B5. Mediterranean and Black Sea, FAO Statistical Area 37

B5. MEDITERRANEAN AND BLACK SEA FAO Statistical Area 37 Figure B5.1 - The Mediterranean and Black Sea (Area 37) by Jordi Lleonart *

INTRODUCTION The Mediterranean (Figure B5.1) is a semi-enclosed sea with a surface of about 3.3 million km2, contributing 0.8 percent to the total world marine surface. Due to its geographical position, being placed at a relatively narrow range of latitudes (from 30ºN to 46ºN) in the temperate zone of the Northern Hemisphere, the Mediterranean Sea shows a marked seasonal cycle. Water masses are Atlantic through the Strait of Gibraltar proceeds stratified in summer, but the deep-water (below to the eastern Mediterranean progressively losing 400 m) temperature is 13±0.3ºC throughout the nutrients and increasing in salinity through year. The low precipitation in the summer period evaporation. It eventually goes back out to the is the main characteristic of the Mediterranean Atlantic to form the high saline component of the climate. The Mediterranean has a negative water Atlantic circulation. This makes for a large budget: the loss of water through evaporation is number of habitats with many small local stocks greater than the inputs due to rain and river and species whose stock trends cannot be runoff, hence the contribution of about individually described here but show up as 1 700 km3/year of Atlantic water trough the Strait dissimilarities between sub-areas (Garibaldi and of Gibraltar balances these losses (Oliver, 2003). Caddy, 1998). The system of basins includes water ranging from The Mediterranean has been globally considered Atlantic origin in the Western Mediterranean to as an oligotrophic sea (Margalef, 1985; Estrada, warm-temperate hypersaline water in the Levant 1996; Stergiou et al., 1997b). Normally, the basin, hyposaline waters in the Black Sea, and gradual decrease in nutrient would result in a cold-temperate estuarine conditions in the boreal west to east decrease in productivity, but there Azov Sea. Surface water entering from the are local exceptions resulting from a north-south

Figure B5.2 - Annual nominal catches ('000t ) by ISSCAAP species groups in the Mediterranean and Black Sea (Area 37)

2 000 35- Herrings, sardines, anchovies 24- Shads Other ISSCAAP Groups 1 500 34- M iscellaneous demersal fishes 33- M iscellaneous coastal fishes 32- Cods, hakes, haddocks

1 000

500

0 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

Source FAO

* FAO, Marine Resources Service, Fishery Resources Division 50

productivity gradient evident also from satellite subsequently increased to 1.5 million tonnes in imagery of chlorophyll A, due to incoming 2001 and 2002, after some small fluctuations. nutrients from northern rivers (notably the Small pelagics account for approximately Rhone, Po and Black Sea inflows into the 50 percent of total Mediterranean catches. Aegean). These anthropogenic effects on Anchovy (Engraulis encrasicolus) with fisheries production have been described by 59 percent of small pelagics catch, and sardine Caddy, Refk and Do Chi (1995). (Sardina pilchardus) with 16 percent are the The continental shelf is mostly a narrow coastal most abundant. Other small pelagics are sprat fringe with the exceptions of the Adriatic Sea, (Sprattus sprattus), sardinella (Sardinella aurita) Gulf of Gabès, northern Black Sea south of Sicily and Azov sea sprat (Clupeonella cultriventris). and gulf of Lions, and represents only 23 percent The substantial increase in European anchovy of the total area. catches from 1960 to the mid 1980s (Figure The fisheries of the Mediterranean have shown a B5.3) partly reflects increased effort from Turkey surprising resilience to fishing compared with in the Black Sea that was added to that of the some areas of the Atlantic. This is especially former Soviet Union fleet previously dominating noteworthy since formal and coordinated the fishery. As with sprat catches, it could reflect measures for fisheries management are largely eutrophication of the Black Sea environment by absent in most Mediterranean countries, though incoming rivers (Mee, 1992; Zaitsev, 1993). The more frequent activities and a revision of the collapse of anchovy, sprat and Azov sea sprat in terms of reference of the GFCM (General 1990 is the result of the introduced ctenophore Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean) and species Mnemiopsis leidy in the Black Sea. A its Scientific Advisory Committee (SAC) is subsequent increase of catches did not reach the intended to remedy this from 2000. Farrugio et former levels. The sardine series shows a smooth al. (1993), Farrugio (1996), Anon. (2001), Bas increasing trend to late 1980s (282 000t in 1988) (2002), Oliver (2003) and Lleonart and Maynou and a subsequent moderate decrease to about (2003), among others, have reviewed 187 000t in 2002. Mediterranean fisheries. Mixed bottom fisheries using small mesh trawls, gillnets, trammel nets, traps, pots and dredges PROFILE OF CATCHES capture a large suite of demersal fish and invertebrates of high value for the fresh fish Nominal catches in Area 37 increased from market, with no single species making up more slightly over 0.7 million tonnes in 1950, to near than 10 percent of the total demersals. However, 2 million tonnes between 1982 and 1988 (Figure in those areas where trawl fleets operate B5.2 and table D5). Catches subsequently regularly, despite the inherent complexity of declined steeply to 1.3 million tonnes as a result multispecies catches, there is an identifiable of the collapse of the sprat and anchovy fishery in series of target species which in biomass or in the Black Sea (Figure B5.3). Total catches have economic terms, constitute an important basis of production. The species considered demersals Figure B5.3 - Annual nominal catches ('000t) of (more than 100, although some of them show a selected species in ISSCAAP Groups 24 & 35, pelagic behaviour) represent around 40 percent of Mediterranean and Black Sea (Area 37) total reported catches in the Mediterranean and 800 European pilchard (=Sardine) Black Sea. Hake (Merluccius merluccius), red 700 European anchovy mullets (Mullus spp.), blue whiting European sprat (Micromesistius poutassou), whiting (Merlangius 600 Sardinellas nei Azov Sea sprat merlangus), anglerfishes (Lophius spp.), Pagellus 500 spp., bogue (Boops boops), picarels (Spicara 400 spp.) striped venus (Chamelea gallina), Octopus 300 spp., cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis), red shrimp

200 (Aristeus antennatus), Norway lobster (Nephrops norvegicus) and deepwater rose shrimp 10 0 (Parapenaeus longirostris), are the main 0 demersals. 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 Source FAO

By-catch species include species not registered catches, but their economic value is far greater. individually in official catches or not always Catches of bluefin tuna increased from the mid present but that together can represent a 1960s to the mid 1990s, but then significantly significant proportion of catches such as small dropped (Figure B5.7). The bluefin tuna fishery sharks (Carbonell et al., 2003). in the Mediterranean is a matter of concern because of the marked expansion of the But there are also other local and/or well priced species caught in relatively small quantities like some species of flatfishes, Scorpaenidae, Figure B5.4 - Annual nominal catches ('000t) of Sparidae, Triglidae, Mugilidae, Serranidae, and selected species in ISSCAAP Group 56, some invertebrates. The last by-catch group is Mediterranean and Black Sea (Area 37) from time to time also relatively abundant but not Clams, cockles, arkshells, etc. always high priced species such as some 60 Scombridae and Carangidae, or from species with Striped venus low market acceptability like bogue or picarels (Spicara spp.). Discards are also important, and 40 the reasons for discarding diverse: illegal sizes, non-commercial species or sizes, or market reasons (Carbonell et al., 1998; Lleonart and 20 Maynou, 2003). It is worth noting the spectacular increase in 0 catches of striped venus, Chamelea gallina, 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 mainly in the Adriatic, reaching a maximum in Source FAO 1993 (Figure B5.4). This could reflect the Figure B5.5 - Annual nominal catches ('000t) of interaction of fishing with the transition from selected species in ISSCAAP Groups 45 & 57, oligotrophic conditions in the early period to Mediterranean and Black Sea (Area 37) close to mesotrophic conditions. 30

Cephalopod catches (Figure B5.5) show a 25 Deepwater rose shrimp maximum around 1990 that could in part reflect Common octopus Common cuttlefish 20 reduced abundance of large predatory fish as Common squids nei speculated by Caddy and Rodhouse (1998), but in most cases these are components in a mixed 15 groundfish fishery. The onset of deep water 10 trawling off the slope areas in the mid-1980s appears to explain the sharp rise in deepwater 5 rose shrimp catches, which are speculated to have benefited from a reduction in the biomass of 0 large hake in slope areas. 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 Source FAO Most of the gadoids, and other semi-pelagic Figure B5.6 - Annual nominal catches ('000t) of species such as bogue and picarel (Spicara spp.), selected species in ISSCAAP Groups 32 & 33, as well as red mullets (Mullus spp.), have shown 60 Mediterranean and Black Sea (Area 37) steady increasing trends over the whole time Surmullets (=Red mullets) nei 50 period, except for declines of several species in European hake the last few years. More remarkable is the case of Whiting hake which after reaching historic maxima in the 40 Bogue Picarels nei mid 1990 (more than 52 000 t), catches have dropped by more than half in 2002. The whiting, 30 only present in the Eastern Mediterranean, shows 20 also this general pattern with maximum around 1990 (Figure B5.6). 10 The prominent large pelagics are bluefin tuna 0 (Thunnus thynnus) and swordfish (Xiphias 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 gladius). They represent 3 percent of total Source FAO

farming/fattening activities of wild specimens, japonicus), and Atlantic mackerel (Scomber which contributes to increase the fishing pressure scombrus). Catches of horse mackerel are also on this resource by opening new markets, and it highly variable, without clear trend. Chub is possible that not all the catches are recorded. mackerel shows maxima from mid 1980’s to mid Swordfish catches increased steadily from 1950 1990’s. Lagoon and coastal species such as grey to the early 1980s, more than doubling from mullet and silversides show similar trends, 7 000t in 1983 to 18 000t in 1989, partially as a although in smaller quantities (Figure B5.8). result of improved national statistics collection The decrease of catches in the last 5 years is a systems. Catches returned to between 12 000t general trend for the non-pelagic species. After and 16 000t since the 1990s. Albacore (Thunnus 25 years of steady increase they reached the alalunga) catches follow a similar pattern but are maximum, around 700 000t, in 1994, and have smaller. In the case of bonito (Sarda sarda), smoothly declined since then to less than catches are highly variable from one year to the 400 000t in 2002. next, showing a slight decreasing trend in the long run. The pelagics show a different pattern, dominated by the dramatic Black Sea events. After a sharp The medium sized pelagics catches corresponds increase from 700 000t to 1 300 000t in 6 years, to the 7 percent of total catches, and includes jack they keep this figure from 1983 to 1988 and since and horse mackerels (Trachurus spp.), then they have oscillated, in a declining trend to Mediterranean horse mackerel (Trachurus 990 000t in 2002. mediterraneus), Atlantic horse mackerel (Trachurus trachurus), chub mackerel (Scomber The Black Sea accounts for 39 percent of total catches in the area in 2002 and for 57 percent of the total catches of small pelagics. Figure B5.7 - Annual nominal catches ('000t) of selected species in ISSCAAP Group 36, Mediterranean and Black Sea (Area 37) RESOURCE STATUS AND FISHERY 70 MANAGEMENT Atlantic bonito 60 Swordfish The reliability of historical data series of catches Atlantic bluefin tuna 50 Albacore in the Mediterranean is variable, but data on effort are almost absent. However, given the 40 complexity and diversity of Mediterranean 30 fisheries the available data is probably not sufficient for regular and trustworthy assessments 20 for most species. The very structure of 10 Mediterranean fisheries (atomized fleets, a huge number of landing points, multi-species catches 0 and the lack of large industries as it exists in 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 Source FAO other seas) make it difficult and expensive to Figure B5.8 - Annual nominal catches ('000t) of obtain data for stock assessment purposes. selected species in ISSCAAP Groups 33 & 37, The biological parameters of the main target Mediterranean and Black Sea (Area 37) species (hake, anchovy, sardine, red mullets, 90 Jack and horse mackerels nei Silversides(=Sand smelts) nei some sparids and flatfish, bluefin tuna, 80 M ullets nei swordfish, some high priced crustaceans) are Chub mackerel 70 Flathead grey mullet quite well known. However most of this 60 knowledge has been obtained by specific

50 scientific projects, without continuity in time. It

40 is difficult to maintain and update series of biological data, size frequency distributions, etc. 30 without long-term monitoring projects. 20

10 Assessment suffers from the same shortcomings,

0 few formal stock and fisheries assessments have 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 been carried out in the Mediterranean, largely Source FAO because most of the stocks are not shared

between countries. As consequence there is no The Mediterranean pressure for assessing the resources and no adaptive management has been implemented. In general, evidence for trends in fishing effort and mortality is based on fragmentary data on With the exception of large pelagics and some fleet size and catch per unit effort. In the western very particular fisheries (as striped venus in the Mediterranean (e.g. Baino, Auteri and Serena, Adriatic) fishery management does not involve 1985; Abella, Caddy and Serena, 1997) high quotas but is based on effort limitation. exploitation rates have probably been applied to Information has been steadily increasing on demersal stocks over the last few decades, aspects of the population dynamics of key judging from reports of the Subcommittee on species, and population parameters have been Stock Assessment of the GFCM. At the same accumulated within FAO’s data bases and time, comparison of local populations (e.g. information systems, such as POPDYN Abella et al., 1999) show a wide range of (Coppola, Garibaldi and Die 1994) or FIGIS exploitation rates, depending on local fleets and (http://www.fao.org/fi/figis/). There are numerous local fishing opportunities. Thus, a broad papers on parameter estimation and assessments, classification of demersal resources status in but most of them in grey literature or not Table D-5 as Fully exploited to Overexploited presented in a formal way (Lleonart and Maynou, (F-O), not only reflects the uncertainty of the 2003). A bibliographic list of papers related to assessment, but also the range of exploitation Mediterranean fish stock assessment (in the rates applied to local stocks of a species broad sense) recently gathered by the throughout the Mediterranean. Subcommittee on Stock Assessment of the SAC- In the Gulf of Lions, a multispecies production GFCM, collected more than 700 titles model showed that already by the late 1980s the (ftp://cucafera.icm.csic.es/pub/scsa/biblio_MED. pdf). fishery was fully developed, and similar studies show this to be the case for southern Tunisian The multispecies nature of most trawl fisheries waters (GFCM, 1995), although in rocky north with a high diversity of species in the catch, as Tunisian waters there seems to be some room for well as the geographic diversity of environments, further exploitation. In the Aegean, and probably suggests that stock units in many cases may be also the eastern and southern Mediterranean, small and local (GFCM, 1998), but also that effort and catch seem to have increased steadily multispecific and ecological approaches to the at least since the early 1970s (Stergiou et al., assessment and management should be 1997a). Aldebert et al. (1993) and reports to the envisaged. Subcommittee on Stock Assessment of the Drastic ecological changes have occurred in the GFCM in 2001 and 2002, by means a VPA Black Sea from the introduction of a number of (Virtual Population Analysis), plus a Y/R (Yield- harmful exotic species, both phytoplankton and per-Recruit analysis) assuming constant animals, through ship ballast water. Similarly a recruitment, estimate the interaction between growing number of Red Sea species are entering types of gear (two trawls, gillnet and longline) the eastern Mediterranean through the Suez exploiting the hake stock of Gulf of Lions and Canal (Lessepsian migrants), and subsequently concluded that the stock is certainly moving northwards and westwards. In fact, overexploited and that the trawlers, fishing species coming from the North Atlantic are mainly small individuals, have a great influence mainly found in the northern areas of the on the catches of the other gears (gillnets and Mediterranean. Saharan and subtropical species longlines). This analysis confirm those from are mostly found in the eastern sector, while the other areas, showing that the fishing pattern of ponto-caspic species occur in the Aegean Sea and trawl fleets catches the youngest age-classes and North-Adriatic Sea (Quignard and Tomasini, can therefore intercept fish before they become 2000). The dramatic accidental introduction and available to the other gears. spread of a species of seaweed (Caulerpa taxifolia) into the western Mediterranean is also Shelf demersal resources likely to affect demersal food chains in that area At the 2004 SAC meeting 22 assessments, in a manner which is not easily predicted (Zaitsev involving seven geographical subareas, nine and Öztürk, 2001; Galil et al., 2002; Golani et species and two shared stocks were presented. al., 2002). The SAMED (Stock Assessment in the

MEDiterranean, EU project No 99/047), based on Red (Mullus surmuletus) and striped (Mullus MEDITS Trawl Surveys (1994-1999) (Bertrand barbatus) mullets et al., 1998; Bertrand and Relini, 1998) presented These species are caught by trawlers and a to the Subcommittee on Stock Assessment in various other small scale fishing vessels with a 2002 the evaluation of three species: Merluccius range of gears practically in all Mediterranean merluccius, Mullus barbatus and Nephrops areas. The fishery begins on age group 0, in many norvegicus. These assessments correspond to the areas the small individuals (caught in summer EU countries (not including neither Balearic and early autumn) reach higher prices. In the islands and Alboran Sea) plus Malta. Adriatic, survivors later migrate to the east and largely remain there as adults, hence this European hake constitutes a shared stock. Very high exploitation This is the most widely studied species, Lleonart rates have been recorded in Italian waters and Maynou (2003) account for more than 20 (GFCM 1995; Baino, Auteri and Serena 1985; references regarding hake assessments. It is a Abella et al., 1999) except for Sardinia and other main target species for many trawl (with small areas of the Tyrrhenian Sea, the species is mesh aimed at juveniles), longline and gillnet overexploited, as in the Adriatic (Ungaro, Rizzi fleets, operating over rocky bottom or further and Marzano, 1994) or Western Mediterranean offshore for larger individuals. Although high (Martin et al., 1999). While the red mullet is fully juvenile mortality rates have led to the suspicion exploited in southern Tunisian waters and in the of an overexploited status, no obvious decline in Ionian Sea (Tursi et al., 1995), the striped mullet recruitment has been observed (Oliver, 1993), is apparently underexploited on the Northern and in fact catches have increased in both east Tunisian shelf (GFCM, 1995) and overexploited and west Mediterranean until 1995 (Fiorentini, in Cyprus (Hadjistephanou, 1992). Seasonal Caddy and De Leiva, 1997). But from 1995 to closures on trawling in Italian waters have been 2002 the reported catches have abruptly declined aimed at protecting fast-growing juveniles of this to less than the half (52 000t to 21 000t) being at and other species during restricted periods of present similar to 1980’s level (Figure B5.6). recruitment to the bottom. The results have been This suggests the probable reduction of the very positive increases in survival to age 1+, spawning stock surviving in some less exploited although seasonal declines in prices have ensued areas (the so-called spawning refugia, Caddy from gluts during the open season (Froglia 1989). 1990) responsible for the recruitment. In any At the same time, fishing in nursery areas within case, the assessments presented at the 3 miles of shore have led to high capture of Subcommittee on Stock Assessment of the juveniles (Baino, Auteri and Serena 1985). The GFCM demonstrate a clear overexploitation of historical series (Figure B5.6) show a slightly this species. Two assessments on hake (Gulf of decreasing trend in the last 10 years. The Lions and Ligurian and Northern Tyrrhenian assessments presented to the Subcommittee on Sea), based in analytical methods showed an Stock Assessment concern mainly Mullus evident status of overexploitation and barbatus, which is the main species. In the recommended a decrease of effort. In the case of Ligurian and Northern Tyrrhenian Sea the the Gulf of Lions also an increase of the length of species appears to be fully exploited or the trawl catches was also recommended. The overexploited. Seasonal and area closures were SAMED project (based on the MEDITS trawl recommended in order to protect juveniles. surveys) detected an intense exploitation, with According to the SAMED project full decreasing trends in many Geographical exploitation and growth overfishing can be Subareas. Globally growth-overfishing can be assumed in most Geographical Subareas, and it assumed. Temporal closures of the nursery areas was recommended to close shallow waters to and effort limitation were recommended. fishing to protect recruitment. Elucidating the relative importance of increased Sparids, seabreams and pandoras escapement of juveniles and spawners remains an Sparids and sea breams play an important role in important focus for this and other Mediterranean Mediterranean demersal fisheries and are demersal species, especially if the introduction of generally heavily exploited, with peak mortality nursery areas and marine parks is to be rates for Tunisian waters generally at or beyond considered. the fishing mortality generating the maximum sustainable yield (FMSY). Analysis of data for

Sparus aurata in the Gulf of Lions (Farrugio and silversides (Atherinidae) reflects the search for Le Corre, 1994) suggested that it is fished above alternatives to heavily exploited nearshore FMSY, and a high proportion of production of this resources. species now comes from aquaculture. Pandoras Norway lobster (Pagellus spp.), as for groupers, appear to be one This is a quite well studied species. In 1998 a of the demersal species least resistant to heavy monographic volume on this species (Sardà, exploitation, and catch rates have declined in a 1998) was published. This volume focuses on number of areas. They are considered biological knowledge of the species including underexploited off rocky areas of Northern fisheries and exploitation, distribution, Tunisia (Ben Meriem, Garbi and Ezzedine-Najai, population dynamics and selectivity. The 1996) but overexploited in the Gulf of Gabès. SAMED project presented an assessment to the Pandoras stocks are heavily overfished in Greek SCSA concluding that this species is slightly waters (Papaconstantinou et al., 1988b), and overexploited or fully exploited in most depleted in Cyprus, as are bogue and red mullet Geographical Subareas, technical improvement stocks (Hadjistephanou, 1992), though picarels of the gear to avoid the capture of small (Spicara spp.) are considered to be exploited individuals was recommended. The known close to MSY (maximum sustainable yield). behavioural characteristics of this species (large Soles periods of time inside the burrows, from which it Analysis of data for the Gulf of Lions (Farrugio emerges periodically giving rise to diurnal and and Le Corre, 1994) suggested that sole is seasonal fluctuations in the catches) makes it less exploited at FMSY, but although evidence was vulnerable than other species to the fishing found that exploitation rates had been rising in pressure. Notwithstanding patchiness in the early 1990s, there was not yet a clear population structure and density dependence indication that recruitment had declined. In phenomena could be related with cases of “local” Tunisian waters sole seems to be exploited close stocks or “stocklet” overexploitation. Due to the to optimally. burrowing behaviour it was considered important to reduce the impact of the otter trawl doors on Cephalopods the bottom to protect the burrows. These are important incidental catches in trawl fisheries and there is a directed fishery for octopus in some areas. A high proportion of Continental slope resources short-lived species (squids, cuttlefish and The increase in slope fisheries, especially for the octopus) in demersal catches from heavily fished blue and red shrimp and hake over the last few areas such as the Adriatic (GFCM, 1995) tends to decades should be viewed with a certain suggest that exploitation is high, where low catch apprehension. The traditional fisheries for hake rates are in part compensated by high unit prices. have used small mesh trawls in inshore areas and Available analyses, though fragmentary (e.g. targeted 0+ to 2 year-old age groups. The Baino, Auteri and Serena 1985 for the Tyrrhenian fisheries for hake by other gear in deeper waters Sea), support a close to optimal exploitation for are now targeting concentrations of mature fish. these cephalopod resources, while fish species Increased offshore fisheries on mature fish is a are somewhat overexploited. No assessment of cause for concern because the continued cephalopods has been presented to the productivity of demersal stocks is possibly due to Subcommittee on Stock Assessment. the fact that a small proportion of the 0+ to 2 year-old age groups escape from the inshore Horse mackerels areas and find a ‘refugium’ for spawning While little data exists for (Trachurus trachurus escapement in offshore waters. This hypothesis and T. mediterraneus), they are apparently not heavily fished, and their biomass appears to be appears to receive support from selectivity variable, presumably responding to studies, which suggest that larger fish such as big hake are less available to capture in small mesh environmental changes. trawls than small fish. Grey mullets (Mugilidae) Red shrimp (Aristeus antennatus) They are principally plant and detritus feeders and have presumably found favourable It is intensely exploited in the Western conditions in eutrophic estuaries. A move to the Mediterranean by bottom trawlers fishing the continental slope together with significant exploitation of small inshore fish such as

catches of giant red shrimp (Aristeomorpha stocks peaked in the mid 1980s. Anchovy stock foliacea). The two species are probably not biomass increased from 18 000t in 1989 to about always well separated in the statistics, suggesting 340 000t in 1991 which is, however, lower than total catches of around 5 000 t a year (Oliver, earlier stock sizes in the 1970s and 1980s 1996). Assessments applying length cohort (Arneri, 1994). Cingolani et al. (2004a, 2004b) analysis (LCA) and yield-per-recruit (Y/R) analysed the dynamics of anchovy and sardine in analysis conclude that the current fishing the Adriatic Sea using VPA (time series 1975- mortality (F) is very close to that giving the 2003) showing a persistent sardine decline. In the maximum yield-per-recruit (FMAX), but the values Alboran Sea catches peaked in 1982 with 27 878t of the natural mortality (M) remain uncertain to subsequently decline to 1 016t in 1988 (Abad (Demestre and Lleonart, 1993; Fiorentino et al., and Giráldez, 1990). In the Gulf of Lions and 1998; Ragonese and Bianchini, 1996). Current northern part of Spain catches increased in 1989, exploitation seems to be sustainable but the probably because fleets moved from the southern steady increase in fishing effort should be part of Spain, where the anchovy catch had fallen controlled. In Balearic islands a LCA, Y/R, and off. Fox production model under the steady-state In the Aegean, as for most resources, mean catch assumption show the same state of over- rates for small pelagics declined until the mid- exploitation and the need to reduce the current 1970s before stabilizing, while total catches, effort (Carbonell and Lauronce, 2000). For especially in the eastern Mediterranean, have Greece and Italy, significant catches of deep- continued to increase, suggesting increasing water shrimp are probably reported to FAO as productivity of formerly very low-nutrient Natantia decapods nei (20 000-32 000t), and waters. This suggestion gains credibility from the likely includes a significant amount of Aristeus parallel increase in phytoplankton and and Aristeomorfa. According to an assessment zooplankton abundance as well as acoustic presented to the SCSA, the red shrimp appears to estimates of small pelagic biomass along a line be overfished in the Western Mediterranean and a from the northern Aegean to the south-eastern reduction of effort is recommended. Mediterranean Sea (Stergiou et al., 1997b). Pelagic biomasses are also generally low in Small pelagic resources Libyan waters (GFCM, 1995) except for a local Sardine and anchovy seasonal upwelling in the Gulf of Sirte. A sharp Monitoring of sardine and anchovy stocks over decline in pelagic catches of the Levant region more than a decade in areas such as the Alboran was also observed following construction of the Sea and North-western area, Adriatic, Aegean Aswan dam (Halim et al., 1995). In Tunisian and Black Seas, has been done based on acoustic waters, some 40 percent of the sardine stock is surveys (Abad et al., 1996; Abad and Giraldez, estimated to be exploited annually, probably 2000; Azzali and Luna, 1988; Patti et al., 2000; above optimum, and sardine and anchovy Guennegan et al., 2000). Daily Egg Production biomasses tend to fluctuate out of phase with one Methods (DEPM) have been used in the another. Mediterranean several times but they are not In the 2004 SCSA meeting anchovy and sardine employed routinely on a year by year basis. assessments for the Western Mediterranean, These methods have been applied mainly to Alboran Sea, and Adriatic Sea were presented, anchovy but also to the sardine in some instances detecting no trend in the estimates except in the (Chavance, 1980; Regner, 1990; Palomera and case of the Adriatic sardine, with decreasing Pertierra, 1993; Garcia and Palomera, 1996; biomass and increasing fishing mortality trends Somarakis and Tsimenides, 1997; Casavola et in the last 15 years. The general conclusions al., 1998; Casavola, 1999; Quintanilla et al., were: abundance is heavily dependent on 2000). A comparison between the results of recruitment and stock biomass shows high inter- DEPM, acoustic surveys and population annual variability, when risk of recruitment dynamics models showed that the results were overfishing is detected, it is advisable to avoid quite similar (Pertierra and Lleonart, 1996). the catch of fish smaller than their first maturity These analysis reveal a pattern of fluctuations size, and biomass estimations should be given that is not obviously related to fishing intensity. sufficiently in time to allow the managers to In the Adriatic, anchovy catches peaked in 1980 adapt in real time the exploitation. and subsequently declined while local sardine

Sardinellas and silversides GFCM. Recently the number of coastal cages to Similar long-term fluctuations are shown fatten the bluefin tuna caught in the open sea in elsewhere in the Mediterranean where small order to increase quality and to make the market pelagic stocks are harvested, suggesting long- independent of the catch season has increased term periodic fluctuations may be occurring in substantially. They are believed to also increased environmental conditions superimposed on the the fishing pressure, by opening new markets and anthropogenic effects. The recovery of pelagic because all catches may not be reported. These production off the Nile delta following the activities have an effect on many aspects of the decline mentioned above seems to be largely of assessment-management process as data Sardinella spp., the dominant small pelagic fish collection and consequently the stock assessment. in the south-eastern Mediterranean. Sardinella They have actual effects (statistical, biological, show a clear increasing trend in the catches. This management) as well as potential ones continuous increase of Sardinellas (tropical) and (environmental, socio-economical, management) the apparent decrease of sprat (boreal) can (Anon., 2002; Oray and Karakulak, 2003). The indicate a global warming process. In other parts concern created by the fast development of this of the eastern Mediterranean, new inshore activity, based on capture fisheries, has generated fisheries have developed for very small pelagic the organization of a crosscutting working group species, such as the silversides. on sustainable tuna farming/fattening practices in the Mediterranean to provide common guidelines Mackerels, jack and horse mackerels to make this activity a sustainable practice. Mackerels show high variability in catches. No specific assessments have been carried out on Swordfish is the second large pelagic species in these species, and although mackerel catches importance. ICCAT considers the existence of a from Greek waters have increased, there is also distinct single Mediterranean stock. Swordfish is indirect evidence that it has ceased to enter the fished with longlines and driftnets. In the case of Black Sea in large numbers in recent years. swordfish, the high exploitation rate is also reflected in progressive decreases in mean size Large pelagic resources and mean age at capture. World wide information on large pelagics is Bonito and albacore provided in section C1. However a few specific Fisheries for these species have not been comments related to Area 37 follow: specifically assessed, but there is indirect evidence that bonito has decreased its range, now Bluefin tuna and swordfish rarely entering the Black Sea in large numbers. Bluefin tuna and swordfish are the most Bonito show no long-term trends but a high important large pelagic species in the variability catches. Albacore catches have Mediterranean. They represent around 3 percent increased from 1980 showing fluctuations. of the total reported catches, but their economic importance is far greater. ICCAT (International The Azov and Black Seas Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas) considers a single stock of bluefin tuna The slight improvement of environmental for the Eastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean, conditions recorded in the last decade in the and the Mediterranean holds the main spawning Black and Azov Seas creates a favourable area. Driftnets, longlines and seines exploiting background for recovery of biodiversity and bluefin tuna represent the only real industrial marine living resources. In spite of this fleet in the Mediterranean. After reaching a improvement in the case of demersal fisheries the landing of 39 000t in 1994, the value has over-fishing, degradation of vital habitats, declined to 22 000t in 2002. Concern has rightly including spawning and nursery grounds, and been expressed about the status of both species. disturbance of structural balance in biota still In both cases the (apparently unrestrained) continue. growth of fisheries over the last decade has Unlike the rest of the Mediterranean, in the Black increased vulnerability of these stocks as has and Azov Seas EEZs have been declared by all regular fishing by non-coastal States on bluefin riparian countries. The legislative and regulatory stocks. For this species, the GFCM has adopted framework that have been established permits the the regulations on bluefin fisheries from the management of living resources at the national ICCAT, to apply to all member countries of level, but more harmonization is required.

According to the conclusions in a recent leidyi, which was largely responsible for collapse workshop on Responsible Fisheries and of the anchovy stock (Zaitsev and Öztürk, 2001). conservation of the Black Sea ecosystem Despite its collapse and partial recovery, it would (http://www.blacksea-environment.org/text/defau be misleading to consider the anchovy stock lt.htm), the fish stock assessment and monitoring underexploited. Except for the fleets of the activities are fragmented and irregular while former socialist countries, which are undergoing illegal fishing remains one of the most important reconstruction, hampered by shortage of funds unresolved issue for all Black Sea coastal states for repair and investment, the former over- capitalization of the fishing industry mentioned In the Azov Sea several stock collapses of in the last review still continues in the southern freshwater fish stocks occurred in the 1960s, such Black Sea. By contrast, the stocks of sprat and as pike, bream, roach (Ivanov and Beverton, several other species in the Northern Black Sea 1985). These collapses were associated with may not now be overexploited. The remaining progressive salination due to damming of, and demersal resources should be allowed to rebuild water extraction from, major inflowing rivers (Prodanov et al., 1997), where environmental resulting in increased salinity by several parts per conditions permit. thousand. This, plus impacts on spawning routes and spawning areas in the main rivers, has Top Black Sea predators such as dolphins have seriously affected natural sturgeon populations, seriously declined in abundance. Predatory fish, whose catches are now in part maintained by including mackerel (Scomber scombrus), blue hatchery production. Declines occurred in fish (Pomatomus saltatrix) and bonito which demersal fish stocks, most importantly turbot, used to seasonally enter from the Sea of Marmara benthic crustaceans, and zoo- and phyto-benthos. (also subject to heavy pollution and fishing), now These latter formerly played a major role, e.g. rarely penetrate into the waters to the north and mussels in filtering and red algae in oxygenation west of the Black Sea. Stocks of these species of shelf water, in the Northwest Black Sea. Their can be considered depleted, although not disappearance were largely due to anoxic events necessarily by fishing alone. caused by a greatly increased planktonic Five species provide useful indices of recent production, which, in turn, was linked to drastic changes in fisheries ecosystems for the increased nutrient inputs from the large Black Black Sea (Prodanov et al., 1997; Daskalov, Sea catchment basin. Collapses of stocks of the 1998 and 1999). Azov Sea sprat, and in the Black Sea, the anchovy, and declines in Mediterranean horse Shads mackerel, and sprat stocks in the late 1980s, were Biomasses of these anadromous species (like the almost certainly linked to the introduction to the more important sturgeon) have declined by some Black Sea and Azov of the west Atlantic 75 percent or more compared to the 1970s. ctenophore Mnemiopsis leidyi (Zaitsev, 1993). Exploitation rates have been high, but have not Meanwhile, a species of grey mullet (the haarder, shown consistent upward trends, and the Mugil soiuy, introduced from the Pacific coast of deterioration of conditions within incoming Russia), a detritus feeder which breeds in shallow rivers over recent decades probably played a water, appears immune to M. leidyi predation on major part in stock depletion. its larval stages, and has increased in stock size. Azov Sea sprat Several other introduced species appear pre- With a highly variable biomass, the sprat stock adapted to eutrophic conditions, such as the Mya shows wide fluctuations but supported intensive clam and Rapana sea snail, the latter now being a fishing by the former Soviet Union in the 1950s major export item in some countries, and can be and 1970s. More recent increases in exploitation considered fully exploited. rate are associated with declines in catches, that The partial recovery of the anchovy stock, which are linked to the explosion of the predatory was formerly targeted in the Northern Black Sea, ctenophore Mnemiopsis leydei which has been but is now predominantly fished in the southern dominant in the pelagic ecosystem since the late Black Sea, is probably the most important fishery 1980s. event in this area. It has recently been aided by Anchovy the appearance of a species of Beroid The single largest resource in the Black Sea, its ctenophores (Beroe cucumis or B. ovata, biomass increased in the late 1970s and early depending on the sources), a predator on M.

1980s at a time when catches were also on the eight most important shared demersal and increasing; apparently in response to nutrient small pelagic species: hake, red mullet, striped inputs to the Black Sea. It collapsed in the late red mullet, blue whiting, red shrimp, anchovy, 1980s largely due to predation and feeding sardine and sardinella (Fiorentino, 2000). More competition with the ctenophore Mnemiopsis than 100 evaluations were identified and leydei. Effort subsequently decreased, allowing analysed (GFCM, 2000a). Three species of large the species to recover somewhat but anchovy pelagics (bluefin tuna, swordfish and albacore) biomass and catches have not reached the were also taken into consideration (ICCAT, previous values. 1999). Whiting Most of the evaluations correspond to stocks of A main predator on Black Sea sprat, this species the Northern and Western part of the region. The has been affected by the decline in sprat stocks assessments were based on the application of due to the Mnemiopsis plague. Whiting is largely Virtual Population Analysis or Length Cohort taken as a bycatch to the sprat stock which is Analysis together with a Yield-per-Recruit heavily exploited, with consequences in reducing Analyses and sometimes surplus production the stock size of this predator (Prodanov et al., methods, based on short series of data and on the 1997). results of scientific surveys. Unfortunately, some existing, but non-published, information were not Other demersals available at the meeting. According to the conclusions of the workshop on Demersal Resources in the Black Sea and Azov The assessments presented to the SAC in 2001 to Sea (Öztürk and Karakulak [Eds], 2003) 2004 (including SAMED) are summarized in the demersal fisheries continue to represent an Table B5.1 (no assessments were presented for important economic activity having a very large pelagics). significant impact on the coastal population and A substantial effort is urgently needed in the on marine ecosystem. Although the problems of Mediterranean to improve the scientific advice over-fishing, degradation of vital habitats, the provided as well as its application by demersal resources still have potential for management. The current investment in stock recovery. The most important species besides assessment and, more generally, in fishery whiting, are turbot (Psetta maxima maeotica), research for assessment purposes is not enough or dogfish (Squalus acanthias), Raja clavata, and not appropriate for the elaboration of proper and mullets (mugilidae). Most of them have efficient advice to fishery managers and industry. declining catches in recent years. In order to encourage the efforts to produce the Sturgeons needed scientific advice, the SAC, recommended For the most common species: Acipenser in 2000, inter alia, to update and improve the gueldenstaedtii, Acipenser stellatus and Huso quality and coverage of fishery data and huso, figures show a decreasing trend during the statistics, to increase the number of assessments last years (with different oscillations and slopes in the southern and eastern areas and to ensure for different species and countries). Acipenser that all the assessments be carried out on a sturio and Acipenser nudiventris have almost regular basis. SAC also drew the attention on the disappeared. A. sturio and A. brevirostrum are in importance of the role of the relationship between the CITES appendix I (threatened with the environment and resources. Additionally the extinction), the rest of Acipenseridae in appendix SAC indicated that the definition of geographical II (may become threatened with extinction unless management units to report the indicators is trade is closely controlled) A. guendelstaedtii, A. essential and that homogenous socio-economic nudiventris, A. persicus, A. stellatus, A. sturio indicators in each of these management units had and Huso huso are included in the IUCN Red to be developed. List. Fishery management Stock assessment The continental shelf and slope, especially of the The Scientific Advisory Committee (SAC) of the Northern Mediterranean, are exploited down to General Fisheries Commission for the 800 m by a variety of gears aimed at a suite of Mediterranean (GFCM) analysed, in May 2000, demersal fish and invertebrates, dominated by the available scientific information for 1985-1999 hake, blue whiting, red mullet, whitings,

Table B5.1 Assessments presented at the SAC meeting (2001-2004) and marine parks to trawling

Comments and exist in some countries. Assessments recommendations Species It is difficult to evaluate Mediterranean fishing effort 2001 2002 2003 2004 O, growth-overfishing, risk of trends, especially by recruitment overfishing. trawling, but new fleets have Reduce effort. Merluccius merluccius 4 2 3 3 Improve trawl selectivity. been acquired in e.g. Croatia Temporary nursery areas and Libya, and fleet closures. O-F, Coastal zone closure for replacement schemes have protection of juveniles. operated in other areas Use of artificial reefs. suggesting that effective Mullus barbatus 3 1 2 4 Seasonal closure. Reduce effort. fishing effort may have Enforce current management increased. Overall, there are measures. few management measures Mullus surmuletus 1 Pagellus erythrinus 3 F restricting fishing effort or Diplodus annularis 3 F overall catch in most Pomatomus saltatrix 1 countries. At the same time, F, Technical improvement of gear to avoid capture of small there are surprisingly few Nephrops norvegicus 1 1 individuals. indicators of stock collapses, Reduce trawl doors effect on with more species showing bottom. Aristeus antennatus 2 3 3 3 O-F increasing catches than Aristeomorpha foliaciea 1 1 F declines (Fiorentini et al., Parapenaeus longirostris 1 1 U-F 1997). In recent years, Sardina pilchardus 3 5 4 5 O-F, not to increase the effort Risk of recruitment-overfishing. regular standard trawl Engraulis encrasicolus 3 6 3 3 Set minimum legal size to that of surveys for demersal 1st maturity. resources have operated F, Keep fishing effort at current Trachurus trachurus 1 1 level. under European Commission F, Keep fishing effort at current Boops boops 1 funding in waters off its level. member countries, and this Total 24 19 17 22 O- Overexploited, F- Fully exploited, U- Underexploited data set is beginning to allow some stock assessments (e.g. cephalopods, Norway lobster and shrimps. The Papaconstantinou et al., 1988a,b; Farrugio, 1994; mix varies geographically, with the majority of Oliver, 1996). catches made up of fish in the age range 0+ to 2+ (GFCM, 1995). With respect to size at first Abella et al. (1999) have attributed the resilience capture, the use of cod end mesh sizes of 40 mm of Mediterranean hake despite highly intense stretched mesh or smaller continues. This means fishing on juveniles to the net result of the that the trawl fishery for larger species such as uneven distribution of trawl effort spatially, hake is mainly a fishery for juveniles, but as notably the distribution of mature fish outside the noted by Dremière (1979) and Bertrand (1990) main trawling grounds and the relatively low the optimal size at first capture of economically vulnerability of large fish to fine mesh trawls important smaller species in the multispecies (Caddy, 1990). These effects were not planned in catch (shrimps and small cephalopods) has made the past but should be taken into account in it difficult to increase mesh size. In addition, the planning future management measures. In survival of specimens filtered through meshes particular, the effect of potential increases in has not been evaluated. In Cyprus the slim- fishing effort in deep waters on hake recruitment bodied picarels form a majority of the catch, and should be evaluated. catches would apparently be seriously affected by The GFCM at his twenty-fifth session in increased mesh size (Hadjistephanou 1992). September 2000, after consideration of the advice Reliance has been placed in some areas on provided by SAC, recommended inter alia: “to seasonal closures during the period of develop and apply management measures recruitment to the bottom, and regulations necessary to correct these problems of requiring permanent closures of shallow waters overfishing”. The GFCM also recommended: “That efforts should be made to increase the

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