Appendix Sources, Selection, Classification of Metaphors

Home , Adrienne Kennedy, Alan Burns (author), Larry Wilde, William Packard (author)

Appendix Sources, Selection, Classiﬁcation of Metaphors

Sources

The metaphors I examine are drawn from a wide range of literary interviews of the type made famous by The Paris Review. I examined some 3000 interviews with contemporary authors. The interviews were all published from 1965–1995, the majority in the 1970s and 1980s. As I indicate in the chapter on authorship, there have been historical changes in the role of the authorship, writing, and conceptions of the writing process, and my concern is only with contemporary “cultures of writing.” I focus, then, on interview discourse published during the recent past; I suspect that future interviews will reflect changing conditions for writing, particular changing technology. In only about half of the interviews did writers discuss their writing processes—some 1460 interviews with about 1035 different writers. In a few cases, the interview was a translation; such interviews were still used because they represent a contribution to the “cultures of writing” of English speakers. Once translated, they become part of the discourse of writers’ interviews in English—one discursive arena for demonstrating conceptions of composing. My own definition of “author” in this project is both simple and “opera- tional”: authors, for the purposes of this project, are those writers interviewed about their writing activities and ideas, with their interviews subsequently published in journals or books. They are a subset of published writers perhaps most accurately described as “interviewed authors.” Because my interest here is to examine authors’ discourse on the activities of intellectual labor, I sidestep con- sideration of the quality of the texts authored by those interviewed (whether considered “literary” or not, for example). For my purposes, the structured affinities in the discourse community of writing commentary are more important to understand than the individual achievements and aesthetic triumphs of any one author. Thus this project is not specifically “literary,” though its subject is authorship and representations of the activities of literary writing. Interviewed authors are primarily notable novelists and poets, but they also include journalists, historians, and writers of mysteries, science fiction, and children’s stories, writers often overlooked by studies of writing activity. Thus there are interviews with authors of poetry, fiction, non-fiction, plays, with authors who vary in nationality, ethnicity, and gender. All are published writers; many are distinguished and well-known; most are writers of fiction or poetry, though they often write in other genres also. Some are authors of genre fiction or local authors. Not all “expert,” or “professional” writers are published (skilled engi- neers writing reports, for example); not all “published” writers are interviewed

132 Sources, Selection, Classification of Metaphors 133 in the corpus (few journalists and historians, for example). Most interviewed authors have written in several genres, some have had several nationalities and written in several languages. My arguments based on this evidence are designed to elucidate concepts of composing specifically in recent contemporary “cultures of writing.” My concern is with discursive practices, with shared social imaginaries inflected by individuals. I move back and forth between the two but am not concerned with developing an understanding of an individual writer or “schools” of shared interests.

Selection

The contemporary figurative discourse about “composing processes” or “writing processes” that I examine concerns itself with writerly activity and daily authorial creativity, with reports on the prosaic intellectual labors that make up people’s writing lives. These activities include the various behaviors, acts, events, pro- cedures, and processes that writers engage in order to complete the thinking and inscribing that get words “on the page” and “to readers.” The metaphors I examine situate the act or process of writing as a movement, an action, an integrated sequence of activities, a series of steps, or flux. This “definition” of “writing processes” is necessarily provisional, revealed primarily in the detailed discussion of major themes found in subsequent chapters, but emphasizes engagement with text production, particularly that sustained over time. In selecting metaphors for the writing activities as processes, I exclude figurative language about poetic philosophies, poetic principles, the “product” of writing, readers’ responses, issues of style, and the nature of “craft” judgments (though these all are influential in writing). The following examples demonstrate the distinction I make between metaphors for composing activities and metaphors for other matters of concern to writers. For each author, the first instance that follows is the kind of comment on “process” included in the corpus; the second is the kind of “stylistic” comment that is not. In the examples I provide below, the authors have used similar words but in two different ways. The first, I argue, refers to an activity of thinking and producing text; the second refers, rather, to features or qualities of texts.

Gore Vidal (1) I write in different styles because I hear different voices in my head. (1980, p. 74) (2) It would be boring to have always the same voice, point of view. (1980, p. 74)

In the ﬁrst instance Vidal describes something that happens in the writing process. In the second instance he characterizes an effect of the text.

James Dickey (1) … in the process of writing, it’s absolutely necessary that [the poet] surrender himself and ﬂow with the poem wherever it may go instead of trying to order it in the early stages. (1970, p. 91) 134 Appendix

(2) I worked with the anapest a great deal because I liked it, and because it seems to me to have a carrying ﬂow as well as its well-known hypnotic quality. (1970, p. 48)

In the ﬁrst instance Dickey describes something that happens in the poet’s process: he “surrenders,” he moves along with the poem in a certain manner. In the second instance he characterizes an effect of the poem.

Robert Frost (1) A real poem … is a sort of idea caught in dawning: you catch it just as it comes. Think it out beforehand and you won’t write it. (1966 Bracker, p. 276) (2) If there isn’t any surprise for the poet in writing it [a poem] … there won’t be any for the reader. A poem should have a quality of dawning. (l966 McKenna, p. 117)

In the ﬁrst instance Frost describes something that happens in the poet’s process: he “catches” an idea at the moment the idea is coming into being. In the second instance he characterizes an effect of the poem. To understand fully the functions of composing process metaphors within the interview would require considerable knowledge that is unavailable, since part of those functions stems from authors’ intentions and readers’ responses. Authors’ intentions, often complex and to some degree unavailable, cannot be ascertained fully from the text. Readers, of course, don’t respond to texts uniformly: individual readers participate in different social and linguistic communities and interact with the world according to their own knowledge and interpretations. Some readers will recognize instances as “metaphorical puzzles,” while others will consider the statements merely to be accurate representations of “reality.” Not all readers will approve of an author’s invitation to “puzzle out” a proffered metaphor, or approve of the view that the metaphor promotes—and consequently may not feel themselves in community with the writer. When authors intend to be instructive, readers may take them to be patronizing; when authors intend to locate themselves within a tradition of metaphorical stories, readers may taken them to be banal; when authors intend to be novel, readers may take them to be posturing and pretentious. My own efforts are simply those of a relatively practiced interpreter.

Classiﬁcation

I am concerned with the production of the metaphorical stories and their setting rather than with the speciﬁcs of readers’ reception of them. Notes

2 Composing and Metaphoricity

1. Concepts of truth are important to the way we consider subjectivity and vice versa. There are tensions, then, between concepts of subjectivity that reflect this tension between a “deep” truth, perhaps eternal, and the concept of truth as multiple and changing. Arnold’s poem, by using imagery of buried life as well as imagery of the flowing, ever changing river, straddles these notions. I am not arguing that “The Buried Life” is a poem about writing processes, but about language, the self, and self- knowledge—all of which are important to the ways writing processes have been considered. According to Tinker and Lowry (1950), from 1852–1877, line 54 read, “our thoughts come” rather than “our lives come” (the first phrasing encourages the use I make of this section of the poem). Stange (1973) and Levine (1973) discuss nineteenth-century writers’ negative attitudes toward the city. Culler (1966) and Roper (1969) discuss Arnold’s landscapes, including subterranean rivers. Riede (1988) points out that the central metaphor of “The Buried Life,” like that of Coleridge’s “Kubla Khan,” is a “subterranean river that casts up mysterious voices” (p. 192). Miller (1987) discusses the complications of using river metaphors connected to the passage of time. Miyoshi (1969) and Stange (1967) discuss the “divided self,” or the two selves of Arnold, Stange connecting Arnold’s conceptions to those of Freud and Jung. The desire for the mysterious inner gulf that is impossible to know is a motive principle, here, for poetry and for one’s very being. I am not arguing that Arnold was unaware that writing also involved labor. 2. As Etienne Balibar has argued, “All identity is individual, but there is no individual identity that is not historical or, in other words, constructed within a field of social values, norms of behavior and collective symbols…. The real question is how the dominant reference points of individual identity change over time and with the changing institutional environment” (Balibar, 1991, p. 94). The language of “inner” and “depth” so prevalent in discussions of individuality and selfhood resonates with the language of many psychological theories that help shape the way people envision themselves. See Rose (1990) on how theories of psychology shaped the concept of the self; see Pfister and Schnog (1997) for a discussion of the growth of Freudian thinking in America. 3. Christopher Herbert (1991) comments on Wittgenstein’s questioning of the ascription of “depth” to rituals. Wittgenstein noted, when commenting on the Beltane fire-festival discussed in Frazer’s Golden Bough, that the effect of depth is not in the practices themselves, but in the observer’s interpretation of their place in a valued historical tradition. The resonance of depth stems, then, not from the rhetoric of the practices, but from that which the interpreter attributes to the practices (1979).

135 136 Notes

4. Law (1993) provides an account of how empiricist philosophers used metaphors of “depth.” Pﬁster (1995) shows how the rhetoric of discussions of Eugene O’Neill created an effect of “psychological depth” in the man and his writings. 5. Theories of inspiration—along with all theories of writing and revision—are not prominent in contemporary literary scholarship, where discussions of inspiration are generally subsumed under historical and philosophical theories of imagination. But concepts of inspiration hold great importance in more general contemporary “cultures of writing,” sites for those who read literary texts and interviews with authors or who attend authors’ readings (aspects of the apparatus of authorship I discuss in Part II). The readers of literary interviews may be professional literary or cultural critics, theorists, or analysts, but are far more likely to be those actively engaged as readers with the intent of “appreciating” texts and authors. Metaphorical stories of inspiration enhance readers’ appreciation of texts they have enjoyed and position them as participating by their knowledge in “backstage” events of processes of composing. Readers’ interest in these backstage processes encourages the enormous body of literary interviews published each year. It also forms a ready audience for discussions of creativity or invention that use such accounts as exemplars, a genre that is widespread in popular reading and is also tightly linked to the desire of many readers to become writers themselves; their desire has generated a further industry of self-help books about creativity and writing, many of which draw explicitly on metaphorical stories of inspiration as well as the buried life of the mind. 6. Timothy Clark, brieﬂy discussing accounts of “possession” and “inspiration” by George Sand, George Eliot, Madame de Stael, and others, makes this comment in explaining the appeal of anecdotes of inspiration:

there has been a very ready market for these kinds of anecdote. They form part of bourgeois culture’s sacralisation of the writer as unique individual that has made literary culture increasingly part of the tourist industry, in its most obvious form sending the droves up the hill to Haworth parsonage. Romanticism exalted creativity as the object of a new mythology. Anecdotal accounts of moments of sudden illumina- tion in the life of a “great man” have now become a mini-genre in their own right, cited again and again in discussions of creativity or invention … Such accounts, like many nineteenth-century accounts of inspiration, conﬁrm a basically liberal conception of personhood—inspiration is invariably the “liberation” of a supposedly truer or deeper self from out of the pressures of convention, cliché, tradition, false thinking or inauthenticity. The fascination of these episodes lies in their seductive status as modern versions of miracle. Glimpses of the creative process remain like brief visions of the promised land. (1997, p. 5)

7. MUSE OR UNKNOWN CREATOR: “MUSE”: Milton Acorn (1984), John Arden (1966), W. H. Auden (1977), John Barth (1982), Michael Benedikt (1977), Joseph Campbell (1988), Notes 137

Raymond Carver (1988 Schumacher), Robertson Davies (1989), James Dickey (1979), Donald Hall (1974), Jim Harrison (1988), Seamus Heaney (1981), John Hollander (1983), Erica Jong (1974), Norman Lear (1975), Eve Merriam (1987), W. S. Merwin (1984), Stanley Plumly (1989), Tom Robbins (1987), May Sarton (1984), Stevie Smith (1966), Gary Snyder (1977), Elizabeth Spencer (1989), Gerald Stern (1982), D. M. Thomas (1988), Anne Waldman (1979), Theodore Weiss (1985), Nancy Willard (1989), Paul Zimmer (1989). SOME KIND OF “ANGEL” or “SAINT”: John Arden (1966), John Coulter (1978), Allen Ginsberg (1974 Fortunato), Nancy Lemann (1988), Marguerite Yourcenar (1984). “THAT THING THAT IS BEHIND THE MUSE, THAT KEEPS IT UNDER CONTROL”: Robert Penn Warren (1966). THE “ORIGINAL MIND IS DOING IT, HAVING GOT IT FROM THE MUSE”: Gary Snyder (1977). “THE COURIER BETWEEN THE REALM OF THE OTHER AND THE PART OF ME THAT WRITES MESSAGES”: Mark Strand (1983). GOD, THE GODS: James Dickey (1979), Lawrence Durrell (1973), Richard Eberhart (1979 Donoghue), Tess Gallagher (1987). A GREAT SPIRIT, A SPIRITUAL WIND: Milton Acorn (1984), Richard Eberhart (1979 Cannito), Allen Ginsberg (1974 Duncan). FAR CHAOS: Robert Morgan (1989). A VERY ANCIENT PRESENCE: W. S. Merwin (1984). AN ANCESTRAL IMAGINATION: N. Scott Momaday (1989). THE MYSTERIOUS OTHER LIFE: Russell Edson (1977). THE PRIMITIVE PROMPTER: Saul Bellow (1977). THE VATIC VOICE: Donald Hall (1983). THE LIZARD: Frederick Manfred (1974). THE “OLD GOAT”: Frederick Manfred (1974). 8. UNKNOWN PLACE: FROM “NOWHERE” OR “SOMEWHERE UNKNOWN”: Max Apple (1987), Lucy Boston (1974), Truman Capote (1977), Rita Dove (1989), Margaret Drabble (1973), John Fowles (1976), Stanley Kunitz (1974 Ryan), Lou Lipsitz (1977), Elizabeth Spencer (1982), William Trevor (1989), James Wright (1975) 138 Notes

“OUT OF THE BLUE/ AIR/ SKY”: Lucy Boston (1974), Richard Eberhart (1978, 1979 Cannito), James Laughlin (1989), Jerome Rothenberg (1974), Eudora Welty (1985 Millsaps), Marguerite Yourcenar (1984) “FROM HEAVEN, IT FELT LIKE,” “LIKE THE HEAVENS PARTING”: Truman Capote (1985), Tina Howe (1987), James Leigh (1976), Mary Stewart (1964) “FROM THE BEYOND”: James Laughlin (1989) “DESCENDED,” “FROM THE CLOUDS”: Chukwuemeka Ike (1976), Casey Robinson (1986) “FROM BENEATH”: Wilson Harris (1981). 9. VESSEL, INSTRUMENT, VEHICLE, MEDIUM: These authors include Lilianne Atlan (1987), John Barth (1982), Mick Burrs (1988), Jean Cocteau (1977), Robertson Davies (1989), Richard Eberhart (1978, 1979 Donoghue, 1979 Cannito, 1979 Broughton), Louise Erdrich (1987), Irvin Faust (1978), Russell Hoban (1985, 1987), John Irving (1986), Steve Katz (1983), Stanley Kunitz (1974 Ryan), Norman Mailer (1977), Henry Miller (1977), Gloria Naylor (1993), Gregory Orr (1989), Stanley Plumly (1989), May Sarton (1984), Gary Snyder (1978), Michael Waters (1989), Eudora Welty (1985 Cawthon), Marguerite Yourcenar (1984). 10. In the original formulations, invocations to divine sources were part of the poem itself, a gesture of appreciation and desire. Abrams (1953), Clark (1997), and Curtius (1953) all discuss the history of invocations to the muses, including arguments about the muses and their influences in Plato’s Phaedrus and Ion. Curtius notes that the muses were already used “ironi- cally” in the Latin Middle Ages. 11. See also authors such as Michael Baldwin (1966), who discusses how different poems write themselves in different ways; Denise Levertov (1974 Rowe), who talks about writing every poem a different way, and Richard Emil Braun (1976), who describes how different books require different writing processes. Yourcenar also says, “… there’s a different puzzle to be solved each time. Painters will tell you the same thing: every portrait poses new problems. Even Rembrandt must have hesitated when he had to paint a new model” (1984, p. 184). 12. Michael Waters also mentions the “click” of Yeats’s box: “Sometimes I go through 120 drafts, and what a wonderful feeling it is when it’s finally finished, Yeats’s box clicking shut” (1989, p. 242). 13. DICTATION: Milton Acorn (1984), Jean Anouih (1973), Liliane Atlan (1987), Ann Beattie (1987), Paul Blackburn (1974), Joseph Campbell (1988), Fred Chappell (1972, 1973), Sandra Cisneros (1985), Lucha Corpi (1985), James Dickey (1979), Edward Dorn (1980 Bertholf), Richard Eberhart (1979 Donoghue, 1979 Broughton), Phil Hey (1977), Russell Hoban (1987), Gary Hyland (1988), Erica Jong (1974), James Laughlin (1989), Philip Levine (1988), François Mauriac (1977), Henry Miller (1977), Vladimir Nabokov (1972), Gregory Orr (1989), Octavio Paz (1973), Reynolds Price (1972), James Schmitz (1978), William Stafford (1984, 1985), Megan Terry (1987), Marguerite Yourcenar (1984). Notes 139

3Multiple Truths and Metaphorical Models

1. I have restructured the points of Scarry’s discussion here to make clearer its application. 2. COLLAGES: Donald Barthelme (1982), Raymond Carver (1987 McCaffrey), Donald Finkel (1983), Glenway Wescott (1973). MOSAICS: Liliane Atlan (1987), Donald Barthelme (1982), Alan Burns (1974), Edward Dorn (1980 Okada), W. O. Mitchell (1973), Glenway Wescott (1973), Charles Wright (1988 Oberlin). 3. James Baker Hall is a “specialized junk collector” with little idea of how the junk will eventually be used (1977), Margaret Atwood is a “magpie of prose” (1978), and Alfred Coppel is “an intellectual jackdaw” (1976). OTHER COLLECTORS/GATHERERS: John Ashbery (1974), Austin Clarke (1973), Lawrence Durrell (1973), Murray Edmond (1986), Tess Gallagher (1987), William Gass (1983 LeClair), James Baker Hall (1977), Diane Johnson (1983), Jamaica Kincaid (1993), Lorrie Moore (1988), Vladimir Nabokov (1980), Craig Raine (1981), William Trevor (1989), Jean Valentine (1983), Jack Williamson (1978), Marguerite Yourcenar (1984). NOT A COLLECTOR: Craig Raine (1981) says “My poems aren’t written by a magpie collecting fragments; they work as wholes…” (p. 179). ELEMENTS, BITS, PIECES, FRAGMENTS: Byrna Barclay (1988), Donald Barthelme (1982), Ann Beattie (1987), Alan Burns (1974), Lorna Dee Cervantes (1985), Leonard Cohen (1984), Alfred Coppell (1976), James Dickey (1970), Stanley Ellin (1978), Beverly Farmer (1986), Rosario Ferre (1993), Eva Figes (1981), Athol Fugard (1989), William Gass (1983 LeClair p. 152), William Goyen (1976), Kate Grenville (1986), Seamus Heaney (1981), Amy Hempel (1988), Geoffrey Hill (1981), Kazuo Ishiguro (1989), P.D. James (1983), Diane Johnson (1983), Erica Jong (1974), Audre Lorde (1981), Vladimir Nabokov (1977, 1980), Belva Plain (1989), Leo Rosten (1964), Elizabeth Spencer (1982), Tom Stoppard (1988), Eudora Welty (1985 Bunting, 1985 Gretlund), Jack Williamson (1978), Marguerite Yourcenar (1984). However, Ann Beattie says, “But I don’t think I’ve ever written anything that’s allowed me to put pieces together. Or maybe I have a psychological problem that makes me resist putting pieces together. But one or the other is true…. I really wish I had never put those pieces together” (1987, pp. 64–65). ASSEMBLE: Walter Abish (1987), John Barth (1982), Edward Dorn (1980 Okada), Donald Finkel (1983), Gabriel García Márquez (1973), Marguerite Yourcenar (1984). PUT TOGETHER: Jessica Anderson (1986), Donald Barthelme (1982), Ann Beattie (1987) [not], Philip Booth (1983), Alan Burns (1974), Maria Campbell (1988), Truman Capote (1985), Terry Carr (1978), Kelly Cherry (1985), Robert Coover (1982), John Coyne (1985), Donna DeMatteo (1987), Samuel Delany (1987), Ellen Douglas (1983), Richard Eberhart (1979 Cannito), Thomas Fleming (1989), Robert Frost (1966 Withers) [not], Paul Gallico (1977), Gabriel García Márquez (1973), Pam Gems (1987), Russell Hoban (1985, 1987), Jonathan Holden (1989), Tina Howe (1987), Kazuo Ishiguro (1989), Harper Lee (1964), Philip Levine (1988), 140 Notes

Ross Macdonald (1983), Gwendolyn MacEwen (1984), Frederick Manfred (1985), Vladimir Nabokov (1977), Stanley Plumly (1989), Ruth Rendell (1983), Marilynne Robinson (1985), Ron Silliman (1987), Elizabeth Spencer (1982), Charles Wright (1988 Ellis, 1988 McBride, 1988 Santos, 1989). FIT TOGETHER: Ellen Douglas (1983), William Faulkner (1977) [bricks], William Gass (1983 LeClair p. 152) [also not], Kate Grenville (1986), Ursula Le Guin (1987 McCaffrey), Barry Lopez (1987), Elena Poniatowska (1994), Leslie Marmon Silko (1993). BRING TOGETHER: Paula Gunn Allen (1987), Byrna Barclay (1988), Mick Burrs (1988), Rosario Ferre (1993), Clarence Major (1973), Rohinton Mistry (1989), Paul Zimmer (1989). PIECE TOGETHER: Rosario Ferre (1993) [quilt], Donald Finkel (1983), James Baker Hall (1977), Amy Hempel (1988) [quilt], William Kennedy (1987), Peter Matthiessen (1989). MELD: Julius J. Epstein (1986), Andrew Suknaski (1988). COHERE: Seamus Heaney (1981), Tom Paulin (1981), Katha Pollitt (1989). MELT TOGETHER: Robert Anderson (1977). MERGE: Max Apple (1987), Geoffrey Hill (1981), Jerome Mazzaro (1977). MIX TOGETHER: Keri Hulme (1986). THREAD TOGETHER: Keri Hulme (1986), Eilis Ni Dhuibnhe (1993). TIE TOGETHER: Denise Levertov (1974 Rowe). PULL TOGETHER: Maria Campbell (1988), James Baker Hall (1977), Clarence Major (1973), Harry Mark Petrakis (1977). COME TOGETHER: Jean Auel (1987), Byrna Barclay (1988), Jean Bedford (1986), Lorna Dee Cervantes (1985), Seamus Heaney (1981), Russell Hoban (1987), P.D. James (1983), Madison Jones (1989), Lorrie Moore (1988), Gregory Orr (1989), Ruth Rendell (1983), Elizabeth Spencer (1982), David Wagoner (1987), Paul Zimmer (1989). GET TOGETHER: Thea Astley (1986), Louise Erdrich (1987), Beverley Farmer (1986), Russell Hoban (1987), Megan Terry (1987). 4. Donald Barthelme hopes that additional material will “accumulate” around an interesting sentence.

A process of accretion. Barnacles growing on a wreck or a rock. I’d rather have a wreck than a ship that sails. Things attach themselves to wrecks. Strange ﬁsh ﬁnd your wreck or rock to be a good feeding ground; after a while you’ve got a situation with possibilities. (1983, p. 35)

There may well be no recognized “beginning” to a process of accretion, just a continuous pulling together of elements. Gore Vidal notes, in a similarly ﬁshy context:

It may be that I am doing something instinctively, a bit the way a coral reef gets made. The little corals do not know, as they cling to the debris of their predecessors, exactly what kind of a creation they are going to make—a barrier reef. (1984, p. 73) Notes 141

May Swenson describes the inception of her poems as a process of accretion (“there will be something there that will attach itself to something else … a kind of concretion will take place” (1977, p. 19), and Wallace Stegner describes it as a way of life: “You have to learn to become flypaper so all dust will stick to you” (1976, p. 177). Other ACCRETION AND AMALGAM: Margaret Atwood (1978, 1988), Byrna Barclay (1988), Donald Barthelme (1982, 1983), Malcolm Bradbury (1985), Alan Burns (1981), Raymond Carver (1987 McCaffrey, 1988 Schumacher), Blaise Cendrars (1977), Lorna Dee Cervantes (1985), Caryl Churchill (1987), Robert Coover (1982), Robertson Davies (1989), Donna de Matteo (1987), Lawrence Durrell (1977), Murray Edmond (1986), Jack Elinson (1975), Louise Erdrich (1987), Anderson Ferrell (1988), Thomas Fleming (1989), Athol Fugard (1989), Allen Ginsberg (1977), James Baker Hall (1977), Wilson Harris (1981), Amy Hempel (1988) [quilt], Geoffrey Hill (1981), Russell Hoban (1987), Richard Hoyt (1987), Chukwuemeka Ike (1976), Eugene Ionesco (1967), Adrienne Kennedy (1987), William Kennedy (1987), Stanley Kunitz (1974 Ryan, 1983), Janet Lewis (1976), George MacBeth (1966), François Mauriac (1977), Emily Mann (1987), Peter Matthiessen (1989), Larry McMurtry (1980), Silvia Molina (1994), Vladimir Nabokov (1980), Kenneth Rexroth (1972), C. H. O. Scaife (1966), Vernon Scannell (1966), Ntozake Shange (1987), Georges Simenon (1977), William Stafford (1972), Mary Stewart (1964), May Swenson (1977), William Trevor (1989), Gore Vidal (1984), David Wagoner (1987), Robert Wallace (1977), Eudora Welty (1985 Ferris), Jack Williamson (1978), Okogbule Wonodi (1976), Charles Wright (1988 Oberlin), James Wright (1984), and Al Young (1973). 5. Studies of metacognitive knowledge on cognitive development, reading, memory, and so forth, have been produced by Brown (1980), Flavell (1976, 1979), and Forrest-Pressley, MacKinnon and Waller (1985). In writing, metacognition has been discussed by Bracewell (1983) and Flower (1989). At one point, it was thought that metacognitive strategies were general, but more recent study suggests that they are “domain-specific”—that ways of reflecting on one kind of thinking may not carry over or transfer to other ways of thinking. A more generalized and accessible discussion of thinking self-reflectively about intellectual labor (not metacognition specifically) may be found in Schon (1983). 6. Barth indicates that he often assumes an ironic cast in responding to interview questions. At another point, he comments:

You shouldn’t pay very much attention to anything writers say. They don’t know why they do what they do. They’re like good tennis players or good painters, who are just full of nonsense, pompous and embarrass- ing, or merely mistaken, when they open their mouths. All sports, for example, all knacks and skills, become second nature with experts. When writers speak of things like inspiration and characters taking over and space-time grids, it’s usually because they don’t know why they do the things they do. And, if you begin to think about it too much, I guess you might tie yourself in knots, like when you think consciously about tying your necktie or tying your shoes. At least I have never heard 142 Notes

much that any writer has said about writing that didn’t embarrass me, including the things that I say about it. (John Barth, 1972, p. 24).

7. I discuss problems in monitoring and remembering writing activities—and the consequent use of a priori theories—at greater length in Tomlinson (1984). I base some of my comments there and in this section on the work of Ross, who discusses the limitations of intuitive judgments (1978 Shortcomings, 1978 Some) and Nisbett and Wilson (1977). Nisbett and Wilson conclude that people have difficulty monitoring and reporting on cognitive processes, therefore resorting to extant theories for explanations. While Nisbett and Wilson’s conclusions have been criticized on theoretical and methodological grounds—by Ericsson and Simon (1980, 1981), Smith and Miller (1978), and White (1978), for example—the strictures of these critics do not suggest that retrospective accounts from writers are likely to be veridical. See also Flavell (1979). 8. In a general way, these mental models might be linked to those discussed in Gentner and Gentner (1983) and Norman (1983), who consider mental models as guides to thought and action. I would also argue that such models are related to the kinds of “schemas” proposed by schema theorists. Schema theory argues that both content and procedural knowledge are embedded in “holistic cognitive structures” that organize abstract concepts, relationships among concepts, and guidelines for using both (see Mandler [1984], Rumelhart [1980], Rumelhart and Ortony [1977], Spiro [1980]). 9. The “trade-offs” and complications of behavioral science research are described in the introductory texts generally taught in the first year of grad- uate school in sociology, education, and other disciplines. Examples of such texts are Bloom, Hastings, and Madaus (1971), Campbell and Stanley (1963), Cicourel (1964), Kerlinger (1967). 10. The method of metaphor-reading I use does not attempt to resolve tensions between local and global, between exemplars and the larger metaphorical stories they must illustrate and represent. Most scholars in this tradition examine the nature of metaphorical language and conceptual systems. Scholars working in this general tradition include Gibbs (1994), Johnson (1987), Lakoff (1986), Lakoff and Johnson (1980 Metaphors, 1980 Conceptual, 1999), Lakoff and Turner (1989), Quinn (1987), Reddy (1993), Sweetser (1984), Turner (1987, 1991, 1996). Schon’s work (1963, 1993) is also very suggestive. All of the scholars in the tradition I use have a major interest in figures of ordinary conceptual systems. Turner (1987, 1991, 1996) links metaphorical language in historical and literary texts with those ways of thinking that characterize ordinary conceptions. Schon (1963, 1993) examines how metaphorical language of naming and framing influences innovative thinking in public policy and invention. 11. In selecting metaphors for writing processes, I exclude figurative language about poetic philosophies, poetic principles, the “product” of writing, readers’ responses, issues of style, and the nature of “craft” judgments (though these all are influential in writing). See Appendix for examples of the types of comment I include. Notes 143

12. In this general category I would place, for example, information-processing, problem-solving models of composing such as those of Beaugrande (1984), Bereiter and Scardamalia (1987, also Scardamalia and Bereiter [1983, 1987]), and Flower and Hayes (1980 “Cognition,” 1980 “Dynamics,” 1981, also Hayes and Flower [1980, 1983], Flower, Hayes, Carey, Schriver, and Stratman [1986]), or employed by Mike Rose (1980, 1984, 1985). More recently those in cognitive and educational psychology have been both elaborating and refining such models. See, for example, Alamargot and Chanquoy (2001), Kellogg (1994), Rijlaarsdam, van den Buergh, and Couzijn (1996), and Torrance and Galbraith (1999). 13. As Benedict Anderson notes, all communities are “imagined” communities (1983). 14. Bear in mind that one of the reasons why many people might hold that research models, while “simple,” or for some “simplistic,” are yet more “veridical,” more “accurate” about composing, more “true,” than metaphorical models is that they resemble the “scientific” models many valorize. At one point many people “agreed,” and adopted as conventional thinking, assumptions about the primacy of “actual mechanisms” of writing, as if one were able to distinguish an “actual mechanism” from a representation of it. 15. Carol Berkenkotter closely observed and recorded the writing activities of Pulitzer-prize-winning journalist and composition specialist Donald M. Murray, who has also written much about his own writing processes using a variety of metaphors for composing (see Berkenkotter, 1983; Murray, 1983, 1982 Learning). Even with Berkenkotter’s protocol data, what evidence would people need to agree that Donald Murray was truly “tossed in a stormy Atlantic”? Or truly suffering “intellectual indigestion, a strange, rumbling, eruptive discomfort” as his idea grows? (Murray, 1982 “Feel”) How could they then determine what would “count” as an instance of writing—a writing event—that could properly be said to “match” “intellectual indigestion”? It is difficult enough to identify instances of rather well-defined behaviors—such as Flower and Hayes’ instances of goal-setting or other features of speaking-aloud composing protocols. Nonetheless, Murray’s metaphorical stories provide a very vivid stance toward the writing process which encompasses his writing behaviors as a whole, and also reveals the texture of composing moments. Scholars cannot assume something is not an important part of writing processes simply because they cannot “operationalize” it—cannot attach it to a particular behavior (that is a “goal”). This is one way in which cognitive models and metaphorical models are different—cognitive process models move from observations of specific “atomistic” behaviors which are part of the composing process. I find the results of such analyses to be very important, but not to exhaust the knowledge of composing processes that people need. Information about resolutely broad concepts is still important for understanding composing. 16. Note that these problems for information-processing, problem-solving models are not inherent to the models themselves, but to the way they are often perceived and interpreted. 17. As Alfred Schutz noted long ago, “What appears to the observer to be ob- jectively the same behavior may have for the behaving subject different meanings or no meaning at all” (1962, p. 210). 144 Notes

4 Metaphorics of Embodied Labor

1. Brodkey indicates that her argument about the problems of such represen- tative anecdotes is similar to that of Susan Sontag in On Photography (1973) and John Berger in About Looking (1980). She finds their arguments about photographs applicable to discussion of the scene of writing. 2. Many books on material conditions of written production is concerned with the history of the book and exigencies of publication. These are quite interesting but not directly relevant to the relationship of bodies, tools, and other materialities during authorial composing. I have located several that do move closer to the physical events of writing. Writing Matter (Goldberg, 1990) includes discussion of the English Renaissance history of writing tools as extensions of the hand into the world. Language Machines (Masten, Stallybrass, and Vickers, 1997) analyzes technologies of literary production, including pens, presses, screens, and voices. Gramophone, Film, Typewriter (Kittler, 1999) provides insight into the development of the typewriter and mentions its use by Samuel Clemens, whose Tom Sawyerr, Kittler reports, was the first typescript in literary history. The Pencil (Petroski, 1990) reminds us that writing implements that are mundane to us now needed to be developed and perfected; Petroski explains the improvements to the pencil made by Henry David Thoreau, whose family business was pencil manufacture. 3. For example, Frederic Jameson can be seen as attempting to “protect” labor from being diminished by a kinship with intellectual labor in The Political Unconscious (1981). He criticizes as “intellectually dishonest” homologies by Althusser and others that “assimilate” the “production” of texts to the production of goods by factory workers: “writing and thinking are not alien- ated labor in that sense, and it is surely fatuous for intellectuals to seek to glamorize their tasks—which can for the most part be subsumed under the rubric of the elaboration, reproduction, and critique of ideology—by assim- ilating them to real work on the assembly line and to the experience of the resistance of matter in genuine manual labor” (p. 45). Jameson’s negative comment on such homologies relies on assumptions about the distribution of “glamour” and about what kinds of labor count as “real” and “genuine.” The claims made by writers’ metaphorical stories about their production of texts appear a rather different phenomenon. 4. WRITING IS MINING: Other writers also make reference to the process of mining when describing their writing activities. Thomas McGuane (1987) feels that as a writer of fiction, he is “trying to mine” “a crisis lode.” David Storey considers his the work of a “prospector” with “nuggets” and “claims” (1973), and David Ignatow came “to a whole mine of unexplored stuff” (1979). D. M. Thomas (1988) is “mining” when he writes. Drawing on his family knowledge of Welsh mining, Thomas calls himself the “grass captain,” the person who was in charge of the miners, but did not have the “lousy job of actually going down” in the pits. W. O. Mitchell says he is “prospecting” himself (1973). Working a rich “lode” or “vein” are Margaret Walker Alexander (1983), Martin Amis (1985), Stanley Elkin (1983), and Katherine Anne Porter (1977). William Goyen’s interviewer remarks that Goyen “seems to be mining [his] subconscious” (1980). Other miners include Robert Coover (1982), John Graves (1980), Peter Levi (1979), Notes 145

Michael McDowell (1985), Andrew Suknaski (1988), and Edmund White, who “quarries” unpublished novels for his new work (1988). But William Stafford does not plan to “mine” his journal for poems (1983), and Jean Fritz complains that she is “not one of those people who can mine for ideas” (1974). Robert Bloch, creating a mixed metaphor, indicates that he “had pretty well mined the vein of ordinary supernatural themes until it had become varicose” (1985, p. 15). 5. WRITING REQUIRES DIGGING, DREDGING: Among related metaphors, writers “dig,” and “dredge” for ideas. Thea Astley, when asked if she found writing arduous, replies “Oh yes, it’s yakka, pit-digging” (1986, p. 64). Others who “dig”: Edmund Blunden (1966), Fred Chappell (1972), Anne Commire (1987), Helen Garner (1986), Beth Henley (1987), David Ignatow (1979), Larry L. King (1972), Doris Lessing (1974), Olga Masters (1986), James A. Michener (1978), Jerome Rothenberg (1963), Margery Sharp (1964), Stevie Smith (1966), Wallace Stegner (1985), William Styron (1978), Andrew Suknaski (1988), Lew Welch (1976), Eudora Welty (1985 Millsaps). Others who “dredge”: Fred Chappell (1973), Stanley Kunitz (1974 Boyers, 1983), Keith Laumer (1978), Jerome Rothenberg (1963), Robert Silverberg (1978), Robert Penn Warren (1977). Others occasionally “exhume” (Robert Graves, 1977), or “excavate” (Kaye Gibbons [1993], Harold Pinter [1981]). 6. Reddy contends that some 70 percent of English expressions about communication is consistent with the conduit metaphor, providing systematic and coherent structure for conceiving communication. Reddy criticizes the conduit metaphor for limiting ways that people think about communication. Lakoff and Johnson (1980 Metaphor) elaborate discussion of the conduit metaphor. Recent discussion has clarified and extended the analysis of the conduit metaphor, questioning some of Reddy’s original claims, particularly about its pervasiveness. Grady (1998), for example, extends the analysis to clarify the relationship between the conduit metaphor and other metaphors, provides an account of its motivation, and explains the pattern of elements that are mapped onto the target domain. Grady indicates that Brugman (1995) argues that “Reddy’s data were drawn from a very atypical sample of text, and it was therefore misleading to draw any conclusion about the pervasiveness and harmfulness of the metaphor on the culture at large” (p. 208, f. 2). The kinds of examples provided by Reddy are, however, quite typical of the discussions of communication found in the discourse of writers and teachers of writing. Goosens, focusing on metonymic underpinnings specifically of the metaphor of “container,” seems to assume that “natural” language is unlikely to cause problems. He states: “My general conclusion, therefore, is that the container metaphor, which is the core of the conduit metaphor, relies on a natural conceptualization process, and can therefore hardly be the blind alley that will necessarily lead us astray, as Reddy has it” (1994, p. 393). Goosens appears to rely here on an insufficiently interrogated notion of “natural.” 7. IDEAS ARE SUBTERRANEAN: So Erica Jong must work “in a subterranean way” (1974). Others: A. R. Ammons (1983), Hortense Calisher (1977), James Tate (1984), Charles Wright (1988 McBride). 8. IDEAS ARE UNDERGROUND: Raymond Carver (1988 Stull), Doris Lessing (1982), Joyce Carol Oates (1974), Charles Wright (1988 McBride). 146 Notes

9. IDEAS ARE BURIED: Stanley Kunitz’s poems have a “buried life in the mind” (1974 Fortunato). Others: Mel Brooks (1976), Stanley Kunitz (1974 Boyers, 1974 Fortunato, 1974 Ryan), Ursula Le Guin (1987 McCaffery), Anne Sexton (1977), Edmund White (1987). 10. ELECTRICAL: Eudora Welty, too, can find the words suddenly “electrical” (1982). The charge may provide impact and impetus, but when it is gone, the energy is lost as when Lawrence Durrell finds the electrical charge “drained” (1973). 11. ERUPT: The figure of volcanic eruption is also used by John Berryman (1977), Lawrence Durrell (1977), Richard Eberhart (1978), Carter Revard (1987), and Armonía Somers (1985). On the other hand, George Seferis says “Of course poems do not appear like an eruption by a volcano; they need preparation” (1977). 12. EXPLODE OR BLAST: Ray Bradbury (1980), Eleanor Clark (1981), Philip Levine (1988), Frederick Manfred (1974), Rachel McAlpine (1986). 13. BURST FORTH (or OUT): Fleur Adcock (1986) [surge], Alfred Bester (1978), Hayden Carruth (1977), Raymond Carver (1987 O’Connell), Juanita Casey (1972), Maria Irene Fornes (1987), Joan Givner (1988), William Golding (1970), Erica Jong (1989), X. J. Kennedy (1977), Barbara Kingsolver (1993) [vent], Doris Lessing (1988), Philip Levine (1988), José Montoya (1985), Joyce Carol Oates (1985), James Reiss (1977), Carter Revard (1987), Anne Sexton (1977), Eudora Welty (1982, 1985 Ferris). 14. PRESSURE: Isaac Asimov (1980), Ray Bradbury (1980), Christopher Isherwood (1977 Bailey), B. S. Johnson (1981), Norman Mailer (1977), Joyce Carol Oates (1974), Muriel Rukeyser (1974). 15. Paul Theroux, for example, indicates that he begins without knowing his journey.

So I never begin a book—or even a story, for that matter—knowing how it’s going to end, or knowing what I’ll encounter along the way. I set off, ﬁrst in The Great Railway Bazaar and then in The Old Patagonian Express, believing I was going to ﬁnd something out. I didn’t have the slightest idea of what I was getting myself into … (1984, p. 251)

Tess Gallagher describes the sensation of prose writing as “lostness” or exploration.

Prose is maybe connected to my exploratory ambitions[;] … allowing yourself to get lost for a while and then trying to ﬁnd your way out. I love prose for that lostness. I don’t know where I am in it. I could go one way, I could go another. Then having to make a decision to go, and follow one possible direction out, the consequences of having made that decision. (p. 168) … My sense of [writing] ﬁction now is more of a pioneer experience, more of struggling, more of being lost, more of exploration. (1987, pp. 168, 175)

16. Harry Mark Petrakis uses the journey metaphor to show that his destination was the ﬁrst thing he knew about his book. He knows the goal, not the nature of the journey. Notes 147

I fell asleep and dreamt Kazantzakis’ story of the thrush. And when I woke I knew, a year before I ended the book, that that would be the end of the book. I wasn’t sure how I would work it out… . And from that point on—though there was much work, much labor ahead of me … . It was like when you’re struggling through a very dark forest and you see a small light, a beacon. And I felt, somehow, that Kazantzakis had been my beacon …. (1977, p. 119, second and third ellipsis in original)

17. Walter Abish indicates that he exploits a difﬁcult journey:

For me there is little freedom once I have selected a system. One might say that I am imprisoned by it. Indeed, I choose systems because from the start they present a journey past and over obstacles … Each obstacle creates a kind of anxiety, presents a problem that must be surmounted. If the obstacle is an intrinsic element of the system, it cannot be avoided; one is boxed in. … For instance, I kept banging my head against a wall trying to extricate Ulrich from Switzerland, at the end of “The Idea of Switzerland.” I simply did not know how to get him out. … The struggle to overcome the structural barriers I had devised for the text was my way of “controlling” and “dominating” a difﬁcult text. (1987, pp. 18–19)

Elizabeth George Speare sees the need to write a “bridge” over a “gap”:

Sometimes I reach a blind spot, a sort of gulf, and for weeks I cannot see how I can possibly get my characters across to the other side where I want them to be. But sooner or later, almost by magic, a bridge appears. Some bit of history, some ancient custom, or perhaps just the sort of person one character has turned out to be suggests a way, and presently we are all safely across. (1974, p. 335)

18. Tom Stoppard uses two such metaphorical stories in one interview.

When The Real Inspector Hound is over, and one sees the corpse had to be Higgs … dovetailing … In fact you write away into a tunnel, you have a corpse on the ﬂoor, and you don’t know who it is or what to do with him, and suddenly you say “HIGGS!!!” (1974, p. 17)

The plays seem to hinge around incredibly carefully thought-out structural pivots, which I arrive at as thankfully and as unexpectedly as an explorer parting the pampas grass which is head-high and seeing a valley full of sunlight and maidens. No compass. Nothing. (1974, p. 17)

19. COOKING: SIMMERING: Lawrence Durrell (1977), Irvin Faust (1978), Stanley Kunitz (1974 Ryan), Ross Macdonald (1977), Leo Rosten (1964), Philip Roth (1975), E. B. White (1969). STEWING: Lawrence Durrell (1977), Beverly Farmer (1986), James Jones (1964), Edmund White (1988). 148 Notes

BACKBURNER, IN THE POT: Leigh Brackett (1978), Sara Dowse (1986), Paul Gallico (1977), James Jones (1964), Madeleine L’Engle (1974). BOILING AWAY, ON THE BOIL, OFF THE BOIL, BOIL DOWN: Kingsley Amis (1975), Alice Childress (1987), Herbert Gold (1976), Peter Levi (1979), Philip Levine (1988), Gabrielle Lord (1986), Olga Masters (1986), Katherine Anne Porter (1977), Jessamyn West (1976), Paul Zimmer (1989). BREWING, FERMENTING: Lucy Boston (1974), Michael Harper (1973), John Hawkes (1972), Vladimir Nabokov (1980), Marguerite Yourcenar (1984). PERCOLATING: Lois Simmie (1988). MARINATING: Tom Robbins (1987). YEASTING: R. A. Lafferty (1978), William Manchester (1973), Marguerite Yourcenar (1984). BROILING: John Nichols (1988). DISTILLING: Margaret Atwood (1988), Donald Barthelme (1981), Tina Howe (1987), John Lehmann (1966), Emily Mann (1987), Susan Yankowitz (1987). BAKING, IN THE OVEN: Jim Harrison (1988), Anaïs Nin (1970), Mordecai Richler (1973). JELLING: Alexander Baird (1966), Leigh Brackett (1978), Lawrence Durrell (1977), Eugene Ionesco (1971), Judith Minty (1977), Alice Munro (1973), John Nichols (1988), Gwen Pharis Ringwood (1978), Robert Penn Warren (1966). COOKING PROCESS: Blanche d’Alpuget (1986), Ivan Doig (1987), Paul Gallico (1977), Gabriel García Márquez (1973), William Gass (1983), William Matthews (1977), Rohinton Mistry (1989), Toni Morrison (1984), Carl Reiner (1976), Tom Robbins (1987), Armonía Somers (1985), Eudora Welty (1982,1985 Bunting), Marguerite Yourcenar (1984). 20. ENGENDER, BREED, FERTILIZE, SEMEN, SPAWN, SPERM: Leonard Clark (1975), Abelardo Delgado (1980), Douglas Dunn (1981), E. M. Forster (1977), Athol Fugard (1989), Seamus Heaney (1981), Bryan MacMahon (1974), Harold Pinter (1977), Estela Portillo (1980), Philip Roth (1975), John Steinbeck (1977), John Updike (1977), Michael Waters (1989). 21. CONCEPTION, GERMINATION: Edward Albee (1977), Taner Baybars (1966), Thomas Blackburn (1966), Brigid Brophy (1976), Austin Clarke (1973), Abelardo Delgado (1980), J. P. Donleavy (1975), Cyprian Ekwensi (1972), William Faulkner (1966), E. M. Forster (1977), John Fowles (1976), Robert Graves (1977), Thom Gunn (1981), Epeli Hau’ofa (1989), Geoffrey Hill (1981), James A. Michener (1978), Arthur Miller (1966), N. Scott Momaday (1989), Gabriel Okara (1974), Belva Plain (1989), Estela Portillo (1980), Jon Silkin (1975), Armonía Somers (1985), Elizabeth Spencer (1989), David Storey (1973), Robert Penn Warren (1973, 1977, 1983), Sheila Watson (1984), John A. Williams (1973), Susan Yankowitz (1987), Marguerite Yourcenar (1984, 1988). 22. GESTATION, INCUBATION, PREGNANCY, BROODING: Edward Albee (1977), Poul Anderson (1978), John Arden (1966), Miguel Angel Asturias (1973), Louis Auchincloss (1989), Taner Baybars (1966), Jean Bedford (1986), Thomas Blackburn (1966), Rosellen Brown (1983), Blaise Cendrars Notes 149

(1977), J. P. Clark (1972), Leonard Clark (1975), Robert Coover (1982), Abelardo Delgado (1980), Margaret Drabble (1988 London)[implied], Irvin Faust (1978), Griselda Gambaro (1985), Kaye Gibbons (1993), Thom Gunn (1981), Jim Harrison (1988), Seamus Heaney (1981), Geoffrey Hill (1981), Gary Hyland (1988), Christopher Isherwood (1977 Bailey), Galway Kinnell (1974), Peter Matthiessen (1989), Ruth Pitter (1966), Estela Portillo (1980) [implied], Vernon Scannell (1975), Gary Snyder (1977), Theodore Weiss (1985), Eudora Welty (1985 Millsaps), E. B. White (1969), Angus Wilson (1977), Ray Young Bear (1987), Marguerite Yourcenar (1984). 23. EMBRYOS AND FETUSES: E. L. Doctorow (1984), Lawrence Durrell (1973), James Reaney (1978), Gabrielle Roy (1973), Eudora Welty (1985 Royals and Little), Susan Yankowitz (1987). 24. GIVING BIRTH: Martin Amis (1985), Miguel Angel Asturias (1973), Louis Auchincloss (1989), Thomas Blackburn (1966), Algis Budrys (1980), Julieta Campos (1985), Sandra Cisneros (1985), Angela de Hoyos (1985), Abelardo Delgado (1980), Peter DeVries (1981), Ariel Dorfman (1989), Edward Dorn (1980 Fredman), Richard Eberhart (1977, 1979 Donoghue, 1979 Cannito, 1979 Broughton), William Faulkner (1968 Bouvard, 1968 Nagano IV), Timothy Findley (1973 Gibson, 1973 Cameron), Ruth Flippen (1975), Griselda Gambaro (1985), Gabriel García Márquez (1973), William Gass (1983 LeClair), Joseph Heller (1984), James Herbert (1985), Larry L. King (1972), Carolyn Kizer (1987), Audre Lorde (1981), Norman Mailer (1977), Peter Matthiessen (1989), Arthur Miller (1966), Alice Munro (1973), Belva Plain (1989), Gabrielle Roy (1973), John Schultz (1977), Gary Snyder (1979), Armonía Somers (1985), Susan Sontag (1984), Gerald Stern (1982), Richard G. Stern (1966), James Tate (1984), William Trevor (1989), Luisa Valenzuela (1985), Jessamyn West (1976), John Hall Wheelock (1976), Ray Young Bear (1987), Marguerite Yourcenar (1984). 25. LAYING AND HATCHING EGGS: Richard Hughes (1974), Roger Kahn (1978), Peter Matthiessen (1989), William Carlos Williams (1976). 26. FAILED GESTATIONS AND BIRTHS: Taner Baybars (1966) also mentions “miscarriage”; Ursula Le Guin (1987), Leslie Marmon Silko (1993), and Gerald Stern (1982), “stillbirth”; Lawrence Durrell (1973), Alice Munro (1973) and Glenway Wescott (1973), “abortions.” 27. Some metaphors do both. Thomas Blackburn focuses on the “necessary” “gestation.”

I certainly compose aloud, sort of boo and bah it over to myself … I get an idea, a sort of germ comes … But it may take me weeks and weeks of brooding … and then suddenly the poem will arrive; but it takes a long period of gestation; then once that birthpoint has been reached the thing is written quickly; but then comes the working over and that’s a long process. (1966, p. 29)

X. J. Kennedy indicates,

…poems tend to enter the world by their most astonishing parts. Often, a poet bothers to ﬁnish a poem only for the sake of containing those ﬁrst-born, unlabored lines. In order to deliver the rest of the poem, the 150 Notes

poet may have to bear down on it. “Consumer’s Report” … was a breech-birth. The ﬁrst thing to protrude was its bottom stanza. Then I had to urge forth the rest of it…. The ﬁnal stanza arrived one morning when I was lying in bed. (1977, pp. 165–6)

Abelardo Delgado reveals the lively texts he has conceived, texts gestating and emerging with their essential nature only partly known.

I literally give birth to the ideas which wiggle in me wanting to come out … when an idea is ready to [come] out … it is almost kicking out of me; thus it has already its gender. We can ovulate as well in English or in Spanish, or mixed … you can say the genes are there and we at times do not know what we will be creating until it is in front of us. It is like a pregnant woman who knows she has a baby en la panza [in her belly] but does not know if the baby will be a boy or girl and prieto or guero [dark or fair]. (1980, pp. 99–100, translated in original)

28. PREPARING GROUND, SEEDS, PLANTING, GERMINATION, FIRST SHOOTS, GARDENING: V.C. Andrews (1985), Louis Auchincloss (1989), Thomas Blackburn (1966), Brigid Brophy (1976), Raymond Carver (1987 O’Connell), Sandra Cisneros (1985), Robert Coover (1982), Robertson Davies (1989), Ivan Doig (1987), J. P. Donleavy (1975), John Dos Passos (1977), Margaret Drabble (1988 London), John Fowles (1989), Griselda Gambaro (1985), Alan Garner (1974), Marita Golden (1993), Edward Gorey (1977), Robert Graves (1977), John Hawkes (1972), Joseph Heller (1980), Geoffrey Hill (1981), Tama Janowitz (1988), Jamaica Kincaid (1993), Barbara Kingsolver (1993), Ursula Le Guin (1987), Audre Lorde (1983), Helen MacInnes (1977), Archibald MacLeish (1974), Frederick Manfred (1974), James McConkey (1981), James A. Michener (1978), N. Scott Momaday (1989), Linda Pastan (1989), Belva Plain (1989), Katherine Anne Porter (1977), Jon Silkin (1975), Elizabeth Spencer (1989), Frank Stanford (1977), Wallace Stegner (1985), David Storey (1973), William Styron (1978), Robert Penn Warren (1973, 1977, 1983), Eudora Welty (1985 Haller, 1985 Royals and Little), Glenway Wescott (1973), Barbara Williams (1983), Marguerite Yourcenar (1984). 29. TEXTS AS PLANTS: Other garden or plant metaphors imply demands for attention and nurturance, such as those of Jessica Anderson (1986), Donald Barthelme (1988), Peter S. Beagle (1976), Jean Bedford (1986), John Brunner (1978), Ernest Buckler (1973), Raymond Carver (1988 Schumacher), Alice Childress (1987), Sandra Cisneros (1985), Robert Coover (1973), E. L. Doctorow (1984), Edward Dorn (1980 Okada), Margaret Drabble (1982), Lawrence Durrell (1973), Stanley Elkin (1975), Penelope Farmer (1976), Tess Gallagher (1987), William Goyen (1980), John Hollander (1983), Eugene Ionesco (1971), David Jones (1966), William Kennedy (1987), James Liddy (1966), Michael McDowell (1985), Jim Sagel (1985), Margery Sharp (1964), David Storey (1973), William Styron (1978), James Tate (1984), William Trevor (1989), Tino Villanueva (1985), Eudora Welty (1982, 1985 Royals), Glenway Wescott (1973), Jessamyn West (1976), Charles Wright (1988 Ellis), James Wright (1988), Marguerite Yourcenar (1984). Notes 151

30. MOLD AND CLAY: Wallace Stegner (1976) speaks of his manuscript when it is “still malleable.” Alice Munro (1973) prefers material that she can “pull.” John Gardner (1979) keeps “pushing” at his text. Other writers who work with clay: Arnold Adoff (1974), Marvin Bell (1985), Rita Dove (1989), Stanley Kunitz (1983). Arnold Adoff says that he has learned to work his material “over and over like … a piece of clay” (1974). Ursula Le Guin (1987 O’Connell) makes novels like “pottery pots.” 31. (RE)SHAPE: Tom Paulin says, “I spent a long, agonizing time revising and shaping the volume, trying to make it cohere” (1981, p. 172). But some find limitations to the process: Audre Lorde indicates that her poetry is not infinitely malleable, not like “Play-Doh. You can’t take a poem and keep reforming it” (1981, p. 720). Other writers who (re)shape when revising: Thea Astley (1986), Lawrence Durrell (1973), Athol Fugard (1989), Joan Givner (1988), John Hawkes (1981), Edward Hirsch (1989), Corinne Jacker (1987), William Kennedy (1987), Philip Levine (1988), John Updike (1977), Robert Penn Warren (1977), and Eudora Welty (1978, 1982, 1985 van Noppen, 1985 Haller) “shape.” Truman Capote (1984), Clarence Major (1985) and Bruce Bennett (1989) “reshape.” Christopher Okigbo (1972) and Charles Wright (1988 Ellis) “mold,” and Leo Rosten (1964) “reshapes” and “remolds.” 32. Using related images, Jerome Weidman says, “… it suddenly occurred to me that a pattern was beginning to emerge. I thought that if I would just pat it a little, like a meatball, I’d have something, be something” (1964, p. 630). And as we saw earlier, Marguerite Yourcenar likens the manipulation of constant early revision to kneading bread dough: “you begin with something shapeless, which sticks to your fingers, a kind of paste. Gradually that paste becomes more and more firm. Then there comes the point when it turns rubbery” (1984, p. 185). Note that both Weidman and Youcenar are flagging changes in working practices based on the nature of the material. 33. (RE)CASTING: Jerome Mazzaro (1977) mentions that he had to “recast” an opening; James Dickey (1970), James A. Michener (1978), and Eudora Welty (1984) recast parts or whole texts. 34. SCULPT, CARVE, CHISEL, CHIP: Related images are used by Raymond Carver (1988 Stull), Ivan Doig (1987), Barry Hannah (1987), William Kennedy (1987), Linda Pastan (1983, 1989), and W. R. Rodgers (1966). William Kennedy (1987) “sculpts.” 35. Maxine Kumin indicates: “A poem is not a watercolor, you don’t just get one shot at it. We all know that a watercolor either works or not in the first twenty minutes or you tear it up and start another one. But a poem does not …” (1983, p. 111). 36. (RE)PAINT, (RE)TOUCH, TOUCH UP: Helen MacInnes (1964) also makes an analogy to painting: she “retouches” as she goes along. Others include J. P. Clark (1972), William Faulkner (1968 Claxton), Jack Ludwig (1973), Elizabeth Spencer (1982), William Trevor (1989), Ray Young Bear (1987). 37. A somewhat more physical image is suggested by Megan Terry: “Also, I’ve been a painter, sculptor and theater designer; laying down ideas, then ripping them up or moving them around was part of my method of work, so I didn’t get lost in the linear” (1987, p. 386). 38. SEWING AND TAILORING: Stanley Ellin mentions that “patchworking” bothered him (1978); Corinne Jacker complains that she cannot pull out 152 Notes

just one thread,” but has to return to the beginning (1987); Rosario Ferre “combines threads” and “sews a quilt” (1993). Other tailors include Alice Childress (1987), Philip Dunne (1986), Philip Levine (1988), and Audre Lorde (1983). 39. WEAVING, (INTERWEAVING): Weavers also attempt to bring and ﬁt together disparate elements to create a serviceable and attractive whole. Authors using such ﬁgures include Byrna Barclay (1988), John Barth (1973), Robert Creeley (1973 MacAdams), Thomas Fleming (1989), Kaye Gibbons (1993), Joan Givner (1988), Christopher Isherwood (1981), Diane Johnson (1983), William Kennedy (1987), David Lodge (1985), Frederick Manfred (1974), Jerome Mazzaro (1977), Anne McCaffrey (1978), Marguerite Young (1984). 40. KNOTS: Donald Hall also describes himself struggling with “knots” (1983). 41. TIGHTEN (UP): Other tighteners include Beverley Farmer (1986), Shirley Kaufman (1977), Maxine Kumin (1983), Barry Lopez (1987), Larry McMurtry (1980), Marguerite Yourcenar (1984). Robert Wallace tells of a poem that he did not try to “tighten” with revision (1977). 42. MAKE FIT, FIT TOGETHER: Ellen Douglas (1983), William Faulkner (1977) [bricks], William Gass (1983 LeClair) [also not], Kate Grenville (1986), Richard Hoyt (1987), Ursula Le Guin (1987 McCaffrey), Barry Lopez (1987), Elena Poniatowska (1994). 43. TINKER: Raymond Carver (1987 O’Connell), Richard Eberhart (1977), Maxine Kumin (1983), James Laughlin (1989), Robert Lowell (1968), Jay McInerney (1988), Murray Morgan (1987), Tim O’Brien (1983), Marilynne Robinson (1987), Salman Rushdie (1985), Dennis Schmitz (1977), Mona Simpson (1988), Richard Wilbur (1974), Charles Wright (1988 Ellis). 44. STRAIGHTEN: Other straighteners: Sue Alexander (1979), W. R. Burnett (1986), Joan Givner (1988). 45. PRUNE: Other pruners include Jessica Anderson (1986), Jean Bedford (1986), Raymond Carver (1988 Schumacher), Penelope Farmer (1976), Tess Gallagher (1987), Tino Villanueva (1985), Eudora Welty (1982), and James Wright (1988 Stitt). 46. SHARPEN OR HONE: Others who “sharpen” their texts during revision include Doris Betts (1972), Sara Dowse (1986), Shirley Kaufman (1977), Barry Lopez (1987), Arthur Miller (1967), James Tate (1977), and Eudora Welty (1982, 1985 van Noppen). 47. PARE, PEEL AWAY: Jessica Anderson (1986), Liliane Atlan (1987), Maria Campbell (1988), Raymond Carver (1987 McCaffrey, 1988 Stull), John Gardner (1974), Donald Hall (1973), Russell Hoban (1987), Hugh MacLennan (1973), Jerome Mazzaro (1977), Howard Moss (1974), Katha Pollitt (1989), and Chaim Potok (1980). 48. CHOP: Conrad Aiken (1977), Jean Bedford (1986), Bret Easton Ellis (1988), Stanley Elkin (1983), Kate Grenville (1986), B. S. Johnson (1981), and Alice Munro (1973). 49. CHEW AT: William Gass (1983 LeClair), Martin Myers (1973). “DIDDLE AWAY” AT: Allen Ginsberg (1977). “JIGGLE”: Ursula Le Guin (1987 McCaffery). “NIGGLE”: Lawrence Durrell (1977). “PICK” AT: Christopher Isherwood (1977 Scobie). Notes 153

“WORRY”: Jean Fritz (1974). “WHACK” AT: Eudora Welty (1985 Haller). “FIDDLE” (AROUND) WITH: Jessica Anderson (1986), Fred Chappell (1973), Raymond Federman (1983), William Gass (1983 LeClair), James Baker Hall (1977), Jonathan Holden (1989), Maxine Kumin (1977), James Laughlin (1989), Ursula Le Guin (1987 McCaffery), Tom Mallin (1981), Judith Minty (1977), Alan Sillitoe (1981), Joan Swift (1977). “FOOL (AROUND)” WITH: Erskine Caldwell (1964), William Gass (1983 LeClair), Tina Howe (1987), Elizabeth Spencer (1982). “FUSS” WITH: Raymond Carver (1988 Schumacher), Anne Sexton (1974) “MESS” (AROUND) WITH: Raymond Carver (1987 McCaffrey), Helen Garner (1986), Barry Hannah (1987), Leslie Marmon Silko (1993), Elizabeth Spencer (1982), Tom Stoppard (1988), Richard Wilbur (1974, 1984). “MONKEY” (AROUND) WITH: John Graves (1980), Leo Rosten (1964). “MUCK” (AROUND) (ABOUT) WITH: Blanche d’Alpuget (1986), Beverley Farmer (1986). “PLAY” (AROUND) WITH: Raymond Carver (1987 McCaffrey), Anne Commire (1987), Ralph Ellison (1974), William Golding (1970), Barry Hannah (1987), Lorrie Moore (1988), Anne Sexton (1974). “TOY” WITH: Margaret Drabble (1979/80), Gary Hyland (1988), José Montoya (1985), Alan Ryan (1985), William Stafford (1987), Sherley Anne Williams (1993). “KNOCK (OUT) INTO SHAPE) (ON THE HEAD)”: Helen Garner (1986), James A. Michener (1978), Mark Smith (1983). 50. POLISH: Sue Alexander (1979), Leigh Brackett (1978), Truman Capote (1985), Raymond Carver (1987 McCaffery), Veronica Cunningham (1985), Blanche d’Alpuget (1986), Alberto Delgado (1980), Brianda Domecq (1994), Cyprian Ekwensi (1972), T. S. Eliot (1977), Pamela Frankau (1964), Griselda Gambaro (1985), Epeli Hau’ofa (1989), Patricia Highsmith (1977), Elmer Kelton (1980), Tom Lea (1980), Audre Lorde (1981), Charles Madge (1966), Peter Matthiessen (1989), Joe Orton (1971), Linda Pastan (1977, 1989), Barbara Leonie Picard (1976), Elena Poniatowska (1994), Allan Scott (1986), Richard Shelton (1977), Isaac Bashevis Singer (1978, 1980), William Styron (1978), Luisa Valenzuela (1985), Eudora Welty (1985 Keith). Several writers, such as William Stafford (1985), indicated that they did not polish their texts: Doris Lessing (1988) and Maxine Kumin (1983) “roughened” theirs instead.

5 Metaphorics of Discursive Sociality

1. TEXTS BEING OR COMING ALIVE, TAKING ON LIFE OF THEIR OWN: Martin Amis (1985), Max Apple (1987), Pat Barker (1993), James M. Cain (1986), Robert Creeley (1973 Tomlinson), Robertson Davies (1989), Ellen Douglas (1983), Lawrence Durrell (1973, 1977), Michael Harper (1973), Wilson Harris (1981), Elmer Kelton (1980), Stanley Kunitz (1974 Fortunato, 1983), Audre Lorde (1981), Norman Mailer (1977), W.S. Merwin (1984), Harry Mark Petrakis (1977), Marilynne Robinson (1987), Gary Snyder 154 Notes

(1979), Wallace Stegner (1985), Eudora Welty (1985 Price, 1985 Royals, 1985 Haller), Charles Wright (1988 Oberlin), Marguerite Yourcenar (1984). 2. DEAD, DYING TEXTS: It should not be surprising to ﬁnd dead and dying texts where there are living ones: Leigh Brackett says “if I tried to think ahead and outline I simply killed the story” (1978, p. 372). Denise Levertov believes that writing a poem from intelligence without instinct will produce “a dead baby” (1963), and Stanley Ellin complained once that the whole text “had to be dismembered and done over” (1978, p. 7). Archibald MacLeish, “like a homicide expert in a movie,” can tell when his text has “stiffened” (1974). Michael Cook says of his work just completed: “It’s dead. Finished. Done with” (1978, p. 214). Martin Amis talks about a book “gone dead” on him (1985). Others: Pat Barker (1993), Taner Baybars (1966), Lorna Dee Cervantes (1985), Rita Dove (1989), Lawrence Durrell (1973), Howard Engel (1983), John Fowles (1982), William Gass (1983 LeClair p. 152), William Golding (1985), Kate Grenville (1986), Elizabeth Hardwick (1989), Hamish Henderson (1966), Carolyn Kizer (1987), Tom Lea (1980), Ursula Le Guin (1987 O’Connell), David Morrell (1985), Alice Munro (1973), Iris Murdoch (1985), Tom Paulin (1981), Anne Perry (1983), Carl Frederik Prytz (1966), Vernon Scannell (1975), Susan Sontag (1984), Gerald Stern (1982), Eudora Welty (1978), Glenway Wescott (1973), James Wright (1988 Stitt). 3. TEXTS THAT PRESENT SELVES, SPEAK, MAKE SUGGESTIONS, MAKE RULES, DICTATE, INSIST, MAKE DEMANDS ON THEIR AUTHORS: Martin Amis (1985), Ronald Bottrall (1966), Mel Brooks (1976), Algis Budrys (1980), Ramsey Campbell (1985), Raymond Carver (1987 O’Connell, 1987 McCaffrey, 1988 Schumacher), Robert Coover (1982), Robertson Davies (1989), James Dickey (1970), E. L. Doctorow (1977, 1984), Edward Dorn (1980 Bertholf), Stephen Dunn (1989), Lauris Edmond (1986), Russell Edson (1977), Louise Erdrich (1987), William Faulkner (1968 Nagano IV), Stuart Friebert (1977), Athol Fugard (1989), Tess Gallagher (1987), Griselda Gambaro (1985, 1987), Alan Garner (1974), Robert Graves (1977), Wilson Harris (1981), Shelby Hearon (1980), Geoffrey Hill (1981), Russell Hoban (1985, 1987), Linda Hogan (1987), Jonathan Holden (1989), John Hopkins (1971), Gary Hyland (1988), Eugene Ionesco (1971), Kazuo Ishiguro (1989), P. D. James (1983), B. S. Johnson (1981), Charles Johnson (1987), William Kennedy (1987), X. J. Kennedy (1977), Stanley Kunitz (1974 Ryan), Ursula K. Le Guin (1978 Walker, 1987), James Leigh (1976), Doris Lessing (1988), Audre Lorde (1981), Ross Macdonald (1983), Charles Madge (1966), Frederick Manfred (1985), William Matthews (1972), Jerome Mazzaro (1977), Anne McCaffrey (1978), Jean Merrill (1974), Arthur Miller (1967), W. O. Mitchell (1973), Lisel Mueller (1989), John Nichols (1988), Linda Pastan (1983), Harry Mark Petrakis (1977), Jayne Anne Phillips (1988), Ruth Pitter (1966), John Press (1966), Craig Raine (1981), Kenneth Rexroth (1972), Adrienne Rich (1971), W. R. Rodgers (1966), Philip Roth (1975), Muriel Rukeyser (1974), Vernon Scannell (1966), Philip Schultz (1989), Lois Simmie (1988), Elizabeth George Speare (1974), Bernard Spencer (1966), William Stafford (1972, 1987), Tom Stoppard (1974, 1988), Lucien Stryk (1973), William Styron (1978), Rosemary Sutcliff (1974), Charles Tomlinson (1975), Alice Walker (1973), Robert Wallace (1977), Robert Penn Warren Notes 155

(1978), Michael Waters (1989), Eudora Welty (1982, 1985 van Noppen, 1985 Maclay, 1985 Haller), Richard Wilbur (1977 High), Jack Williamson (1978), James Wright (1984), Susan Yankowitz (1987). 4. TEXTS THAT DETERMINE, DEFINE, SHAPE, BUILD, FINISH THEMSELVES— WRITE THEMSELVES: Nelson Algren (1977), A. R. Ammons (1983), Michael Baldwin (1966), Pinckney Benedict (1988), Alfred Bester (1978), Leigh Brackett (1978), W. R. Burnett (1986), Raymond Carver (1987 McCaffrey), Laura Chester (1977), Hilary Corke (1966), James Dickey (1970, 1975), E. L. Doctorow (1977, 1984), Ivan Doig (1987), Louise Erdrich (1987), Dennis Etchison (1985), William Faulkner (1968 Virginia, 1968 Smith), Thomas Fleming (1989), Gabriel García Márquez (1973), William Gass (1983 Debate), Kaye Gibbons (1993), William Golding (1985), Wilson Harris (1981), Geoffrey Hill (1981), Edward Hoagland (1975), Russell Hoban (1985, 1987), Jonathan Holden (1989), Eugene Ionesco (1971), James Jones (1964), Harper Lee (1964), Ursula K. Le Guin (1978 Gilbert, 1987), Frederick Manfred (1974), Emily Mann (1987), Anne McCaffrey (1978), Larry McMurtry (1980), Sandra McPherson (1977), James A. Michener (1978), Arthur Miller (1967), Howard Moss (1974), Paul Muldoon (1981), Norman Nicholson (1966), Joyce Carol Oates (1978), Linda Pastan (1977), Harry Mark Petrakis (1977), Ann Petry (1973), Stanley Plumly (1989), Chaim Potok (1980), Reynolds Price (1972), C. H. O. Scaife (1966), Vernon Scannell (1966), James Schmitz (1978), Charles Simic (1977), Stevie Smith (1966), Armonía Somers (1985), Elizabeth Spencer (1982, 1989), William Stafford (1984), Mary Stewart (1964), Ruth Stone (1975), Tom Stoppard (1988), David Storey (1973), John Updike (1977), Gore Vidal (1974), David Wagoner (1987), Robert Wallace (1977), Robert Penn Warren (1983), Mary Hays Weik (1974), Eudora Welty (1977, 1982, 1985 Bunting), Richard Wilbur (1970, 1977 High, 1977 Turner, 1984), Barbara Willard (1976), Nancy Willard (1989), Charles Wright (1988 Santos). 5. TEXTS WANTING THINGS AND REALIZING THEMSELVES: A. R. Ammons (1983), Abelardo Delgado (1980), James Dickey (1970), Alan Dugan (1973), William Faulkner (1968 Nagano IV), Pam Gems (1987), Russell Hoban (1985, 1987), Barbara Kingsolver (1993), Frederick Manfred (1974), Judith Minty (1977), Lorrie Moore (1988), Iris Murdoch (1982), Linda Pastan (1989), Ruth Pitter (1966), Neil Simon (1976), Gary Snyder (1978), Wallace Stegner (1976, 1985), James Tate (1977), Richard Wilbur (1970, 1984). 6. TEXTS THAT ARE INDEPENDENT, TAKE OVER, GO THEIR OWN WAY, GET OUT OF CONTROL: Chinua Achebe (1989), Ray Amorsi (1977), V. C. Andrews (1985), Jean M. Auel (1987), Ann Beattie (1987), Ramsey Campbell (1985), Raymond Carver (1987 O’Connell, 1987 McCaffrey), Sandra Cisneros (1985), Leonard Clark (1975), Anne Commire (1987), James Dickey (1979), Lawrence Durrell (1977), Lauris Edmond (1986), Ralph Ellison (1984), Louise Erdrich (1987), William Faulkner (1968 Nagano IV), Gabriel García Márquez (1973), William Goyen (1980), Michael Harper (1973), Russell Hoban (1985, 1987), Eugene Ionesco (1967), Madeline L’Engle (1974 Wintle), Norman Mailer (1967), Thomas McGuane (1987), James A. Michener (1978), Toni Morrison (1984), John Nichols (1988), Chaim Potok (1980), Sue Roe (1979), Leo Rosten (1964), Philip Roth (1975), Salman Rushdie (1985), Ron Silliman (1987), Elizabeth Spencer 156 Notes

(1982), Wallace Stegner (1985), Andrew Suknaski (1988), Emma Tennant (1979), Eudora Welty (1982, 1985 Jones), Dara Wier (1983), Charles Wright (1988 Santos). 7. TEXTS THAT CHOOSE, FORCE THEMSELVES ON, OR TAKE CONTROL OF THEIR AUTHORS: Martin Amis (1985), Liliane Atlan (1987), Byrna Barclay (1988), Philip Booth (1983), Barbara Brinson-Pineda (1985), Truman Capote (1985), Raymond Carver (1987 O’Connell, 1987 McCaffrey, 1988 Schumacher), Fred Chappell (1972), Alice Childress (1987), Leonard Clark (1975), Anne Commire (1987), Robertson Davies (1989), Fielding Dawson (1974), James Dickey (1979), Rita Dove (1989), Douglas Dunn (1981), Lawrence Durrell (1977), Richard Eberhart (1978, 1979 Cannito, 1979 American), Ralph Ellison (1974), Louise Erdrich (1987), William Faulkner (1968 Nagano IV), Timothy Findley (1984), Tess Gallagher (1987), John Gardner (1979), Donald Hall (1973), Joseph Heller (1984), Russell Hoban (1985, 1987), Linda Hogan (1987), Ursula Le Guin (1987), Robert Lowell (1968), Ross MacDonald (1983), Charles Madge (1966), Jill McCorkle (1993), Rod McKuen (1989), José Montoya (1985), Edwin Morgan (1976), Gloria Naylor (1993), John Nichols (1988), Grace Paley (1993), Linda Pastan (1989), Sue Roe (1979), Leslie Marmon Silko (1993), Armonía Somers (1985), Elizabeth Spencer (1989), Gerald Stern (1982), Emma Tennant (1979, 1985), Charles Tomlinson (1975), Marta Traba (1985), Alice Walker (1973), Robert Penn Warren (1977, 1983), Eudora Welty (1985 Royals), Marguerite Yourcenar (1984). 8. BIRDS: Later in the writing process, Alfred Coppel suggests that his texts are hawks—difficult to get “pinioned” on certain critical points (1976, p. 80). And Judith Minty, as she begins, is “never certain what place the poem will fly off to” (1977, p. 244). Linda Pastan said that her poem “grew out of a strong mood … It was certainly helped on its flight, however, by a specific mourning dove outside the window” (1977, p. 250). Eudora Welty grants that the final thing may “fly in through the window,” but only after brooding (1985 Millsaps). 9. ANIMALS: Writers discussing composing also mention owning, capturing, taming, controlling—a pterodactyl (Donald Hall, 1974), game (Louis Simpson, 1977), an animal or “creature” (James Dickey, 1979; Russell Hoban, 1987; Norman Mailer, 1977), a horse (Ursula K. Le Guin, 1987; Rod McKuen, 1989), a cat (Sandra Cisneros, 1985), an “organism” (Charles Simic, 1977), angleworms (Frederick Manfred 1985), and a “little agonized thing” (Robert Creeley, 1973 Ginsberg). Frederick Manfred creates “a pheas- ant in flight” (1974). Stanley Kunitz discusses texts specifically as creatures without always labeling them “living things” (1983), but referring to attributes such as their “skin” (1974 Boyers), “antennae” (1983), and “breathing” (1974 Fortunato), as does Charles Wright when he speaks of the “skin structure” of his poem (1988 Ellis), when Erskine Caldwell (1988), Roald Dahl (1974), Blanche d’Alpuget (1986), James Dickey (1979), Frederick Manfred (1974), Emily Mann (1987), and Chaim Potok (1980) discuss “bones,” “skeletons,” and “skeletal parts,” such as the “spine of the play,” when Rochelle Owens (1987) talks about “living tissue,” when Frederick Manfred (1974) and Tom Stoppard (1988) talk about “a nervous system,” “blood,” “guts,” and “pulling out entrails.” And it certainly seems suspiciously Notes 157

animal-like when some texts “move”—Carl Dennis (1989), John Gardner (1981 Burns), Hamish Henderson (1966), Stanley Kunitz (1974 Fortunato)— when Larry McMurtry’s books “squirm out from under” their titles (1980), and when ideas “take to their heels” as they “ﬂee” from Eugene Ionesco (1967) and Belva Plain (1989). Elizabeth Spencer warns that ideas, once formed, “may eat you up,” and should be kept “young and playful as long as possible” (1989, pp. 200–1). 10. HUNT: Others who “hunt” throughout the writing process include Brian Aldiss (1978), Lawrence Durrell (1973), Stanley Elkin (1982), John Gardner (1979), Janet Lewis (1976), Thomas McGuane (1987), John Rechy (1973), Philip Schultz (1989), David Wagoner (1987), Robert Penn Warren (1966). Philip Schultz says, “It just occurred to me that it is almost sexual. It’s a kind of pursuit, with the smell of the hunt” (1989, p. 188). 11. PURSUE, CHASE, CAPTURE, CATCH: Others who attempt to “pursue” or “chase” their texts, and “catch” or “capture” them: Robert Coover (1982), Rex Deverell (1988), E. L. Doctorow (1983), Richard Eberhart (1978), Robert Frost (1966), Geoffrey Hill (1981), Gary Hyland (1988), Chukwuemeka Ike (1976), Thomas Kinsella (1981), Philip Levine (1988), Thomas McGuane (1987), Rod McKuen (1989), Gabrielle Roy (1973), Jean Valentine (1983), Sheila Watson (1984), Al Young (1973), Marguerite Young (1984). 12. Pirandello’s play is only one of many books that deploy characters that appear to be out of control and independent. The “author” in Raymond Queneau’s The Flight of Icarus (1993) escapes from the book and sets up an independent life in Paris. In John Fowles’ The French Lieutenant’s Woman (1969), a ﬁgure of the author appears as a character in the book. 13. One anecdote has Pirandello performing “independent characters” as he wrote in his study in the afternoons:

On one such afternoon, builders working on a temporarily erected plat- form next door looked in through the window to see a man sitting at his desk rolling his eyes and gesticulating wildly, all the while talking to himself. Thinking him insane, or possibly possessed by the devil, they gathered around and watched until, the period of writing over, an embarrassed Pirandello became aware for the ﬁrst time of the audience so close to hand. (Caesar, 1998, pp. 1–2)

14. CHARACTERS COME TO WRITERS, ARE FOUND, OR CREATE THEM- SELVES: Erskine Caldwell (1988), Robertson Davies (1978), Ralph Ellison (1974, 1977), Timothy Findley (1973 Gibson, 1973 Cameron), Margaret Laurence (1973 Gibson, 1973 Cameron), Larry McMurtry (1980), Joyce Carol Oates (1974), Reynolds Price (1972), Salman Rushdie (1985), Ntozake Shange (1983). 15. CHARACTERS BECOME ALIVE, AUTONOMOUS, INDEPENDENT DURING THE PROCESS OF WRITING: Edward Anhalt (1972), Miguel Angel Asturias (1973), Louis Auchincloss (1989), Byrna Barclay (1988), Pat Barker (1993), Judy Blume (1979), Kay Boyle (1976), Alice Childress (1987), Alfred Coppel (1976), John Dos Passos (1973), Ralph Ellison (1974), Timothy Findley (1973 Cameron), Pamela Frankau (1964), John Gardner (1981), Epeli Hau’ofa (1989), William Inge (1971), Frances Parkinson Keyes (1957), 158 Notes

Ursula K. Le Guin (1987), Madeleine L’Engle (1974 Hopkins), David Madden (1985), Tom Mallin (1981), John Mortimer (1989), Anne Perry (1983), Harry Mark Petrakis (1977), Ann Petry (1973), Katherine Anne Porter (1977), Barbara Rinkoff (1974), Gabrielle Roy (1973), Salman Rushdie (1985), William Sansom (1974), Ouida Sebestyen (1993), Leslie Marmon Silko (1993), Elizabeth George Speare (1974), Rosemary Sutcliff (1976), William Trevor (1989), Marguerite Yourcenar (1984). 16. CHARACTERS MAY INITIATE THE NARRATIVE BY THEIR ARRIVAL: Sue Alexander (1979), Julia Cunningham (1979), Timothy Findley (1973 Gibson, 1973 Cameron), Larry McMurtry (1980), Joyce Carol Oates (1974), Elizabeth George Speare (1974), Eudora Welty (1988), Barbara Wersba (1979), Rita Williams-Garcia (1993). 17. CHARACTERS DO THINGS THEIR AUTHORS DO NOT EXPECT: Toni Cade Bambara (1983), Judy Blume (1979), Rosellen Brown (1983), Erskine Caldwell (1988), Cyprian Ekwensi (1972), Ralph Ellison (1977), John Fowles (1976), William Price Fox (1977), John Gardner (1981), A. B. Guthrie, Jr. (1987), Ursula K. Le Guin (1987), Madeleine L’Engle (1974 Hopkins), Doris Lessing (1974), Bernard Malamud (1975), Tom Mallin (1981), Larry McMurtry (1980), Margaret Millar (1983), Grace Paley (1993), Anne Perry (1983), Ann Petry (1973), Harold Pinter (1977), Salman Rushdie (1985), Ouida Sebestyen (1993), Leslie Marmon Silko (1993), Jessamyn West (1976). 18. CHARACTERS SUGGEST OR CHOOSE WHAT THEY WILL DO OR SAY: Milton Acorn (1984), Rudolfo Anaya (1980), Miguel Angel Asturias (1973), Byrna Barclay (1988), Pat Barker (1993), Saul Bellow (1972 Kulshrestha), Mel Brooks (1976), Rosellen Brown (1983), Alfred Coppel (1976), Edward Dorn (1980 Okada), Margaret Drabble (1982), Ralph Ellison (1974), Pamela Frankau (1964), Ernest J. Gaines (1976), Paul Gallico (1977), John Gardner (1979), Kaye Gibbons (1993), James Baker Hall (1977), William Inge (1971), James Jones (1964), Frances Parkinson Keyes (1957), Ursula K. Le Guin (1987), James Leigh (1976), Janet Lewis (1976), Cynthia Macdonald (1977), Margaret MacPherson (1976), Tom Mallin (1981), Joyce Carol Oates (1974, 1978), Grace Paley (1993), Elaine Perry (1993), Harry Mark Petrakis (1977), Harold Pinter (1977), Katherine Anne Porter (1977), Gabrielle Roy (1973), Salman Rushdie (1985), Jim Sagel (1985), Barbara Sapergia (1988), Leslie Marmon Silko (1993), Lois Simmie (1988), Elizabeth Spencer (1989), Mary Hays Weik (1974), Rita Williams-Garcia (1993), Marguerite Yourcenar (1984). 19. CHARACTERS MAKE DEMANDS ON WRITERS: Milton Acorn (1984), Sue Alexander (1979), Rudolfo Anaya (1980), Edward Anhalt (1972), Eileen Bassing (1964), Alice Childress (1987), Julia Cunningham (1979), Robertson Davies (1978), Brianda Domecq (1994), William Faulkner (1966), Jules Feiffer (1989), Timothy Findley (1973 Gibson, 1973 Cameron), Griselda Gamboro (1987), Kaye Gibbons (1993), Epeli Hau’ofa (1989), Evan Hunter (1989), Frederick Manfred (1974), Eve Merriam (1987), John Mortimer (1989), Joyce Carol Oates (1978), Reynolds Price (1972), Louisa Shotwell (1974), Megan Terry (1987), Michael Waters (1989), Barbara Wersba (1979), Rita Williams-Garcia (1993), Marguerite Yourcenar (1984). 20. CHARACTERS TRY TO TAKE OVER: Miguel Angel Asturias (1973), Eileen Bassing (1964), Kay Boyle (1976), Ray Bradbury (1980), Erskine Caldwell Notes 159

(1988), Alice Childress (1987), Julia Cunningham (1974), Isak Dinesen (1977), Brianda Domecq (1994), Owen Dodson (1973), Ariel Dorfman (1989), John Dos Passos (1973), Ralph Ellison (1974), William Faulkner (1977), Thomas Fleming (1989), E. M. Forster (1977), Ernest J. Gaines (1976), Kaye Gibbons (1993), Dave Godfrey (1973), Epeli Hau’ofa (1989), Beth Henley (1982), Buck Henry (1972), Corinne Jacker (1987), Elmer Kelton (1980), William Kennedy (1987), Barbara Kingsolver (1993), Margaret Laurence (1973 Cameron), Ursula K. Le Guin (1987), Olga Masters (1986), Eve Merriam (1987), James A. Michener (1978), Martin Myers (1973), Vladimir Nabokov (1972), Andre Norton (1978), Joyce Carol Oates (1978), Kole Omotoso (1974), Anne Perry (1983), Katherine Anne Porter (1977), Leo Rosten (1964), Salman Rushdie (1985), William Sansom (1974), Philip Schultz (1989), Louisa Shotwell (1974), Lois Simmie (1988), Armonía Somers (1985), David Storey (1985), Megan Terry (1987), Mary Hays Weik (1974), Sylvia Wilkinson (1973), Marguerite Yourcenar (1984). 21. CHARACTERS OPERATE AS CRITICS: Rudolfo Anaya (1980), Saul Bellow (1972 Enck), Owen Dodson (1973), William Inge (1971), R. A. Lafferty (1978). 22. In this “interview-by-mail,” Oates puts two words—”characters” and “plots”—in quotation marks. Yet she does not so distinguish other terms— ”people,” “strangers,” “crowded,” “appear,” “define themselves”—which she is, in fact, using in a special, figurative sense—as part of CHARACTERS ARE CO-AUTHORS. The result suggests that the language of “literary” communication seems artificial and inexact; the language of CHARACTERS ARE CO-AUTHORS, real and appropriate. 23. CHARACTERS ARE REAL: Personifying one’s characters suggests that they are real persons, but authors also may say so explicitly: Harry Mark Petrakis says his characters are “real” (1977); Katherine Anne Porter says to her interviewer, “They exist as independently inside my head as you do before me now” (1977, p. 154); Alfred Coppel reports, “when a book is going well and nearing the end … my fictional characters are more real than actual people” (1976, p. 81). Others include Julia Cunningham (1979), Thomas Fleming (1989), Gordon Gordon (1964), Madeleine L’Engle (1974 Hopkins), Tom Mallin (1981), Harry Mark Petrakis (1977), Lois Simmie (1988), Louisa Shotwell (1974), Elizabeth George Speare (1974), Mary Stolz (1974), Edmund White (1988), Marguerite Yourcenar (1984). 24. Similarly, Harold Pinter criticizes inescapably loquacious characters in The Birthday Party and The Caretaker: “Too many words irritate me sometimes, but I can’t help them, they just seem to come out—out of the fellow’s mouth” (1977, p. 359). 25. The interviewer here may be referring to such occasions as Forster’s Paris Review interview:

INTERVIEWER: … has a novel ever taken an unexpected direction? FORSTER: Of course, that wonderful thing, the character running away with you—which happens to everyone—that’s happened to me, I’m afraid … (E. M. Forster, 1977, p. 28).

26. The interviewer here may be referring to such occasions as Porter’s Paris Review interview, partly quoted in an earlier footnote: 160 Notes

By the time I write the story my people are up and alive and walking around and taking things into their own hands. They exist as independently inside my head as you do before me now. (Katherine Anne Porter, 1977, p. 154)

I have had people object to Mr. Thompson’s suicide at the end of Noon Wine, and I’d say, “All right, where was he going? Given what he was, his own situation, what else could he do?” Every once in a while when I see a character of mine just going towards perdition, I think, “Stop, stop, you can always stop and choose, you know.” But no, being what he was, he already has chosen, and he can’t go back on it now. (Katherine Anne Porter, 1977, p. 152)

27. Albee does say in the same interview, “The characters’ lives have gone on before the moment you chose to have the action of the play begin. And their lives are going to go on after you have lowered the ﬁnal curtain of the play, unless you’ve killed them off…. where do you end that? Where the characters seem to come to a pause … where they seem to want to stop—rather like, I think, the construction of a piece of music” (1977, p. 344).

6 Authorship and Intellectual Labor

1. Different constituencies have different purposes for the concept of authorship: literary critics, legal authorities, and general readers all differ in their definitions of authorship according to their specific purposes, each arena offering opportunity for controversy and misunderstanding. So authorship stands at a nexus of concerns and strategies, produced not only by systems of promotion, but by specific histories of production and distribution, by characteristics of readerships, by legal constraints, and by the concerns of legal and literary scholarship. 2. According to Bakhtin: “Language is realized in the form of individual concrete utterances (oral or written) by participants in the various areas of human activity… . Each separate utterance is individual, of course, but each sphere in which language is used develops its own relatively stable types of these utterances. These we may call speech genres …. each sphere of activity contains an entire repertoire of speech genres that differentiate and grow as the particular sphere develops and becomes more complex” (1986, p. 60, emphasis in original). 3. Through their presence and the questions that they may ask, interviewers contribute much to the structure of the interview, and through the interaction, they influence the answers. Interviewers are partners, aides, stimu- lants, interferences, or irritants, but they are not simply a neutral source of information. In this way they are social. To suggest in consequence that writers and interviewers are therefore only engaged in “performance,” simply “assuming roles” in interviews does not render interviews especially imprecise or suspect, because many conversations are, in effect, “perfor- mances.” Some interactions would appear to be fraught with difficulties (see, for example, Morrissey, 1985). Notes 161

4. Evelyn J. Hinz, in preparing her collection of interviews with Anais Nin (1975), and Robert J. Staton, in preparing his collection of interviews with Gore Vidal (1980), both selected passages from a number of interviews and re-grouped them so that comments on a particular subject matter appeared together—a pastiche. 5. David Neal Miller studied a range of interviews of Isaac Bashevis Singer, finding repeated use of similar stories across interviews. He indicates that at that time, the number of broadcast and print interviews of Singer must have been in the “hundreds.” Miller reports, “Singer’s most striking strategy is an almost word-for-word repetition of answers to a number of recurring questions” (1984, p. 196), as well as use of proverbs, verbal leitmotifs, and other intertextual gestures. 6. In many interviews, the interviewer and writer spend considerable time on the writer’s role as literary critic—analysis of the work of other authors, in particular, or delineation of authors who have influenced them. Subjects such as historical, political, and cultural issues, as well as issues of craft judgment, are also prominent. Because most interviews are limited in length and address a wide range of topics, there is a tendency to ask broad questions, to simplify the issues being discussed, to make generalizations, to touch on highlights rather than exploring the writing process in detail—all of which, I would expect to encourage the generation of metaphorical language both about specific composing acts and about composing processes in general. Many interviewers ask how ideas come to writers, what “the” creative process is like for them, do they ever have “writing blocks,” etc. Inter- viewers often want to know how a specific book or poem “originated,” or “started.” They ask about revision much less often. A significant number of interviewers assume—even encourage—writers to frame their writing as mysterious. Such interviewers remark that many writers won’t want to talk about work in progress, or object to talking about how they get ideas for fear of “jinxing” the process: “Are you one of those writers who …” or “I suppose you’d prefer not to talk about it …” Some interviewers phrase their questions by using metaphorical stories about writing processes. The vagaries of such social interaction and the varied styles of different interviews undoubtedly influence how authors describe their writing processes. In the “formalized” conversational situation of the interview, authors and interviewers both reveal expectations about what to say about composing—and how long to spend saying it. We are able to see the foci of attention for both writers and interviewers: their definitions of composing, the kinds of processes that they appear most interested or willing to talk about—and the kinds of metaphorical language both use to discuss composing. 7. The journal presented an overview of four “types” of interviews with authors, and the types of questions that Shakespeare might have been asked in such interviews.

In the “professorial interview,” the interviewer would have sought explanations about the body of Shakespeare’s work—”to clear up a lot of 162 Notes

pesky questions about subtexts and footnotes”: “ … are you really Francis Bacon? In that case, did you hide a bilateral cipher in any of your plays? … Who was the third murderer in Macbeth? Why did you drop Donalbain from the plot? …” (Packard, 1974, p. x)

In the “opinionated interview,” the interviewer would have inquired about Shakespeare’s “political, religious, and socioeconomic attitudes”: “… do you believe in God? … What were your feelings about Queen Elizabeth? … Are you in favor of a constitutional monarchy? What do you feel about the concept of republican democracy? Christian socialism? Marxist commu- nism? Freudian psychoanalysis? …” (pp. x–xi)

In the “gossipy interview,” the interviewer would have been interested in Shakespeare’s personality and “extrapoetic activities”: “Who was the Dark Lady of the Sonnets? Who was the young man? Did you ever have any homosexual experiences? If not, why not? … What did you and Ben Jonson talk about in the Mermaid Tavern? … Could you both hold your malt?” (p. xi)

In the fourth type of interview, the “craft interview,” the interviewer would have focused on “the circumstances of an artist’s work and not the work itself”: “Was Ben Jonson right when he said you never blotted out a single word? Was there no revision? How much work did you do in your head before you began setting it all down? … Did you always sit at the desk, or could you sometimes compose lying down or walking at night through the streets of London?” (pp. xi–xii)

For this fourth type of interview, the editors comment, “Here we can imagine Shakespeare giving matter-of-fact answers to the questions, because they are, after all, the sort of speciﬁc thing which would concern him as a practicing poet.” (p. xii)

8. The editors of the New York Quarterly, for example, indicate that their interviews should be based on a solid knowledge of the author’s work, and assume the form of exchange. They supply a set of “sample” questions to reﬂect the general types that their interviewers might use. Note that questions 9, 10, and 12 explicitly focus on advice for aspiring writers. Question 4 might be answered either by reference to the author’s writing biography or as advice to aspiring writers and contemporary teachers of poetry. The pervasiveness of such questions leads to this undercurrent of pedagogy found in many literary interviews.

1. Would you describe the physical conditions of writing your poetry? Are you always at a desk? Do you do ﬁrst drafts on typewriter or with pencil or with pen? On what kind of paper? As poems progress, what do you do with worksheets that you no longer need? 2. When you are away from your desk or writing area, do you carry a note- book with you? What do you do with thoughts or impulses that come to you when you are unable to record them easily? Notes 163

3. What would you say about revision? Is it a creative act with you? Have you written anything that did not need extensive revision? Do you have any special procedure for revising a poem? 4. What do you feel is the value of the poetry workshop for a young poet? Did you take any when you were beginning to write poetry? What do you feel about student criticism of each other’s work? 5. Do you ever experience a dry period in writing, and if so what do you do about it? 6. Do you ever play games with the craft of poetry, prosody, for the fun of it, or for what it might lead to? Anagrams, palindromes, etc.? 7. What do you feel about the need for isolation in the life of a writer? How does it affect personal relationships? Professional activities such as teaching? 8. Have you ever received lines of poetry which you were unable to incor- porate into a poem? What would you do with them, as a rule? 9. If a poet is about to fall asleep and suddenly thinks of an interesting poem or some interesting lines for a poem, what should he do? 10. What reference books do you feel are useful for a young poet to have on his desk, for consultation? 11. Do you feel we live in a particularly permissive age as far as education and discipline in craft are concerned, and if so, what effect is this having on the present stage of poetry being written today? 12. What poet do you feel would be a good model for a young writer to begin learning about poetry? (Packard, 1974, pp. xii–xiii) 9. Interviewer Charles Ruas begins the introduction to his collection of interviews with the statement: “The art of the literary interview is transforming a particular interrogation into a universal dialogue” (1984, p. xi). This move between particular and “universal” is common to discussions of interviews. Even more common is the attempt to find “trends” across writers about stages of composition, how stories began, and so forth (see, for example, Malcolm Cowley, in the introduction to the first collection of The Paris Review Interviews [1977]). 10. The argument here is congruent with that of musicologists such as Charles Hamm (1995) and Christopher Small (1998), who argue that the meaning of music is in the social acts at the points of performance and reception, rather than in “the song itself” (or the story). A work of art requires a knowing subject engaged in a socially constructed and shared activity. Readers and listeners are always active. 11. As Judith Butler argues: “We may be tempted to think that to assume the subject in advance is necessary in order to safeguard the agency of the subject. But to claim the subject is constituted is not to claim that it is determined; on the contrary, the constituted character of the subject is the very precondition of its agency. For what is it that enables a purposive and significant reconfiguration of cultural and political relations, if not a relation that can be turned upon itself, reworked, resisted? … My sugges- tion is that agency belongs to a way of thinking about persons as instru- mental actors who confront an external political field. But if we agree that politics and power exist already at the level at which the subject and its agency are articulated and made possible, then agency can be presumed 164 Notes

only at the cost of refusing to inquire into its construction” (Butler, 1995 “Contingent,” p. 46). 12. While his metaphor implies a subject that exists prior to a conversation, rather than coming into being within it, Burke explicitly situates speakers in discourse as part of an on-going drama of social life as an “unending conversation”: “Imagine that you enter a parlor. You come late. When you arrive, others have long preceded you, and they are engaged in a heated discussion, a discussion too heated for them to pause and tell you exactly what it is about. In fact, the discussion had already begun long before any of them got there, so that no one present is qualified to retrace for you all the steps that had gone before. You listen for a while, until you decide that you have caught the tenor of the argument; then you put in your oar. Someone answers; you answer him; another comes to your defense; another aligns himself against you, to either the embarrassment or gratification of your opponent, depending on the quality of your ally’s assistance. However, the discussion is interminable. The hour grows late, you must depart. And you do depart, with the discussion still vigorously in progress” (Kenneth Burke, 1967, pp. 110–11). 13. Taylor argues, “The editing of Shakespeare is a small but paradigmatic example of the economies of culture, which depends on the manufacture of desire. People do not need editions of Shakespeare … the demand must be created in order to be satisfied” (1993, pp. 132–3). See Taylor’s humorous delineation of the “overdetermination” of earlier decisions about which authors will become central to literary studies. 14. The kind of hierarchizing that infuses cultural stewardship is not required by notions of authorship as a site of creative and discursive endeavor. 15. Judith Butler explains: “The critique of the subject is not a negation or repudiation of the subject, but, rather, a way of interrogating its construction as a pregiven or foundationalist premise” (Butler, 1995 “Contingent,” p. 42).

7 Authorship in an Economy of Promotion

1. Plimpton describes further promotion connected to The Paris Review interview series. At the 1964–65 World’s Fair in New York, The Paris Review created a booth to promote the magazine as well as sell other literary magazines (as well as shopping bags, French cigarettes, etc.). This booth—not itself a commercial success—was hung with blow-ups from the pages of The Paris Review: writings of Celine, Hemingway, Frost, and part of an interview with Evelyn Waugh. Thus the authorial interview serves to promote the magazine in which it appears not merely at the point of sale or later circulation, but in establishing the reputation that creates its audience. Plimpton’s remarks are illustrated with a picture of the booth (interview text visible). Illustrations also include a copy of the cover of the inaugural issue (volume 1, number 1, Spring 1953); the table of contents—displayed on the cover— lists, as its ﬁrst item, an interview with E. M. Forster (1978, p. 529). (To demonstrate the full circulation of promotion, Plimpton’s remarks are also illustrated with a pictorial advertisement for Peck and Peck showing a Notes 165

woman wearing a handsome coat and gloves. The caption reads: “There is a certain kind of woman who reads Peanuts and the The Paris Review. For this woman, there is a certain kind of store: Peck and Peck” [p. 535].) For further discussion of The Paris Review, see brief information in Butts (1992). 2. Graham Holderness comments on the use of the “concept” of Shakespeare in a poem by Matthew Arnold: “The concept ‘Shakespeare’ manipulated here signifies not a man or a writer, but a canonized literary achievement into which the life of the man has been absorbed. The object constructed is a universal totality of human experience, embodying within itself all the pains, griefs and weaknesses of humanity, triumphantly and ‘victoriously’ controlled and integrated into a serene harmony, a pure transcendence dis- daining all that man is, all mere complexities … Shakespeare, the work, can be integrated into that idealist totality [implied by Matthew Arnold] only by wrenching it free from any organic connection with the historical conditions of its production, and by liberating it from any dependence on reader- ship or audience. Shakespeare the writer has become ‘Shakespeare,’ the purely autonomous producer of a pure autonomous object … The object itself transcends criticism, disdains question, repudiates its origins and its relations with the common life of humanity, the concrete social world of living history ….” (1985, pp. 1–2). Holderness argues that this “concept” of Shakespeare, abstracted from the writer, is always present: “ ‘Shakespeare’ is everywhere… . It is probable that every English-speaking citizen of Britain has heard of Shakespeare: not necessarily from plays or books, but from advertisements, tourist attrac- tions, television comedies, the names of pubs and beers. In this context ‘Shakespeare’ (a concept which is evidently distinguishable from the writer of plays) appears as a universal symbol of high art, of ‘culture,’ of education, of the English spirit” (1985, p. 3). 3. A number of fascinating and by no means disrespectful accounts of the cultural uses of Shakespeare in Britain and America demonstrate that the use of Shakespeare’s name for cultural purposes is long-standing, extends far beyond the academy, infiltrating numerous aspects of public and cultural life, and changes over time according to various social interests. See, for example, Bristol (1996, 1990), Hawkes (1992, 1986), Holderness (1988, 1985), Taylor (1989). Bristol’s Big-Time Shakespeare (1996) is specifically focused on the commercial use of Shakespeare’s name and the reputation of his works—in other words, “Shakespeare” as a vehicle of commercial promotion. The absence of Shakespeare’s name from many film versions of the plays, Bristol remarks, can prompt viewers “to supply the omission by invoking the name of Shakespeare for themselves,” which allows the pro- ducers to avoid, by explicit reference to Shakespeare’s name, “the admoni- tory accent of parental encouragement” (1996, p. ix). The other books listed include discussion of Shakespeare’s name and reputation in both literary- critical and general cultural settings. Interesting also is Levine (1988), on the possible changing role of Shakespeare in the nineteenth-century American cultural scene, moving toward its position as an icon of “high culture.” 4. Hirsch’s own name functions as a promotional device for the series of books he produced subsequent to the publication of Cultural Literacy. No 166 Notes

doubt in response to the possibility of marketing accessible compendia of what might need to be known, Hirsch produced a series of dictionaries as guidelines to the instruction for the cultural “cement” he argued in Cultural Literacy to be absent in American life. See, for example, The Dictionary of Cultural Literacy (Hirsch, Kett, and Trefil, 1988, Second Ed., 1989). A series of such dictionaries were developed for children: A First Dictionary of Cultural Literacy: What Our Children Need to Know (Hirsch with Rowland and Stanford, 1989), followed by What Your First Grader Needs to Know (Hirsch 1991), What Your Second Grader Needs to Know (Hirsch, 1991), Third (Hirsch, 1992), Fourth (Hirsch, 1992), Fifth (Hirsch 1993), Sixth (Hirsch, 1993). 5. According to Jennifer Wicke, in mid-nineteenth century Britain advertising had “become an institution—a center of knowledge production, a deter- mining economic site, as well as a representational system comprising a vastly heterogeneous set of artifacts” (1988, p. 1). Wicke links the promotion of advertising to the development of the novel and features of modern authorship, arguing that advertising of texts had emerged concurrent with—and helping create—the establishment of the novel: the prefatory material advertising the text also served to establish the context in which it was to be received, providing various claims for the importance of the text, celebrations of authorship, polemics about the proper role of the text as intellectual property and its role as a significant contribution to culture, promises of entertainment, and more. 6. I frequently see arguments to the effect that such theorists as Roland Barthes (1977), Jacques Derrida (1976), and Michel Foucault (1977) are “hypocritical” because they question ways in which scholars have situated authorship—yet themselves participate in systems of contemporary criticism and promotion. Critics greet their arguments about the epistemologi- cal and political roles of authors as if they were fiats, to be judged on the “worthiness” of the theorists’ “characters.” This criticism misunderstands— perhaps willfully—both the theorists’ arguments and the role of any individual author in systems of promotion. To analyze and question aspects of the system of authorial promotion and study is not to declare oneself able to transcend such a system, to promise to publish all one’s texts anony- mously, to allow others free use of one’s text, to write poorly so that one will not be read. Yet this is the tenor of all too many criticisms of the three theorists. Parallel to such charges are the equally trivial or naive charges that academic authors are “careerist” when they produce scholarship that is successfully promoted within this system. Part of what critics of the alleged academic “careerism” of Foucault, Barthes, Derrida seem to resent is exactly the inclusion of academic authors in the culture of consumption and promotion surrounding contemporary authorship. Discussion of academic authorship framed in ways useful to considering it within a culture of promotion is found in Bourdieu (1988) and Lamont (1987). Wernick (1991) discusses the contemporary university as part of the cultures of promotion. 7. Stephen Greenblatt, in “Capitalist Culture and the Circulatory System” (1993) argues that the apparent contradictions characteristic of capitalism reveal naming as a site of tension in the circulation of capitalist discourses: capitalism, rather than merely assaulting identities, also generates and inscribes individual identities and demarcates their boundaries. Authorship Notes 167

and copyright are closely linked at exactly the point of the name within a network of property. See, for example, Gaines (1991), Hesse (1991), Rose (1993), Woodmansee and Jaszi (1994). 8. Anthony Trollope remarked, “It is a matter of course that in all things the public should trust to established reputation. It is as natural that a novel reader wanting novels should send to a library for those by George Eliot or Wilkie Collins, as that a lady when she wants a pie should go to Fortnum and Mason. Fortnum and Mason can only make themselves Fortnum and Mason by dint of time and good pies combined” (Trollope [1947/1883, p. 172], quoted in Becker [1982, p. 24]). Because of his suspicions that the author’s name influenced reception of his work (and other writers of note), Trollope had engaged in an “experiment” of attempting to publish stories under another name. Blackwood, the publisher, released two such stories, to indifferent success, but refused a third. 9. This network is extended when, with the evolution of monopoly and other “depersonalized” forms of capitalism, the “autonomy and identity of producing units has itself become just a promotional fiction…. [The author’s name, like the brand-name, becomes] a screen on which the anonymous capital can be repersonalized (and reauthorized) through the projection on to it of human attributes” (Wernick [1993, p. 94]). 10. According to McDonald (1997), the most famous interviewer of the 1890s was Raymond Blathwayt, who published interviews in a wide range of magazines and newspapers (McDonald cites numerous interviews in periodicals as well as Blathwayt [1893].) 11. Salmon argues: “From as early as the 1870s, James had recognized that the cultural situation of the modern author was changing. Whereas, formerly, authorship had occupied a space between private and public spheres, in the latter half of the nineteenth century it was increasingly subsumed into the latter. From its inception, of course, the literary market had enhanced the public circulation of private subjectivities: as a commodity, the literary text functioned as an exemplary medium of ‘intimate’ communication within the public sphere. Yet the public function of the print medium was also predicated upon the assumption that authors themselves simultaneously inhabited the sphere of private individuals. During the course of his own career, James witnessed the emergence of new practices of biographical and journalistic representation in which both the ‘personality’ of the author and the material site of artistic labor were systematically exhibited as objects of public consumption. The author’s ‘life’ became a site of publicity as much as, if not more than, his or her ‘work’ “ (Salmon, 1997, pp. 78–9, footnote omitted). 12. See for example, Carroll (1982), Culver (1985), Holland (1982), Miller (1998), Rivkin (1995), Sedgwick (1995). 13. Wernick argues: “What promotion exemplifies, in short, is what Derrida calls the logic of the supplement. The fate of contemporary writing … is to be doubly caught up in this supplementarity. First, by being commodified in itself, whence: writing as self-advertising; the name as promotional sign; … Secondly, by being incorporated into an economic sector … which itself serves as a promotional vehicle for the general circulation of commodities” (Wernick, 1993, p. 100, emphasis added). Wernick cites the following 168 Notes

passage from Jacques Derrida: “… the supplement supplements. It adds only to replace. It intervenes or insinuates itself in-the-place-off; if it fills, it is as if one fills a void…. Compensatory [suppleantt] and vicarious, the supplement is an adjunct, a subaltern instance which takes-(the)-place [tient-lieu] … Somewhere, something can be filled up of itself, only by allowing itself to be filled through sign and proxy. The sign is always the supplement of the thing itself” (Derrida, 1976, p. 145, emphasis in original). Critical References

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Abish, Walter 139–40n3, 147n17 Arden, John 136–7n7, 148–9n22 Abrams, M. H. 138n10 Armstrong, Cherryl 20 Achebe, Chinua 155–6n6 Armstrong, Nancy 107–8 Acorn, Milton 136–7n7, 138n13, Arnold, Matthew 3, 11–15, 135n1, 158n18, 158n19 165n2 Adcock, Fleur 146n13 Ashbery, John 63, 69, 128, Adoff, Arnold 151n30 139–40n3 Aiken, Conrad 67, 152n48 Asimov, Isaac 146n14 Alamargot, Denis 143n12 Astley, Thea 139–40n3, 145n5, Albee, Edward 92–3, 148n21, 151n31 148–9n22, 160n27 Asturias, Miguel Angel 148–9n22, Aldiss, Brian W. 157n10 149n24, 157–8n15, 158n18, Alexander, Margaret Walker 158–9n20 144–5n4 Atlan, Liliane 138n9, 138n13, Alexander, Sue 152n44, 153n50, 139n2, 152n47, 156n7 158n16, 158n19 Atwood, Margaret 139–40n3, Algren, Nelson 66, 155n4 140–1n4, 147–8n19 Allen, Paula Gunn 139–40n3 Auchincloss, Louis 148–9n22, Allen, Woody 125, 126 149n24, 150n28, 157–8n15 Althusser, Louis 10–11, 100–1, Auden, W. H. 136–7n7 144n3 Auel, Jean 139–40n3, 155–6n6 Altick, Richard D. 103, 118 Amis, Kingsley 147–8n19 Bacon, Francis 161–2n7 Amis, Martin 80, 144–5n4, 149n24, Baird, Alexander 147–8n19 153–4n1, 154n2, 154–5n3, 156n7 Bakhtin, Mikhail 30, 73–5, 99–100, Ammons, A. R. 145n7, 155n4, 104, 109, 160n2 155n5 Baldwin, Michael 138n11, 155n4 Amorsi, Ray 155–6n6 Balibar, Etienne 135n2 Anaya, Rudolfo A. 85–6, 158n18, Bambara, Toni Cade 158n17 158n19, 159n21 Barclay, Byrna 139–40n3, Anderson, Benedict 143n13 140–1n4, 152n39, 156n7, Anderson, Jessica 139–40n3, 157–8n15, 158n18 150n29, 152n45, 152n47, Barker, Pat 153–4n1, 154n2, 152–3n49 157–8n15, 158n18 Anderson, Poul 148–9n22 Barth, John 38–9, 90–3, 136–7n7, Anderson, Robert 139–40n3 138n9, 139–40n3, 141–2n6, 152n39 Andrews, V. C. 116, 150n28, Barthelme, Donald 139n2, 155–6n6 139–40n3, 140–1n4, 147–8n19, Anesko, Michael 119 150n29 Anhalt, Edward 157–8n15, 158n19 Barthes, Roland 3, 104–7, 110, 122, Anouilh, Jean 138n13 166n6 Apple, Max 137–8n8, 139–40n3, Basquiat 111 153–4n1 Bassing, Eileen 158n19, 158–9n20

221 222 Index of Names

Baybars, Taner 78, 148n21, Britton, James 42 148–9n22, 149n26, 154n2 Brodhead, Richard H. 118, 123 Beagle, Peter S. 150n29 Brodkey, Linda 52, 144n1 Beattie, Ann 67, 138n13, 139–40n3, Bromell, Nicholas K. 53 155–6n6 Brooks, Mel 146n9, 154–5n3, Beaugrande, Robert de 143n12 158n18 Becker, Howard S. 117, 167n8 Brophy, Brigid 148n21, 150n28 Beckett, Samuel 43 Brown, Ann L. 141n5 Bedford, Jean 139–40n3, 148–9n22, Brown, Rosellen 148–9n22, 158n17, 150n29, 152n45, 152n48 158n18 Bell, Marvin 151n30 Brugman, Claudia 145n6 Bellow, Saul 89, 136–7n7, 158n18, Brunner, John 67, 150n29 159n21 Buckler, Ernest 150n29 Benedict, Pinckney 155n4 Budrys, Algis 149n24, 154–5n3 Benedikt, Michael 136–7n7 Burke, Kenneth 52, 107, 164n12 Bennett, Bruce 151n31 Burnett, W. R. 152n44, 155n4 Bereiter, Carl 143n12 Burns, Alan 139n2, 139–40n3, Berger, John 144n1 140–1n4 Berkenkotter, Carol 143n15 Burrs, Mick 138n9, 139–40n3 Berryman, John 146n11 Butler, Judith 106, 163–4n11, Berthoff, Ann E. 42 164n15 Bester, Alfred 146n13, 155n4 Butts, Leonard C. 164–5n1 Betts, Doris 152n46 Bidart, Frank 122 Caesar, Ann Hallamore 157n13 Blackburn, Thomas 138n13, Cain, James M. 153–4n1 148n21, 148–9n22, 149n24, Caldwell, Erskine 152–3n49, 149–50n27, 150n28 156–7n9, 157n14, 158n17, Blathwayt, Raymond 167n10 158–9n20 Bloch, Robert 144–5n4 Calisher, Hortense 56, 145n7 Bloom, Benjamin S. 142n9 Campbell, Donald T. 142n9 Bloom, Harold 14 Campbell, Joseph 136–7n7, 138n13 Blume, Judy 157–8n15, 158n17 Campbell, Maria 139–40n3, 152n47 Blunden, Edmund 57, 145n5 Campbell, Ramsey 154–5n3, Booth, Philip 139–40n3, 156n7 155–6n6 Borus, Daniel H. 53 Campos, Julieta 149n24 Boston, Lucy 137–8n8, 147–8n19 Capote, Truman 137–8n8, Bottrall, Ronald 154–5n3 139–40n3, 151n31, 153n50, 156n7 Bourdieu, Pierre 104, 166n6 Carey, Linda 143n12 Boyle, Kay 157–8n15, 158–9n20 Carr, Terry 139–40n3 Bracewell, Robert J. 141n5 Carroll, David 167n12 Brackett, Leigh 147–8n19, 153n50, Carruth, Hayden 146n13 154n2, 155n4 Carver, Raymond 136–7n7, 139n2, Bradbury, Malcolm 140–1n4 140–1n4, 145n8, 146n13, 150n28, Bradbury, Ray 146n12, 146n14, 150n29, 151n34, 152n43, 152n45, 158–9n20 152n47, 152–3n49, 153n50, Braudy, Leo 117 154–5n3, 155n4, 155–6n6, 156n7 Braun, Richard Emil 138n11 Casey, Harry 131 Brinson-Pineda, Barbara 156n7 Casey, Juanita 146n13 Bristol, Michael D. 109, 165n3 Céline, Louis–Fernand 164–5n1 Index of Names 223

Cendrars, Blaise 140–1n4, 148–9n22 Culver, Stuart 119–20, 167n12 Cervantes, Lorna Dee 139–40n3, Cunningham, Julia 158n16, 140–1n4, 154n2 158n19, 158–9n20, 159n23 Chanquoy, Lucile 143n12 Cunningham, Veronica 153n50 Chappell, Fred 66, 138n13, 145n5, Curtius, Ernst Robert 138n10 152–3n49, 156n7 Cheever, John 92, 117 d’Alpuget, Blanche 147–8n19, Cherry, Kelly 139–40n3 152–3n49, 153n50, 156–7n9 Chester, Laura 62, 69, 155n4 D’Andrade, Roy 40 Childress, Alice 147–8n19, 150n29, Dahl, Roald 156–7n9 151–2n38, 156n7, 157–8n15, Davies, Robertson 136–7n7, 158n19, 158–9n20 138n9, 140–1n4, 150n28, Chopin, Frédéric 27 153–4n1, 154–5n3, 156n7, Churchill, Caryl 140–1n4 157n14, 158n19 Cicourel, Aaron V. 142n9 Davis, Sara N. 21 Cisneros, Sandra 78, 138n13, Dawson, Fielding 156n7 149n24, 150n28, 150n29, 155–6n6, de Matteo, Donna 139–40n3, 156–7n9 140–1n4 Clark, Eleanor 146n12 Delany, Samuel 139–40n3 Clark, J. P. 148–9n22, 151n36 Delgado, Abelardo 148n20, 148n21, Clark, Leonard 148n20, 148–9n22, 148–9n22, 149n24, 149–50n27, 155–6n6, 156n7 153n50, 155n5 Clark, Timothy 17, 136n6, 138n10 Dennis, Carl 156–7n9 Clarke, Austin 139–40n3, 148n21 Derrida, Jacques 120–1, 166n6, Clemens, Samuel 144n2 167–8n13 Cocteau, Jean 138n9 Descartes, René 23 Cohen, Leonard 139–40n3 Deverell, Rex 157n11 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor 135n1 DeVries, Peter 149n24 Colette 115 Dickey, James 43, 55–6, 62, 69, Collins, Wilkie 167n8 133–4, 136–7n7, 138n13, Commire, Anne 145n5, 152–3n49, 139–40n3, 151n33, 154–5n3, 155–6n6, 156n7 155n4, 155n5, 155–6n6, 156n7, Conrad, Joseph 118 156–7n9 Cook, Michael 154n2 Didion, Joan 65–6 Coover, Robert 139–40n3, 140–1n4, Dinesen, Isak 89, 158–9n20 144–5n4, 148–9n22, 150n28, Doctorow, E. L. 25, 77, 98, 109, 150n29, 154–5n3, 157n11 149n23, 150n29, 154–5n3, 155n4, Coppel, Alfred 139–40n3, 156n8, 157n11 157–8n15, 158n18, 159n23 Dodson, Owen 158–9n20, 159n21 Corke, Hilary 155n4 Doig, Ivan 62, 147–8n19, 150n28, Corpi, Lucha 138n13 151n34, 155n4 Coulter, John 136–7n7 Domecq, Brianda 153n50, 158n19, Couzijn, Michel 143n12 158–9n20 Cowley, Malcolm 113, 163n9 Donleavy, J. P. 148n21, 150n28 Coyne, John 139–40n3 Doolittle, Hilda (H.D.) 19 Creeley, Robert 66, 152n39, Dorfman, Ariel 149n24, 158–9n20 153–4n1, 156–7n9 Dorn, Edward 37–8, 138n13, 139n2, Crowther, Bosley 10 139–40n3, 149n24, 150n29, Culler, A. Dwight 135n1 154–5n3, 158n18 224 Index of Names

Dos Passos, John 84, 89, 150n28, Epstein, Julius J. 139–40n3 157–8n15, 158–9n20 Erdrich, Louise 138n9, 139–40n3, Douglas, Ellen 139–40n3, 152n42, 140–1n4, 154–5n3, 155n4, 153–4n1 155–6n6, 156n7 Dove, Rita 137–8n8, 151n30, Ericsson, K. Anders 142n7 154n2, 156n7 Etchison, Dennis 155n4 Dowse, Sara 147–8n19, 152n46 Drabble, Margaret 137–8n8, Farmer, Beverley 139–40n3, 148–9n22, 150n28, 150n29, 147–8n19, 152n41, 152–3n49 152–3n49, 158n18 Farmer, Penelope 150n29, 152n45 duBois, Page 13–14 Faulkner, William 89, 93, 98, Dugan, Alan 77, 155n5 139–40n3, 148n21, 149n24, Dunn, Douglas 148n20, 156n7 151n36, 152n42, 154–5n3, 155n4, Dunn, Stephen 154–5n3 155n5, 155–6n6, 156n7, 158n19, Dunne, Philip 151–2n38 158–9n20 Durrell, Lawrence 64, 65, 78, 127, Faust, Irvin 138n9, 147–8n19, 136–7n7, 139–40n3, 140–1n4, 148–9n22 146n10, 146n11, 147–8n19, Federman, Raymond 152–3n49 149n23, 149n26, 150n29, 151n31, Feiffer, Jules 158n19 152–3n49, 153–4n1, 154n2, Ferguson, Harvie 15 155–6n6, 156n7, 157n10 Ferre, Rosario 139–40n3, 151–2n38 Eberhart, Mignon 78 Ferrell, Anderson 140–1n4 Eberhart, Richard 18, 45–6, Figes, Eva 139–40n3 136–7n7, 137–8n8, 138n9, 138n13, Findley, Timothy 81–2, 149n24, 139–40n3, 146n11, 149n24, 156n7, 157n14, 157–8n15, 158n16, 152n43, 156n7, 157n11 158n19 Edmond, Lauris 154–5n3, 155–6n6 Finkel, Donald 139n2, 139–40n3 Edmond, Murray 139–40n3, Flavell, John H. 141n5, 142n7 140–1n4 Fleming, Thomas 139–40n3, Edson, Russell 136–7n7, 154–5n3 140–1n4, 152n39, 155n4, Egendorf, Arthur 49 158–9n20, 159n23 Ekwensi, Cyprian 148n21, 153n50, Flippen, Ruth 149n24 158n17 Flower, Linda S. 141n5, 143n12, Elbow, Peter 42, 130 143n15 Elias, Norbert 15 Fornes, Maria Irene 146n13 Elinson, Jack 140–1n4 Forrest–Pressley, D. L. 141n5 Eliot, George 33, 136n6, 167n8 Forster, E. M. 89–90, 148n20, Eliot, T. S. 14 148n21, 158–9n20, 159n25, Eliot, T. S. 153n50 164–5n1 Elkin, Stanley 144–5n4, 150n29, Foucault, Michel 104–7, 110–111, 152n48, 157n10, 117, 122, 166n6 Ellin, Stanley 139–40n3, 151–2n38 Fowles, John 62, 89, 137–8n8, Ellis, Bret Easton 152n48 148n21, 150n28, 154n2, 157n12, Ellison, Ralph 89, 152–3n49, 158n17 155–6n6, 156n7, 157n14, Fox, William Price 158n17 157–8n15, 158n17, 158n18, Frankau, Pamela 153n50, 157–8n15, 158–9n20 158n18 Engel, Howard 154n2 Frazer, James George, Sir 135n3 Index of Names 225

Freedman, Jonathan 119 Golden, Marita 150n28 Freud, Sigmund 91, 98, 135n1, Golding, William 146n13, 135n2 152–3n49, 154n2, 155n4 Friebert, Stuart 154–5n3 Golson, G. Barry 101 Fritz, Jean 144–5n4, 152–3n49 Goosens, Louis 145n6 Frost, Robert 134, 139–40n3, Gordon, Gordon 159n23 157n11, 164–5n1 Gorey, Edward 150n28 Frye, Northrop 14 Goyen, William 63, 67, 69, 76, Fugard, Athol 139–40n3, 140–1n4, 139–40n3, 144–5n4, 150n29, 148n20, 151n31, 154–5n3 155–6n6 Grady, Joe 145n6 Gaines, Ernest J. 88, 158n18, Graves, John 35–6, 144–5n4, 158–9n20 152–3n49 Gaines, Jane M. 166–7n7 Graves, Robert 145n5, 148n21, Galbraith, David 143n12 150n28, 154–5n3 Gallagher, Tess 136–7n7, 139–40n3, Greenblatt, Stephen 122–3, 146n15, 150n29, 152n45, 154–5n3, 166–7n7 156n7 Grenville, Kate 139–40n3, 152n42, Gallico, Paul 139–40n3, 147–8n19, 152n48, 154n2 158n18 Gruber, Howard E. 21 Gambaro, Griselda 61, 148–9n22, Gunn, Thom 148n21, 148–9n22 149n24, 150n28, 153n50, 154–5n3, Guthrie, A. B., Jr. 158n17 158n19 García Márquez, Gabriel H.D. (Hilda Doolittle) 19 139–40n3, 147–8n19, 149n24, Haley, Alex 67 155n4, 155–6n6 Hall, Donald 67, 78, 136–7n7, Gardner, John 54, 56, 57, 62, 89, 152n40, 152n47, 156n7, 156–7n9 151n30, 152n47, 156n7, 156–7n9, Hall, James Baker 139–40n3, 157n10, 157–8n15, 158n17, 140–1n4, 152–3n49, 158n18 158n18 Hamm, Charles 163n10 Garner, Alan 150n28, 154–5n3 Hannah, Barry 151n34, 152–3n49 Garner, Helen 145n5, 152–3n49 Hardwick, Elizabeth 154n2 Gass, William 68, 139–40n3, Hardy, Thomas 33 147–8n19, 149n24, 152n42, Harper, Michael 147–8n19, 152–3n49, 154n2, 155n4 153–4n1, 155–6n6, 157–8n15 Gems, Pam 139–40n3, 155n5 Harris, Wilson 29, 30, 57, 72, 75, Gentner, Dedre 142n8 140–1n4, 137–8n8, 153–4n1, Gentner, Donald R. 142n8 154–5n3, 155n4 Gibbons, Kaye 84–5, 145n5, Harrison, Jim 68, 136–7n7, 148–9n22, 152n39, 155n4, 158n18, 147–8n19, 148–9n22 158n19, 158–9n20 Hastings, J. Thomas 142n9 Gibbs, Raymond W. 142n10 Hau’ofa, Epeli 148n21, 153n50, Ginsberg, Allen 136–7n7, 140–1n4, 157–8n15, 158n19, 158–9n20 152–3n49 Hawkes, John 147–8n19, 150n28, Givner, Joan 146n13, 151n31, 151n31 152n39, 152n44 Hawkes, Terence 165n3 Godfrey, Dave 158–9n20 Hawks, Howard 10 Gold, Herbert 67, 147–8n19 Hawthorne, Nathaniel 118 Goldberg, Jonathan 144n2 Hayes, John R. 143n12, 143n15 226 Index of Names

Heaney, Seamus 78, 136–7n7, Idol, Billy 128 139–40n3, 148n20, 148–9n22 Ignatow, David 144–5n4, 145n5 Hearon, Shelby 56, 154–5n3 Ike, Chukwuemeka 137–8n8, Heidegger, Martin 28 140–1n4, 157n11 Hekman, Susan 23, 111 Inge, William 89, 157–8n15, Heller, Joseph 149n24, 150n28, 158n18, 159n21 156n7 Ionesco, Eugene 56, 140–1n4, Hemingway, Ernest 117, 164–5n1 147–8n19, 150n29, 154–5n3, Hempel, Amy 139–40n3, 140–1n4 155n4, 155–6n6, 156–7n9 Henderson, Hamish 154n2, Irving, Clifford 117 156–7n9 Irving, John 138n9 Henley, Beth 145n5, 158–9n20 Isherwood, Christopher 67, 79, Henry, Buck 158–9n20 146n14, 148–9n22, 152n39, Herakleitos 13–14 152–3n49 Herbert, Christopher 135n3 Ishiguro, Kazuo 139–40n3, 154–5n3 Herbert, James 149n24 Hernandez, Felisberto 61 Jacker, Corinne 151n31, 151–2n38, Hesse, Carla 166–7n7 158–9n20 Hey, Phil 138n13 Jacobson, Marcia 119 Highsmith, Patricia 78, 153n50 James, Henry 119–20, 167n11 Hill, Geoffrey 27, 139–40n3, James, P. D. 139–40n3, 154–5n3 140–1n4, 148n21, 148–9n22, Jameson, Fredric 144n3 150n28, 154–5n3, 155n4, Janowitz, Tama 150n28 157n11 Jaszi, Peter 166–7n7 Hinz, Evelyn J. 161n4 Johnson, B. S. 146n14, 152n48, Hirsch, E. D. 116, 165–6n4 154–5n3 Hirsch, Edward 151n31 Johnson, Charles 28, 29, 72, Hoagland, Edward 155n4 154–5n3 Hoban, Russell 138n9, 138n13, Johnson, Diane 139–40n3, 152n39 139–40n3, 140–1n4, 152n47, Johnson, Mark 3, 40–41, 44, 53, 58, 154–5n3, 155n4, 155n5, 155–6n6, 142n10, 145n6 156n7, 156–7n9 Jones, David 67, 150n29 Hogan, Linda 154–5n3, 156n7 Jones, James 147–8n19, 155n4, Holden, Jonathan 139–40n3, 158n18 152–3n49, 154–5n3, 155n4 Jones, Madison 139–40n3 Holderness, Graham 165n2, 165n3 Jong, Erica 57–8, 136–7n7, 138n13, Holland, Dorothy 40 139–40n3, 145n7, 146n13 Holland, Laurence B. 167n12 Jonson, Ben 161–2n7 Hollander, John 136–7n7, 150n29 Joyce, James 117 Hopkins, John 154–5n3 Jung, C. G. 135n1 Howe, Tina 137–8n8, 139–40n3, 147–8n19, 152–3n49 K.C. and the Sunshine Band 131 Hoyos, Angela de 149n24 Kahn, Roger 149n25 Hoyt, Richard 140–1n4, 152n42 Katz, Steve 138n9 Hughes, Richard 149n25 Kaufman, Shirley 152n41, 152n46 Hulme, Keri 139–40n3 Kellogg, Ronald T. 143n12 Hunter, Evan 158n19 Kelton, Elmer 153n50, 153–4n1, Hyland, Gary 138n13, 148–9n22, 158–9n20 152–3n49, 154–5n3, 157n11 Kennedy, Adrienne 140–1n4 Index of Names 227

Kennedy, William 139–40n3, Lehmann, John 147–8n19 140–1n4, 150n29, 151n31, 151n34, Leigh, James 93, 137–8n8, 154–5n3, 152n39, 154–5n3, 158–9n20 158n18 Kennedy, X. J. 146n13, 149–50n27, Lemann, Nancy 136–7n7 154–5n3 Leonard, Hugh 67 Kerlinger, Fred N. 142n9 Lessing, Doris 27, 28, 89, 145n5, Kett, Joseph F. 165–6n4 145n8, 146n13, 153n50, 154–5n3, Keyes, Frances Parkinson 157–8n15, 158n17 158n18 Levertov, Denise 78, 138n11, Kincaid, Jamaica 139–40n3, 150n28 139–40n3, 154n2 King, Larry L. 145n5, 149n24 Levi, Peter 144–5n4, 147–8n19 Kingsolver, Barbara 146n13, Levine, George 135n1 150n28, 155n5, 158–9n20 Levine, Lawrence 165n3 Kinnell, Galway 148–9n22 Levine, Philip 138n13, 139–40n3, Kinsella, Thomas 157n11 146n12, 146n13, 147–8n19, Kittler, Friedrich A. 144n2 151n31, 151–2n38, 157n11 Kizer, Carolyn 149n24, 154n2 Lewis, Janet 140–1n4, 157n10, Kumin, Maxine 67, 151n35, 158n18 152n41, 152n43, 152–3n49, Liddy, James 150n29 153n50 Lipsitz, Lou 137–8n8 Kunitz, Stanley 36, 59, 137–8n8, Lodge, David 152n39 138n9, 140–1n4, 145n5, 146n9, Lopez, Barry 139–40n3, 152n41, 147–8n19, 151n30, 153–4n1, 152n42, 152n46 154–5n3, 156–7n9 Lord, Gabrielle 147–8n19 Lorde, Audre 139–40n3, 149n24, L’Engle, Madeleine 79, 147–8n19, 150n28, 151n31, 151–2n38, 155–6n6, 157–8n15, 158n17, 153n50, 153–4n1, 154–5n3 159n23 Lowell, Robert 152n43, 156n7 Lafferty, R. A. 147–8n19, 159n21 Lowry, H. F. 135n1 Lakoff, George 3, 40–41, 44, 53, Ludwig, Jack 151n36 142n10, 145n6 Lamont, Michelle 166n6 MacBeth, George 140–1n4 Lathen, Emma 102 Macdonald, Cynthia 85–8, 158n18 Laughlin, James 137–8n8, 138n13, Macdonald, Ross 139–40n3, 152n43, 152–3n49 147–8n19, 154–5n3, 156n7 Laumer, Keith 145n5 MacEwen, Gwendolyn 139–40n3 Laurence, Margaret 157n14, MacInnes, Helen 150n28, 151n36 158–9n20 MacKinnon, G. E. 141n5 Law, Jules David 136n4 MacLeish, Archibald 150n28, 154n2 Lawrence, D. H. 19 MacLennan, Hugh 152n47 Le Guin, Ursula K. 79, 139–40n3, MacMahon, Bryan 148n20 146n9, 149n26, 150n28, 151n30, MacPherson, Margaret 158n18 152n42, 152–3n49, 154n2, Madaus, George F. 142n9 154–5n3, 155n4, 156n7, 156–7n9, Madden, David 157–8n15 157–8n15, 158n17, 158n18, Madge, Charles 153n50, 154–5n3, 158–9n20 156n7 Lea, Tom 153n50, 154n2 Mailer, Norman 138n9, 146n14, Lear, Norman 136–7n7 149n24, 153–4n1, 155–6n6, Lee, Harper 139–40n3, 155n4 156–7n9 228 Index of Names

Major, Clarence 26, 27, 45, Merrill, Jean 154–5n3 139–40n3, 151n31 Merton, Robert 109 Malamud, Bernard 89, 158n17 Merwin, W. S. 136–7n7, 153–4n1 Mallin, Tom 152–3n49, 157–8n15, Michener, James A. 145n5, 148n21, 158n17, 158n18, 159n23 150n28, 151n33, 152–3n49, 155n4, Malraux, André 117 155–6n6, 158–9n20 Manchester, William 147–8n19 Millar, Margaret 158n17 Mandel, Barrett J. 42 Miller, Arthur 148n21, 149n24, Mandler, Jean M. 142n8 152n46, 154–5n3, 155n4 Manfred, Frederick 43, 79–80, Miller, David Neal 161n5 136–7n7, 139–40n3, 146n12, Miller, Frederick D. 142n7 150n28, 152n39, 154–5n3, 155n4, Miller, Henry 29, 56, 67, 72, 138n9, 155n5, 156–7n9, 158n19 138n13 Mann, Emily 140–1n4, 147–8n19, Miller, J. Hillis 135n1, 167n12 155n4, 156–7n9 Milton, John 107 Marquand, J. P. 117 Mindell, Earl 117 Masten, Jeffrey 144n2 Minty, Judith 147–8n19, 152–3n49, Masters, Olga 145n5, 147–8n19, 155n5, 156n8 158–9n20 Mistry, Rohinton 139–40n3, Matthews, William 147–8n19, 147–8n19 154–5n3 Mitchell, W. O. 139n2, 144–5n4, Matthiessen, Peter 139–40n3, 154–5n3 140–1n4, 148–9n22, 149n24, Miyoshi, Masao 135n1 149n25, 153n50 Molina, Silvia 140–1n4 Mauriac, François 138n13, Momaday, N. Scott 136–7n7, 140–1n4 148n21, 150n28 Mazzaro, Jerome 139–40n3, Montoya, José 146n13, 152–3n49, 151n33, 152n39, 152n47, 156n7 154–5n3 Moore, Lorrie 139–40n3, 152–3n49, McAlpine, Rachel 146n12 155n5 McCaffrey, Anne 152n39, 154–5n3, Moran, Joe 104, 117 155n4 Moravia, Alberto 64, 69 McConkey, James 150n28 Morgan, Edwin 156n7 McCorkle, Jill 156n7 Morgan, Murray 152n43 McDonald, Peter D. 118–9, 167n10 Morgan, Robert 136–7n7 McDowell, Michael 144–5n4, Morrell, David 154n2 150n29 Morrison, Toni 67, 147–8n19, McGuane, Thomas 144–5n4, 155–6n6 155–6n6, 157n10, 157n11 Morrissey, Charles T. 160n3 McInerney, Jay 152n43 Mortimer, John 157–8n15, 158n19 McKuen, Rod 156n7, 156–7n9, Moss, Howard 152n47, 155n4 157n11 Mueller, Lisel 154–5n3 McMurtry, Larry 89, 140–1n4, Muldoon, Paul 155n4 152n41, 155n4, 156–7n9, 157n14, Munro, Alice 147–8n19, 149n24, 158n16, 158n17 149n26, 151n30, 152n48, 154n2 McPherson, Sandra 155n4 Murdoch, Iris 154n2, 155n5 Meltzer, Françoise 115 Murray, Donald M. 68, 143n15 Merriam, Eve 136–7n7, 158n19, Myers, Martin 87, 152–3n49, 158–9n20 158–9n20 Index of Names 229

Nabokov, Vladimir 34, 89–91, 101, Petroski, Henry 144n2 138n13, 139–40n3, 140–1n4, Petry, Ann 77, 155n4, 157–8n15, 147–8n19, 158–9n20 158n17 Naylor, Gloria 138n9, 156n7 Pﬁster, Joel 135n2, 136n4 Ni Dhuibhne, Eilis 139–40n3 Philips, Deborah 116 Nichols, John 147–8n19, 154–5n3, Phillips, Jayne Anne 154–5n3 155–6n6, 156n7 Picard, Barbara Leonie 153n50 Nicholson, Norman 155n4 Pinter, Harold 89, 145n5, 148n20, Nin, Anaïs 147–8n19, 161n4 158n17, 158n18, 159n24 Nisbett, Richard E. 142n7 Pirandello, Luigi 80–1, 157n12, Norman, Donald A. 142n8 157n13 Norton, Andre 158–9n20 Pitter, Ruth 148–9n22, 154–5n3, 155n5 O’Brien, Tim 152n43 Plain, Belva 139–40n3, 148n21, O’Connor, Flannery 62, 78 149n24, 150n28, 156–7n9 O’Neill, Eugene 136n4 Plato 138n10 Oates, Joyce Carol 83–4, 86, 89, Plimpton, George 113, 164–5n1 145n8, 146n13, 146n14, 155n4, Plumly, Stanley 136–7n7, 138n9, 157n14, 158n16, 158n18, 158n19, 139–40n3, 155n4 158–9n20, 159n22 Pollitt, Katha 139–40n3, 152n47 Ohmann, Richard 118 Poniatowska, Elena 139–40n3, Okara, Gabriel 148n21 152n42, 153n50 Okigbo, Christopher 151n31 Porter, Katherine Anne 61, 89, 90, Omotoso, Kole 158–9n20 144–5n4, 147–8n19, 150n28, Orr, Gregory 138n9, 138n13, 157–8n15, 158n18, 158–9n20, 139–40n3 159n23, 159–60n26 Orton, Joe 153n50 Portillo, Estela 148n20, 148n21, Ortony, Andrew 142n8 148–9n22 Owens, Rochelle 156–7n9 Potok, Chaim 152n47, 155n4, 155–6n6, 156–7n9 Packard, William 161–2n7, 162–3n8 Powell, Anthony 87 Paley, Grace 156n7, 158n17, Prescott, Frederick Clark 19 158n18 Press, John 154–5n3 Pastan, Linda 150n28, 151n34, Price, Reynolds 138n13, 155n4, 153n50, 154–5n3, 155n4, 155n5, 157n14, 158n19 156n7, 156n8 Prytz, Carl Frederik 154n2 Paulin, Tom 139–40n3, 151n31, 154n2 Queen, Ellery 102 Paz, Octavio 138n13 Queneau, Raymond 157n12 Pearson, John H. 119 Quinn, Naomi 40, 142n10 Perelman, S. J. 128 Perl, Sondra 49 Raeburn, John 118 Perry, Anne 154n2, 157–8n15, Raine, Craig 139–40n3, 154–5n3 158n17, 158–9n20 Reaney, James 149n23 Perry, Elaine 158n18 Rechy, John 157n10 Petrakis, Harry Mark 64, 77, Reddy, Michael 56, 70, 129, 139–40n3, 146–7n16, 153–4n1, 142n10, 145n6 154–5n3, 155n4, 157–8n15, Reiner, Carl 147–8n19 158n18, 159n23 Reiss, James 146n13 230 Index of Names

Rembrandt138n11 Sarton, May 136–7n7, 138n9 Rendell, Ruth 139–40n3 Scaife, C. H. O. 140–1n4, 155n4 Revard, Carter 146n11, 146n13 Scannell, Vernon 140–1n4, Rexroth, Kenneth 140–1n4, 148–9n22, 154n2, 154–5n3, 154–5n3 155n4 Rich, Adrienne 154–5n3 Scardamalia, Marlene 143n12 Richler, Mordecai 147–8n19 Scarry, Elaine 32–7, 44, 53, 139n1 Riede, David G. 135n1 Schmitz, Dennis 152n43 Rijlaarsdam, Gert 143n12 Schmitz, James 138n13, 155n4 Rilke, Rainer Maria 19 Schnog, Nancy 135n2 Ringwood, Gwen Pharis 147–8n19 Schon, Donald A. 3, 44, 141n5, Rinkoff, Barbara 157–8n15 142n10 Rivkin, Julie 167n12 Schriver, Karen 143n12 Robbins, Tom 136–7n7, 147–8n19 Schultz, John 149n24 Robinson, Casey 137–8n8 Schultz, Philip 154–5n3, 157n10, Robinson, Marilynne 139–40n3, 158–9n20 152n43, 153–4n1 Schutz, Alfred 39, 143n17 Rodgers, W. R. 151n34, 154–5n3 Scott, Allan 153n50 Roe, Sue 155–6n6, 156n7 Sebestyen, Ouida 157–8n15, Roper, Alan 135n1 158n17 Rose, Mark 166–7n7 Sedgwick, Eve Kosofsky 167n12 Rose, Mike 143n12 Seferis, George 76, 146n11 Rose, Nikolas 135n2 Seltzer, Mark 53 Ross, Lee 142n7 Sexton, Anne 43, 56, 146n9, Rosten, Leo 139–40n3, 147–8n19, 146n13, 152–3n49 151n31, 152–3n49, 155–6n6, Shakespeare, William 115–16, 158–9n20 161–2n7, 164n13, 165n2, 165n3 Roth, Philip 147–8n19, 148n20, Shange, Ntozake 140–1n4, 157n14 154–5n3, 155–6n6 Sharp, Margery 145n5, 150n29 Rothenberg, Jerome 137–8n8, Shaw, G. Bernard 117 145n5 Shelton, Richard 153n50 Rowland, William G., Jr. 123, Shotwell, Louisa 158n19, 158–9n20, 165–6n4 159n23 Roy, Gabrielle 149n23, 149n24, Silkin, Jon 148n21, 150n28 157n11, 157–8n15, 158n18 Silko, Leslie Marmon 86, 139–40n3, Ruas, Charles 163n9 149n26, 152–3n49, 156n7, Rukeyser, Muriel 146n14, 154–5n3 157–8n15, 158n17, 158n18 Rumelhart, David E. 142n8 Silliman, Ron 139–40n3, 155–6n6 Rushdie, Salman 152n43, 155–6n6, Sillitoe, Alan 67, 152–3n49 157n14, 157–8n15, 158n17, Silver, Brenda R. 104 158n18, 158–9n20 Silverberg, Robert 145n5 Ryan, Alan 152–3n49 Simenon, Georges 140–1n4 Simic, Charles 58, 155n4, 156–7n9 Sagel, Jim 150n29, 158n18 Simmie, Lois 147–8n19, 154–5n3, Salmon, Richard 118, 119, 167n11 158n18, 158–9n20, 159n23 Sand, George 136n6 Simon, Herbert A. 142n7 Sansom, William 84, 157–8n15, Simon, Neil 155n5 158–9n20 Simpson, Louis 156–7n9 Sapergia, Barbara 158n18 Simpson, Mona 152n43 Index of Names 231

Singer, Isaac Bashevis 153n50, Stoppard, Tom 139–40n3, 147n18, 161n5 152–3n49, 154–5n3, 155n4, Siskin, Clifford 53 156–7n9 Small, Christopher 163n10 Storey, David 144–5n4, 148n21, Smith, Eliot R. 142n7 150n28, 150n29, 155n4, Smith, Mark 152–3n49 158–9n20 Smith, Stevie 68, 136–7n7, 145n5, Strand, Mark 136–7n7 155n4 Stratman, James 143n12 Snyder, Gary 136–7n7, 138n9, Stryk, Lucien 154–5n3 148–9n22, 149n24, 153–4n1, Styron, William 77, 145n5, 150n28, 155n5 150n29, 153n50, 154–5n3 Solzhenitsyn, Alexander 117 Suknaski, Andrew 67, 139–40n3, Somers, Armonía 146n11, 144–5n4, 145n5, 155–6n6 147–8n19, 148n21, 149n24, 155n4, Sutcliff, Rosemary 154–5n3, 156n7, 158–9n20 157–8n15 Sontag, Susan 144n1 Sweetser, Eve E. 142n10 Sontag, Susan 149n24, 154n2 Swenson, May 140–1n4 Speare, Elizabeth George 147n17, Swift, Joan 152–3n49 154–5n3, 156n7, 157–8n15, Sword, Helen 14, 19 158n16, 159n23 Spencer, Bernard 75–6, 154–5n3 Tate, James 67, 145n7, 149n24, Spencer, Elizabeth 136–7n7, 150n29, 152n46, 155n5 137–8n8, 139–40n3, 148n21, Taylor, Charles 38 150n28, 151n36, 152–3n49, 155n4, Taylor, Gary 108–9, 164n13, 165n3 155–6n6, 156–7n9, 158n18 Tennant, Emma 155–6n6, 156n7 Spiro, Rand J. 142n8 Tennenhouse, Leonard 107–8 Spivak, Gayatri C. 105, 122 Tennyson, Alfred Lord 118 Stael, Madame de 136n6 Terry, Megan 138n13, 139–40n3, Stafford, William 138n13, 140–1n4, 151n37, 158n19, 158–9n20 144–5n4, 152–3n49, 153n50, Theroux, Paul 146n15 154–5n3, 155n4 Thomas, D. M. 136–7n7, 144–5n4 Stallybrass, Peter 144n2 Thoreau, Henry David 144n2 Stanford, Frank 150n28 Tinker, C. B. 135n1 Stanford, Michael 165–6n4 Tomlinson, Barbara 142n7 Stange, G. Robert 135n1 Tomlinson, Charles 154–5n3, Stanley, Julian C. 142n9 156n7 Staton, Robert J. 161n4 Torrance, Mark 143n12 Stegner, Wallace 78, 140–1n4, Traba, Marta 156n7 145n5, 150n28, 151n30, 153–4n1, Treﬁl, James 165–6n4 155n5, 155–6n6 Trevor, William 137–8n8, Stein, Gertrude 2 139–40n3, 140–1n4, 149n24, Steinbeck, John 148n20 150n29, 151n36, 157–8n15 Stern, Gerald 136–7n7, 149n24, Trollope, Anthony 167n8 149n26, 154n2, 156n7 Turner, Alberta A. 101 Stern, Richard G. 149n24 Turner, Mark 142n10 Stewart, Mary 137–8n8, 140–1n4, 155n4 Unamuno, Miguel de90 Stolz, Mary 159n23 Updike, John 117, 148n20, 151n31, Stone, Ruth 77, 155n4 155n4 232 Index of Names

Valentine, Jean 139–40n3, 157n11 Whalen, Philip 67 Valenzuela, Luisa 149n24, 153n50 Wheelock, John Hall 149n24 Van den Bergh, Huub 143n12 White, Allon 73 Van Der Post, Larens 78 White, E. B. 78, 147–8n19, Vickers, Nancy J. 144n2 148–9n22 Vidal, Gore 64, 69, 133, 140–1n4, White, Edmund 144–5n4, 146n9, 155n4, 161n4 147–8n19, 159n23 Villanueva, Tino 150n29, 152n45 White, Peter 142n7 Whitman, Walt 115 Wagoner, David 139–40n3, Wicke, Jennifer 166n5 140–1n4, 155n4, 157n10 Wier, Dara 155–6n6 Waldman, Anne 136–7n7 Wilbur, Richard 152n43, Walker, Alice 154–5n3, 156n7 152–3n49, 154–5n3, 155n4, Wallace, Robert 140–1n4, 152n41, 155n5 154–5n3, 155n4 Wilkinson, Sylvia 87, 158–9n20 Waller, T. Gary 141n5 Willard, Barbara 155n4 Walser, Robert 15–16 Willard, Nancy 136–7n7, 155n4 Warren, Robert Penn 136–7n7, Williams, Barbara 150n28 145n5, 147–8n19, 148n21, 150n28, Williams, John A. 67, 148n21 151n31, 154–5n3, 155n4, 156n7, Williams, Raymond 2, 100 157n10 Williams, Sherley Anne 152–3n49 Waters, Michael 138n9, 138n12, Williams, William Carlos 149n25 148n20, 154–5n3, 158n19 Williams–Garcia, Rita 158n16, Watson, Sheila 148n21, 157n11 158n18, 158n19 Watts, Cedric 118 Williamson, Jack 139–40n3, Waugh, Evelyn 164–5n1 140–1n4, 154–5n3 Weedon, Chris 101 Willy 115, 117 Weidman, Jerome 151n32 Wilson, Angus 148–9n22 Weik, Mary Hays 155n4, 158n18, Wilson, Christopher P. 118 158–9n20 Wilson, Timothy DeCamp 142n7 Weinstein, Cindy 53 Wittgenstein, Ludwig 135n3 Weiss, Theodore 136–7n7, Wolfe, Thomas 79 148–9n22 Wonodi, Okogbule 140–1n4 Welch, Lew 145n5 Woodmansee, Martha 123, Welty, Eudora 61, 137–8n8, 138n9, 166–7n7 139–40n3, 140–1n4, 145n5, Wright, Charles 139n2, 139–40n3, 146n10, 146n13, 147–8n19, 140–1n4, 145n7, 145n8, 150n29, 148–9n22, 149n23, 150n28, 151n31, 152n43, 153–4n1, 155n4, 150n29, 151n31, 151n33, 152n45, 155–6n6, 156–7n9 152n46, 152–3n49, 153n50, Wright, James 137–8n8, 140–1n4, 153–4n1, 154n2, 154–5n3, 155n4, 150n29, 152n45, 154n2, 155–6n6, 156n7, 156n8, 158n16 154–5n3 Wernick, Andrew 114–6, 120–1, 166n6, 167n9, 167–8n13 Yankowitz, Susan 147–8n19, Wersba, Barbara 158n16, 158n19 148n21, 149n23, 154–5n3 Wescott, Glenway 139n2, 149n26, Yates, Edmund 118 150n28, 150n29, 154n2 Yeats, William Butler 27, 138n12 West, Jessamyn 62, 89, 147–8n19, Young Bear, Ray 148–9n22, 149n24, 149n24, 150n29, 158n17 151n36 Index of Names 233

Young, Al 140–1n4, 157n11 150n29, 151n32, 152n41, 153–4n1, Young, Marguerite 139–40n3, 156n7, 157–8n15, 158n18, 158n19, 152n39, 157n11 158–9n20, 159n23 Yourcenar, Marguerite 20, 25, 26, 27, 34, 36, 45, 60, 67, 136–7n7, Zimmer, Paul 136–7n7, 139–40n3, 137–8n8, 138n9, 138n11, 138n13, 147–8n19 139–40n3, 147–8n19, 148n21, Zola, Emile33 148–9n22, 149n24, 150n28, Zukovsky, Louis 66