated nar- Fauvism developed into a qua- is artificially constructed, zaum rative about Kazimir Malevich si-Cubist movement (“Fauvism”). allows for the expression of ventures beyond the Square. Spearheaded by Mayakovsky, “primal emotions” without Malevich carved out his own Aleksei Kruchenykh, and Veli- the “intermediary of rational avant-garde movement, sepa- mir Khlebnikov, the movement thought” (Douglas et al. 8). rating himself from peers and known as Cubo-Futurism en- endangering his reputation. Be- tered the Russian artistic con- In the case of Kruchenykh, yond the Square lies a complex scious, bringing with it zaum. old languages are fossils of narrative of ideological oscil- antiquity; they are too con- lation and theoretical genius The concept of заумь (zaum) is strictive and overused, hence that, though less popular than the most useful in understand- Kruchenykh’s harsh critique the Square, is just as enticing. ing Malevich’s early work. of Imperial Russian literature. Zaum translates to “beyond Zaum is a language construct- To fully comprehend Suprema- reason” or “beyond sense,” ed to avert “definite meaning,” tism and its dense theoretical combining the Russian prefix allowing for fuller expression. justifications, one must first un- “за” and noun “ум” (Lawton (Janecek 78). Kruchenykh’s vi- derstand Malevich’s movement et al. 183). Slavic scholar Ger- sion of a naturally occurring, toward Suprematism. In this ald Janecek describes zaum as materialistic language reveals paper, I will ask: how did Ma- “experimental poetic language the essence of his philosophy: levich conceptualize Suprema- characterized by indetermina- that the past -- old language -- tism? I will decipher Malevich’s cy in meaning” (1). Zaum is a can be revived and reformed philosophy of art as it inter- pedagogical leap forward; it is to construct a futuristic and sects with German Idealism a philosophy of refining mean- universal way of understand- and as it developed throughout ing that resonated across revo- ing and expressing emotion. his lifetime. Using biographical lutionary art forms. In poetry, information, theoretical texts, the zaum language displayed Malevich socialized with the and artwork, I will explain the poet’s “advanced conscious- Cubo-Futurists in 1913, adopting how Malevich made the leap ness” in a series of seemingly zaum as an artistic concept. He from Futurism to Suprematism 15 labeled his Cubist works Morn- Over the Sun: Early Twenti- gression of ‘true’ art. To him, “the first Cubist painting,” one paint that which cannot be ing in the Village after the eth Century Russian Drama”). Futurism is merely a means to sees the abandonment of real- seen -- he is enlightened by the Snowstorm (1913) and Portrait Both the costumes and sets are a Suprematist end. Futurism ism in the geometric patterns limitations of living form. Imi- of Ivan Kliun (1913) “Zaum re- created to be spatially ambig- began the process of under- and impossible figuration of tation is not beauty; imitation is alism” (Douglas et al. 9). This uous, designed for a “disori- mining the past, but only Su- the human figures (Chave 597). merely repetition. To Malevich, marked a step forward for Ma- enting and illogical spectacle” prematism could wholly reject Picasso’s Cubism was a “mo- there is no honor in painting levich. Between 1913 and 1915, (Douglas et al. 10). Yet, this in- the past by rejecting living mentous act of destruction, but human subjects, because ani- he experimented with differ- comprehensibility produces a form (Malevich 124). Futurism also one of creation,” inasmuch mate subjects must be killed in ent styles of Cubo-Futurism unified understanding. Malev- was a necessary but temporary as it paved the way toward order to be painted. A square informed by the revolutionary ich’s sketches for Victory Over stage along the path toward a more abstract art practice cannot be killed: it can only be concept of zaum. Malevich’s vi- the Sun are living precursors Suprematism, analogous to late (Chave 597). To Malevich, how- brought to life. Suprematism is sion of zaum as an artistic con- to his Black Square. By this stages of capitalism that lit- ever, Cubism is still rooted in the antithesis of naturalism; in- cept, rather than a literary one, point in Malevich’s career, his tered the road toward socialism. naturalism; however radically stead of trying to immortalize would inform his later conver- emphasis on materiality, geom- Picasso paints women, he still the human form, Suprematism sion to Suprematism--an art etry, and space are solidified. In his Suprematist manifesto imitates human form. There- glorifies the artist, whose ethe- style that preserves the univer- “From Cubism and Futurism to fore, because it depicts human real ideas are conveyed on can- Figure 1.2 “Victory Over the Sun: Early bodies, Cubism was merely sality and materiality of zaum. By the time that Malevich un- Suprematism,” Malevich argues Twentieth Century Russian Drama.” North- vas and are thus immortalized. veiled Black Square that with the development of western University. a precursor to Suprematism. at “The Last Futur- revolutionary politics and aes- According to Malevich, “in ist Exhibition: 0.10,” thetics comes a refinement ply put, both Futurism and Su- In order to reach Suprematism, art it is not always a case of he had been toying of artistic perspective. Malev- prematism condemn the past in however, the artist must com- evolution, but sometimes also with Suprematist ich accepted art history as a order to promote their respec- pletely abandon living form. of revolution” (Malevich 130). style for at least a malleable past, critiquing the tive ideologies. Though Malev- Instead of killing human sub- The basis of Suprematism -- year. His modern, Western artistic tradition as ich accepted Futurist ideology jects -- as he accuses natural- that artists can breathe life geometric approach obsessed with naturalism. His just two years earlier, his work ist artists of doing -- Malevich into lifeless form -- is revolu- to the canvas fur- dislike of Western art juxta- on Victory Over the Sun and brings ‘dead’ objects to life; he tionary and almost religious thered the elevat- poses sharply to his proposed the Black Square ushered in a claims that the “[black] square in nature. The artist is the ul- ed consciousness of Suprematism: the “art of an new, Suprematist style that he is a living, regal infant” (Ma- timate creator; he has power to Cubo-Futurism into ultimate state of being beyond would spend much of his ca- levich 133). The Square per- resurrect inanimate form. By the materialistic objects” (Douglas et al. 13). reer defining and justifying. fectly encapsulates Malevich’s painting a black square, Ma- form of painting. creative process. The talented levich enlightens its viewers An “evolutionary But what separates Suprema- Once Malevich rejects Futur- artist does not paint a human state of mind” led tism from Futurism? Similar- ism, he delves into the true -- he paints a square. Malev- Malevich to believe ities exist between Futurist meaning of Suprematism, ich calls this practice “absolute that Suprematism manifestoes and Malevich’s which revolves around the creation,” through which art- Figure 1.1“Kazimir Malevich: Morning in the abandonment of living form; Village after Snowstorm.” Guggenheim Collec- was the logical off- own -- both disown the past ists abandon visible subjects tion Online. spring of Futurism (Douglas et as a means of offering a fu- artists “should abandon subject to create “new, nonobjective, and objects if they wish to be In the summer of 1913, Malevich, al. 10). So, Malevich denounced ture. Echoing Mayakovsky’s pure” art (Malevich 131). The pure painters” (Malevich 130). joined by Aleksei Kruchenykh his Futurist comrades in pur- words, Malevich encourages Black Square does not pose for He claims that objects have and Mikhail Matyushin, began suit of Suprematism (Galenson his reader to emerge from the a painting; rather, the square is vanished “like smoke” among working on the Cubo-Futurist 237). He urged fellow artists to “catacombs [of history] into the conceived in the artist’s mind Cubist and Futurist painters; opera, Victory Over the Sun. transition to Suprematism, us- speed of contemporaneity.” and birthed on canvas. To Ma- this movement is indicative of It was this production that al- ing the rhetoric of evolution (Mayakovsky 1; Malevich 124). levich, this is the highest form forward progression toward lowed Malevich to conceive to convince his comrades that Malevich defames the Academy of creation. Suprematism is the Suprematism (Malevich 132). zaum as a visual performance. Suprematism was an improved as a “moldy vault” in which art apex of artistic perfection in Cubist art is made to provoke, He designed “anti-realist” cos- and enlightened art form. is rotting, not a far cry from which man “[leaves] the level seeking dissonance as a met- tumes and sets that brought to Mayakovsky’s “filthy slime” of of single reason and reached ric of success (Malevich 132). life the Cubo-Futurist figures Ultimately, Malevich wholly re- antiquity (Mayakovsky 1). The one of double reason” (Malev- In Picasso’s Les Demoiselles Figure 1.3 “Victory Over the Sun: Early seen in Morning in the Village jects Futurism as yet another past inhibits forward progres- ich 133). The artist transcends D’Avignon, considered to be Twentieth Century Russian Drama.” after the Snowstorm (“Victory obstacle to the forward pro- sion of art and aesthetics. Sim- the physical world to instead Northwestern University. 16 17 to the objectiveness of objects; ist or humanist perspectives ist is comparable to the infinite ness can the brain perceive a favor with the state; whereas it is not the way in which the tear at the seams of Malev- possibility of forms seen with nonsensical, objectless world. his peers, such as Mayakovsky, square is painted that makes it ich’s ‘perfect’ art. Normative each turn of a kaleidoscope. The irony in this philosophical achieved great Soviet acclaim, beautiful, but the square itself. distinctions become harmful, Suprematism is the “mirror that makeup is the need to be uncon- Malevich refused to align his as Malevich believed that “the reflects the higher world, rath- scious to achieve consciousness. art with Marxism. After Le- The progression from natu- world is the world, not spirit er than the changing objects nin’s death in 1924, Malevich ralism to Futurism informs or matter” (Douglas et al. 14). in the human kaleidoscope” Malevich did not invent the sep- wrote about the “quasi-religious the triumph of Malevich’s Su- (Douglas et al. 14). This theo- aration between object and re- cult” that emerged from the prematism. One must wholly Between 1920 and 1927, Ma- ry, introduced in The World ality. His theory can be traced preservation of Lenin’s body repudiate the past in order to levich became enamored with as Objectlessness, advanced a back to the metaphysical ap- (Douglas et al. 14). During his dedicate oneself to the future. the theoretical and philosoph- radically anti-materialistic and plications of Neoplatonism and stint at the Petrograd State In- To Malevich, the forward pro- ical implications of art and non-representational way of Immanuel Kant. Malevich’s Su- stitute, he continually refused gression of history produc- design. It was during this peri- seeing art. Malevich combines prematist manifesto was “mod- to adopt Socialist Realism, the es Suprematism, in which the od of time that his concept of his earlier critiques of human eled on, and in some ways State’s en vogue artistic philos- artist is the absolute creator. art was refined, and he began perception with his justifica- respond[s] to” Arthur Schopen- ophy. Along with leaving Rus- The destruction of the past re- teaching at the Institute for tion for painting non-repre- hauer’s aesthetic perception of Figure 1.5 “Victory Over the Sun: Early sia for Germany and Poland, sults in a “mass of material. . Artistic Culture in Petrograd sentational, geometric figures. existence laid out in The World Twentieth Century Russian Drama.” North- he virtually abandoned paint- western University. . from which a new form will (Douglas et al. 14). But how did The emphasis is placed on as Will and Representation. ing in pursuit of “utilitarian be built” (Malevich 133). In his Malevich explain his Suprema- the artist, whose job it is to Known as the “artist’s philos- not perfection itself. Our per- Suprematism”: practical appli- Suprematist manifesto, Malev- tism? His theoretical writings convey the ‘truth’ by paint- opher,” Schopenhauer views ceptions of the world, and of cations of his philosophy to ar- ich makes clear his repudiation reveal a familiarity with phi- ing raw forms, such as a de- the world as representative art, differ; there cannot be a chitecture and design (Douglas for Futurism; it is a part of the losophy, and he offers a unique ceptively simple black square. (Wicks). Schopenhauer expand- universal agreement on what et al. 14). Upon his return to past that must be destroyed metaphor through which ed on the Kantian conception comprises the world, since peo- Russia, Malevich was arrested for the sake of evolution. the reader can view his art. Malevich’s kaleidoscope is an of appearance versus ding an ple experience it differently. in 1930 due to suspicion about artistic-philosophical metaphor sich. Ding an sich is a Kantian Since perceptions are individ- his German connections (“Kaz- Concurrent with the birth of Malevich’s Suprematism is best that explains his disposition to- concept that separates objects ualistic, Malevich says, people imir Malevich”). Only later in the Soviet Union, Malevich understood through the kalei- ward human perception. Art is from observation -- that is, ob- have no access to the ultimate his life would he begin painting ingests principles of commu- doscope metaphor; that is, the subjective, as are our individ- jects as they ‘truly’ are, inde- reality. This ultimate reality is again, though his latest work nality, accessibility, and de- idea that the infinite possibility ual perspectives of the world. pendent from observation. This an objective, Neoplatonic dis- would return to representative struction of individuality that of forms available to the art- Since humans rely on our sens- concept underlies Malevich’s position toward objects: “true figures (Douglas et al. 18-21). were proposed by Marx. Since es to perceive the world, our Against the consensus among nature lies beyond emotion or perceptions are individualis- perceptions cannot possibly German Idealists that ding an reason” (Douglas et al. 14). Ma- The Leningrad Union of Artists tic, no human can see the ul- be accurate; human senses are sich was the weakest premise levich’s purest nature is not a conducted a state funeral for timate reality, or truth, when subject to emotion, irrationali- of Kant’s theory, Schopenhau- traditional nature, as in a forest Malevich in 1935, during which placed in front of a work of ty, and flaw. Malevich uses the er promulgated this theory in or stream, but rather a natural an open car bearing a black art. We are, essentially, taint- kaleidoscope metaphor to show his own theory of metaphys- world of “momentary timeless- square led mourners down the ed by our own humanity. This how flawed individual perspec- ical voluntarism: “the world ness,” in which the perception length of Nevsky Prospect. His claim is the crux of his ideo- tives can be. Albeit beautiful, as ‘Will’ is the world as it is of reality is undisturbed by grave in Nemchinovka bore a logical Suprematism; there ex- kaleidoscope lenses do not of- in itself. . . and the world as the kaleidoscope of the hu- cement cube with an emblem ists an ultimate truth that is fer an objective view of the representation is the world man mind (Douglas et al. 14). of the Black Square (Douglas et inaccessible to human senses. surrounding world. To see into of appearances” (Wicks). al. 21). His main contribution to Malevich’s ‘objectless reality’ Malevich’s The World as Ob- art history is the enigmatic and It is important, however, to re- would require destroying the Here is where Malevich and jectlessness most clearly de- encapsulating Black Square; it member that Malevich did not kaleidoscope, or “smashing Schopenhauer collide. To these fines his conception of Su- lives on as a remnant of Malev- view his art as political. Su- your own brain” (Douglas et al. theorists, the greatest fallacy a prematism as a manifestation ich’s revolutionary approach to prematist art is, by definition, 14). There is not a way that the person can commit is thinking of ‘true’ reality. This work, art, aesthetics, and perception. separate from the humanism. human brain can conceive a that the world is not a “finite his “magnum opus,” was one Art exists for its own sake, world without objects -- a world form of reality” (Douglas et al. of the last grand epics of Su- There is more to Malevich than and its form is not dictated Figure 1.4 “Victory Over the Sun: Early without space, color, or form. 13). The material world is but the Black Square. His radical Twentieth Century Russian Drama.” North- prematism (Douglas et al. 14). by existing forms. Individual- western University. Only in a state of unconscious- an image of perfection -- it is Malevich eventually fell out of shift from Futurism to Suprema 18 19 tism made him an avant-gar- de icon; his theoretical writ- ings harken back to Kant and Schopenhauer. Suprematism, though arguably his greatest feat, is just one piece of the narrative of Kazimir Malevich.

Written by Grace A. Vedock

21 Introduction: ideals of bringing art to all traders, doctors, lawyers, uni- people - those in cities or those versity students; every condi- Peredvizhniki in the countryside. Similarly to tion of life -- work, political their contemporaries, such as exile, crime, heroic deeds, and HE Society for Circulating the writers Dostoevsky, Tolstoy peaceful family relations; all TArt Exhibitions (1870-1923) and Turgenev, and the compos- the aspects of everyday life was a democratic association ers Mussorgsky, Borodin and surfaced as the subjects for of realist artists that brought Rimsky-Korsakov, these artists painting, and genre, which together the most talented and sought to justify their activity lately had occupied a second- progressive personalities in the by making their art useful to ary position, now monopolized field of Russian art during the society. They repudiated the public attention. Religious sub- second half of the nineteenth philosophy of art for the art’s jects were no longer able to century and early twentieth sake, which was, at the time, inspire the artists who also century. The members of the the motivation for most artists. seldom succeeded in creating Society sought to popularize Centered in the St. Petersburg good historical pictures. How- realist art and use it to empow- Academy, this mindset resulted ever, when they could stand er the struggle for the social in productions predominantly on the firm ground of reali- progress and a better life for derived from the international ty, when their art had to be all. To achieve this goal, they neo-classicism, tempered by the true to life, they often achieved organized joint exhibitions of introduction of German roman- true success (Milikiuv 61). their works in St. Petersburg ticism in the 1820s. The Pered- and Moscow, then moved them vizhniki defied this tradition, However, some artists to many of the country’s ma- saying that art should be pri- strayed from the dominant jor cities, such as Kiev, Khar- marily concerned with, and sub- path to encompass folk tales, kov, Orel, Kazan, Odessa and ordinate to, reality (Gray 2000). beliefs, and symbols in their others. These displays came to artwork. Famous painters such be known as itinerant or circu- The Peredvizhniki interpreted as Ilya Repin and Viktor Vas- lating exhibitions, and the So- the current idea that art should netsov, at some point in their ciety’s members as the Pered- influence social reform by lay- art career, deviated from the vizhniki, Itinerants, or the ing an emphasis on the subject Peredvizhniki norm of gloomy Peredvizhniki: Wanderers (Lebedev 1982). In matter of their work. In their colors and mundane scenes to 1863, a group of fourteen un- art, they embodied the leitmo- create works that reached out dergraduates headed by Ivan tifs of humanity, freedom, and to the more traditional aspects Kramskoi applied to the Coun- the Russian Enlightenment. In of Russia. National heritage cil of the Academy to have their the eyes of the Itinerants, eth- embodied in folklore largely common diploma assignment ical and aesthetic ideals were contributes to national identity, replaced by individual themes inseparable. The noble and the and these artists chose not to Art more suited to their personal beautiful they saw fused into ignore it. However, more than inclinations. In line with tradi- a single whole. They strove to simply recreating real history, tion, they had all been original- produce paintings that would they also resorted to Slavic fan- ly offered a subject from me- make the viewer more virtuous tastical history, the legends and dieval Scandinavian mythology and socially active. These art- folktales from long gone times -- The Feast of Valhalla. When ists transferred to canvas the that are still a part of nation- through their application was rejected, actuality of Russian life. They al consciousness. “While fan- the young artists resigned from painted both town and coun- tasy and fairy tales are often the Academy in a body, thus try, capital cities, and remote not explicit in Russian art, they forfeiting their diplomas, stu- provincial corners; all circles remain an important presence dios and would-be commissions of society -- peasants, common- within it, lying beneath the sur- (Lebedev 1982). These fourteen ers, landowners, clergy; people face,” and make up an import- folktales artists were inspired by the of every profession -- officials, 23 ant part of the wealth Slavic ents really had Sadko: Fairytale In the other version, he plays it wore off relatively quickly, art offers (Wageman 31). Some no limits, and the gusli so magically that he it did reverberate in some of contemporaries believed that that they used ccording to the Russian leg- stirs up a storm underwater by his paintings, another one be- these themes posed a setback their imagina- end, Sadko is a Novgorod making everyone dance. The ing A Negro Woman (1875). to Peredvizhniki’s objectives, tions in diverse Amerchant who has a knack with only way he can save everyone and discredited their master- ways. I use Sad- music and playing the Russian is by breaking his instrument However, the cultural overload pieces and collections. They ar- ko by Ilya Re- instrument, gusli. Everyday, he and ending the music. Once it had an unexpected effect as gued that “a true artist...must pin (1876), and finds employment by playing is broken, he returns again to well. To counter how lost he live as an active citizen, strug- The Bogatyrs for various nobles, entertain- land to be greeted by his wife. felt in this unknown world, he gling against social inequality by Victor Vas- ing them at dinner and pro- sought out to paint this piece and life’s cruelties and injus- netsov (1898) viding tunes until suddenly his Sadko: Art Analysis right away when he arrived, tices” (Wageman 31). However, to demonstrate luck ends, and he can no lon- ITH this background, and give life to this familiar I believe the contrary. I believe that these por- The Bogatyrs by Victor Vasnetsov, allart.biz ger find anyone who wants to one can see why Ilya Russian skazka. But Repin did that if this group of artists had trayals of fairy hear him sing. Every evening, WRepin chose this tale for a sub- eventually run into trouble do- drudgery and mundaneness left out folktales from their art, tales really did have a place he ventures out to the sea and ject. Even though this piece ing justice to this work, as he typical of the real world. It was they would not have been as in the repertoire of the mas- sings sad, beautiful songs about deviates from the usual motifs felt he could not “achieve [his] one of the first paintings that true to representing Russia as terpieces of Peredvizhniki, and life and his current situation. of the Peredvizhniki, the mor- art spontaneously,” and thus, garnered such wide attention they aspired. It would have been how each painting showcases But on the third day of Sadko’s als of the story stick true to when funding ran low, he had and respect that did not fo- wrong to lose their individual and highlights each artist’s tal- melancholy state, the Sea Tsar their aims. Just as the artists difficulty finding enough in- cus on the neoclassical or rich cultures by leaving out folklore ent and mastery of the arts. rose from the water, applaud- wanted to capture the simple spiration to finish the picture lifestyle, but instead captured from their works, especially ing the young man’s talent. In life of Russian people in their (Valkenier 1990). He also began life as most of the population when one considers that these Ilya Repin return for his performances, pictures, here too the idea that to feel lost amongst Parisian so- saw it (Layton 1956). His con- artists came from a variety the Tsar promised Sadko that humility is the best option is ciety, believing that he was los- ORN in 1844 into the family tempt for kazenshchina came of backgrounds. Furthermore, he would win a wager with all retained. One can see the girl ing track of his original goals. of a servicemen in Chuguev, from birth, as Chuguev was the expanse of their interest the Novgorod nobles and thus in the top left corner, with her However, even without models BIlya Repin began his artistic home to many Cossacks, who shows that these artists’ tal- acquire an immense of wealth, traditional Russian clothing he managed to retain many as- journey as a local icon greatly valued their personal but only if Sadko returned and lack of grandeur, reflect- pects of the realism that the painter. This training liberty. Ukrainians were con- occasionally to play his gusli ing the simplicity of life many Peredvizhniki were known for, led him to appreciate sidered “less supine and more for the underwater kingdom. Russian peasants faced on a ranging from the sea creatures, the meticulous detail independent-minded than the The bargain was carried out, daily basis. However, the influ- to the people, to the palette that went into iconog- Russians”, which would explain and Sadko became a wealthy ence of his European travels are used for the overall mood of raphy, which would why Repin stood out so much merchant with a loving wife also evident in this painting, as the painting. The shells and then transfer into his amongst his peers. Ukraine also named Lubava. Then one day, Repin unintentionally became starfish and dirty seabed all later work. It also gave offered a solid foundation to while out at sea, a huge storm beguiled with the beauty of exemplify the attention Repin him the initial taste of Repin’s background and early hit Sadko’s ship. He realised he France and Paris. These ef- paid to his work. The lobster what it felt like to do upbringing, as the light and vi- had forgotten his promise, and fects are visible in the extrav- especially stands out, as ev- art for a purpose, as he tality left only fond impressions jumped overboard with his agant gowns the other brides ery detail is present, from the achieved a sense of ful- in the artist’s memories (Valke- gusli in order to save the crew are wearing. Repin, unlike his gleam of the little sunshine that fillment communicating nier 1990). However, eventually and the world. After this event, contemporary Kramskoi, was reaches the depths to the whis- with believers. Then, he wanted to explore more than there are two alternate endings known to be very proud of kers extending from its head. from 1864, he trained just Russia and his Ukraine and to the tale. The first one, which his humble background, brag- This use of lighting is reflected at the Academy of Arts decided to travel through the Repin chose to paint, centers ging that he never hired a all throughout the painting in until 1871, leaving the rest of Europe from 1873 to 1876. around Sadko having to choose valet and constantly remind- various other aspects. Though institution to join the It was then, in Paris, while he a wife from an array of ones ing people of his barefooted the glowing women can be ex- Peredvizhniki in 1874. was so fascinated by the beauty chosen by the Tsar. Only if he childhood in Ukraine (Valke- pected not to be fully realistic In this time period, he of the city and inspired by its picks correctly can he return nier 1990). But just like many as they are fantastical, the rest created one of his most contrast from all of his previ- to land. Thankfully, he makes artists who ventured for the of the work adheres to real famous artworks, Barge ous Russian exposures, that he the right decision, claiming first time to Europe, he was hit standards. The fish swimming Haulers on the Volga, a began painting his piece Sadko the plainest one, and can thus Sadko by Ilya Repin, abcgallery.com with an extreme case of cul- above closer to the surface painting displaying the in the Underwater Kingdom. return home to his old life. ture shock. And even though 24 25 are lighter, as they ap- also impacted his view- tich, Ilya Muromets, and Aly- Bogatyrs: Analysis er reflexes to use it most effec- proach the distant sun- point. Not only did he osha Popovich, who were the tively. A calmer look adorns his shine, while all the life believe in painting by- subject of Vasnetsov’s painting OR fifteen years following companion’s, Dobrynya’s, face. on the bottom, including lini and skazki, but he Bogatyrs. Together and sepa- his joining of the Pered- He seems protective of whoev- Sadko, are submerged also painted religious rately they “defended the Rus- Fvizhniki in 1871, Vasnetsov er he is looking out to defend, in a musky darkness. subjects as well. He, sian lands, attempted to unite worked on Bogatyrs. He could his hand ready on his sword’s Lighting is also used to like many others in his the country, helped the weak not rest until he felt what he handle and courage emanating further strengthen the time period, fell under and downtrodden, and fought created was as close to perfec- from his composed demeanor. moral of the story; even the Slavophile influence national enemies and the forc- tion as possible. As he wrote Lastly, Ilya, often seen as the though all these brides that was prevalent at the es of evil” (Gusyev 2001). One in a letter to his fellow painter leader of the three, scouts the are bathed in golden time, and believed that can see how these noble causes Pavel Chistyakov: “Bogatyrs... problem in the distance, seem- light, Sadko is able to people should be proud line up well with the principles reflected my debt to the cre- ingly calculating what they look past these facades of not only their pres- of the Itinerants. While the art ativity of the Russian people, will have to do. His traditional to find the correct bride ent lives, but also their group wanted to showcase the it was my obligation to fulfill”. mace hung over his wrist, his at the far end. This is heritage. “Like Vrubel, struggles of the commonwealth, One cannot deny that he did sturdy, stout physique gives an reflective of Repin him- [a contemporary artist], they also wanted to remind the great justice to the legends and impression of strength and as- Victor Vasnetsov, wikiart.org self, in that even while he found fruitful inspi- people of the core values that everything they stood for. At sertiveness. Yet regardless of all he was surrounded by the won- ration in the epics telling Russians hold in high regard, first glance, a viewer immedi- these differences, all still hold derful, entrancing world of in architecture, theater deco- of the deeds of valour per- thus employing bylinas and he- ately notices the three figures the intensity and strength of Europe, his heart stayed true, ration, book illustration, mon- formed by warriors of long roic narration for this cause. in the middle, but then, step- the bogatyr. The three of them dedicated to his Slavic home. umental frescoes work and a ago,” and aspired to bring out Dobrynya Nikitich, seated on ping back, sees them in the combined a radiate a sense Just like Sadko realised that variety of “art and craft.” He the values they represented in his white horse, was known context of the entire painting. of power that is impossible to the only place he truly desired pursued in his works a vision his art (Rice 1990). He felt par- for his kindness and courage. The bold green color of the miss; it is not hard to imag- to be was home, in Novgorod, of nationalistic sentiment, pa- ticularly strongly about Rus- Alyosha Popovich, the warrior grass draws the eye, yet it also ine how intimidating it would next to his beautiful wife, even triotic pride and a love of Rus- sian bylini, and the tales they on the right, was known for blends into the steppe hills in be to face them in battle. The after visiting countless beauti- sia’s folk culture which made told of famous bogatyrs and his wit and cunningness. The the background. A native Rus- painting itself, too, is hard to ful countries, so did Repin re- him a favorite artist to many warriors, for the strength and last bogatyr, Ilya Muromets, sian immediately settles into a miss, as it spans across a 295,3 alise that no place could ever generations. Born in 1848 as virtues they represented ap- is considered the most noble sense of familiarity when see- x 446 cm canvas. The canvas be more perfect for him than the first son of a clergyman, pealed to many. They were the and bravest of all the warriors. ing the vast fields encircled by looms over the audience, the Russia. Many artists also ad- he was largely expected to fol- subject of many of his paint- With his large, black steed, he forests, or leci. The landscape warriors standing taller than opted this Slavophile attitude low in his father’s footsteps but ings, another famous one being has always been an idol to the is painted with bold, broad any real human ever could. as a sense of nationalism took instead chose a very different the Knight at the Crossroads Russian people. Unlike their strokes; however, the rare in- The size alone draws a sense Russia by a storm. Interesting- path. After being an appren- (1876). Even here one can see Western European counter- sertion of tender field flowers of awe, as one marvels at the ly, a young artist who was also tice for a lithograph, he left to the care to detail and attention parts, bogatyrs represented the in the foreground adds a bit of size of the heroes. They appear impacted by these new ideas study in St. Petersburg Acade- he paid to the overall atmo- very same common folks they lyricism to its monumental ap- to be on a pedestal, causing posed as the merchant Sad- my where he joined the Pered- sphere of the painting. Above were protecting. Ilya Murom- peal. Then, with closer inspec- the viewer to look upward in ko in Repin’s painting. Victor vizhniki during its early stages. all, he prioritised retaining the ets was a peasant, Dobrynya tion, one begins to appreciate order to take in their magnifi- Vasnetsov was greatly inspired However, he did not share the nobility and timelessness of his was born to a poor family in the distinctiveness behind each cence. The spectator is at the by his friend’s works and tal- cynical, often pessimistic view characters, so that any viewer small village and went to serve bogatyr and the expressions on feet of their gallant steeds, far ents, eventually joining him of the world that many of his at any point in time could see Kievan Prince Vladimir, and their faces, only to recognize from meeting them at eye lev- amongst the ranks of some colleagues shared. Instead, he them with the respect he did. Alyosha was a priest’s son. In how much thought Vasnetsov el. Nevertheless, despite this of Russia’s greatest artists. chose to focus on other aspects this sense, bylinas preserved put into his work. Alyosha looks difference in stature, one does of Russia, such as its rich folk- the history and passed on tales carefully around him, a sly look not feel like the bogatyrs are Victor Vasnetsov lore history, infusing his works Bogatyrs: Bylinas about life of old Rus’. However, on his cunning face; one can kings or sovereigns (Paston 30). with a “lyrically harmonized bylinas are not a historical doc- just sense the deviousness and They are simply legends whose ASNETSOV was unique moral tone” (Layton 1956). He N Russian folklore, bylinas umentary, but rather legends potential to mischief he has. main goal was to protect the Vamongst the Itinerants, as loved presenting Russian histo- Iare traditional heroic poems. that strove to captivate audienc- His choice of weapon, the bow land, their people, and their his skills covered various fields. ry to people, showing them all Three famous characters in es and provide a sense of hope and arrow, also reflect on his Prince, Vladimir the Great. Not only was he a noted por- the stories, lessons, and values these tales were the bogatyrs, and pride for their country. character, as he must rely on a Even without the great feats of traitist, but he was also active it had to offer. His upbringing or warriors, Dobrynya Niki- quick hand and on even quick- the bogatyrs, just a simply re 26 27 minder of Novgorod and Vlad- Lastly, The Bogatyrs acts as a imir creates a spark of nation- beacon for all future folklore alistic pride within the average artists to look up to. Vasnetsov’s Russian, as they remember work captures traditional Rus- what some consider the peak sian values. These paintings, of old Russian civilization. Fi- along with their artists, will go nally, the viewer’s gaze reach- down in history as masterpiec- es the helmets of these char- es, and make a grand addition acters pointing towards the to the Peredvizhniki repertoire. skies, overcome with a sense Written by Anya Kulikov of calm as they feel protect- “We see our mission ed by these great warriors. As Immortalizing In Conclusion Metal the Bright Events of History and HE purpose of the Pered- vizhniki was to draw an modernity, not only Teye to the problems of the Russian people during their in our country but of free time, and to make art feel more inclusive and democratic. the whole world.” This motif included, towards the latter half, instilling a sense From the zine of: of nationalistic pride behind their artwork, a feeling anyone and everyone could appreciate and rejoice in. The Wander- ers achieved this goal, even in their more fantastical works. All these paintings drew in- spiration from Slavic folklore, which, in turn, drew from real life. People of all classes grew up listening to these tales, and now, by illustrating them in their realistic styles, the Rus- sian artists brought to life top- ics to which all viewers could kseniia leshchenko relate. Even Sadko, with its bright colors and overly opti- mistic pallette, unlike Bogatyrs, achieves the ultimate goal of bringing reality to focus, as Repin’s reality had changed accordingly when he visited Paris. The differences between France and Russia, and their respective impacts on the art- ists, are visible in the paintings. 28 PoliticsPoliticsPoliticsPoliticsPolitics answer these questions, the and thorough” (SPJ 2014). With introduction following study first situates this conception of the media, the presence (or lack thereof) journalists prioritize objectivity LECTORAL dominance of post-Soviet media diversity and the truth above outside in- and media supremacy has in its historical context. After terests or personal biases. In this Echaracterized Putin and Unit- highlighting the unique rela- way, journalists “serve as watch- ed Russia’s 16 year tenure in tionship of media and citizen dogs over public affairs and gov- power. The post-Soviet era in post-Soviet Russia, the pa- ernment” (SPJ 2014). has experienced momentary per illustrates the effect of “Russia’s flashes of legitimate political commercial media in the 1999 In contrast, Soviet media sought competition. The fall of the election through Ruben Enikol- to “support the aims and objec- Soviet Union destroyed the opov’s voter choice theory. To tives of the Communist Party” Communist Party’s hegemony compare commercial competi- (Oates 2006). Throughout the among traditional mass me- tion with internet opposition, Soviet period, Moscow enforced dia platforms, like television the paper utilizes polling anal- this journalistic model from and print. This phenomenon ysis of the internet’s unparal- above through censorship and facilitated real political com- leled growth in Russia, prima- the repression of dissent. Schol- “ ry source language analysis ars of Soviet media, like Thomas Glasnost petition among multiple par- ties in the 1999 Duma elections. of this phenomenon’s impact Remington, point out that “with on 2011 protests, and how this terror restricting unguarded A Comparative Study of the 1999, 2011, and 2016 In this case, social media growth compares with the Arab private communication and cen- played a key role in organizing, Spring’s “Twitter Revolutions.” sorship surrounding the media, legitimizing, and broadcasting As this paper will demonstrate, it became close to impossible Duma Elections dissent. Does Russian internet the recent growth of internet for unsponsored opinion to gain opposition represent a viable sources in Russia mobilized dis- public expression” (Remington alternative to United Russia’s sent and legitimized opposition 1981). Kremlin leaders defined post-Soviet media dominance? in the 2011 election, particular- official media as representing Will this recent challenge to ly among younger generations. the interests of the working Moscow’s agenda-setting abil- class, in order to ity foster legitimate electoral gain favor with competition? This study an- Post-Soviet Media Objectivity the Soviet popu- swers these questions through lace. As a consequence, journal- a side-by-side comparison of and the 1999 Duma Elections ists often practiced self-censor- the media climate, media pref- ship in solidarity with working erences, and vote distribution ATHER than acting as an people (Oates 2007). Thus, as a in the 1999 and 2011 Duma Rimpartial check on gov- state based on a fundamental elections. In this way, internet ernment power, Soviet jour- and inherent ideology, the Sovi- media challenged the Krem- nalism served as a coercion et Union survived and thrived lin’s agenda-setting ability. tool. In many cases, Western on this conception of media as journalism is able to pursue a tool rather than a spotlight. These two elections represent truth without suffering the rare moments of real politi- consequences. For example, the Although the Soviet Union’s de- cal competition in post-Soviet American Society of Profes- mise formally ended this cen- Luke Panciera history. Did media diversity sional Journalists (SPJ) believes sorship, Russian media strug- facilitate legitimate electoral that “public enlightenment is gled to find objectivity and competition in 1999 and 2011? the forerunner of justice and balance in a post-Soviet context. What effect, if any, do inter- the foundation of democracy After the fall of communist net and commercial opposition [...] ethical journalism strives to state ownership, Russian lead- sources have on the Kremlin’s ensure the free exchange of in- ers like Boris Yeltsin privatized agenda-setting authority? To formation that is accurate, fair, industrial and financial assets. 33 Russians watched TV for news tion of American businessmen. In his statistical regression of tions reaffirmed Enikolopov’s daily (Oates 2006). In the giv- Russian news used “compro- these two areas, Enikolopov voter choice theory, since the en time period, NTV and ORT mising materials gathered (2011) found that raising the presence of alternative media served as the two primary about a candidate or a party availability of NTV by 10% in- sources was highly predic- TV news stations. Founded by that probably has some basis creased the vote for opposition tive of real political competi- Without government funding, is subjugated to media outlets. several defectors from state- in fact, but the material is pre- parties by 1.1% and decreased tion among multiple parties. independent journalists lacked Rather than opposing this run television, NTV often ex- sented in a biased or incom- Unity by 1.5%. In Enikolopov’s newsprint, ink, cheap labor, neo-Soviet media environment pressed anti-Kremlin sentiment plete way in order to damage sample, ORT lost over 25% of and distribution capabilities. as anti-democratic, many Rus- in the mid-1990s, particularly in the image of that individual or its potential voters due to NTV. Furthermore, although the 1993 sian citizens embraced and ac- response to the First Chechen organization as much as pos- This means that the mere Russian Constitution guaran- cepted biased media coverage. War. In 1997, oligarch Vladi- sible” (Oates 2006). Although availability of teed free speech, this document According to analysis from mir Gusinsky acquired NTV these commercially-backed an alternative did not create accompanying scholars like Ellen Mickiewicz and formed his Media MOST TV channels were biased to- news source democratic institutions which (2008), Russians in the 90s large- Internet Mobilization: A Re- group, which represented the wards government-owned me- like NTV increased support could protect and promote free- ly recognized and accepted bias interests of the Fatherland dia from the Soviet era the for opposition parties by over birth of Media Diversity? dom of expression (Oates 2007). as inherent in the system. This All-Russia Party (CNN 2001). mere presence of alternative 60%. In fact, after controlling phenomenon is likely a result sources (regardless of accura- for party persuasion in survey Statistics from the European HILE Putin legally con- In fact, due to conflicting lo- of Soviet political and cultur- Institute for the Media indicate cy) fostered media diversity. data, Enikolopov even found solidated and censored cal and national laws regard- al socialization. Russians often that NTV favored Fatherland that NTV was able to persuade Wcommercial TV alternatives ing funding for TV sources, prefer a strong leader (Car- All-Russia in both time given According to Ruben Enikol- significant numbers of Unity after 2000, internet usage in independent media sources of- naghan 2007) and favour order and tone portrayed. In fact, opov (2011), diversity of media supporters to vote for Father- Russia grew exponentially. De- ten faced the threat of closure over chaos in the media realm. Evgeny Kulistikov, chairman biases among NTV and ORT land All-Russia. This phenom- spite Russia’s 2000 population (Oates 2007). In this vacuum of of NTV, unabashedly stated predicated diverse voter choice enon created one of the most of 146.6 million, the largest in enforceable laws and firm in- Through focus group analy- that “we are sympathetic with in the 1999 Duma election. This bitterly contested Duma elec- Europe, only 1.98 million of stitutions, news media quickly sis, scholars, like Sarah Oates, Unity’s enemies and we give theory is uniquely applicable to tions in the Russian Federa- these individuals had access became the prey of oligarchic point out that “Russians reject them the floor” (Oates 2006). post-Soviet Russia, since media tion’s history. The Communist to the internet. However, ac- ownership. As a result, rather the idea of ‘objectivity’ or even diversity is not likely to affect Party maintained a narrow cording to figures from the than acting on behalf of one ‘balance’ in their mass media” In contrast, ORT survived as a the political choice of any dem- majority at 24.3%, while Uni- International Telecommunica- government interest, journalists (Oates 2007). In fact, surveys remnant of Soviet public tele- ocratic country defined by com- ty and Fatherland All-Russia tions Union (2012), internet us- represented multiple commer- show that Russians preferred vision. After the fall of the So- petitive media and stable party followed close behind at 23.3% age in Russia grew over thir- cial interests. In this way, jour- state-run over commercial me- viet Union, oligarchs like Boris systems (Oates 2006). However, and 13.3%, respectively. Thus, ty-fold from 2000 to 2012. By nalists acted as political players dia in the 1990s. According to Berezovsky acquired the sta- in relatively new party systems the 1999 Russian Duma elec- 2012, 63.8 million out of 143.2 representing their particular citizens, like the 59 year old Lid- tion’s holdings. As the direct like post-Soviet Russia, voters “political patron” (Oates 2007). ia Ivanova, negative coverage predecessor of today’s Channel have little prior information and disagreement on the TV 1, this station backed the Krem- about candidates, and there- This is unsurprising, since simply left a “bad impression” lin and the Unity Party in the fore rely on new information scholars like Daniel Treisman (Oates 2006). Thus, in many 1999 Duma election. ORT uti- from media outlets. Given this (1998) note that new democ- cases, Russians viewed a lack lized black PR and kompromat post-Soviet phenomenon, Eni- racies characterized by weak of media objectivity as mainte- to smear Unity’s enemies. For kolopov assumes that Russian party institutions, inexperi- nance of a neo-Soviet status quo. example, Sergey Dorenko, the voters use the coverage of enced voters, and weak regula- late night talk show host, assert- NTV and ORT as their pri- tory processes are particularly Although this environment ed that Fatherland’s Primakov mary source of information. vulnerable to this kind of top- lacked objectivity, coverage was too old for office, and in- down commercial influence. among commercial sources cluded a video of hip surgery to Since the largest constraint In Russia’s case, media privat- represented divergent interests. scare voters into not voting for in Russian TV access is geo- ization preserved a neo-Soviet Russians predominantly relied him. Similarly, Dorenko report- graphic location (Oates 2006), conception of media, where on TV sources in the 1990s. Ac- ed that Fatherland’s Luzhkov Enikolopov compared cities journalism lacks on objectiv- cording to a survey spanning was complicit in the assassina- where NTV and ORT were ity, laws weakly protect free 1990s Russia, both present to provincial [1] Figure 1 provides a side-by-side comparison of Russia and Germany’s internet satu- speech, and the government over 81% of areas where ORT dominated. ration over time, demonstrating how quickly Russia caught up to the rest of the continent. 34 35 million Russians could access 47% (RFA 2011). As the Agency’s internet sources over state- glehold on media narratives. the internet. This represented report points out, the growth run television. According to the second largest internet com- outside of major cities like the RFA, Russians aged 12-54 Within these protests of young- In this way the presence and amid allegations of fraud. In munity in Europe to Germany’s Moscow and Saint Petersburg chose First Channel and Ros- er citizens, the internet served usage of alternative internet these ways, Navalny embodies 82.3 million and the largest represents a major opportuni- siya 1, two government-owned as a source of irrefutable ev- media sources challenged the the growing internet-led oppo- growth percentage increase [1]. ty for further ICT market ex- TV channels, as their favorite idence and a tool for mobili- state’s agenda-setting ability. sition against perceived corrup- pansion. Thus, due to economic sources of news information. zation. First evidence of the After a decade of unprece- tion and authoritarianism. In a Scholars like Sarah Oates at- growth and government invest- internet’s facilitation of pub- dented internet growth, young Levada survey of 791 protestors tribute this phenomenon to ments, Russia’s use of and re- Russians aged 12-17 listed in- lic discontent became obvious Russians utilized the inter- at Navalny’s demonstrations, significant rises in household liance on internet sources ternet sources like Yandex, during Putin’s appearance at a net to protest against the 2011 researchers found that 37% of income, the spread of inter- grew significantly after Putin’s STS, and VKontakte in their wrestling match on November Duma elections. Until 2011, the protestors regularly discussed net access to rural areas, and ascension to power in 2000. top three; state-run televi- 20, 2011. After calling the vic- Kremlin retained the power to the Duma elections on the in- government policy which en- sion’s highest ranking channel, torious Fedor Emalianenko a “manipulate the media, elec- ternet prior to the demonstra- couraged information and com- Since much of this growth Channel One, was eighth on “real man,” the crowd began to tions, parliament, and the re- tion while 31% periodically did, munication technologies (ICTs) in internet access occurred the younger generation’s list noticeably boo Putin. According gions for its self-interest” by and 32% did not. Thus, 68% of (Oates 2013). As these policies among younger generations (RFA 2011). Percentages of Rus- to reports from fans at the sta- demanding strict journalistic protestors were politically en- promoted the spread of ac- who prefer online media over sians who watch television con- dium, the Prime Minister strug- obedience and self-censorship gaged on the in- cess, more and more Russians state-run TV, Russian internet firm this trend, since citizens gled to speak (EuroNews 2011). on TV (Oates 2014). Howev- ternet prior to the relied on the internet in ev- penetration represents a grad- aged 12-24 er, after the Duma elections protests (Levada eryday life. According to the ual distancing from traditional make up Immediately following the in- on December 4, several thou- 2012). Of those not Russian Federal Agency (RFA), sources of government control. only 17% cident, state-run television ed- sand protesters flocked to Mos- engaged online, a majority sup- daily internet usage grew According to figures from the of television viewers, com- ited the booing out on national cow’s Bolotnaya Square to de- ported the CPRF. This is likely from 34% to 72% (RFA 2011). RFA, 90% of Russians aged 12- pared to 31% for 55 and over. broadcasts (Oates 2014). How- mand free and fair elections. due to Soviet socialization and 24 reported using the internet Although younger generations ever, the government could a lack of internet penetration Most important, unlike access in 2012, compared to only 12% use internet media, these fig- not control private YouTube Unsurprisingly, given this act’s to older generations, described to commercial TV in the 1990s, of citizens 55 and over. In fact, ures do not confirm the exis- content which used the un- defiance of the law on public in the previous paragraph. this growth in internet pene- citizens aged 12-44 represented tence of greater online politi- edited footage to portray the protest, police quickly arrest- tration was not geographically 84% of the entire Russian in- cal participation. Nonetheless, event as an embarrassment for ed 600 demonstrators. Public Nonetheless, during Russia’s restrictive. According to RFA, ternet-using population in 2012 internet usage draws attention the Prime Minister (EuroNews discontent with government 2011 protests, protesters large- internet usage grew in villages (RFA 2011) [2]. Furthermore, from traditional state-run TV. 2011). Here, the internet provid- fraud and dishonesty grew ly emanated from the younger, (towns of 100,000 to 500,000) by many of these youth choose ed citizens with irrefutable ev- slowly throughout the month, online sphere. This represents As a result, scholars like idence, previously unattainable culminating with a meeting the first break of Kremlin-spon- Sarah Oates (2014) be- in a media landscape dominat- of 80,000 people on Bolotnaya sored media censorship since lieve that “the preference ed by Kremlin narratives. Sim- Square on December 24 to hear 1999, since those engaged in of younger people for ilarly, during the 2011 Duma Alexei Navalny speak against online discussion were consid- the internet over state protests, Golos, a Russian in- corruption. As a popular Live- erably more likely to support television suggests a fun- ternet NGO, allowed citizens to Journal opposition blogger, anti-establishment liberal par- damental shift in the in- report and provide evidence of Navalny is both an outspoken ties like Yabloko and political formation ‘high ground’ voter fraud across the country. critic of Putin and a product of leaders like Navalny (Levada in Russia,” whereby the This directly confronted a gov- internet growth. Navalny also 2012). Thus, Moscow’s 2011 pro- “lack of attention to ernment narrative of free and coined the now-popular phrase tests were marked by young- state-run television sig- fair elections (Oates 2014). In an “party of crooks and thieves” er, politically-engaged, and nals a significant shift attempt to silence Golos, the to describe Putin and his party, opposition-oriented Russians. in political communica- government detained its lead- United Russia (Englund 2011). This protest demonstrated that tion,” challenging the er, Liliya Shibanova, in Moscow the internet could momentar- state’s ability to set the and only released her after she As a representative of the liberal ily break the “dominant news agenda People’s Freedom Party, Naval- Kremlin’s stran- and control political out- [2] Figure 2 demonstrates the differences in internet penetration among age groups. ny narrowly lost the 2013 comes to the same degree Moscow mayoral election in Russia” (Oates 2014). 36 37 that foreign agents, Hillary ple, a man of color is pictured pieces, but independent com- Tunisian protesters ousted Pres- protests, Mubarak was unable Clinton in particular, fund- yelling with a sign in Rus- mentators in both tone and ident Zine El Abidine in just 28 to stop the Egyptian internet’s surrendered her laptop to au- ed these protests to destabi- sian, as the narrator ominous- content. In response to Putin’s days. After the well-publicized oppositional momentum. In thorities (New York Post 2012). lize Russia (TV Rain 2011). Af- ly says “even students from first comments on the protests’ self-immolation of Mohamed both of these cases of countries ter questioning these protests’ Kenya showed up” (NTV 2011). “legality,” the anchor, wearing Bouazizi, the internet provided with recent growths in inter- In order to silence this danger- legitimacy, Putin later trivi- a white ribbon on his chest, re- “dramatic visual evidence that net penetration, scholars like ous dissent, the government uti- alized protestors by “describ- In addition, the documentary plied by questioning why Pu- turned a local incident into a Merlyna Lin and Ekaterina Ste- lized denial of services (DDoS) ing them as attending useless notes how immigrants from tin would defend his position spectacle” (Lim 2013). Further- panova agree that the internet hacking attacks, which flood demonstrations with condoms Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan and refuse to even investigate more, the internet crystallized catalyzed and organized dissent the bandwidth of a targeted pinned to their chest as they participated in order to be the claims of the protesters and gave voice to Tunisians’ in the face of censorship. Thus, system (Soldatov 2011). As a re- sought the downfall of the “provocative” (NTV 2011). By (TV Rain 2011). Here, TV Rain “collective identities,” framing these cases mirror the mobiliz- sult, Sarah Oates (2014) asserts motherland” (Guardian 2011). associating the protest with publicly demonstrates solidari- these identities in direct opposi- ing and informational effects that “the December protests By denigrating the symbol of racialized fears of foreign in- ty with the protestors and uses tion to a repressive government of the Russian internet in 2011. were the first time that the the opposition (a white rib- fluence, NTV trivialized the its website as a platform from (Lim 2013). As news of protest state’s agenda-setting power bon) in this way, Putin sought protestors’ real demands and which opposition voices pres- spread online, the Tunisian gov- was undermined by the online to publicly trivialize the thou- instead focused on why protests ent their concerns. Through ernment was unable to silence sphere,” since “the credibility sands of Moscow protesters. of this kind are fundamentally this same critical lens, a dif- dissent and dull the grow- gap between the public knowl- harmful to Russia. Thus, rath- ferent anchor provided a state- ing momentum of opposition. Conclusion edge [...] and the dearth of cov- Generally seen as more friend- er than publicly acknowledg- ment by Solidarity leader Ilya erage was simply too great.” ly to democratization and re- ing and responding to protest- Yashin to combat the falsified In many ways, Egypt also fol- N March 20 of 2017, an In addition to this usage of form, Medvedev did not shy ers’ demands, the government assertions of foreign influ- lowed Russia’s trajectory of assailant doused Alexei the internet as a broadcaster away from this strategy. The responded with deflection, ence in Anatomy of a Protest. internet penetration, since in- ONavalny in green paint as a of evidence, internet mobiliza- President’s twitter account denigration, and trivialization. ternet users grew from 450,000 threat against Navalny’s con- tion on social networking sites posted that “Today it became Similarly, opposition blogger in 2000 to 17 million in 2010. tinuing anti-government rheto- like Twitter provided protest- clear that a person who writes In response to this government Alexei Navalny refuted NTV’s As a result of this phenomenon ric. In response, Navalny posted ers with “portable, immediate in their blog the words ‘par- portrayal, free internet sources documentary on his blog (TV and growing public discon- on Facebook and Twitter that and working communicative ty of crooks and thieves’ (re- like TV Rain and bloggers like Rain 2011, this specific blog post tent, Egyptian protesters mo- he wore this green as a badge features” to facilitate mobiliza- ferring to Navalny) is a stupid, Navalny publicly provided com- has since been deleted). In fact, bilized against Hosni Mubarak of pride, making him look like tion (Oates 2014). In this way, c*ck sucking sheep” (Elder 2011). mentary on voter fraud and two years later, Navalny pub- through social media plat- an anti-government superhero. the Center for the Study of These strategies of denigration government corruption. Ac- lished an e-book entitled Anat- forms like Twitter and Face- Navalny used the incident as a New Media & Society conclud- and trivialization are embodied cording to Sarah Oates (2014), omy of a Protest, in which he book. These sites “organized rallying call for his supporters ed that the internet served as in NTV’s documentary Anato- the “pace of growth of inter- responds to the documentary’s the protests” and “disseminat- to organize a protest on March an “echo chamber that could my of a Protest, where NTV net use, the rise in information incorrect assertions and assess- ed information about them, in- 26 (Bilevsky 2017). In response reinforce group solidarity” describes the protests as “much sources online, and the increas- es the future for political oppo- cluding publicizing protesters’ to this defiant stance, Naval- (Greene 2012). Thus, during the smaller than expected” (NTV ing trust in information online sition in Russia (Navalny 2013). demands internationally” (Ste- ny’s supporters posted mes- 2011 Duma protests, the inter- 2011). all combined to undermine the These popular voices publicly panova 2011). In response, the sages on Twitter which read net simultaneously chal- government’s information dom- highlighted government cor- government attempted to cen- “Alexei, Kazan headquarters is lenged the government’s As a re- inance via television.” With ruption and media censor- sor dissent on a massive scale. with you! We support you!” (Bi- agenda-setting authori- sult, organizers encouraged by- respect to internet opposition ship. In these ways, Russian After blocking Twitter and levsky 2017). Other supporters ty through alternative sourc- standers to participate by dis- voices during the 2011 protests, internet sources challenged Facebook, Mubarak’s regime caught up to Navalny on the es and served as a mobiliz- tributing money and cookies. this trend is reflected best when the Kremlin media narratives. “ordered all major telecommu- street and took selfies with ing tool for these alternatives. As evidence for these accusa- analyzing TV Rain, nications providers to block in- his green face (Bilevsky 2017). tions, the documentary mere- where site usage grew Just as the internet facilitated ternet access” (Stepanova 2011). This recent example demon- In response to these inter- ly shows zoomed in business five-fold during the Decem- the 2011 Duma protests, social strates the power of the in- net-led protests, the Kremlin transactions and people scram- ber period, and again tripled media and internet penetra- Although these policies nega- ternet in Russia as a mobiliz- dismissed public opposition bling to grab cookies from a during the subsequent presi- tion in “Arab Spring” countries tively impacted Egypt’s econ- ing force for group solidarity. as illegal, foreign, and trivi- box on the road. The documen- dential elections (Alexa 2011). like Tunisia and Egypt fostered omy, preexisting fiber-optic However, do localized incidenc- al. Rather than responding to tary also notes the presence of mass mobilization against per- routes rendered this censorship es of defiance serve as legiti- protesters’ concerns in any real “foreign agents” from a nefar- On TV Rain, newscasters act- ceived government oppression. ineffective. Thus, just as El Aba- mate alternatives to the Krem- way, Putin alluded to the fact ious “fifth column.” For exam- ed not as government mouth- In the 2010 Jasmine Revolution, dine could not stem the tide of lin’s agenda-setting ability? 38 39 Given its studied impact as a viet conception of all media pacting citizen attitudes rather growing tool for critical discus- as a tool. Despite the positive than promoting outright dem- sion and oppositional mobiliza- potential of the internet in le- ocratic transitions among au- tion in the December 2011 pro- gitimizing dissent, polling data tocratic regimes” (Nisbet 2012). tests, internet media represents indicates that this Soviet con- an emergent alternative polit- ception survives as an accep- In Russia’s case, then, internet ical sphere in Russia. Similar- tance of internet censorship mobilization must be accompa- ly, commercial media diver- and public preference for order nied by both a willingness to sity precipitated diverse vote over chaos (Levada 2016). Due accept democracy and the tools choice and political competi- to this persistent preference for to achieve limited government. tion in 1999. Do the effects of authoritarianism, current schol- Thus, given the recent electoral Russian internet sources from arship on the internet’s role in success of Russian authoritari- 2011-2018 mirror this phenome- Arab Spring protests would anism, internet sources with- non? In a 2009 interview with caution against any belief in out democratic institutions that the radio station Echo Moscow, the internet as a democratizing promote liberal values do not Vladimir Putin remarked that force. For example, in his study represent a viable alternative “contrary to common percep- on the role of the internet in to state-run TV. Nonetheless, tion, mass media is an instru- democratization, Erik Nisbet the growth of internet accessi- ment, rather than an insti- found that “internet use may bility in Russia will likely con- tution” (Echo Moscow 2009). play a more meaningful role in tinue to enhance connectivity strengthening and enhancing and democratic mobilization. This belief represents the So- young democracies through im-

40 41 ed their release and were fired “This we swear/ This we swear, upon by the Államvédelmi Hatóság (State Security Po- that we will be slaves/ No longer.” lice). One student was killed; the demonstrators wrapped -Refrain from the poem, “National Song,” him in a Hungarian flag and written by Petőfi Sándor during the 1848 Revolution, held him above the crowd. which was chanted by students on the day the 1956 Revolution began “At the time I was living in sit next to him at a dinner the plane for the salmon they Szombathely, close to the Hun- table surrounded by Hungar- caught. This is the beautiful garian-Austrian border,” said Iians eating meats and cheeses, life István has built for himself. István. “I had read anti-com- INTERVIEW and drinking wine. The meats munist papers and books, but are Hungarian and have been István was born in 1930 and like many, was blindsided by specially ordered, while the was 26 when he became a free- the events to come.” Events cheese is Dutch, in honor of dom fighter in the 1956 Hun- that would include the destruc- his late wife, Méta. The host is garian Revolution against the tion and defamation of Sta- István Kiss: a husband, father, Soviet Union, which will com- lin statues, the ripping of the WITH A grandfather, engineer, freedom memorate its 62nd Anniversary Soviet coat of arms from the fighter, refugee, and traveler. this year. Like many freedom Hungarian flag, urban street His Christian name, István, was fighters, he became a refu- fighting, and the executions the name of the first Hungarian gee, and eventually settled in of party members and free- king who ruled 1,000 years ago, Rochester, Minnesota. I inter- dom fighters alike. The vio- but most people call him Ste- viewed him about his experi- lence became equally focused phen, the English equivalent. I ence during the revolution, his on the physical and symbolic HUNGARIAN have known him for 11 years, a escape, and life as a refugee. presence of the Soviets. Every- period over which I have come thing that reminded Hungar- to think of him as family. Not He began by telling me, “The ians of the regime had to be long after we first met, we dis- Hungarian Revolution started toppled, destroyed, or burned. covered that his father taught on the 23rd of October in 1956. my grandmother in elementa- My older brother was a part of István then told me how he be- ry school in a small Hungari- the protest in front of the radio came involved with the revolu- FREEDOM an village, which, even today, house in Budapest that ignited tion. “After the events at the ra- only has 4,300 residents. István the conflict.” After gathering dio station, I was elected head is now 87, but one would never and marching from the statue of the Revolutionary Commit- know it by his lifestyle. I ask of József Bem - a hero of the tee in my region. I was in charge him where he is traveling next, 1848 Hungarian Revolution – of the fate of over 700 freedom to which he answers he’s taking about 200,000 people, mostly fighters. For days, I traveled FIGHTER a cruise to Cuba. I am always students, stormed the state con- between Budapest, Győr, and eager to hear his next destina- trolled radio station in order Miskolc to coordinate with oth- Gréta Bedekovics, tion; he often revisits the same to broadcast The 16 Points for er leaders; we discussed where places but is still checking off a free Hungary. Among these to hide people, what our next University of California, new cities like Singapore and points were demands for the move would be, and things like Berkeley Hong Kong. He lives life on the evacuation of Soviet troops, se- that. By this time, my faction move, with enough of a break cret ballots, the right to strike, had taken over the state securi- in between trips to repack his freedom of speech and press, ty building in my town.” What suitcase. He loves taking his and the removal of Soviet sym- the rebels found inside shocked grandchildren to Mexico, and bols and monuments. When them. “Upon ransacking the when he visits his daughter in students were detained in the place, we found that letters Alaska, he buys an extra seat on station, demonstrators demand- 43 we had sent in the mail had Erika - she was only 15 years almost on the Hungarian-Aus- I had to be careful not to walk now the 29th of December. I been copied and filed away. old when it was taken (Vajta). trian border.” In one moment, straight for long, because it arrived in Oberwart, where I, We released all the prisoners Her father had died in a con- István decided to leave behind would mean I would be going and 20 other refugees, slept held there, not knowing which centration camp, and she was everyone he knew, everything back into Hungarian territory. on straw beds in a school until were enemies of the state and killed not long after the pho- he owned, and the life that I tried to veer to my left un- the 3rd of January. From our which were real criminals. I let to was taken; she died in the the state had planned out for til I saw a sign reading halt. straw beds in this school, we a young girl out of her pris- streets after being shot in the him, before he was even born. But it was not in Hungarian; it watched Austrians having the on cell only to find out later neck. I can’t un-imagine her “I walked 24 or 25 kilometers was in German, and so I knew time of their lives that New that she and her lover had lying on the cobbled streets in the snow carrying only a I had reached Austria.” Even Year”. I looked up at him, try- killed her husband. But it was alone, her curls drenched in bottle of wine I had bought in though I knew he made it out, ing to share in the melancholy wartime and so mistakes were her own blood, her body wait- case anyone asked me where I my body couldn’t help but fur- moment he had just re-created. made and forgotten.” When he ing to be cleared away; the im- was headed. This way, I could ther relax into his yellow-green said the phrase for a young age of a girl who gave her life tell them I was going to a 70’s style velvet armchair. Then he excitedly continued, girl, “lány” in Hungarian, my before she even lived one; the friend’s house for the holidays.” “Next I went to Gráz; there, mind intrinsically went to one emblematic tragedy of fresh I thought to myself how clever He began motioning a bit with for the first time in my life, of my favorite photos from the curls stained red. Erika’s moth- this was; how even when flee- his arms, saying, “I kept waking I got to pick where I wanted Revolution - a girl standing er went insane from the grief, ing for his life, how well he and saw a man milking his cow. to live. Never had I thought “TIME Magazine Cover: 1957 Man of the in the streets, holding a small while she posthumously be- had planned out the situation. I said ‘good morning’ to him in of such a thing, because in a Year.” TIME, Web. Russian machine gun, staring came an icon for the revolution. German, to which he replied country on communist lock down the camera in a fur hat, For a few days, the Hungarian He continued, “Upon arriv- ‘good morning’ in Hungarian.” down, such an idea was un- forced upon my family. Jamai- with impeccably curled hair. I people were able to take back ing in the village, I spent the In this comedic moment, he be- imaginable. I had a choice be- ca Kincaid wrote, “isn’t it odd always try to put myself in her control of their country, until night at a friend’s house. His gan laughing and I joined him. tween the United Kingdom, that the only language I have place; how she must have wo- the Soviets rolled in with their father told me that the barbed Here we were, two Hungari- United States, New Zealand, in which to speak of this crime ken up early to style her hair tanks on November 4th. Isván wire fences on the border has an-Americans, laughing at the and Germany. The Swiss had is in the language of the crimi- and pick out an outfit in which recalls, “That morning, I awoke been cut when the Revolution irony of it all. “The man told stopped accepting Hungarian nal who committed the crime?” she would defend her country to a deafening blow. A Sovi- began, and the Soviets hadn’t me where I could register as a refugees by this point. At the (Kincaid, 53). This quote from and fight the Ruszkik (deroga- et tank had just fired on the had time to reconstruct them. refugee. I wasn’t surprised by time, everyone wanted to go one of my anthropology classes tory term used for Russians). city police station not a quar- He also warned me about the him speaking Hungarian, after to Switzerland- it was such a at Berkeley haunts me in the Later, I researched the photo ter kilometer from my room.” 500-meter-wide minefield strip all, this land had belonged to peaceful country. I decided to back of my mind, when I think and discovered her name was surrounding the fences. At Hungary before the 1st World go to Germany since I already of myself speaking Russian. We took a small break and got three in the morning, I set out War. I walked to the refu- knew the language and could refreshments from the kitch- for the border. It was so cold, gee camp; there I saw a man more easily find a job as an István then recounted how en. When István returned to and the ground was so frozen, in a Soviet uniform standing engineer.” English was a very he left Austria, “I went to the his chair he told me, “On De- that the mines were almost im- in a tower and for a moment uncommon language at the Red Cross office; a friend of cember 23rd, I took a train to possible to activate, and proba- thought that I had been tricked time in Hungary; it was viewed mine had escaped and I want- Budapest to visit my family for bly the only reason I survived.” and that I was going to be tak- by The Party as too Western, ed to see if I could find him. Christmas. The fighting was Whether or not he knew this en back home. But then I saw and mostly known in academ- As soon as I stepped into the now largely over since the So- when crossing, or assumed it two Austrian guards standing ic circles. Over 20 years later, building, an English-Hungarian viets had killed many of the later, I don’t know. I didn’t ask at the door and knew I was my parents were still forced lady approached me and asked freedom fighters and arrest- because I was speechless. Here safe”. The Soviet guard had to learn Russian, and only re- if I wanted to go to England. ed the remaining rebels. I told I was, drinking tea, sitting in most likely been a man who ceived the opportunity to learn 500 men were being chosen to the lady who I was renting my front of a man casually recall- took the opportunity of the cut English in college. They have work in a coal mine there. I room from to turn the flower- ing himself walking over a fences to escape the oppressive almost completely forgotten told her I was an engineer, and pot outside the house if anyone minefield. Leaning in a bit, as regime that sent him to fight, Russian, but my dad always so I did not want to work in came looking for me while I if to tell me a secret, he said, and even die in a foreign land, thanks our Ukrainian butcher a mine. She told me that engi- was away. Sure enough, when “sneaking past the guards posi- for a battle he must have known with its remnants. Whenever neers were even more needed Hansen, Vagn. “Erika, Hungarian Free- I got back the flower pot was tioned near the fence was the little, if anything about. István I think of learning Russian than miners. I asked her when dom Fighter 1956.” The Daily News turned. I never went back into easy part, because the guards went on, “Inside the building, to advance my career, I can’t I was to leave, to which she re- Hungary, 17 Oct. 2016. that house. I simply turned walked up and down large people gave me identity papers help but ponder the irony of plied: 15 minutes.” István began around and headed for a village stretches of the border. I knew and put me on a train. It was learning the language that was laughing again and through 44 45 the laughter said, “I couldn’t ing each day. Blackpool was There were very few girls, be- I accepted an offer at a motor then they offer it to you again, would then travel with us. My believe it; for 26 years I could a big city; it was a cheap va- cause they had been afraid to company in Birmingham. I be- and then you politely accept.” cousin showed me a picture of not go anywhere, and now I cation destination, so we were cross the border by themselves, gan my job on the 7th of May.” This is a dance I also know all her - it was her passport pho- was supposed to say yes to go- housed in bed and breakfasts. and those that were there, were too well, and we share a nod to- and after seeing it, I decid- ing to England in 15 minutes. I It was the first time I was already married. I often went In Birmingham, István rent- of acknowledgement to this ed we should take the route told her I would go even though around the sea; when I arrived, to dances with some boys - we ed a room in a house that he fact. “But that’s not how it is through Germany. However, I could not speak a word of the first thing I did was walk had fun. Everyone went alone, shared with an English man, a in England; if you want some- the paperwork needed was English. I never did find my into the ocean- it was freezing.” and you could dance with any Swiss man, and an Indian man. thing, you just say yes. I think too extensive, and so we decid- friend Miklós that day, but I and as many girls as you want- “I found I was not very fond of his wife thought I didn’t like ed to go through Luxembourg did find him years ed. I’ll never forget, af- the city; it was different than orange juice, and so she never anyway and pick up the young later. He had chosen ter one of the dances, what I expected. It lady. We to go to Germany my friend asked one of was like a big village; arrived, where he later got our teachers what the people didn’t build up, and I saw married and had a phrase ‘don’t touch me’ they just built out. One her, and family.” Until recent- meant.” I burst out laugh- night a friend from thank ly, these Hungarian ing, and while laughing work invited me over God she refugees composed himself, István added, for dinner. His wife looked the largest wave of “He had heard it all offered me orange nothing refugees in post-war night at the dance from juice, which I politely like her Europe. 200,000 peo- girls, and didn’t know refused even though photo, ple fled after the what they were saying I craved it immensely. because revolution and were to him.” I don’t think I In Hungary, oranges I ended taken in by other Toppled Stalin statue that was vandalized in Budapest in 1956 had ever truly realized were very rare, and I Cities Istvan traveled to throughout his journey. up mar- nations across the what a natural storytell- only refused it out of my Hun- rying globe; Austria’s inte- er he is; here he was re- garian manners. In Hungarian her!” Again, rior minister, Oskar living the most difficult culture, when someone offers offered it again. That evening, we laughed together; how well Helmer, announced time of his life, and yet you something, you refuse; I told my friend how much I he had led up to this surprise; in 1957 that every sprinkling in jokes ef- liked England, and he being it was the first time I heard Hungarian refugee fortlessly as if it was a Welsh replied: Good, because how he had met his wife, Méta, would be granted well-timed skit he had I do not!. My next goal was to whom I never had the honor political asylum. The perfected over the years. find a place of my own. Many of meeting. At the World Ex- UN later estimated advertisements I looked at said position, many states from that 3,000 people Then he told me what colored skinned people need across the world had their died and 13,000 were realizing he was free felt not apply and only accepts En- own pavilions -- the USSR be- wounded; another like. “After three months glish. I found an apartment I ing one of them. They had dis- 10,000,000 wouldn’t in Blackpool, I began at- really liked, and so I had my played a model of Sputnik and “Russians go home!”, painted onto a window display in 1956 be liberated for tending job interviews. English friend call to secure it the Americans -behind in the another 33 years. As it turned out, I didn’t for me, so that they could not space race -were desperately István described what life as a have to become an engineer for tell I was a foreigner; and that’s trying to put together a better A few train rides and one boat refugee looked like. “The En- the coal mining company, even how I got my second place.” display; both superpowers used later, István arrived in London glish classes I took were taught though those were the pretens- the occasion for mutual surveil- on the 7th of January, 1957. by a 30-year-old, very smart es I came under. This came as During the summer of 1958, lance. Amid this cold-war, stood “Many other Hungarian ref- woman, who volunteered her a surprise because at home, István traveled to the World a man, taking in everything ugees and I received a three- time and came from an English whatever the communists told Exposition in Brussels and the modern world had to offer; day orientation in the city, aristocrat family. She began by you to do, you had to. Here, you around Europe with his cousin. straddling his past as an ene- after which we were sent to pointing and saying: I, you, he, were free to do what you want- “On one of our trips we could my of the Soviet Union and his Blackpool. There, 600 of my she. All the young men hated ed and to change your mind, either travel through Luxem- future as an American citizen. fellow countrymen and I took the English food, but after four and then to change it again. bourg or Germany; if we went István finished telling me his Hungarian Flag with a Hole 3 months of English classes, years of my university’s café in I received three job offers; I through Luxembourg, we were which meant 8 hours of learn- Miskolc, I could eat anything. longed to live in a big city, so to pick up a young lady who 46 47 story by saying, “Later Méta parents, given to my mother, and I would come to America shipped to America in a con- together, raise two daughters, tainer, and was now sitting in and travel the world like we our American Mid-west style never imagined possible. I now basement. It was falling apart realize I did not flee to escape and all I could think of was, a life that seemed to be coming I’m holding a piece of history. to end, I fled in order to live a But to István, and people like better life. A life I wasn’t aware my parents, this pamphlet was I could have, until the day I an everyday reality. What I started living it.” We chatted saw as a primary source to be a while longer and said our studied, is to them a paper to farewells for the time being; be wrapped and put away in a he gave me two hugs, because box along with my great grand- he said one just wasn’t enough. parents’ documents commemo- rating their over-fulfillment of I recently found a pamphlet in grain quotas, the list they made my family’s basement among of the items the state seized, my mother’s things. It was my mother’s badges from her wrapped in old Hungarian communist youth group, and magazine pages; it was a pam- my dad’s Bible that was illegal- phlet issued by the communist ly printed and given to him. It’s government in 1957 titled: The a box of both our history and Uprising in Baranya Province. present reconciling themselves; Its objective was to denounce a box we take out to remem- the freedom fighters, uphold ber and put away to forget. the puppet regime, and praise the memories of Lenin and A box we will never be able Stalin. This was something that to throw away, but one we had been saved by my grand- wish we had never been given.

48 49 Balkans, future actions in the did not cease to exist after the abstract event of an accession are high- end of the Cold War; in oth- er words, it failed to explain HE purpose of this paper ly unlikely to be taken soon. the dismantling of the Soviet is to analyse Montenegro’s Union, including the demise Taccession to NATO through a Based on its historical experi- of the Warsaw Pact. Instead, constructivist lens in order to ence, NATO membership has constructivist scholars offered reinforce the idea that NATO grown significantly over the a persuasive alternative regard- enlargement is a process based years, leading us to the follow- ing the new environment in the on promoting democratic val- ing statement: The enlargement post-Cold War era, in which ues, peace, and multilateralism of the Alliance is an ongoing NATO plays a decisive role in in its eastern zone. The current and dynamic process. (NATO Euro-Atlantic security. Conse- paper tests whether the rea- Fact Sheet) This is the reason quently, I chose this theory be- sons for Montenegro’s acces- why the focus of this paper is cause constructivism is a useful sion are linked to its national on the complexity and on the tool in understanding foreign identity, which transformed it importance of this policy, as policy and the way in which ac- into a collective identity based part of NATO’s “essential goal tors currently behave or inter- a historic on Western values and securi- of enhancing security and sta- act in the international system. ty organizations such as NATO. bility throughout the Euro-At- lantic area within the context turn in the of an European Security Ar- The accession of Montenegro is chitecture.” (“Study On NATO a suitable case to be explained future of nato’s Enlargement”) The purposes through the lenses of inter- and principles of enlargement est-identity, one of the central are strictly linked to the mis- themes in constructivism. In enlargment process sion, values, norms, and stra- the context of Russia’s mili- introduction tegic concept of the Alliance. tary invasion in Ukraine, ana- lysts rushed to label Montene- INCE NATO’s creation in The aim of this paper is to out- gro’s accession as a “test case” S1949, its “open door poli- line the rationale for the en- for NATO’s open-door policy. cy” has been a central compo- largement process in general, (Hunter, 2017) However, this Denisa Elena Vlăsceanu nent of its treaty, allowing its and the current membership leads us to ask the following National School of Political Studies membership to increase from of Montenegro in particular, question: What is in fact the and Public Administration (SNSPA) 12 to 29 countries, with Mon- which is based on collective real rationale behind the acces- Department of International Relations tenegro becoming the newest identity rather than self-inter- sion of Montenegro to NATO? and European Integration (DRIIE) member on 5 June 2017. Bosnia est and relative gain. In other The answer can be divided and Herzegovina, Georgia and words, this paper will focus into the following hypotheses: The Former Yugoslav Republic on analysing the Montene- of Macedonia are still aspiring grin accession to NATO, from : Montenegro’s decision to to obtain NATO membership. a constructivist point of view. become a member of NATO Even though Ukraine agreed 1is due to a shared understand- at the 2008 Bucharest Summit Applying the constructivist ing of security, social prac- to become a member in future, theory instead of the realist tices, identities, and role, that it has not been formally pur- theory, which may seem more perceives NATO as a “Western suing membership since 2010. approachable because of its family,” which brings social, By taking into account the re- leading status within the in- economic and political benefits. cent developments in the area ternational relations field, is including Russia’s annexation due precisely to the fact that : NATO membership gives of Crimea, the conflict in East- Montenegro’s accension Montenegro’s realism failed to predict why 2Montenegro a motivating ern Ukraine, and the challeng- NATO (as an organization and force to further seek dem- ing dynamics in the Western its policies, i.e. the enlargement) ocratic values and integrate 51 them successfully in its domes- questioned, being considered importance to social relations tics. This concludes that identi- tice, and common understand- is the level of involvement in tic law, while overseeing the an approach rather than a the- between states. For instance, if ty represents a decisive and rel- ings” established and agreed by respecting the values of the Al- security environment in this ory. Although it is argued that a state wants to join NATO (con- atively steady factor in foreign all the members. (Flockhart & liance as well as incorporating: area, on the basis of multilat- it does not offer substantial stituting a social group), it has policy, empowering us to inves- Trine, 2012, p. 6) NATO is first a working rule of law in view eralism and international law. solutions for specific issues in to follow the rules and norms tigate “why” states act the way and foremost a military alliance, of a market economy; reason- IR, constructivism offers dif- of the group (Western liberal they do in ways that propose but its role, especially after the able treatment of minorities; : The accession is a sign ferent views over some central and democratic principles, val- a causal connection between Cold War, cannot be reduced a peaceful conflict-resolution 3of NATO’s strength, show- themes, such as the anarchi- ues), leading to a creation of identity and interests. (1998) only to this characteristic. It has attitude; a capacity and eager- ing Russia that the “open cal nature of the internation- new identities and social rela- managed to adapt, to reconsti- ness to make a military com- door” policy remains a reali- al system, the considerations tionships. (Flockhart & Trine, Thus, within the construc- tute its own identity and main- mitment to NATO operations; ty and represents (now more of balance of power, the rela- 2012, p. 6) So, the social norms tivist approach, the key con- tain it, to socialize norms or and a promise to democratic than ever) a real commitment. tionship between state interest and identities accepted by the cepts for the analysis section rules, and to establish new re- military and organizations re- and its identity, etc. (Flockhart state can significantly affect can be summarized as follows: lationships (Flockhart & Trine, lations. (“NATO Fact Sheet”) These are possible reasons be- & Trine, 2012, p. 6) Moreover, worldwide relations, making 2012, p. 15). These new ‘roles’ hind Montenegrin membership. with its roots in the critical the interest of the state more . A belief in social con- are consistent with the process “Once admitted, new members They emphasize the idea that a and postmodern theories, con- inclined towards universal co- 1struction of reality; of enlargement, undergoing the would enjoy all the rights and more thorough analysis is neces- structivism, traced back to operation rather than rational following steps, as expressed assume all the obligations of sary because such an important 1980s, becomes a ‘full-time’ the- materialism. In other words, . A focus on ideational as in NATO’s 2016 Fact Sheet: membership. This would in- topic requires a more in-depth ory only after the Cold War, “interests (and threats to them) 2well as material structures clude acceptance at the time analysis, as will be presented when the concept of “security are not self-evident derivatives (the importance of norms, I. Based on Article 10 of the that they join of all the prin- later in this paper, through community” was introduced by of position, but are shaped rules and shared values); founding treaty and on the basis ciples, policies and procedures a theory-testing case study Emanuel Adler and his associ- (constituted) by identity.” (Hin- of consensus among all Allies, previously adopted by Alli- methodology. (van Evera, 1997) ates, based on Karl Deutsch’s nebusch, 2003, p. 360) So, the . A focus on the role of European nations that desire ance members.” (NATO. “En- empirical research. (Flockhart focus on identity and belief is 3identity in shaping political to join NATO are at first wel- largement”, 2017) Hence, the The paper is organized as fol- & Trine, 2012, p. 6) This term is a core feature of the construc- action and the “logic of ac- comed to start an Intensified Di- process of enlargement can lows: an introduction with the usually referred to as “group- tivist theory because “identi- tion” associated with interests; alogue with the Alliance about be seen as a reinforcement of background and the research ings of states, tied together ties strongly imply a particular their goals and related changes. internal and international so- purposes presented, a discus- through common values and set of interests/preferences” in . A mutually constitu- cialization of Western norms, sion of the main theoretical transnational links, that reject the actions, attitudes and for- 4tive relationship between II. Aspirant countries are invit- rules, and values, which re- realms of constructivism, and violent conflict resolution as eign policies mentioned above. agents and structures through ed to join the Membership Ac- quires a NATO member to fol- a brief overview of NATO’s unthinkable”, which stands as (Flockhart & Trine, 2012, p. 6) institutionalization. (Flock- tion Plan, a program which en- low a logic of appropriateness. enlargement process. Mon- evidence to the fact that a pro- What is more, the acceptance hart & Trine, 2012, p. 15) ables countries to get ready for tenegro’s accession to NATO cess, such as the enlargement of certain international norms conceivable future accession. Starting with the first three will be analysed from various of NATO, is influenced by trust and rules is based on the state Here, it is important to note rounds of enlargement during points of view, by using the and shared identity. (Ikenberry, identity, not on their utility (or, OVERVIEW OF NATO that: participation does not the Cold War (Greece and Tur- constructivist theory. In the 2017) Hence, constructivists ar- at least, not always). According guarantee membership, but is key, West Germany, and Spain) conclusion, a summary and gue that “the world is of our to March and Olsen, these two a key preparation mechanism. and continuing with other evaluation of the hypotheses of making,” (Onuf, 1989) being reasons of choice designate ENLARGEMENT twelve rounds among which, the research questions of this socially constructed by “a mix two different logics of action: III. Taking into account when most importantly, were coun- paper will be provided, accord- of history, ideas, norms, and logic of consequences (rational PROCESS and the way in which aspiring tries of Central and Eastern ing to the case-study analysis. beliefs which scholars must interest) vs. logic of appropri- S a material structure, countries meet certain political, Europe (former Warsaw Pact understand if they are to ex- ateness (norms and identity). ANATO is an organization financial, and military criteria members “determined to es- plain State behaviour.” (Slaugh- (1984, p. 734-749) For Hopf, po- established in 1949 with the set out in the Alliance’s 1995 cape their historical fate as the THEORETICAL ter, 2011) But, in order to know litical pioneers view states as aim of promoting security and Study on Enlargement, they playthings of Russia and Ger- what action or policy to choose, “friends” or “enemies” and act stability throughout the Eu- receive the membership after many” (Braithwaite, 1970)), the an understanding of the con- based on the identity of the ro-Atlantic area. On the other the formal accession process is history of the process of en- FRAMEWORK text, shared knowledge, and state, a fact which points to the hand, moving to its ideational finished. (“NATO Fact Sheet”) largement over the years has NE of the newest theories dominant practice is required. impossibility of making univer- manifestation, the Alliance is shown us that states with dif- Oin international relations This is how rules and norms sal and clear claims about the “a social fact constituted by a The main aspect to be consid- ferent social, political, economic (IR), constructivism was at first appeared, being of immense source of threat in world poli- social relationship, shared prac- ered in the process of accession and cultural backgrounds suc 52 53 ceeded in acquiring new norms shaped its foreign policy over that there is no way of turn- Foreign Affairs Ministry) We and values through interna- 3. The relation between and behaviour patterns within the years, leading the country ing back. In other words, in can observe that this indicates tional law. (Official website of Montenegro and Russia the Alliance (in reference to to join the Membership Ac- accordance with the principle the constructivists’ focus on Montenegro’s Foreign Affairs the institutionalization process). tion Plan in December 2009. of solidarity which applies in identity as a basis of state in- Ministry) “Democratic institu- According to the Prime Min- The following statement from NATO, Montenegro accepted terests and focus on ideational tions, the rule of law, market ister Dusko Markovic: “Near- On the other hand, no matter Montenegro’s Prime Minister the obligations arising from as well as material structures. economy, a stable security sit- ly a hundred years after it how much NATO has tried to Dusko Markovic also supports membership. (NATO. “Relations uation, are necessary precon- was deleted from the political reassure Russia that this pro- a shift towards a NATO collec- with Montenegro”, 2017) This 2. The significance of the ditions of any country that map of Europe at the end of cess of enlargement is purely tive identity: “the Balkans for can easily be associated to the membership wants to join the EU or NATO” the World War I, and 11 years for the sake of a strong, secure centuries has been the scene process of institutionalization as the Montenegro’s Minis- since restoration of its indepen- and stable Europe, the Kremlin of a struggle between the and socialization that the con- Since regaining its indepen- try of Foreign Affairs pres- dence, Montenegro is again a seems to view it as a “threat” (a West and the East. Like other structivist theory emphasizes. dence, Montenegro has been ents on their official website. part of global politics. It will constructivist matter of repre- states in the region, Montene- undertaking a wide-ranging never happen again that some- sentation) and acts accordingly gro has strong links with the Following the ratification of program of structural and in- The development process was one else decides instead of us (e.g. launches its own military East, but in 2006 we made a the Accession Protocol by all stitutional reforms. (NATO. also noticed by the U.S. Under and our state, behind our back, actions in Georgia, Crimea, key decision that we would parliaments of NATO member “NATO Summit Guide- War- Secretary of State for Politi- as it was the case in the past”. and Ukraine). Whether the like to adopt Western stan- states, on 5 June 2017, Monte- saw, 8-9 July 2016”, 2016. p. 260- cal Affairs, Thomas Shannon, (Saine, 2017) This statement NATO - Russia connection has dards and values.” (Sekularac negro became a full member 263) They are all connected who stated: “The promise of sends the subtle message that, important implications in the Budva, 2017) This also supports of the Alliance, when the in- with the norms and rules that NATO membership and broad- over the years, the represen- case of Montenegro’s member- the logic of appropriateness be- strument of accession was de- the country agreed to enhance er Euro-Atlantic integration tation of “we” (Montenegrins) ship will be discussed further cause the interest of this small posited in Washington D.C. By and promote, part of which be- has served as an incentive is associated to NATO, implic- on in the analytical section. country (only 650,000 people joining NATO and developing came national security aims or for nations to pursue difficult itly to the West, not anymore with 2,000 military personnel relations with this organization, actions. For instance, “in Feb- reforms and has advanced to Russia. It seems that Mon- (Sekularac Budva, 2017)) was Montenegro has now become ruary 2010, Montenegro decid- our security, our democrat- tenegro perceives security ANALYTICAL not only sustained by materi- an autonomous state, attempt- ed to contribute troops to the ic values, and our respect for threats as no longer coming al/strategic value, but also by ing to be a state with a liber- NATO-led International Assis- the rule of law”. (Saine, 2017) from Russia, or if they do, FRAMEWORK a symbolic association with al administration, emphasizing tance Force (ISAF) in Afghan- the state together with NATO liberal, democratic, and trans- the free movement of individ- istan, which were deployed Moreover, the membership of will take independent deci- HIS chapter will pro- parent values that is shared by uals and the exchange of mer- there together with a Croatian Montenegro had a historical sions that will protect “us” (the vide a constructivist ex- the Alliance members. Also, we chandise, expertise, and skills, unit. Following the completion but most importantly a strate- citizens). Thus, a new role of Tplanation for the accession should not omit the fact that as it is presented on Montene- of ISAF’s operation at the end gic component. Again, Thomas NATO - that of a protector of of Montenegro, focusing on almost all the neighbouring gro’s official site. (Montenegro of 2014, Montenegro is current- Shannon supports this idea by the Montenegrins - was pro- three main points of view countries of Montenegro are Independence, 2017) Hence, ly supporting the follow-up stating that “Montenegro’s ac- moted in the public discourse. corresponding to the three NATO members, meaning that the process of accession was mission and pledged financial cession sends a strong message hypotheses mentioned above: there is a clear sense of col- complex but steady, and re- support for the future develop- of strength to the region and Obviously, a hostile reaction lective shared understanding volved around the construction ment of the Afghan National makes clear to our allies that of the Russian government to 1. The road to NATO membership of the security environment. of the Western identity, since Security Forces”. (NATO. “Rela- the United States remains as Montenegro’s desire to join there are arguments on behalf tions with Montenegro”, 2017) committed as ever to the prin- NATO appeared, “culminating Part of formerly communist Yu- Montenegro was invited to of the Montenegrin Ministry ciple of collective defense as in an attempt to stage on 16 goslavia, Montenegro regained start accession talks in Decem- of Foreign Affairs that states: But the prospects of integration enshrined in Article 5 of the October 2016, on the day of the its independence in June 2006, ber 2015, after the 2010 first “NATO is viewed as a very ca- in NATO reflects more than Washington Treaty”. (Saine, parliamentary election, a pre- separating from Serbia. This MAP cycle, and the Accession pable organization for ensur- this. In the case of Montenegro, 2017) Undoubtedly, in accor- sumed coup d’état that should separation constitutes a turn- Protocol was marked by NATO ing security, enabling Monte- “NATO membership is closely dance with the determination have included the assassination ing point in the construction of foreign ministers on May 2016. negro to promote its image of tied to its integration into the of the US to advance an expan- of Montenegro’s prime minister the state identity. With great (NATO. “Relations with Mon- a stable democracy, accelerate EU” because it is about two par- sion of NATO towards Russia, Milo Dukanović, according to Russian influences (especially tenegro”, 2017) The “invitee” economic development by at- allel and compatible process- Montenegro plays a construc- the statements made by Mon- cultural and economic ones) status gained was more than tracting foreign investment, es that have the same source: tive role in the Western Balkans tenegrin officials”. (Associated the country’s decision to ‘take ever a way of telling the Mon- and participate equally in rel- an openness towards Western region, a fact that brings us to Press in Podgorica, 2016) But control of its destiny’ had an tenegrin population as well as evant decision-making.” (Offi- institutionalization, suggesting the following point of analysis. even though, the split between impact on the identity that has the other European countries cial website of Montenegro’s the importance of NATO norms Montenegro’s pro-Western and 54 55 pro-Russian factions has been Nevertheless, as NATO expan- deepening over the years, with CONCLUSION sion grew over the years, dif- the “aid” of several incidents ferent views on this process such as the one mentioned pre- ONTENEGRO’S iden- have been expressed. The case viously, Montenegro continued Mtification with NATO’s of Montenegro membership is its path towards independence values, norms, and identity seen by NATO and Montene- and democratic rule of law, has been present in its for- gro as having the aim of mod- constructing a Western identi- eign policy actions ever since ernizing the alliance itself and ty. As Milo Đukanović said on Montenegro restored its inde- ensuring security in Europe. the day of Montenegro’s mem- pendence in 2006. By consid- This points to another aspect, bership ratification: “After long ering the key points analysed which is Montenegro’s per- suffering and roaming through above, we can see that this ceived value as a NATO mem- history, [Montenegro] is finally paper’s hypotheses were con- ber, the first new member in in the position where it logical- firmed through the lenses of nearly ten years. (Marcus, 2016) ly, historically, civilization-wise, constructivist approach and and culturally belongs”. (Asso- by using analytical techniques. Although Russian leaders do ciated Press in Cetinje, 2017) Even though limitations to this not consider Montenegro’s ac- Thus, it can be observed that study (such as the single theory cession a “defeat,” (Sputnik, the Russian threat has been approach which makes us con- 2017) we can say that NATO’s eliminated from Montenegro’s sider that the case-study can enlargement process poses sig- foreign political discourse be further analysed from neo- nificant questions for Russia as as the Alliance has become liberalist or neorealist perspec- its recurrent perception over the new guarantor of stabili- tives) are traceable, the present the enlargement process seems ty, security and cooperation. paper focused on determining to be associated with a threat the reasons for the NATO en- because, through this process, On the other hand, the im- largement process and the Mon- Russia might be “confront- provement of relations with tenegrin accession from a col- ed” by NATO. (Hunter, 2017) Russia is still in question since lective identity-based interest. the pro-Russia opposition in Montenegro might argue that As seen above, Montenegro’s Montenegro’s identity is not or desire to join NATO has been at least should not be linked to guided intensively by NATO NATO’s core values if we are norms and values since 2006, to evoke NATO’s operation in indicating clearly that Mon- Yugoslavia in 1999, which in- tenegro’s national and securi- cluded the bombing of Serbia ty identity has gone through and Montenegro. (Associated an integration and adaptation Press in Cetinje, 2017) What process vis-à-vis NATO. This is more, the “mutual under- is reflected in the active par- standing in international pol- ticipation of Montenegro in itics testifies the importance the PfP programme, which of fostering good cooperation the country considered at the between Montenegro and the time a useful vehicle for the Russian Federation” as official- future membership in NATO ly expressed by Montenegro. (e.g. “Montenegro has provided (Official website of Montene- troops for the training mission gro’s Foreign Affairs Ministry) in Afghanistan and financial support to the Afghan secu- rity forces”). (Marcus, 2016)

56 FTER the 2017 Eastern a working plan in December the EU is trying to rebrand it- specific ones according to the Partnership (EaP) Summit 2016, intended to guide the im- self in the region. The promo- key priority areas that were Aheld in Brussels last Novem- plementation of 20 key deliv- tion of its values, norms, and accepted by all partner states. ber, it is appropriate to reflect erables that must be complet- reforms are still the core drive All these changes prove that upon the role of the Europe- ed by the Eastern Partnership of its initiative, but the mech- there is a willingness of the an Union in its Eastern vicin- countries by 2020, milestones anism of delivery is chang- European Union to keep the ity and if its good governance that were also highlighted ing. In the past, the EU was political commitment active model is pragmatic enough for during the 2017 EaP Summit. condemned by having a “top- within the Eastern Partnership. the partner countries’ realities. down” strategy when dealing By stimulating the partner These 20 deliverables will fo- with its partners. Thus the in- countries to agree and contin- The Eastern Partnership is cus on four key priority areas. ability to be better connected ue their involvement in reach- an umbrella which compris- In this regard, the European at the local or regional levels ing new objectives, the Euro- es 6 partner countries (Arme- Union will support the part- led the European Union to in- pean Union tries to preserve nia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Geor- efficiently intervene in the po- the vitality of this initiative. gia, Republic of Moldova and litical crises that affected the Ukraine) which differ great- EU’s Good partner countries. We see now Nevertheless, there are a lot of ly on their political associa- that the approach has switched challenges ahead as the East- tion and economic integration towards a “bottom-up” strat- ern Partnership has become in relation with the Europe- governance egy, where a stronger role is more and more internally di- an Union. This situation poses placed on local ownership vided into two camps. On one various challenges as the EaP model in the and tailor-made objectives. side we have the countries -- the common denominator -- which follow a deeper political should ideally satisfy all the From engaging with civil so- dialogue and economic integra- parts involved. For this reason, eastern ciety organizations to work- tion as they have signed the OP numerous critiques have risen ing on better, clearer and Association Agreement and the regarding the efficiency of this tailored-made strategic commu- Deep and Comprehensive Free mechanism. Moreover, after neighborhood nications, the European Union Trade Agreement with the Eu- Russia’s annexation of Crimea is working on increasing its ropean Union (Georgia, Repub- in 2014 and the start of the what’s visibility and outreach in the lic of Moldova and Ukraine). conflict in the Eastern Ukraine, region. We can see a pragmat- The countries on the other side the Eastern Partnership has be- ic revitalization of the Eastern -- Belarus, Armenia, Azerbaijan come more a geopolitical rath- next? Partnership as the “one size -- are at various stages in their er than a technical mechanism. fits all” approach that has not cooperation with the Europe- ner countries to make prog- functioned, thus the discrep- an Union. Armenia declined to Considering the European ress toward diversified and ancies between the six part- sign the Association Agreement Union’s current internal prob- vibrant economies, to strength- ner countries have increased with the EU in 2013 and joined lems (from the influx of ref- en the institutions and good in relations with their reform the Eurasian Economic Union ED ugees, terrorists attacks, nego- governance, to promote trans- status, the progress of the po- in 2015, but for the past two tiations on Brexit, the rise of port interconnections between litical dialogue, the econom- years has negotiated a separate Euroskeptic, anti-European, the union and the EaP states, ic integration, and adoption agreement with the European and populist parties), one might and to further the mobility of the EU values and norms. Union. During the 2017 EaP raise the question if it’s not too and people-to-people contacts. Summit, the two parties also idealistic to assume that the Eu- Another change in the renewal signed a Comprehensive and ropean Union can be a promot- One might notice that this doc- of the Eastern Partnership is Enhanced Partnership Agree- er of stability, prosperity and ument represent an answer the abandonment of the ideal- ment. Azerbaijan has started security to its vicinity. In this from the European Union to ism that characterized the way the talks with the EU on a fu- regard, and with the purpose all the remarks that criticize the European Union conducted ture agreement and there are to present the EU as a norma- the Eastern Partnership as a its objectives in the region. We hopes for a Belarus-EU frame- tive power, the European Ex- failed policy initiative. Built on see a streamline of the union’s work as the relations grew ternal Action Service launched the mistakes of past policies, goals to small, realistic and warmer after the fall of 2015. 59 As this discussion of the dy- namics and complexities of the Eastern Partnership has unfolded, more and more ques- Classicization: tions arise. Should the Euro- pean Union preserve a unique model of good governance towards all the partner coun- tries of the European Union? Should it adopt country-based Garde Paradox models? How much is the EU The Avant HE concept of the represents a rebel, for whom en by an asset which is beyond paradox of the avant-gardes willing to compromise on its avant-garde can be defined the creative process demands the control of the artists: time. by seeing the common trig- values of human rights, rule Tin the context of the belle épo- the dismantling of any known If the supposed avant-garde ger of counter cultural move- of law, and free elections in or- que failure, during the last years structure of knowledge and passes the first two stages, then ments in the binomial relation der to preserve a political di- of the 19th and the beginning perception of the present. it can be analyzed through the between past and tradition. alogue with the partners who of the 20th century. European Thus, Saint-Simon created the third criteria: the value of the Thus, the concept of trend be- are accused of violating them? values were depreciating due to heritage of a militant division resultant anti-model of art. comes an important aspect in The answers are contested. a facade of cultural assets that of artists, whose sole purpose Thus, seeing the avant-gar- explaining the background and were developing as intellectu- was to create chaos out of or- des through Mann’s model, it the outcomes of each coun- What is the al standards. The avant-gard- der, only to reshape it into the can be stated that their evo- tercultural action. The way of Eastern Partnership? ists formed under a general perfect society built upon their lution reveals a cyclical par- dealing with the conflict be- manifesto against the present, own idealistic views of life. adox that takes them from tween old and new ensured HE Eastern Partnership promoting a future based antagonists of the old world the survival or condemned Tis the Eastern dimension upon modernity and vitality. Horst Waldemar Janson echoes to creators of a new tradition. the artistic trends, depending of the European Neighbour- Saint Simon’s 19th century view. on their values and purposes. hood Policy, an EU initiative The initial meaning of the He coined the definition of Doesn’t this mean the actual of promoting peace, good avant-garde was a military one; avant-garde for the 20th centu- death of the avant-garde spirit? Not every avant-garde intend- governance, stability and se- the inner logic of which was ry: “avant-garde needs, as a ba- A potential answer is given if ed to be ephemeral, as was the curity at its borders. Creat- defined by finding new ways sic context for its emergence, a we pay attention to the artis- case for the Dadaist movement. ed as a technical instrument forward through provocative traditional fixed society which tic movements that developed Most of them became new in 2009, the Eastern Partner- actions. The shift between the is publicly protecting the com- in the first half of the 20th cultural trends that classicized ship (EaP) was based on the military meaning (vanguard) mon sense; therefore, the soci- century. Almost every move- their art towards a fixed type need to have good relations to the artistic one (avant-garde) ety becomes easily offended by ment, starting from futurism of expression, consequently au- with the new neighbours of was made by Henri de Saint-Si- any form of art which leaves and ending with constructiv- to-limiting their freedom. The the Union (after the 2004 mon, in 1825, who believed that behind any canonic perspec- ism, built their values on rev- art of Kandinsky, Klee, Brân- and 2007 waves of enlarge- artists have a social role to play. tive of the mainstream values.” olutionary contexts or identi- cuşi and Picasso is proof that ment) by fostering bilateral Saint-Simon defined the artists tary crisis, which demanded classicization is not actually the relations to increase the polit- with the slogan, “We, the art- A better view, from a criterial new approaches towards so- end of an avant-gardist, but it ical association and econom- ists, are the ones who will be perspective, is provided by Paul ciety and art. Therefore, by can be a process of anchoring ic integration with 6 partner our own avant-garde”, seeing Mann, who brings forward a putting modernism between the values in the present, and countries (Armenia, Azerbai- them as creators of the new methodological approach in the mythology of self creation therefore a way of permanent- jan, Belarus, Georgia, Repub- world and destroyers of the identifying and defining the and the need for a firm ideo- ly creating a new tradition. lic of Moldova and Ukraine). cultural remnants of the past. avant-gardes. His analysis is logical structure, it becomes This motto was intended to based on three criteria. The first clear that all these movements Written by Alexandru Groza, a Written by Ionela Maria Ciolan, create a preface for the societ- one is represented by the status had an inner calling to be- Fulbright Visitng Student Re- a Fulbright Visiting Student Re- ies of the future, which would of the produced art, which has come a part of the vast pano- searcher at ISEEES, UC Berkeley searcher at ISEEES, UC Berkeley be born from this type of cul- to break the main frame into ply of literary and art history. tural awakening. It must not be a completely new form of cre- forgotten that an avant-gardist ation. The second aspect is giv- Harold Rosenberg widens the 60 61 Crossed Paths: a Reflection

HOSTS wander Warsaw’s reconstructed streets. GThe capital of Poland hums with a robust and divided po- litical ecosystem ignited by Hit- ler’s 1939 invasion. With help from the East, Nazis crushed the Polish opposition. In response, a resistance was forced under- ground that became split by po- litical, ethnic, and religious al- legiances. Gender also divided partisans; many still do not rec- ognize the women of the resis- tance as soldiers, even though they fought alongside the men.

These women’s stories can be found buried in the memoirs of Polish Jews, nationalists, and oirs in the depths of under- to be worthy of their sacrifices. communists. A little digging ground university libraries, Written by Kasia Metkowski and these heroic lives rise to the you can trace these women’s surface: Cezaria Ilyin Szymańs- paths; you can map out their ka, who shared her passion for hideouts, secret schools, loca- architecture in underground tions for hidden ceremonies, universities; Zofia Kubar, who and the sites of their sacrifices. abandoned her deeply rooted On this street, one woman lost cynicism after her friend saved her brother. Some blocks away, Original Compositions her life; Vladka Meed, who es- a whole Ghetto was destroyed. caped from her home country, Another partisan later darted disappointed in her neighbors’ across its ashes to light a can- inaction. Leokadia Rowińska, dle for her murdered friend. who, starving and wound- ed, watched her beloved city Many of the streets they fought burn and wondered how the on have been reconstructed to West could abandon Poland. pre-World War II standards. I can only hope that these wom- Through dust-covered mem- en’s ghosts find these replicas 62 ДВА БРАТА TWO BROTHERS Вениамин Эпштейн Benjamin Epstein

ИЛИ-БЫЛИ два брата в шли всё прямо и вперёд, а ещё Скоро он понял, что было так HERE once lived two broth- is to know the answer!” “Al- “It is nothing, young man,” Жлесу очень далеко отсюда. не нашли ничего. В этот момент, темно, что не мог видеть карту. Он Ters in a forest far, far away. right, forgive me,” answered the the bird replied, and flew off. Жили в маленьком коттедже с младший брат видел птичку, испугался потому, что ему было They lived in a little cottage younger brother. The brothers Soon he realized that it was so матерю, кто была беременна. которая летела над его головой. очень холодно. Он вдруг видел ту with their mother who was walked through forest, on and dark that he couldn’t read the with child. Every morning, the on, and still they found nothing. Каждое утро, братья вышли из дачу, которую он раньше видел. map. He was frightened because brothers left their home and At that very moment, the young- дома в лес собирать ягоды и грибы. «Можно спросить птичку про Он подошёл к даче, постучал it had grown very cold. Sud- went into the forest to gath- er brother saw a little bird who denly, he saw the very dacha дорогу?» спросил младший в дверь, и старуха открыла er berries and mushrooms. was circling above their heads. Один день, когда погода была брат. «Больше мне не спрашивай дверь. Она спросила «кто там?» from earlier. He knocked on the door and an old woman opened приятная, братья отправились этот вопрос! Я – старший брат, One day, when the weather “Can we ask the bird for direc- it and asked, “Who’s there?” из дома найти грибы и ягоды и моя работа – знать ответ» «Это я, младший брат. Я was nice, the brothers set out tions?” asked the younger broth- для ужина. По тёмному лесу ответил старший брат. Молодой потерялся и очень боюсь! Я не from home to find mushrooms er. “Don’t ask me that question “It’s me, the younger brother. I’m они ходили и искали до вечера. замолчал потому, что он был могу найти ни моего брата, ни and berries for dinner. They again! I’m the older brother, lost and I’m really scared! I can’t очень устал. Братья ходил и дорогу домой. У меня эта карта, trekked through the dark for- and my job is to know the an- find my brother nor the way К сожалению, братья не могли бродил, и всё стало темнее. но я не могу её читать потому, est and searched until evening. swer,” answered the older. The home. I have this map, but I can’t найти ничего. Они забоялись Через некоторое время, молодой что сейчас так темно!» плакал younger brother fell silent be- read it because it’s so dark out!” потому, что было поздно и брат понял, что он не мог видеть мальчик. Старуха передала ему Alas, the brothers couldn’t cause he was weary. The broth- cried the boy. The old woman стемнело. Младший брат его старшего брата. Он искал керосиновую лампу. Мальчик find a thing. They grew wor- ers continued to wander, as it handed him a kerosene lamp. The спросил старшего «Ты знаешь и громко назвал старшего, сказал «спасибо», долго смотрел ried because it was late and grew even darker. After some boy thanked the woman, took a дорогу домой, дорогой старший но он ничего не слышал. на карту, и потом отправился. had grown dark. The younger time, the younger brother real- long look at the map, and set brother asked the older, “do you ized that he had lost sight of his брат?» Старший ответил, «Ну, out in the direction of his home. know the way home, dear old- older brother. He looked around конечно я знаю. Я старший Молодой брат отправился Через два часа, мальчик видел, er brother?” The older broth- and shouted out to his older брат, и моя работа – знать обратно к птичке, которую сквозь мрак и деревья, своего After two hours, the boy made er replied, “Well of course I brother but he heard nothing. out through the darkness and ответ.» «Конечно, прости он раньше видел. «Извините маленький коттедж. Наконец, он know! I’m the older brother the trees his little cottage. Fi- меня» ответил младший брат. Птичка, я потерялся! Я не могу пришёл домой. Там в спальне and my job is to know the an- The younger brother head- nally, he had arrived. There найти ни грибы, ни ягоды, стоял доктор. «Здравствуйте, swer!” “Of course, forgive me,” ed back toward the little bird, in the bedroom stood a doc- Старший брат водил младшего ни дорогу домой, ни моего молодой человек, ваша answered the younger brother. whom he had seen earlier. “Ex- tor. “Greetings young man, по лесу, а они ещё не нашли старшего брата... Помогите мне, мама рожает ребёнка!» cuse me little bird, I am lost! I your mother is giving birth!” ничего. «Старший брат», сказал пожалуйста!» плакал мальчик. The older brother led the can’t find any mushrooms or ber- младший, «я думаю, что я видел «Не бойся, мальчик» ответила Мальчик ждал в зале. Когда younger through the forest, and ries, I can’t find the way home, The boy waited in the hall. дачу там сквозь деревья. Может Птичка, и дала ему карту. «Я ребёнок родился, Птичка still they found nothing. “Older and now I can’t find my older When the child was born, the быть, нам лучше спросить про нашёл эту карту, но мне не прилетела через окно и brother,” said the younger, “I brother. Please help me!” cried little bird from before flew in дорогу?» «Ни в коем случае!» нужна. Теперь, ты можешь приложилась на его плечо. think I saw a cabin over there the boy. “Don’t worry child,” an- through the window and land- ответил старший брат, «Нам найти дорогу домой.» «Спасибо, Она прошептала ему в ухо, through the trees. Maybe we’d swered the little bird, handing ed on the boy’s shoulder. She be better off asking for direc- him a map. “I found this map, ничего не надо спросить! Я спасибо большое, дорогая «Теперь ты – старший брат, whispered into his ear, “Now tions?” “Out of the question!” an- but I don’t need it. Now you can старший брат, и моя работа – знать Птичка!» сказал мальчик. «Не за и твоя работа – знать ответ!» you are the older brother, and swered the older brother. “We find your way home.” “Thank your job is to know the answer!” ответ.» «Хорошо, прости меня» что!» ответил Птичка, и улетела. don’t need to ask anything. I’m you! Thank you so much, dear ответил младший брат. Братья the older brother and my job little bird!” exclaimed the boy. 64 65 девятьсот nine hundred девятьнадцать nineteen

I. I. Валькирии спускаются с небес. Valkyries descend from the skies.

Разбита первая печать; в конец, The first seal is broken; in the end, Начало. Иконописный, белый конь, a beginning. A white horse, iconic, Царственным галопом, спешит к тебе. With a Kingly gallop, hurries to you. years лет Трубят рога! Зовут тебя наверх. The Trumpets sound! They call you upwards. Алексей Исаев Alexey Isayev Но Боже! Кто же на коне? But, God! Who is on the horse? Лицо не как у христианки! It is not a christian face! Хватай свой крест, что на груди; Grab your cross, that’s on your chest; Лицо Христа сожжёт твоих врагов! Christ’s face will burn your enemies!

Но как-же?! Что за чудо!? But how?! What’s this!? Валькирия взяла тебя, и усадила на коня. The valkyrie took you, and sat you on the horse. С прекрасной девой ты помчался ввысь, With the beautiful maiden you rushed heavenward, И приземлился на небосклоне. and touched down on the horizon.

Все, кто надеялся в конец, All who hoped, in the end, Увидеть бога, или дьявола, как дано To see the god, or devil, as was deemed Идут теперь сквозь великолепные Врата, Walk now through magnificent gates, Расписанные подвигами, битвами, и славой. Painted with heroic deeds, battles, and fame.

Меж них лежит дорога, и там, в дали, Between them lies a road, and there, in the distance, Ты видишь Древо, You see the Tree, Чьи корни наполняют мир, чьи ветви Whose roots fill the world, whose branches охватывают всё, чего не ждал. Cover all of which you did not expect.

Сидишь теперь за трапезным столом, You sit now at the banquet table, А на груди все тот же крест, и тот христос. And on your chest is still that cross and still that christ. И думаешь, рай не таков, возможно ад? And you think, this can’t be heaven, could it be hell? Но сладок мёд, и радостно веселие. But the mead is sweet, and the company is joyful.

Сомнении нет - Валхалла. There is no doubt - Valhalla. 67 Всю жизнь ты прожил в чистоте и правде, Your entire life you lived in purity and truth, И вот настал твой шанс! And then came your chance! Изгнать из праведной земли To drive from the holy soil, II. Неверующих: араб и басурман. The Unbelievers: Arabs and Pagans. Твой князь призвал тебя, и с ним пошёл ты. Your king called upon you, and with him you went. Великий крестный ход, весь мир христианский охватил, A great holy procession, which roused the entire Christian world, И толи Папа Римский, толи Византийский, And either the Roman Pope, or the Byzantine Pope, Праведных христиан повел, в священную войну. Led the righteous Christians into holy war.

Парус белый ликовал, над вашей баржей. The white sail rejoiced above your barge. Красный крест резвился на ветру. A red cross froliced in the wind. И видел ты, о божье создание, And you saw, oh god’s creation, Как сам господь бежал к враждебным берегам! How God himself ran to the enemy shores!

Сошли на берег, и дружную толпой, You stepped ashore, and in a friendly crowd, Вы поплелись. You trudged. Сожгли Никей и Антиох, You burned Nicaea and Antioch. И вот! Врата Иерусалима! And there! The gates of Jerusalem!

До них рукой подать! They were within arm’s reach! Но заперли прославленную дверь. But they locked the illustrious gate. За ней сидел Иуда, Behind it sat Judas, Сам дьявол подтолкнул засов. The devil himself pushed the bars closed.

Скорей! Вперед! На стены! Quick! Forward! To the Walls! Ты лез вверх, с тобою братья. You climbed up, your brothers with you. Залез на бастион, вступил ты в бой. You climbed the bastion, you entered battle. Рубил, колол, кромсал врага! Hacked, speared, mangled the enemy!

Но что-то по спине отдало, But something hit you in the back, И жаром тело оббежало. And your body exploded in heat. Упал. You fell. Братья твои, не взошли на вал. Your brothers did not reach the rampart.

68 69 Лежишь теперь ты на земле святой, валькирии спускаются с небес. И видишь ты, то лико басурмана, Что праведным мечом ты разорвал, Чье тело проклял-надеясь в ад.

И видишь ты, спускаются валькирии. Они возьмут тебя за меч, и уведут с собой. Внесут в божественные хромы, К столу, где Один сам, мед, пиво пьет.

III. Смотри! Смотри ты вниз! На поле ратном бой идет. Друзья твои взяли Иерусалим! И красный, божий крест подняли над землей.

А видишь, вон! Лежит твой враг, Его берет на грудь валькирия, влечет к вот этому столу. Тот, чей путь столь злостно ты пресёк, Глядит в глаза твои, теперь.

Когда сидишь, за праздничном столом, Ты понимаешь: Ад - Валхалла.

You lay now on the holy land, the Valkyries descending from the sky. And see the face of the foreign pagan, Whom with your righteous sword you cut down, While cursing him, damning him.

And you see the Valkyries descending. They will take you up by the sword, carry you away. They will bring you into the godly rooms, To the table, at which Odin himself drinks mead and beer.

Look! Below! The battle still rages. Your friends have taken Jerusalem! Now stands the red, godly cross they raised over the earth.

And still you see below! There lies your foe, From the zine of: A Valkyrie takes him on her breast and leads him to this table. kseniia leshchenko He, whose path you so maliciously cut short, Now gazes into your eyes.

As you sit behind the festive table, You understand: Hell is Valhalla 71 glass with their beaks, turning tricle drew a wildflower on the the transparent surface into a wall of her heart. Samuel wrote damp steam that would dissi- her many beautiful poems, and pate into thin air, then enter the even though she could under- dwelling and, sitting peacefully stand only a few of them, she on the inner window sill, begin knew they were lovely and that “Thus Spoke to sing. The melody crawled Samuel loved her very much. up on walls and down onto the floor, until the house became “Leaving? Where? full of microscopes and hu- Will you come back?” man eyes. Then the creatures would become bored and leave. *Tristan Tzara (born Samu- “Tzarathustra When Samuel “experienced” el Rosenstock) left Romania (or a short and naive surreal incursion in pre-war Romania) his first bird, he became mo- when he was 19. He was one rose. He knew that, in a coun- of the central figures of the try where most of the popula- Dada movement. Today, his tion was unable to read a poem name is used in Romanian to (not to mention write one), the mean “sad in the country”. Călina-Maria Moldovan birds could not survive. Roma- nia burned from conflict. The peasants had no power. They were, in fact, owned by the War. They want war, now, written a new poem about The girl rushed wealthy, who controlled every- when the birds have started you, you should read it.” to let the majes- thing and ruled everywhere. As to fly again... “But is it true?” tic bird fly free- if that weren’t enough, charla- “What?” ly, then grabbed tan doctors and personal faith he birds started to fly “The birds!” Samuel’s hand were often a sick man’s only again indeed. All around Pensively, Samuel looked and, smiling brightly, said: hope, since hardly any hospital the country, young po- at her with bleak, tormented could be found in the country- Tets and artists were terrorized eyes, and then sighed loudly. “But this is wonderful! Oh, side. And then the birds came. by them. Every line or paint “It is. Look.” dear God, so, so wonderful!” brush that touched the canvas, Samuel knew he couldn’t sur- every philosophical thought, He walked to his writing desk, The reappearance of the birds vive there. His lungs were full became a delightful drudgery. took out a pen and a sheet was tremendously marvelous to the brim with all kinds of of paper, and began to write. for the people who knew how birds, each struggling to be “Hold me,” said Vinea one Each letter that emerged would to tame them, since the beasts free. They used to climb into his day, while writing some- cause tiny iridescent particles to were wild and reckless. They head where you could see them thing about fishermen with sprout to Samuel’s eyes, carry- used to fly up into the sky until -- pelicans, storks, nightingales stars on their arms. “Hold ing with it an underlying feel- it fractured and split apart. Each -- behind his confused eyes, each me! I have something inside ing of agonizing pain, of being new fracture that emerged was desperate to fly, to become an my heart, inside my soul; it’s tortured. His hand was sliding further proof that the country endless and everlasting frenzy. trying to get out! It hurts!” furiously over the paper, con- was not yet ready for the birds. And then there was the war. Then a bird popped out of vulsive and spasmodic. Then, his mouth and they knew it he began coughing violently. The sparrows and other small “I am leaving. I’ve changed my was true: the birds were back. Seeing this, the girl looked at birds used to sneak into peo- name and I am living. The birds . him and began to cry. But, after ple’s houses and wreak un- are dying here and so am I.” “Samuel, is it real?” a few moments, there it was: a imaginable havoc. Windows “I’ve been waiting for you, tall, mighty, and pristine egret. did not stop them from enter- The girl looked bewildered. why did you come so late? I’ve “Open the window.” ing homes. They would tap the The blood in her right ven 72 73 Ծնունդ Birth Մէկ օր, ամէն կին հասկանում է One day every woman understands Որ իր մարմինը իրեն չի պատկանում: That her body does not belong to her Իր մազերը, անծանոդ- Her hair, unknown- Իր շորերը, օտար- Her clothes, foreign- Իր ժպիտը, տարօրինակ- Her smile, strange- Ինչպէ՞ս հասաւ այստեղ, որ իր էութիւնը իրեն զզուելի է: How did she reach this place, where her very existence is repulsive to her? Քո հայելիիդ առաջ կանգնիր, սիրելի, Stand in front of the mirror, dear, եւ մկրատդ բռնիր քո ձեռքիդ մէջ: And hold the pair of scissors in your hand. Առաջ, մազերը, անծանոդ- First, the hair, unknown- Gather your long, beautiful, styled hair, Երկար, գեղեցիկ, սարգուած մազերդ հաւագիր, And cut it off. եւ կտրիր: Next, the clothes, foreign- Յետոյ, շորերը, օտար- Cut the stylish, modest, feminine clothes Սուղ, համեստ, կանացի շորերդ From your body. կտրիր քո մարմնի վրայից: Finally, the smile, strange- Վերջապէս, ժպիտը, տարօրինակ- Cut the corners of your mouth with the scissors Մկրատով բերանիդ կոխքերը կտրիր Allow the smile, sweet, seductive, pretty ժպիտը, քաղցր, գրաւչական, սիրուն To fall from your face onto the floor. թող ընգնի երեսիցդ գետնի վրայ: But you still feel uncomfortable, yes, Բայց դեր անհանգիստ ես զգում, ա՞յո, անծանոդ քո մորդի մէջ: A stranger within your own skin? Մկրատը վերցրուր, համով, Take the scissors, darling, եւ մորդտ քանդիր քո մարմնից And tear the skin from your body որ պատեանի մը նման բացուի: So that it opens up like a shell. Քիթը, աչքերը, արմունկները, ծունգերը, The nose, the eyes, the elbows, the knees, Մատերը, ձեռքերը, ոտքերը, թուշերը, The fingers, the hands, the legs, the cheeks, The heart, the brain, the mind, the conscience, Սիրտը, խելքը, ուղեղը, խիղճը, Cut them off! Cut them off! կտրի՛ր, կտրի՛ր, And liberate yourself! եւ ազատուի՛ր: Finally, you will appear, Վերջապէս, կ‘երեւաս, Either strong, or weak, կամ ուժեղ, կամ թոյլ, Either hairy, or hairless, կամ մազոտ, կամ անմազ, Either in a long dress, or a short skirt, կամ երկար շորով, կամ կարճ փէշով, Either decorated, or plain. կամ զարդարուած, կամ պարզ: And thus, for the first time in your life, Եւ այսպէս, առաջի անգամը քո կեանքում You will know yourself. դու քո հետ կը ծանօթանաս: Welcome to the world. Բարի գալուստ: Written by Lillian Avedian 74 75 Photographs by Ioana Marinescu Forced Evictions

77 “It all happened so fast... We only had time to gather a few small things, a few necessities and get out... We lost our home...” These are the common phrases whispered by victims of homelessness and forced evictions. Such is the case for many people, especially in my motherland, Romania. On this matter, many articles and reports have been written, but unless we talk directly to someone who has gone through a horrible situation like this, it is hard to comprehend and empathize. My project tackles these issues and the horror of such situations. Because - it’s the small things that make the home...but what if you don’t have a home? Ioana Marinescu

Oh no, and not above an alien skydome, Not under foreign wing-sweep’s shroud - But stood together with my people, Where my sad people were then found. – 1961

79 Instead of Preface During the frightful years of Yezhovshina, I spent seventeen months within the prison lines of Leningrad. One day, there was a moment when someone "identified" me. And that's when a wom- I an with blue lips who stood directly behind me and who, naturally, had never in her whole life They were walking you out in the dawn time, heard of my name awoke from the stupor which came so organically to all of us and, leaning As if carried, behind you I stepped. IV close to my ear, asked me (there, everyone spoke in whispers): "And all of this, are you capable of In dark pantries the children were crying, If someone could then show that describing?" By God's altar the candle wax wept. Mocking girl, And I said: On your lips is the cold of an icon That lovely favorite of friends, "Yes, I am." Deathly sweat on your face... That jolly Royal Village sinner gal, That's when something slightly resembling a smile quickly slid over what was once her face. Can't forget! What some far day your life Around April 1957, And I will, like the guard archers' wifeys, Leningrad Would have become. Howl beneath Kremlin towers, lament. Show how, three-hundredth in a line, - November 1935, Moscow And with a package Dedication Introduction Beneath the Crosses you would stand, Before this sorrow mountain’s bend, This took place when the only ones smiling And how a falling tear, while growing heated, The one great river fails to flow; Were the dead ones, for stillness too glad - Your New Year's ice would burn away. II But toughly-latched are prison gates While, a useless appendage, meandered There, Softly flows the quiet Don, Across them are the slave-dug holes By its prisons our own Leningrad. Where a prison poplar wavers, bends, Yellow month enters the home. And a deathly yearning falls. And when, growing insane from their tortures, And not a sound. Sure, for some of us the winds still blow The convicted ones started to move, While just how many crimeless lives And the twilight bares its tender faces - And when whistles of trains kept on breaking Enters in a hat astray, There end right now... But we’re the same all over, we don’t know, Into quick separation-steamed tunes. Sees that yellow month the shade. Only hear that keys are scraping coldly When the deadliest stars hung above us, And the heavy steps that soldiers left. When so blamelessly grimaced the Russ Ill, this woman feels all wrong When we would rise as if to early supping, Under wheels of dark convict-filled train-cars, And this woman is alone. When we would tread across a capital debased And beneath all the blood-covered boots. And there would reconvene Husband buried, son in jail. V More breathless than the dead ones. For seventeen months now So while the sun sinks fast Would someone for my sake pray? - 1938 Do I yell and yell... And Neva River dons more fog, Back home I call you, Why, in the distance keeps on singing hope... To executioner's toes fell, The sentence drops... At once the tears would shoot; And from everyone I’ve become far, My son and horror. As if with my pain all of life they’d remove, Forever all became confused, Would remove from inside of my heart. III Can no more say, Or would push me askew, to my back, No, it isn't really I, Just who's the person, who the beast, Push me down. No, it's someone else who suffers, How soon the execution’s day. But still walks, walks along, Not this way, And only flowers brightly flash, Though wavering, she steps. Just couldn't I, The incensed ring, Walks alone, but walks ahead. And that thing, And then the steps that somehow stray, And where are they, unwilling girlfriends, The thing that happened, Stray into nothing. Of those two, my most bedeviled, years? Into my eyes directly stared What do they envision, sense, Let black branches hide with growth, And threatened of impending death Within Siberia’s swirled storms? Let the streetlamps nights cart off. And what do they hallucinate - 1939 A star grown bloated, vast. Within the circle of the moon? - 1939 For it is to them that I send out My farewell hello. - March 1940

80 81 VI Weeks are lightly fleeting by, IX What took place I can't divine... Already madness How, my son, into your prison With its wing These white nights would keep on peering, Half of my soul How these nights would glare, would look Is covering. With the hot eyes of a hawk Intoxicates with wine of flame, And of your exalted cross Invites into a blackened vale. And of death would surely talk. I understand now, that to him - Spring 1939 VIII I must give up this victory. To Death That to my alien, by now, I know you'll come for me one day - So why not now? Such alien nonsense And I await you - I must continue listening. It is so hard to carry on. I dimmed the lights and open the wide door And it won't let me take away For you, so simple and from wonders forged. Nothing at all So, take upon whatever form you want, Into that vale Commit a break-in with a poisoned gunshot (No matter how much I could ask it, Or slide by with a metal weight, No use, however desperate my pleas)... Just like some steely bandit, For neither the son's eyes, Or poison me with a typhoid disease... So frightening Or with a faerie tale, With stone-turned pity, Incessantly Imagined by you thus, Nor the day when finally the thunders came, And nauseatingly well-known Nor that lone hour of a prison date, To all of us - So that I'd see Neither his hands, Above the sky-blue hat With all their darling coldness Of a pale cowardly old housing head, Nor nervous shadows of the lindens, X That I no longer care. Nor distances The Crucifixion

Nor even easy-sounding words 1 VII Still swirls and swirls the River - Yenisey - Of final-most of comforts. "Weepeth not for Me, oh, mother, The Sentencing And shines, so luminous, the Northern star; - May the 4th, 1940 While in a casket Me seeith..." And then they dropped a word, Now those beloved eyes, their clear blue glimmer, The Fountain House Fashioned from stone, A final-most of horrors covers up. A choir of angels the great hour Right onto my still-living chest. - August 19th, 1939 Proclaimed and blessed, It's okay for, after all, I was ready; The Fountain House And heavens melted down in flames. Somehow I'd take care of all that. And unto Father did he say:

"Why have you, thus, forsaken me?!" Today I must finish, oh, so many things: And to the Mother: "Oh, but do not weep for me..." To slaughter my memory dead, - 1940, The Fountain House Embalm my old soul, make it turn into stone, 2 To learn how to live yet again. While Magdalene would toss and weep,

The pupil, favorite, would slowly turn to stone, And if not... But where, in silence, did the Mother keep, The summer's heated rustling Why, no one dared to glance there, Behind my window, like a holiday, Not at all. So long ago, I first foresaw within me - 1943, Tashkent This empty dwelling and this shining day. - June 22nd, 1939, The Fountain House

82 83 The Epilogue 1 I learned how faces shed themselves, How 'neath the eyelids fear would glance, How cuneiform's hard parchment pages Upon the cheeks would sorrow trace, How locks of hair from black and ashen Would turn to silver in a flash, And if, one day, within this very country On lips, resigned, would wilt a smile, A statue they would wish to build for me. In small dry laughter shivers fright. In favor of such celebrations, And all my prayers are not just for myself, I can’t help, but happily agree, But for each of the people But with a sole condition - Please do not build it Who would with me there stand, Where I was once born, beside the sea, Within those cold July's For my last link to sea I have now ripped, Or in that merciless cold, Nor by my Royal Village garden’s tree stump of belief Beneath the red and blinded wall. Where, so disconsolate, a shadow seeks and seeks for me, 2 But build it here, Again the hour of remembrance has neared. Where for three hundred hours I would stand, I see you and I feel I heard: Yet, they refused, in spite of all my wait, Both her, whom almost to the very window they would walk, To open for my pain that latch. And also her who would no longer tread her homeland's earth. For, even in the midst of blesséd death, And also her who, with her pretty head a'flaunt, I fear that I’d forget the rumble of the black Marusya trolleys, Would say: Forget the shutting of that heavy, "When I come here, why, Hate-constructed door, It now feels like home." And how, just like a wounded beast, I'd wish each one of them by their true name to call, An aging woman wailed and wailed some more... But they have confiscated all the lists, And let it be that from the still and bronzéd orbs Nowhere can one now learn such things. Like tears would stream that slightly melted snow, For them such broadened tapestries I wove And in the distance let him coo, Out of these poor words That prison dove, That I from them had overheard. While on the Neva River And I remember them wherever runs my way, Silent ships still make their path. In every time and place, - Around the 10th of March, 1940. And can't forget them anyways The Fountain House Whatever may be All these new calamities. And if they shut again my tortured mouth, With which a hundred million people now shout out, Let them recall me as I stood back then, And think of me on anniversaries Of my remembrance day.

84 Nekrasov to Lev Rubinstein.” New Zealand Slavonic Journal. Vol. 45. Is. 1. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23622173?pq-orig- site=summon&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents

Peredvizhniki: Art Through Folktales Gray, Rosalind P. Russian Genre Painting in the Nineteenth Century. Oxford University Press, 2000 appendix Gusyev, Vladimir. Fairy Tales in Russia. Palace editions Sankt Petersburg, 2001 Revolution and Edification in Mayakovsky’s Mystery Bouffe Layton, Jean, and Vladimir Fiala. Russian Painting of the 18th and 19th Centuries. Text by V. Fiala ... Translated by Aronson-Lehavi, Sharon. “’The End’: Mythical Futures in Avant-Garde Mystery Plays.” Theatre Research International Jean Layton. Prague, 1956. 34, no. 2: 116. 1 July 2009, MasterFILE Premier, EBSCOhost. Lebedev, Andrei. The Itinerants: Society for Circulating Art Exhibitions (1870-1923). Aurora, Leningrad. 1982 Deák, František. “The AgitProp and Circus Plays of Vladimir Mayakovsky.” The Drama Review: TDR 17, no. 1 (1973): Paston, Eleonora. Viktor Vasnetsov. Belyĭ Gorod Publishers, Moskva. 2000 47-52. doi:10.2307/1144791. Rice, Tamara. A Concise History of Russian Art. Frederick A. Praeger, New York. 1963 Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. “Mystery Play.” Encyclopedia Britannica, Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 3 Febru- Valkenier, Elizabeth Kridl. Ilya Repin and the World of Russian Art. Princeton University Press, 1990. ary 2015, https://www.britannica.com/art/mystery-play. Valkenier, Elizabeth Kridl. The Wanderers: Masters of 19th-Century Russian Painting ; an Exhibition from the Soviet Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. “New Economic Policy (NEP).” Encyclopedia Britannica, Encyclopedia Britannica, Union. Dallas Museum of Art, 1990. Inc., 10 June 2014, www.britannica.com/event/New-Economic-Policy-Soviet-history. Vasnetsov, Viktor. Pis’ma, novye materialy (Letters and new materials). Editor L Korotkina. ARS Publishing, St. Peters- Mally, Lynn. “Exporting Soviet Culture: The Case of Agitprop Theater.” Slavic Review 62, no. 2 (2003): 324-42. burg. 2004 doi:10.2307/3185580. Mayakovsky, Vladimir. The Complete Plays of Vladimir Mayakovsky, trans. Guy Daniels (New York: Washington Russia’s New Glasnost: A Comparative Study of the 1999 and 2011 Duma Elections Square Press, 1968). Mayakovsky, Vladimir and Mikhail Cheremnykh. All for Farming Equipment Repair Week! ROSTA window series Alexa. (2011). How popular is tvrain.ru? Retrieved from http://www.alexa.com/siteinfo/tvrain.ru #81. March 1921. https://library.brown.edu/cds/Views_and_Reviews/artist_lists/L-O.html#VM Belin, L. (2004, January 20). The Russian media in the 1990s. Journal of Communist Studies and Purkey, Lynn. “Alberti and Mayakovski: Subverting the Mystery Play.” The Comparatist 35 (2011): 107-32. http://www. Transition Politics. 1, 139-160. jstor.org/stable/26237264. Bilefsky, D. (2017, March 20). A Putin opponent is doused in green: he makes it work. Retrieved from https://www. Von Geldern, James. “Bolshevik festivals, 1917-1920.” (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993): 40-71, http://hdl. nytimes.com/2017/03/20/world/europe/russia-alexei-navalny-green.html?smid=tw-nytimes&smtyp=cur&_r=0 handle.net.libproxy.berkeley.edu/2027/heb.05392.0001.001. Carnaghan, E. (2007). Do Russians dislike democracy? Political Science and Politics, 40(1), 61-66. Beyond the Black Square: Malevich’s Ideological Development Chirikov, S. (2011, December 19). Vladimir Putin mocks Moscow’s condom-wearing protestors. The Guardian. Retrieved from http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/dec/15/vladimir-putin-mocks-moscow-protesters Chave, Anna C. “New Encounters with Les Demoiselles d’Avignon: Gender, Race, and the Origins of Cubism.” The CNN. (2001, April 10). NTV: timeline of events. Retrieved fromhttp://edition.cnn.com/2001/WORLD/europe/04/09/ntv- Art Bulletin, Vol. 76, Issue 4. (New York: 1994). https://search.proquest.com/docview/1296212873?pq-origsite=summon timeline/index.html Douglas, Charlotte, E.A. Petrova, and Kazimir S. Malevich. Trans. Sharon McKee. Malevich, Artist and Theoretician. Elder, M. (2011, December 7). Medvedev ‘tweet’ sends the Russian blogosphere into a frenzy. Retrieved from https:// (Flammarion: Paris). 1991. www.theguardian.com/world/2011/dec/07/medvedev-tweet-russian-blogosphere-frenzy “Fauvism.” MoMA Learning. (Museum of Modern Art: New York). Accessed online. https://www.moma.org/learn/ Englund, W. (2011, December 6). Russian blogger Alexei Navalny in spotlight after arrest. Retrieved from https://www. moma_learning/themes/fauvism washingtonpost.com/world/europe/russian-blogger-alexei-navalny-in-spotlight-after-arrest/2011/12/06/gIQA5tZPZO_story. Galenson, David W. “Two Paths to Abstract Art: Kandinsky and Malevich.” Russian History, Vol. 35, Issue 1-2. (Brill: html?utm_term=.3983a92cdb83 Pittsburgh). 2008. Enikolopov, R. (2011). Media and political persuasion: evidence from Russia. The American Economic Review, 101(7), Janecek, Gerald. The Look of Russian Literature: Avant-Garde Visual Experiments 1900-1930. Princeton: Princeton 3253-3285. University Press). 1984. EuroNews. (2011, November 21). Putin booed at Moscow martial arts event. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/ Janecek, Gerald. Zaum: The Transrational Poetry of Russian Futurism. (San Diego: San Diego State University Press). watch?v=nS48UuVXbjQ&ab_channel=euronews(inEnglish) 1996. Green, S. (2012, May). Twitter and the Russian street: memes, networks, & mobilization. “Kazimir Malevich.” Guggenheim Collection Online. (New York). https://www.guggenheim.org/artwork/artist/Kazi- Moscow: The Center for New Media and Society. International Telecommunications Union. (2012). Percentage of indi- mir-Malevich viduals using the internet.Retrieved from http://data.un.org/Data.aspx?d=ITU&f=ind1Code%3aI99H#ITU Kruchenykh, Aleksei, Anna Lawton and Herbert Eagle, Translators and Editors, ed., “Declaration of Transrational Levada. (2016, September 29). Использование интернета. Retrieved from http://www.levada.ru/2016/09/29/ispolzovanie-in- Language.” Words in Revolution: Russian Futurist Manifestoes 1912-1928. (Washington: New Academia Publishing). terneta-2/ 2005. Levada. (2016, November 9). Political debate and the role of the media. Retrieved from http://www.levada.ru/ Lauf, Cornelia. “Kazimir Malevich: Morning in the Village after Snowstorm.” Guggenheim Collection Online. (New en/2016/11/09/political-debate-and-the-role-of-the-media/ York). https://www.guggenheim.org/artwork/2598 Levada. (2016, November 18). Доверие СМИ и цензура. Retrieved from http://www.levada.ru/2016/11/18/doverie-smi-i- Malevich, Kazimir. “From Cubism and Futurism to Suprematism: The New Painterly Realism.” tsenzura/ Russian Art of the Avant Garde Theory and Criticism 1902-1934, edited and translated by John E. Bowlt. (Viking Lim, M. (2013). Framing Bouazizi: ‘white lies’, hybrid network, and collective/connective action in the 2010–11 Tunisian Press: New York). 1976. uprising. Retrieved from http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1464884913478359 Malevich, Kazimir S., Simon Baier, Britta Dumpelmann, and Antonia W. Bouis. Kazimir Malevich: The World As Lipman, M. (2013). The media and political developments. In Wegren, S. (Ed.), Return to Putin’s Russia: past imperfect, Objectlessness. 2014. future uncertain (5th ed.), (125-145). Plymouth, UK: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. Mayakovsky, Vladimir, et al. “Slap in the Face of Public Taste.” Russian Futurism through Its Manifestoes, 1912-1928, Mickiewicz, E.P. (2008). Television, power, and the public in Russia. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. edited by Anna Lawton and translated by Anna Lawton and Herbert Eagle. (Cornell University Press: Ithaca, NY). Navalny, A. (2011, December 24). Alexei Navalny at the meeting. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/ 1988. watch?v=nEGJ0wcPYQc&ab_channel=Aza “Victory Over the Sun: Early Twentieth Century Russian Drama.” Northwestern University Department of Slavic Navalny, A. (2013, August 6). Anatomy of a protest. Moscow, RU: Algorithm. Languages and Literatures. (Illinois: Northwestern University). http://max.mmlc.northwestern.edu/mdenner/Drama/ New York Post. (2012, March 5). Anti-Putin protestors arrested as disputed election sparks mass plays/victory/1victory.html rally. Retrieved from http://nypost.com/2012/03/05/anti-putin-protesters-arrested-as-disputed-election-sparks-mass-rally/ Wicks, Robert. “Arthur Schopenhauer.” The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (Stanford). 2017. Accessed online. Nisbet, E, & Stoycheff, E., & Pearce, K. (2015, February). Benchmarking public demand: Russia’s appetite for internet https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/schopenhauer/#Bib control. Journal of Communication. 62(2), 249-265. Janecek, Gerald. “The Roots and Development of Moscow Conceptualist Poetry: From VS. NTV. (2012, March). Anatomy of a protest. Retrieved from http://www.ntv.ru/video/peredacha/296996/ 86 87 Oates, S. (2006). Framing fear: Findings from a study of election news and terrorist threat in Russia. Europe-Asia Dragan Plavsic. “Montenegro And Serbia Between NATO And Russia”. 2016. Lefteast. http://www.criticatac.ro/lefteast/ Studies, 58(2), 281-290. montenegro-and-serbia-between-nato-and-russia/. Oates, S. (2014). Russia’s media and political communication in the digital age. In White, S., Flockhart & Trine. “Constructivism and Foreign Policy.” in Foreign Policy. edited by Smith, Steve, Amelia Hadfield, Sakwa, R., & Hale, H. (Ed.), Developments in Russian politics (pp. 130-144). Durham, NC: Duke University Press. and Timothy Dunne. Oxford: Oxford university press. 2012. Accessed June 16, 2017. https://www.ou.edu/uschina/gries/ Oates, S. (2007). The neo-soviet model of the media. Europe-Asia Studies, 59(8), 1279-1297. articles/Flockhart.2012.Constructivism.pdf Oates, S. (2006). Television, democracy, and elections in Russia. London, UK: Routledge. Ikenberry, John. “Security Communities.” Foreign Affairs. June 18, 2017. Accessed June 18, 2017. https://www.foreignaf- Russian Federal Agency. (2011). Интернет в России: состояние, тенденции и перспективы развития.Society of Professional fairs.com/reviews/capsule-review/1999-07-01/security-communities. Journalists. (2014, September 6). SPJ code of ethics. Retrieved from http://spj.org/ethicscode.asp Sekularac Budva, Ivana. “NATO to welcome Montenegro to the defence alliance in first expansion of membership in Soldatov, A. (2011, December 9). Vladimir Putin’s cyber warriors. Retrieved from https://www.foreignaffairs.com/arti- eight years.” The Independent. May 22, 2017. Accessed June 19, 2017. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/ cles/russia-fsu/2011-12-09/vladimir-putins-cyber-warriors nato-montenegro-join-defence-new-member-expansion-first-eight-years-north-atlantic-treaty-a7749526.html. Stepanova, E. (2011, May). The role of information communication technologies in the “Arab Spring.” PONARS Eur- Marcus, Jonathan. “Montenegro: NATO’s Newest and Last Member?”. 2016. BBC News. Accessed September 14, 2017. asia, 1-6. Retrieved from http://pircenter.org/kosdata/page_doc/p2594_2.pdf http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-36311644. Treisman, D. (1998). Dollars and democratization: the role and power of money in Russia’s March, James G., and Olsen, Johan P. “The New Institutionalism: Organizational Factors in Political Life.” The Amer- transitional elections. Comparative Politics, 31(1), 1-21. ican Political Science Review 78, no. 3. 1984. p. 734-749. Accessed June 18, 2017. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1961840?se- TV Rain. (2013, January 14). Navalny’s reply to the FSB: Anatomy of a Protest lied, the State Department did not pay q=1#page_scan_tab_contents for the protest. Retrieved from https://tvrain.ru/teleshow/here_and_now/navalnyj_poluchil_otvet_fsb_anatomija_protes- Montenegro Independence. “Visit Montenegro”. January 18, 2017. Accessed June 19, 2017. http://www.visit-montenegro. ta_lgala_gosdep_ne_platil_za_bolotnuju-335244/ com/montenegro/montenegro-independence/. TV Rain. (2011, December 8). Putin called the protest street democracy. Retrieved fromhttps://tvrain.ru/teleshow/here_ NATO Fact Sheet. n.d. Accessed June 10, 2017. http://www.nato.int/nato_static_fl2014/assets/pdf/pd- and_now/putin_nazval_miting_protesta_ulichnoy_demokratiey-112214/ f_2016_07/20160627_1607-factsheet-enlargement-eng.pdf White, S. (2014). The electoral process. In White, S., Sakwa, R., & Hale, H. (Ed.), Developments in Russian politics (pp. NATO. “Enlargement.” NATO. June 16, 2017. Accessed June 19, 2017. http://www.nato.int/cps/da/natohq/topics_49212.htm. 60-76). Durham, NC: Duke University Press. NATO. “NATO Summit Guide- Warsaw, 8-9 July 2016.” NATO. 2016. p. 260-263. Accessed June 19, 2017. http://www.nato. White, S., Oates, S., & McAllister, I. (2005). Media effects and Russian elections, 1999-2000. British Journal of Political int/nato_static_fl2014/assets/pdf/pdf_2016_07/20160715_1607-Warsaw-Summit-Guide_2016_ENG.pdf Science, 35(2), 191-208. NATO. “Relations with Montenegro.” NATO. June 12, 2017. Accessed June 19, 2017. http://www.nato.int/cps/cs/natohq/ topics_49736.htm INTERVIEW WITH A HUNGARIAN FREEDOM FIGHTER Official website of Montenegro’s Foreign Affairs Ministry. n.d. Accessed June 19, 2017. http://www. mvp.gov.me/minis- tarstvo/spoljno-politicki-prioriteti “The 16 Points.” 22 Oct. 1956, American Hungarian Federation, Web. Onuf, Nicholas. World of Our Making: Rules and Rule in Social Theory and International. 1989. Bedekovics, Greta. “Interview with Istvan Kiss.” Sept. 2012 Associated Press in Podgorica. “Montenegrin prosecutor says Russian nationalists behind alleged coup plot.” The Kincaid, Jamaica. A Small Place. 2000 edition, Farrar, Straus, Giroux, 1988 Guardian. November 06, 2016. Accessed June 19, 2017. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/nov/06/montene- Kovács, Zsóka, et al. “The Heroes of 1956: The Girl, Who Was Already Dead When Her Photo Went around the gro-prosecutor-milivoje-katnic-russian-nationalists-behind-alleged-coup-plot. World.” Daily News Hungary, 20 July 2017, Web. Hinnebusch, Raymond. “Identity in International Relations: Constructivism versus Materialism, and the Case of the Lister, Tim. “Refugees Follow Path of Hungarians in 1956.” CNN, Cable News Network, 7 Sept. 2015, Web. Middle East”. The Review of the International Relations, Vol.3, No.2, Winter 2003, p. 360. Accessed June 16, 2017. Reid, Susan. “The Soviet Pavilion at Brussels ’58: Convergence, Conversion, Critical Assimilation, or Transculturation?” https://www.researchgate.net/publication/247506636_Identity_in_International_Relations_Constructivism_versus_Mate- Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, Dec. 2010. Web. rialism_and_the_Case_of_the_Middle_East Petőfi, Sándor. “National Song”. Trencsenyi, Balazs, and Michal Kopecek. National Romanticism: The Formation of Hunter, Robert E. “NATO Enlargement? The Case of Montenegro”., 1993-98. 2017. europeaninstitute.org. Accessed National Movements: Discourses of Collective Identity in Central and Southeast Europe 1770-1945, volume II. Buda- June 16, 2017. http://www.europeaninstitute.org/index.php/ei-blog/251-european-affairs/ea-april-2015/2023-nato-enlarge- pest: Central European University Press, 2007. (pp. 440-444) Web. ment-the-case-of-montenegro. UN General Assembly, Special Committee on the Problem of Hungary”, “Chapter V footnote 8”, 1957, PDF. Saine, Cindy. “US Congratulates Montenegro on NATO Membership.” VOA. June 05, 2017. Accessed June 19, 2017. Vajta, Zoltán. “Ez a Lány Lett Az 56-Os Forradalom Arca.” Blikk.hu, 29 Oct. 2016, Web. Images https://www.voanews.com/a/montenegro-officially-joins-nato/3888557.html. Sputnik. “Why Montenegro’s Accession to NATO Doesn’t Mean Russia’s ‘Defeat’” Sputnik International - Breaking “TIME Magazine Cover: 1957 Man of the Year.” TIME, Web. News & Analysis - Radio, Photos, Videos, Infographics. March 30, 2017. Accessed June 19, 2017. https://sputniknews. “Hungarian Flag with a Hole.” Korean Herald, Fortepan, 14 Nov. 2016, Web. com/politics/201703301052125817-montenegro-nato-russia/. Hansen, Vagn. “Erika, Hungarian Freedom Fighter 1956.” The Daily News Hungary, 17 Oct. 2016. Hopf, Ted. “The promise of constructivism in International Relations theory”. 1998. “Hungary Map.” Google Maps. van Evera, Stephen. “Guide to Methods for Students of Political Science”. Ithica and London: Cornell University “Ruszkik Haza.” Fortepan, Fortepan, Web. Press. 1997. “Vandalized Stalin Statue.” American Hungarian Federation, Oct. 1956. many thanks to my father, Alexander Elyon, for letting Troika use photos from his childhood in the Soviet Union MONTENEGRO’S ACCESSION: A HISTORIC TURN IN THE FUTURE OF NATO ENLARGEMENT PROCESS -Leo “Study on NATO Enlargement”. 2017. NATO. Accessed June 16, 2017. http://www.nato.int/cps/po/natohq/official_ texts_24733.htm. Slaughter, Anne-Marie. “International Relations, Principal Theories.” in Wolfrum, R. (Ed.) Max Planck. Encyclope- dia of Public International Law. Oxford University Press. 2011. Accessed June 16, 2017. https://www.princeton.edu/~- slaughtr/Articles/722_IntlRelPrincipalTheories_Slaughter_20110509zG.pdf Associated Press in Cetinje. “Montenegro Ratifies NATO Membership in Historic Shift to Western Alliance”. 2017. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/apr/28/montenegro-ratifies-nato-membership-in-histor- ic-shift-to-western-alliance. Braithwaite, Rodric. “NATO enlargement: Assurances and misunderstandings.” ECFR. July 07, 1970. Accessed June 19, 2017. http://www.ecfr.eu/article/commentary_nato_enlargement_assurances_and_misunderstandings. Brunnstrom, David. “Russia threatens retaliation as Montenegro becomes 29th NATO member.” Reuters. June 05, 2017. Accessed June 19, 2017. http://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-nato-montenegro-idUSKBN18W2WS. 88 89 spring 2018