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Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, June 22-25, 2016

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Transitions The Eighth British-North American Joint Meeting of the BSHS, CSHPS and HSS

#3soc2016 Thank you to our supporters!

Faculty of Arts Faculty of Science Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry Faculty of Engineering Science, Technology and Society program Office of Interdisciplinary Studies History and Classics Drama Philosophy Anthropology

KULE INSTITUTE FOR ADVANCED STUDY

4 Table of Contents

Thank you to our supporters!...... 4 Welcome to Edmonton...... 6 BSHS, CSHPS, and HSS and Program Chairs...... 7 Map of North Campus...... 8 Map of Tory Building...... 9 Map of CCIS...... 9 Map of Downtown Edmonton...... 10 Edmonton Dining Guide...... 11 Local Customs...... 16 Radical...... 20 Scott Library...... 21 Keynotes...... 22 Day at a glance...... 24 Detailed Program...... 29 Abstracts...... 43 Notes...... 107

5 Welcome to Edmonton

Welcome to Edmonton! We are delighted to welcome you to our vibrant and northern city. Edmonton is the most northerly big city in North America, with one million people and a diverse and culturally lively population. Edmonton is the capital of Alberta – you can see the legislative buildings across the river from the University of Alberta. The University of Alberta itself was founded in 1906, just after the founding of the province, with the explicit vision of ‘uplifting the whole people’. It is now a major research university, with over 36,000 students and 16 Faculties.

This seems an ideal location for the eighth British-North American joint meeting of the BSHS, HSS, and CSHPS. The Canadian Society for the History and Philosophy of Science last hosted this meeting 12 years ago in Halifax. While we can’t promise you whale sightings this time, we do have an action-packed program. We have over 175 presenters, including three keynote speakers, as well as several cultural events including a reception and tour at the Art Gallery of Alberta and a play reading of a Canadian play by a historian of medicine. We hope that this will be a conference to remember, with time to meet scholars from all over the world and particularly from the UK and North America.

This conference would not have been possible without the dedication and work of many people. I want to thank the Program committee, consisting of Andrew Ede (chair), Aileen Fyfe, and Jole Shackelford, with support from David Orenstein. I know you will all agree that we have a very fine program, with a wide range of papers from different parts of our disciplines. The local arrangements committee has worked very hard, and I expect the smooth running of the days ahead will only be possible with much labour behind the scenes. I particularly want to thank Judith Friedman, who has led the whole process with me, Cindy Welsh, whose quiet professionalism has kept us all on course, Marcie Whitecotton-Carroll, who designed and ran the webpage, Joe Borsato, responsible for the Facebook, Twitter, and much else, Mike Boire, who wrangled the volunteers, Kamal Ranaweera, who developed the whole registration system, and Brittany Ball-Snellen, who designed the program. Her artwork is on the cover. Andrew Ede designed the logo. All of them, and the many volunteers, have made this conference what it is and without them, none of it would be possible.

Lesley Cormack

6 BSHS, CSHPS, and HSS and Program Chairs

BRITISH SOCIETY FOR THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE OFFICERS OF COUNCIL Vice-President Bernie Lightman, York University Greg Radick, President University of Leeds Secretary Marsha Richmond, Wayne State University Patricia Fara, Vice-President University of Cambridge Treasurer Adam Apt, Peabody River Asset Management David Beck, Secretary University of Warwick Editor H. Floris Cohen, Utrecht University (emeritus) Richard Noakes, Treasurer University of Exeter Executive Director Robert J. Malone, History of Science Society (ex Charlotte Sleigh, Journal Editor officio) University of Kent PROGRAM CHAIRS CANADIAN SOCIETY FOR THE HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE Andrew Ede (CSHPS) (Chair) EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE University of Alberta Ernst Hamm, President Aileen Fyfe (BSHS) York University St. Andrews University Lesley Cormack, Past President Jole Shackelford (HSS) University of Alberta University of Minnesota Joan Steigerwald, First Vice President David Orenstein (CSHPS) York University University of Toronto Alan Richardson, Second Vice-President LOCAL ARRANGEMENTS University of British Columbia Lesley Cormack (Chair) Conor Burns, Secretary-Treasurer Judith Friedman Ryerson University Andrew Ede Joseph Borsato HISTORY OF SCIENCE SOCIETY Cindy Welsh EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE Marcie Whitecotton-Carroll President Michael Boire Janet Browne, Harvard University

7 Map of North Campus Map of North Campus

Legend: A: Faculty Club B: Centennial Centre for Interdisciplinary Science (CCIS) C: Galleria and Tory Building D: Timms Centre

8 Map of Tory Building

Map of CCIS

9 Map of Downtown Edmonton

10 Edmonton Dining Guide

Below is a list of places to dine and drink in Edmonton with some off-hand directions on how to get there. We encourage delegates, in choosing their dining options, to consult this guide as well as the Best Restaurants Directory for 2016 in Avenue (http://www.avenueedmonton.com/March-2016/BR2016/). We also encourage delegates to investigate the vibrant food truck scene in the city (http://streetfoodapp.com/edmonton). Their website has live updates with locations. They sometimes hang out near the University, near Whyte Avenue, and at various spaces downtown.

Dining in Old Strathcona and Near the University of Alberta Transcend Coffee in Garneau http://www.transcendcoffee.ca/garneau/ Just a block or two east from the U of A campus on 109 Street, Transcend Coffee is an excellent café and is the perfect place to grab a coffee before heading to the first conference session of the day. The Sugar Bowl http://thesugarbowl.org/ Open for breakfast, lunch, and dinner, right across the street from Transcend Coffee and a five-minute walk from the U of A campus by 109 Street, the Sugar Bowl has some of the city’s favourite pub food and beverages. Their beer collection is well known throughout the city! If you plan to go at peak dining hours, it would be wise to reserve a table in advance as it is a very popular spot. The High Level Diner http://highleveldiner.com/ Highly regarded especially for its cinnamon buns, the High Level Diner is just a few doors down from the Sugar Bowl by 109 Street. Open for breakfast, lunch, and dinner, the High Level Diner offers some of the best brunches and desserts in all of Edmonton. Café Leva https://cafeleva.com/ Are you in the mood for some of the best pizza, stylish pastries, and organic gelato that Edmonton has to offer? Look no farther than Café Leva on 86 Ave and 111 Street. It is a five to ten minute walk south and east of the University and well worth a visit. Block 1912 http://block1912.com/menu-marquee/ Block 1912 on Whyte Ave and 104 Street is an excellent and also newly renovated café with some of the best coffee and ice cream in the city. Chianti Café & Restaurant http://www.chianticafe.ca/chianti-old-strathcona---home.html Chianti Café & Restaurant is an excellent Italian café with several gluten free options available on breads and pastas. All their menu items are also available for take out (take away) if you so desire. It is located by the intersection of Whyte Ave. and 105 St. Café Mosaics http://www.cafemosaics.com/ Located on Whyte between 109 St. and 108 St., this little café is regarded in Old Strathcona as one of the best vegetarian and vegan restaurants around. In particular, their raw zucchini pasta is mind-blowingly stellar among other dishes. Crave Strathcona http://www.cravecupcakes.ca/ Crave is a bakery and cake shop just two block south of White Ave. on 104th St. It is an excellent spot to get some sweet baked goods. Farrow http://farrowsandwiches.ca/ Located on 109 Street and 84 Ave just a couple blocks north from Whyte Ave. and a few blocks south from the U of A, Farrow serves a wide variety of sandwiches, which are made primarily with local ingredients where permitting, and coffees to choose from. Much their related restaurant the Three Boars, Farrow is a nice place to grab lunch with a coffee on a nice summer afternoon.

11 The Three Boars http://www.threeboars.ca/ The three boars is a chic little restaurant that is cozy and lively. They serve seasonal dishes, craft beers, and classic cocktails and are one of the most highly reviewed restaurants in Old Strathcona. They are located on 109 Street and 84 Ave. Belgravia Hub http://www.belhub.com/ Belgravia Hub is a hidden little eatery with amazing meatloaf, shepherd’s pie, and jambalaya just to the west of the Health Sciences LRT station on 77 Ave, which is one station away from the University campus. Packrat Louie http://packratlouie.com/ Earlier this year, Edmonton was voted one of the top 8 cities in the world with the best pizza. Among the many excellent pizzerias in the city, Packrat Louie on 83 Ave and 104 Street is one of them with some of the best gourmet pizzas in the world. Urban Diner http://www.urbandiner.com/ Just off 109 Street near the University, Urban Diner is an excellent spot to eat meatloaf, Ruben, grilled cheese, beef dip, pulled pork, clubhouse, and the monte cristo.

Bars, Pubs and Ale Houses in Old Strathcona: Devaney’s Irish Pub http://devaneyspub.com/ Devaney’s is perfectly situated for grabbing a drink after a conference session on 87 Ave and 111 Street, which is just south of the U of A campus. They offer a wide selection of beers and daily specials. Sherlock Holmes Pub http://www.sherlockshospitality.com/ It’s your local neighbourhood pub as they say. Sherlock’s is an excellent pub and conveniently located on 112 Street just south of the U of A campus, making it an accessible destination to grab a pint at the end of a day of sessions. Rosso Pizzeria http://pizzeriarosso109.com/ Offering pizzas made from organic and local ingredients, Rosso Pizzeria is conveniently located near the U of A campus on 109 Street, just across the street from the Sugar Bowl, and provides both take out (i.e. take away) and sit down meals. Their pizzas are elegantly presented and very flavourful. They also have an excellent cocktail, wine, and beer bar. Room at the Top https://www.su.ualberta.ca/businesses/roomatthetop/ Room at the Top is another excellent nearby option. Located at the top of the Student Union Building (SUB for short), they offer 16 local and draught beers as well as a selection of fresh and new options all summer long. In June, they are open from 11:30 AM to 2:30 PM from Tuesday to Thursday and from 11:30 AM to 8:00 PM on Fridays. El Cortez Mexican Kitchen + Tequila Bar http://www.elcortezcantina.com/#welcome Just off Whyte Ave and Gateway Boulevard, El Cortez is a Mexican style bar that offers an authentic taco and tequila restaurant experience. The Next Act http://www.nextactpub.com/food-menu The Next Act, which is just up the street from Block 1912, is a trendy pub with burgers and a wide variety of beers to choose from. It is located just a block north of Whyte Ave. on 83 Ave. and 104 Street. The Pourhouse Bier Bistro http://www.pourhousebierbistro.com/ Besides having an excellent selection of the pub food essentials, the Pourhouse Bier Bistro on Whyte has a massive selection of beer for a wide variety of tastes. MKT http://centuryhospitality.com/mkt/our-menu/ Just south of Whyte on Gateway Boulevard, this hip and stylish bar serves many classic Canadian foods from chicken n’ waffles to prime beef dip. They also have a huge draft beer selection and great patio seating. 12 The Empress Ale House http://www.empressalehouse.com/ The Empress on Whyte is an excellent ale house if you want to keep things simple. Have a beer, hangout, chat, and watch a show. They have shows late on Saturday and Sunday nights, which can take the form of either stand up comedy routines or full on band and recording artist performances. Culina Mill Creek http://www.culinafamily.com/#!our_story/c18bc Through incorporating a wide range of local ingredients, Culina at Mill Creek offers an Edmontonian take on international tastes. It is located just off Saskatchewan Drive and 99 Street in Old Strathcona. Ampersand 27 http://ampersand27.com/ Offering a deeply Edmontonian feel with local ingredients in their servings, local pottery on the window ledges, and a charity inspired water filtration system, the Ampersand 27 is a great option on Whyte Ave. Meat http://meatfordinner.com/ Located just off Whyte Ave, Meat is an excellent Smokehouse that emphasizes meat and higher fat foods instead of higher carb servings. They also have a variety of tasty vegetarian options. Almanac http://www.almanaconwhyte.com/ The Almanac on Whyte is a French-inspired gastro pub and offers great food, drinks, and music. Their servings rely heavily on local ingredients and their brunches in particular are phenomenal.

Dining Downtown Padmanadi http://www.padmanadi.com/ Padmanadi has been offering vegan and vegetarian friendly servings in Edmonton for almost ten years now. It is located on 101 Street and 107 Ave and can be reached by travelling to the MacEwan LRT station and then north a couple blocks. Cavern http://thecavern.ca/ Cavern is a retail cheese shop with a breakfast and lunch bistro and then also a wine and cheese bar. Their salads and pastries are among the very best in the city. Cavern is also an excellent spot for delegates who are seeking vegetarian, vegan, or gluten free eating options. It is located just a block away from Jasper Ave and is a mere ten-minute walk from the Matrix Hotel downtown. Pampa Brazilian Steakhouse http://www.pampasteakhouse.com/ Operating on 109 Street, and just a five-minute walk from the Matrix Hotel downtown, Pampa offers delicious cuts of Brazilian barbequed meat, including beef, pork, poultry, and lamb. They also have a unique salad bar with a variety of greens and imported cheeses. They can incorporate gluten free and dairy free diets. Tres Carnales Taqueria http://trescarnales.com/ Tres Carnales Taqueria offers amazing gluten free tortillas, made from corn rather than wheat, in a Mexican style just off Jasper Ave and not far from the Matrix Hotel downtown. Elm Café http://www.elmcafe.ca/ If you’re looking to try a place with great coffee and some excellent sandwiches, then Elm Café is the place for you. Located just a block off Jasper Ave downtown, Elm Café changes their offerings of sandwiches daily, making them an excellent place to visit more than once during your stay. If you want a heads-up about what they’re offering on the day, follow them on Twitter for live updates: https://twitter.com/elmcafe. Blue Plate Diner http://www.blueplatediner.ca/ The Blue Plate Diner is another superb sandwich shop downtown on 104 Street and just a block off Jasper Ave. They are especially well liked for their grilled sandwiches, particularly for their open-faced tuna melt, which is spectacular. They are also very accommodating and have lots of vegetarian, vegan, and gluten free options. 13 Solstice Seasonal Cuisine http://www.solsticefood.com/ Solstice is located in Westmount, which is just a short drive or bus ride north and west of downtown, and provides some of the best servings using local and regional ingredients. They have some of the best ice cream in the city. Rose Bowl Pizza & Rouge Lounge http://www.rougelounge.ca/ Earlier this year, Edmonton was voted one of the top 8 cities in the world with the best pizza. Among the many excellent pizzerias in the city, the Rose Bowl specializes in old-school pizzas with a wide range of options including BBQ chicken, meatball, and shrimp pizzas. They are located on Jasper Ave and 117 Street. Bistro Praha http://bistropraha.com/ Bistro Praha can be found a mere ten-minute walk from the Matrix Hotel downtown on Jasper Ave and 101 Street. They serve eastern European food, including some of the best schnitzel and goulash in the city. Range Road http://www.rgerd.ca/ Centered around ingredients and meats from local farms, Range Road, or Rge Rd as they are sometimes known, is an excellent dining option. They are frequently ranked as one of Edmonton’s top restaurants. They are located on 124 Street, just north and west of downtown. Canteen http://canteenyeg.ca/ Canteen is a small and cozy restaurant just off 124 Street with affordable and local breakfasts, lunches, and dinners. Their excellent poached eggs, cheddar chive biscuits, and homemade hash browns are only some of the many highlights. King Noodle House Pho Hoang http://kingnoodlehousephohoang.com/ Located not far from MacEwan LRT station on 106 Ave and 97 Street, King Noodle House offers the best pho-soup in the city as well as a selection of non-pho options. Holt Café http://www.holtrenfrew.com/store/holt/pages/services/holts-cafe The Holt café is a great eatery with excellent chicken-pot pie. It is tucked away in the Holt Renfrew store on 101 Street and 102 Ave just north of Jasper Ave. Cibo Bistro http://www.cibobistro.com/ Located in Oliver Square just west on 104 Ave of the MacEwan LRT station downtown, Cibo Bistro serves affordable and made-from-scratch pasta. Their gnocci and tagliatelle are especially delicious. They also incorporate local and seasonal ingredients with impressive presentation. Sicilian Pasta Kitchen http://sicilianpastakitchendowntown.com/pastakitchen/index.htm The Sicilian Pasta Kitchen has been serving a wide selection of southern Italian cuisine in Edmonton for over two decades now. Their bolognese and arrabiata are some of the best in the city. They can be found on Jasper Ave just a ten- minute walk away from the Matrix Hotel downtown. Il Pasticcio Trattoria http://www.ilpasticcio.ca/ Located on 100 Ave, directly west of the Matrix Hotel downtown, Il Pasticcio is an amazing trattoria and is famous for its combinations of pastas, such as the pasticcio which combines five different pastas with gigi sauce. They also serve an excellent lobster tagliatelle. Tasty Tomato Italian Eatery http://tastytomato.ca/ Having operated in Edmonton for over 20 years, the family-run Tasty Tomato serves some of the freshest salads and best pasta in the city. They can be found on 102 Ave and 142 Street and are well worth a short cab ride. Hardware Grill http://www.hardwaregrill.com/ If you’re looking for high-end Canadian cuisine then Hardware Grill is the place for you! They serve fish, steak, and roasted veggies and provide a comprehensive wine list. They are located on Jasper Ave and 97 Street. 14 Sofra Turkish Restaurant and Wine Cellar https://plus.google.com/112419487213267720598/about?gl=ca&hl=en Sofra serves some of the best Turkish dishes in the city. Located up 107 Street from the Matrix Hotel Downtown, Sofra is well known for its pitas, kofta, and grape leaf rolls. Normand’s Restaurant http://normands.com/ Normand’s Restaurant serves classic French dishes with a lot of meat options. Their wild boar ribs are particularly excellent. They are located on Jasper Ave and 117 Street. The Marc Restaurant http://www.themarc.ca/ Located north of Jasper Ave and the Matrix Hotel downtown along 106 Street, the Marc serves classic French with a lot of emphasis on fish. The restaurant and its servings alike are all beautifully presented. Tzin Wine & Tapas Ltd. http://tzin.ca/ Tzin is a small wine bar with great finger food and wines. They are located a mere ten minutes away from the Matrix just a block north of Jasper Ave on 104 Street. Corso 32 http://corso32.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/May-171.pdf Corso 32 is a cozy little wine bar which also serves Italian cuisine and is in large part locally sourced. They are located on Jasper Ave and 104 Street.

Bars, Pubs and Alehouses Downtown: MRKT http://www.mrktcafeteria.com/ Besides having some of the best made-from-scratch sandwiches and soups on offer, MRKT is also an excellent wine and cheese bar with a huge selection on hand. Bar Bricco http://barbricco.com/ Bar Bricco is one the best places on Jasper Ave to grab a snack and a drink or two. They serve Italian meats and cheeses as well as cocktails and wine. Woodwork http://woodworkyeg.com/ Woodwork provides wood fired cooking and barrel aged spirits. Much of their cooking is drawn from local ingredients, including from farms in the nearby areas. They can be found not far off Jasper Ave and 100 Street. The Common http://www.thecommon.ca/#thecommon The Common serves a great selection of craft, small-batch, local and import beers as well as a unique take on cocktails with a herbal emphasis. They also serve excellent comfort food. They are located just a five minute walk on 109 Street just southwest of the Matrix Hotel downtown.

15 Local Customs

Although Canadians like to think that we are completely different from Americans (common joke: what are Canadians? Americans without guns), we are firmly tied to similar infrastructure. Our currency is similar, although more colourful and less easily forged. We have bills (not notes), but none under $5, and the coinage includes dollar coins (called a ‘loonie’ for the bird on its verso) and 2 dollar coins (called ‘twonies’ – because it rhymes with loonie – did you have to ask?). Bank machines tend to spit out 20s and 50s. Bank machines are common, including several machines from different banks on campus in HUB mall and in SUB.

The electricity that comes from our walls is 110-120 volts, just as it is in the USA, and we use the same plugs as Americans as well.

Tipping is common and generally 15%. We have a VAT tax called GST of 5%, which is rather annoyingly added at the till, so remember most things (not groceries but restaurant meals) will cost 5% more than you think. On the other hand, we do not have a provincial sales tax. Most stores and restaurants take credit cards and use chip technology, but (this is for our American friends) can probably figure out how to let you sign if you don’t have chips in your cards.

Edmonton has had a big fight with Uber, so it’s not available in the city. On the other hand, TappCar is. We also have various taxis in town, plus a good light rail transit (LRT) from the University south and north to downtown and beyond. Tickets can be purchased at the LRT stations, and you can transfer to and from buses. Tickets are $3.25 each, although books of 10 are slightly cheaper.

The University of Alberta is a Microsoft campus, something worth knowing if you bring your PPT on an Apple computer. It can be done, but you might want to bring your own cord.

Internet access is quite straightforward. You can either sign on at Guest@UofA – no need for a password -- or use your home institution sign-in through Eduroam (your home email address plus home system password).

If you need to print something, you can have it printed for you at SUBprint in the basement of the SUB building. Or there are self-serve printers in many locations (all computer labs), especially the two major libraries, Cameron and Rutherford. Volunteers at the Registration/help desk can point you to other locations.

Oh, and if you want to brag about how far north you are, you’re at 53.54° N, and on June 23, sunrise is at 5.05 am, and sunset at 10.07 pm. A full 17 hours. Not quite the midnight sun, but close. And lots of time for sitting out on one of the many patios in town for a nightcap!

Lesley Cormack

16 17 18 Atlanta November 2016 – Workshop on Writing the Transnational History of Science and Technology

November 2-3, 2016 Call for papers A partially-funded one-day workshop will be held at the School of History and Sociology of the Georgia Institute of Technology from noon on November 2, to noon the next day. The campus is about a mile from downtown Atlanta where HSS will hold its annual meeting beginning on November 3, 2016. Is transnational history just a fad, or does it pose important new questions for historians of science and technology? What is the place of the national in the transnational? What are the intellectual and social costs of writing transnational history? How does transnational history of science and technology intersect with other histories e.g. of colonialism, imperialism, global history? By combining theoretical reflection with empirical case studies this workshop will provide a space for extended debate on the transnational turn and its significance for historians of science and technology. A more comprehensive position paper will be circulated to applicants closer to the time. Interested persons should submit abstracts of some 200 words to [email protected] no later than July 30, 2016. Selected papers must be submitted for pre-circulation no later than September 30, 2016. Funding is available for up to 12 participants. It will cover transfer from Atlanta airport to the Georgia Tech campus, the night of Wednesday November 2, 2016 in the Georgia Tech Hotel and meals and other incidental expenses during the duration of the workshop. No financial support is available for travel to Atlanta. In consultation with the participants, and subject to merit, the papers may be published in an edited collection. For further information please contact [email protected] (www.johnkrige.com) Deadline: July 30, 2016 John Krige, Kranzberg Professor, The School of History and Sociology of the Georgia Institute of Technology.

19 Director, Tracy Carrell Friday, June 24, 1930 Venue: Timms Centre for the Arts

Canadian oncologist Dr. Vera Peters set the medical world against her by offering women a choice when it came to how their bodies were treated for breast cancer. Charles Hayter’s new play RADICAL examines Peters’ crucial struggle to persuade her patients and the medical community at large that mastectomies did not guarantee miracles, and that there was another way. Developed through Toronto’s Alumnae Theatre, RADICAL traces Peters’ remarkable journey from acclaimed researcher to medical activist, as she wrestles with memories of her own mother’s battle with cancer, and seeks to humanize a medical system that trivialized and dismissed the perspectives of women. Ultimately for Peters, the fight with cancer became one she faced in her own body as well as those of her patients.

This will be mounted as a play reading, with a Q & A afterwards with the author.

Video directed by Nicholas Porteous, and sponsored by Alumnae Theatre Company for New Ideas Festival and FireWorks productions.

Tickets available at www.radical2016.eventbrite.ca

View Trailer at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_ju3LxchGZQ

Sponsored by the Faculty of Medicine and Department of Drama

20 Scott Library

Take in some local medical history at The John W. Scott Health Sciences Library, where a number of rare books and pamphlets from the Rawlinson Rare Book Collection are on display. Come see volumes that played a role in cultivating Canadian knowledge of health and medicine and document important medical milestones. This exhibit will also include medical equipment used by doctors during the late 19th and early 20th century, borrowed from the University of Alberta’s department of Undergraduate Medical Education.

The Rawlinson Rare Book Collection for the Health Sciences is located in the Phyllis Russell Rare Book Room on the bottom floor of the John W. Scott Health Sciences Library at the University of Alberta. It consists of over 1500 volumes, with items published from the 16th century on, exploring a variety of aspects of medical history. Visit http://guides. library.ualberta.ca/history-of-medicine/rawlinson for more information on this diverse collection.

The John W. Scott Health Sciences Library is located on the second floor of the the Walter C. MacKenzie Centre. Directions to the John Scott can be found here: https://hours.library.ualberta.ca/#view-jws

21 Keynotes Erika Dyck Title: Population Control in the Global ‘North’: Canada, Eugenics and Neo-Genics in an Era of Choice CCIS 1-440, June 22, 1600-1730 The United Nations convened its first World Population Conference in Bucharest, Romania in 1974, where 136 nations represented by 1400 delegates renewed Malthusian concerns about a rapidly increasing population with an uneven distribution of resources. Taking a political stance on the need to invoke permanent, irreversible, and cheap population control measures, subsequent policies in India and China endorsed the idea that poverty and lowered intelligence went hand in hand. Eugenic philosophies found new currency in the 1970s cloaked in the language of reproductive choice and humanitarian aid. Canada’s North became a proving ground for testing competing interpretations of population control, and Aboriginal women became important subjects in these debates. Individual choices clashed with federal responsibilities, while campaigns for sovereignty diluted the aims of indigenous feminists. Political attention turned northward in Canada, to one of the least densely populated territories on the planet, in response to international discussions about the need for humanitarian health campaigns. Erika Dyck is a Professor at the University of Saskatchewan, and a Tier 2 Canada Research Chair in the History of Med- icine. She is the author of Psychedelic Psychiatry: LSD from Clinic to Campus (Johns Hopkins, 2008; University of Man- itoba Press, 2011), and Facing Eugenics: Reproduction, Sterilization and the Politics of Choice (University of Toronto, 2013), which was nominated for the John A Macdonald Award award for Canadian non-fiction. She is the co-editor of the Canadian Bulletin for Medical History; a contributing editor to ActiveHistory.ca and a founding member of both www. historyofmadness.ca and www.eugenicsarchive.ca. In 2015 she was inducted to Canada’s Royal Society in the College of New Scholars, Artists and Scientists. With generous support from UAlbertaNorth

Lawrence Principe Experience and Experiment: The Uses of Replication for Historical Understanding CCIS 1-440, June 23, 1600-1730

After a long period of being viewed with suspicion by many historians, the replication of historical experiments has recently (and perhaps surprisingly) begun receiving more positive attention. This talk will first briefly examine this recent change of fortune and explore the methodological, practical, and philosophical issues involved with historical replication. It will then provide several examples of replications (using photographs and videos) of chymical processes dating from antiquity to the early modern period that I have performed. These examples highlight the wide variety of otherwise unobtainable- -and often unexpected--information and insight that hands-on laboratory work, when judiciously integrated with more traditional historical methods, can provide for the historical enterprise.

Lawrence M. Principe is the Drew Professor of the Humanities at Johns Hopkins University in the Department of the History of Science and Technology and the Department of Chemistry. His research focuses on early modern alchemy and chemistry; he is currently completing a book entitled Wilhelm Homberg and the Transmutations of Chymistry at the Académie Royale des Sciences. His previous publications include The Aspiring Adept: Robert Boyle and His Alchemical Quest (1998); Alchemy Tried in the Fire: Starkey, Boyle, and the Fate of Helmontian Chymistry (with William R. Newman; 2004), winner of the 2005 Pfizer Prize; The Scientific Revolution: A Very Short Introduction (2011); and The Secrets of Alchemy (2013). He is the inaugural recipient (2005) of the Francis Bacon Medal for contributions to the history of science, and the 2016 winner of the Prix Franklin-Lavoisier from the Fondation de la Maison de la Chimie.

With generous support from Chemical Heritage Foundation

22 Aileen Fyfe The Secret History of the Scientific Journal: behind the scenes at the Philosophical Transactions, 1665-2016 CCIS 1-440, June 24, 1600-1730 Academic journals have become the dominant medium through which scientific knowledge is communicated and constructed within the scholarly community, and the Philosophical Transactions, created by Henry Oldenburg in London in 1665, is widely credited as the first and longest running scientific journal.Y et that fame has served to obscure the complexity of the history of scientific journals in general, and even of the Transactions itself. In this talk, Aileen Fyfe will draw upon new archival research to reveal the behind-the-scenes story of editing and publishing the Transactions, and to discuss the transformations in those processes over the last three and a half centuries. This is a story that touches on gatekeeping and judging; on profit and (more usually) loss; and on the reputations of individuals and institutions. The scientific journal’s dominance of research communication, it becomes clear, is no more natural or inevitable in 2016 than it was in 1665. Aileen Fyfe trained in History & Philosophy of Science at Cambridge, worked at the National University of Ireland, Gal- way for a decade, and is currently Reader in Modern British History at the University of St Andrews, in Scotland. She is a social and cultural historian of science and technology, with interests in the communication, publication and popularisation of the sciences, particularly in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. She has written about the popularisation of science in religious tracts, children’s book and tourist guidebooks, and about the adoption of industrial technologies of knowledge publishing. She is the author of Science and Salvation (2004) and the prize-winning Steam-Powered Knowledge (2012). She is currently leading a four-year project on the editorial and commercial history of the world’s oldest and longest-running scientific journal, the Philosophical Transactions, which is forcing her to think over a much longer (350 year!) time-frame.

23 Day at a Glance

June 22, 2016

1430 to 1900 Registration in Galleria (between Business Building and Tory Building)

1430 to 1730 Book Display in Galleria (between Business Building and Tory Building)

1600 Welcome in CCIS (Centennial Centre for Interdisciplinary Science)

1600 to 1730 Plenary Session CCIS Room 1-440

Erika Dyck, “Population Control in the Global ‘North’: Canada, Eugenics and Neo-Genics in an Era of Choice”

1730-1930 Reception

PCL Lounge (CCIS)

24 June 23, 2016

0730 to 1900 Registration in Galleria (between Business Building and Tory Building)

0730 to 0845 Breakfast in Galleria (between Business Building and Tory Building)

0800 to 1630 Book Display in Galleria (between Business Building and Tory Building)

0900-1030

0900 Tory 1-113 The quantitative spirit in the physical sciences, 1700-1900 0900 Tory 1-91 The Transition to Gender Equality since WW2: New Challenges for the Under-representation of Women in Science 0900 Tory 1-125 Transitions in Western Canadian science: Establishing status and authority

0900 Tory 1-108 Food Science 0900 Tory 1-129 Medical Knowledge: Generation and Application 0900 Tory 1-93 Biology and Sociobiology

Coffee Break

1100-1230

1100 Tory 1-91 Trading, Plants, and People: Science, Medicine, and Colonialism in the Early-Modern Period 1100 Tory 1-113 Psychiatric Transitions in North America after the Second World War 1100 Tory 1-108 A Better You: Medical Science in the 20th Century 1100 Tory 1-93 Modern Science in National, Transnational, and Global Context 1100 Tory 1-129 Medicine Victorian Style 1100 Tory 1-125 Alternative Knowledge: Medicine, Mariners and Dark Stars

Lunch Optional tour of the Scott Health Sciences Library. Meet in Galleria

1400-1530

1400 Tory 1-113 Science From the Edge of Empire: Australia and South Africa 1400 Tory 1-91 Periodicals, Publishers, and British Publics: Transitions in the Relationship Between Science and Religion 1400 Tory 1-129 Gender and the Health Sciences in Communist Europe 1400 Tory 1-93 The American Experience 1400 Tory 1-125 Plants and Print 1400 Tory 1-108 Theory and Practice: Case Studies From Evolution and Physics

1600-1730 Plenary CCIS 1-440 Lawrence Principe “Experience and Experiment: The Uses of Replication for Historical Understanding”

1800-2000 Reception Art Gallery of Alberta

25 June 24, 2016

0730 to 1900 Registration in Galleria (between Business Building and Tory Building) 0730 to 0845 Breakfast in Galleria (between Business Building and Tory Building) 0800 to 1630 Book Display in Galleria (between Business Building and Tory Building)

0900-1030 0900 Tory 1-113 Sound Science 0900 Tory 1-91 Performing Astronomy Since the Eighteenth Century 0900 Tory 1-129 Science in the Cold War 0900 Tory 1-108 Newton Redux 0900 Tory 1-125 Images and Art in Science 0900 Tory 1-93 Evolutionary Futures: Transitioning Narratives on the Natural History of Humanity

Coffee Break

1100-1230

1100 Tory 1-91 Disciplines in Transition: Postwar Encounters Between Design, Mathematics and Engineering 1100 Tory 1-93 Institutional Transactions of Early Modern Science 1100 Tory 1-129 Evolution and Natural History in the 19th Century 1100 Tory 1-113 Perception of Ideas at the Boundary of Science and Technology 1100 Tory 1-108 Indian Science 1100 Tory 1-125 Transitions of Power: cultural biographies of electricity in Russia, India and Britain, 1880-1939

Lunch Optional tour of the Scott Health Sciences Library. Meet in Galleria.

1400-1530 1400 Tory 1-125 Astronomy From the Naked Eye to the Edge of Knowledge 1400 Tory 1-91 Editing a scientific journal in the long eighteenth century 1400 Tory 1-129 Sky and Earth: Geology and Meteorology in the U.K. 1400 Tory 1-93 Reaching out with HPS: engaging with diverse disciplines, sectors and publics. 1400 Tory 1-113 Intersections 1400 Tory 1-108 Transitions of Scale and Place

1600-1730 Plenary CCIS 1-440 Aileen Fyfe “The Secret History of the Scientific Journal: Behind the scenes at the Philosophical Transactions, 1665-2016”

1930-2130 Radical By Charles Hayter Play reading Timms Centre

26 June 25, 2016

0730 to 1400 Registration in Galleria (between Business Building and Tory Building) 0730 to 0845 Breakfast in Galleria (between Business Building and Tory Building) 0800 to 1400 Book Display in Galleria (between Business Building and Tory Building)

0900-1030 0900 Tory 1-108 Late Scholasticism and the Scientific Revolution 0900 Tory 1-91 On the Body 0900 Tory 1-93 Configuring and Reconfiguring the 'Pure' and the 'Applied' in the History of the Mathematical Sciences 0900 Tory 1-125 Archetype or Stereotype? 0900 Tory 1-129 Practical Chemistry: Industry and War 0900 Tory 1-113 Understanding Through Traditional Knowledge

Coffee Break

1100-1230

1100 Tory 1-129 Knowledge from the Edge 1100 Tory 1-113 Science and Literature 1100 Tory 1-91 Chemistry at the Guillotine. Sponsored by FoHCS 1100 Tory 1-93 Plants from practice to print: early modern colonial botany in transition 1100 Tory 1-108 Plants from practice to print: early modern colonial botany in transition 1100 Tory 1-125 Magic in Medicine and Math

Lunch

1400-1530 1400 Tory 1-91 Heritable transitions: historical and philosophical reflections on the contemporary sciences of humans, animals, and plants 1400 Tory 1-129 Into the Cold: Science in the North 1400 Tory 1-113 Danger and Data: The Creation and Control of Information in Science. 1400 Tory 1-108 Mathematical Problems: Application and Ideas 1400 Tory 1-93 Religion and Science 1400 Tory 1-125 Modern Science Issues

Coffee Break

27 June 25, 2016

1600-1730

1600 Tory 1-93 Tech World/World Tech

1600 Tory 1-91 Editors and Referees at Learned Society Journals in the 20th Century

1800-2100 Closing Banquet Faculty Club

Attendees are welcome to visit the cash bar at the Faculty Club before the banquet.

Tory Building

Entrance

Galleria

Registration and Book Display

28 Detailed Program

23-0900-Tory 1-91

The Transition to Gender Equality since 1970s: New Challenges for the Under-representation of Women in Science Chair: Abir-Am, Pnina Geraldine March 25, 1972: Transition Day for U. S. Women Scientists? Rossiter, Margaret Walsh Addressing the “problem” of women in science and engineering in Canada: The Impact of the 1970’s Heap, Ruby STEM Ph.D. Programs and Women: Shaping Opportunity through US Policy and Institutional Change, the Decade of the 1980s. MacLachlan, Anne Paradoxes of transition to a New Field: The Problem of Mentorship for Women in Molecular Biology Abir-Am, Pnina Geraldine

23-0900-Tory 1-113

The quantitative spirit in the physical sciences, 1700-1900 Chair: Bycroft, Michael Exactitude without numbers: law and error in the qualitative physics of Charles Dufay (1698-1739) Bycroft, Michael The demise and legacy of analytic crystallography Irish, Stephen Dimensions of meaning and the meaning of dimensions in James Clerk Maxwell’s mathematics of measurement: a social and disciplinary perspective Mitchell, Daniel Jon The Admiralty and the pluralisation of discipline Waring, Sophie

23-0900-Tory 1-125

Transitions in Western Canadian science: Establishing status and authority Chair: Mouat, Jeremy Organizer: Mouat, Jeremy Commentator: Bradford, Tolly Stories in Maps: The Transmission of Aboriginal Knowledge to European Cartographers, 1500-1900 Binnema, Ted Frank Farley: A Pioneer Naturalist and Early Environmentalist in Alberta Mouat, Jeremy, Hvenegaard, Glen and Heather Marshall The Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Administration Goes to Ghana Bower, Shannon Stunden

23-0900-Tory 1-108

Food Science Chair: TBA Our mango or their mango: Puerto Ricans, their fruits and the Agricultural Experiment Station Espada-Brignoni, Teófilo

29 “Perishing in the Cause of Science”: Justus von Liebig’s Food for Infants and the Laboratory’s Material Limits Lieffers, Caroline Food Fundamentalism: Diet as Science and Spiritual Practice Newell, Catherine L

23-0900-Tory 1-129

Medical Knowledge: Generation and Application Chair: TBA Cultures of Quarantine: Framing Borderlands in the Eastern Mediterranean Dacome, Lucia “One Must Know Weights and Measures”: Adapting Classical and Biblical Metrology in Early Medieval Medical Texts Doolittle, Jeffrey Calculating the Circulation of Blood: Harvey’s De motu cordis (1628) as an Exercise in Accounting Neuss, Michael J.

23-0900-Tory 1-93

Biology and Sociobiology Chair: Shackelford,Jole Synthetic Biology and the Ghost of Asilomar Campos, Luis Practicing Different Paradigms: Rupert Sheldrake’s “New Science” Hahn, Andre M. From group selection to kin selection - and back? Science and commitment in biological transitions Segerstrale, Ullica

23-1100- Tory 1-91

Trading, Plants, and People: Science, Medicine, and Colonialism in the Early-Modern Period Chair: Terrall, Mary Organizer: Raj, Kapil Polygenism in Print: John Atkins and Naval Medicine in the 1730s and 40s Seth, Suman Secrecy, Botanical Knowledge, and Colonial Policy: Michel Adanson’s Failed Project for a Trans-Atlantic French Empire Terrall, Mary The Dutch Conquest of Malabar and the Making of the Hortus Indicus Malabaricus, 1670-1677 Raj, Kapil

23-1100-Tory 1-113

Psychiatric Transitions in North America after the Second World War Chair: TBA Psychiatry in Transition: The Radical Therapist, 1970-1972 Richert, Lucas Psychiatric Transitions in North America after the Second World War Smith, Matthew

The Magic Years? Insider Perceptions of the History of Post-War American Psychiatry Smith, Matthew 30 23-1100-Tory 1-108

A Better You: Medical Science in the 20th Century Chair: TBA Healthy Forever? Aging, Mobility, and the Transformation of Later Life Fallon, Cara Kiernan The Age of Youth: Rejuvenation in Interwar Britain Stark, James The Toxicity of Alcohol to the Liver: Changing Conceptions of Disease Causation Yokoe, Ryosuke

23-1100- Tory 1-93

Modern Science in National, Transnational, and Global Context Chair: Slotten, Hugh Richard Organizer: Slotten, Hugh Richard Panelists David Cahan, John Stenhouse, Ronald Numbers, Jole Shackelford, Suzanne Zeller

23-1100-Tory 1-129

Medicine Victorian Style Chair: TBA Palpable Selves: Discerning Inner Lives Through Embodiment in the Victorian Sciences Hardy, Kristen A. Give the doc a phone: innovative uses of telephony in the late nineteenth-century British medical community Kay, Michael Diseases of Professional Men, 1850-1900 Shuttleworth, Sally

23-1100-Tory 1-125

Alternative Knowledge: Medicine, Mariners and Dark Stars Chair: Lemire, Beverly Dark Stars: Their Transition from Babylonian to Greek, Persian, Hebrew and Byzantine Cunningham, Clifford J.

The Medieval Transition: Medicine in Motion Khan, Mujeeb Knowing the Unknowable: producing scientific knowledge on the deep sea on maritime voyages of Pacific exploration in the mid-Nineteenth-Century Millar, Sarah Louise

23-1400-Tory 1-113

Science From the Edge of Empire: Australia and South Africa Chair: TBA Commentator: Elsdon-Baker, Fern Colonial thinking about astronomy and the symbolism of the Australian flag Bush, Martin Demographic mapping beyond the state: the cartographic definitions of labour in early twentieth-century SouthernAfrica Haines, Elizabeth Lost in Transition: Reconfiguring Encounter and Scientific Collecting in Australia, 1817-1822 Simpson, Daniel 31 23-1400-Tory 1-91

Periodicals, Publishers, and British Publics: Transitions in the Relationship Between Science and Religion Chair: Lightman, Bernard Organizer: Lightman, Bernard Darwin through God’s pen: representations of evolution in the British religious press, 1945-1985 Hall, Alexander Periodical Reviewers and Draper’s History of the Conflict Between Science and Religion Lightman, Bernard British publishers as agents within evolution and religion debates, 1860-1890 Nickerson, Sylvia

Mapping the public endorsement of historicized myths about Darwin and evolutionary science Thompson, James

23-1400-Tory 1-129

Gender and the Health Sciences in Communist Europe Chair: Savelli, Mat Organizer: Savelli, Mat Sex between health and pleasure: Sexology and the quest for the female orgasm in communist Czechoslovakia Liskova, Katerina Psychiatry, Psychopharmacology, and Threats to Women’s Health in Communist Yugoslavia Savelli, Mat Science, health and communist gender policies towards Muslim communities in post-WWII Yugoslavia Simic, Ivan

23-1400-Tory 1-93

The American Experience Chair: Ede, Andrew Northern Science Goes to War: Science and the Federal Government during the US Civil War Rothenberg, Marc Making Medicine American: Benjamin Rush’s “American Editions” and the adaption of European Knowledge in Post- Revolutionary America Naramore, Sarah E. Refining a State: Technologies of Oil Refining and the Making of a Petroleum Society Lutz, Raechel

23-1400-Tory 1-125

Plants and Print Chair: TBA Enchanted Ethnobotany: Plant names and Print Culture in Romantic Natural History Bil, Geoff The Print Identity of an Andean Wonder Drug: Printed Accounts of Cinchona Bark in Europe (1570-1800) Crawford, Matthew Size Matters: Flora, Florilegia, and the Foundations of Botanical Knowledge Opitz, Donald L.

32 23-1400-Tory 1-108

Theory and Practice: Case Studies From Evolution and Physics Chair: Jones, Kevin Mapping a Field in Transition : Physical Sciences in France from 1944 to 1968 through Social Network Analysis Verschueren, Pierre Between Problem Solving and Conceptual Development: The Correspondence Principle as a Research Tool (1918–1926) Jähnert, Martin Educational transitions in Mexico: socialism and evolution Torrens, Erica and Barahona, Ana

24-0900-Tory 1-113

Sound Science Chair: TBA Music, Noise and Silence: the muted history of understandings of hearing risk through music. Jamieson, Annie Inside the Chamber of Silence: Phyllis M.T. Kerridge’s Standardisation of Audiometric Tests Virdi-Dhesi, Jaipreet and McGuire, Coreen The American Society for Psychical Research, 1884-9: A Reconsideration Sommer, Andreas

24-0900-Tory 1-91

Performing Astronomy Since the Eighteenth Century Chair: Golinski, Jan Organizer: Golinski, Jan Commentator: Smith, Robert The View from Here, There and Nowhere? Situating the Observer in the Planetarium and in the Solar System Bigg, Charlotte Sublime Astronomy: The Eidouranion of Adam Walker and His Sons Golinski, Jan Missing Links? Between Nineteenth-Century Theatrical Orreries and Modern Planetariums Huang, Hsiang-Fu Astronomy between solemnity and spectacle: the Adler Planetarium and the Chicago world exhibitions of 1893 and 1933-4 Raposo, Pedro

24-0900-Tory 1-129

Science in the Cold War Chair: Ede, Andrew How US Science moved West: Boulder, Colorado and the development of US space sciences in mid-twentieth century America Bassi, Joe Cold War Science on the Fringe: The UFO as Scientific Object Dorsch, Kathryn US philanthropy and the scientific field in Turkey in the early cold war era Yalcinkaya, Mehmet Alper

33 24-0900-Tory 1-108

Newton Redux Chair: TBA Groping Toward Linear Regression Analysis: Newton’s Analysis of Hipparchus’ Equinox Observations Belenkiy, Ari Scientific Universalism and the Experimental Philosophy of Isaac Newton Grier, Jason From ancient Egypt to modern methods: Transitions in Newtonian scholarship Schilt, Cornelis J.

24-0900-Tory 1-125

Images and Art in Science Chair: Shackelford, Jole Cut to the Point: How the production of woodblocks for relief printing in the sixteenth century influenced the representations of anatomy in Andreas Vesalius’s ‘De humani corporis fabrica’ Bellis, Richard Ovide Brunet, the Atelier Photographique de Livernois & Cie., and Sites et végétaux du Canada: The Art and Science of Early Canadian Botanical Photography Cull, Brendan Sincere hand and a faithful eye: Epistemic virtue and authority in Robert Hooke’s Micrographia Palmer, Benjamin

24-0900-Tory 1-93

Evolutionary Futures: Transitioning Narratives on the Natural History of Humanity Chair: Hesketh, Ian Organizer: Hesketh, Ian The Descent/Dissent of Evolutionary Futures: Historical Representations and Narratives of “Directed” Evolution and Inheritance in the Late Twentieth Century Elsdon-Baker, Fern Evolution and Eschatology: From Charles Bonnet to Transhumanism Harrison, Peter Degeneration, Heat Death, and the Future Evolution of Man Hesketh, Ian Feminist Evolutionisms: Theories of Creativity, Change, and Connection Sellberg, Karin

24-1100-Tory 1-91

Disciplines in Transition: Postwar Encounters Between Design, Mathematics and Engineering Chair: Kim, Clare Commentator: Harwood, John Organizer: Kim, Clare Organizer: Vardouli, Theodora “Demo or Die!”: the Architecture Machine Group, Responsive Environments, and the “Neuro-Computational” Complex Halpern, Orit Mathematics Meets Design: Ray and Charles Eames and the Aesthetics of the Mathematica Exhibit Kim, Clare Maps Laced With Data: Designing the Computational Image, Imagining Computational Design, 1959-1970 Llach, Daniel Cardoso

34 “To See in a Hard Intellectual Light”: Graph Theory and Design Theory in the LUBFS Centre Vardouli, Theodora

24-1100-Tory 1-93

Institutional Transactions of Early Modern Science Chair: Omodeo, Pietro Daniel Organizer: Omodeo, Pietro Daniel The Early Modern ‘Stammbuch’: A Transition from Informal to Institutional Networking Avxentevskaya, Maria Mathematical Teaching from the Faculty of Arts to the Institution of the Royal Lecturers in Early Sixteenth-Century France Axworthy, Angela Science without Academies? Academies and the Patronage of Science in Early-Modern Portugal Carolino, Luís Miguel The Transition from Renaissance Academies to Scientific Societies Giannini, Giulia The Transition from Renaissance Humanism to Reformed Scholarship: Perspectives on Science at Melanchthonian Universities Omodeo, Pietro Daniel

24-1100-Tory 1-129

Evolution and Natural History in the 19th Century Chair: TBA The Importance of Simultaneous Transitions: Anatomical Modelling and the Rise of Evolutionary Theory. Martin, Rebecca Finding Natural Selection at the Ends of the Earth Owen, Janet The Transitions in Darwinian Explanation Yakubu, Yussif

24-1100-Tory 1-113

Perception of Ideas at the Boundary of Science and Technology Chair: TBA The Changes of History of Technology in China since Needham’s work: from the View of the History of Mechanical Engineering Shi, Xiaolei Formation of the Terminology on Electricity in the Late Ottoman Period: Risala of Yahya Naci Efendi vs. Majmua of Bash Hoca Ishaq Efendi Toprak, A. Haris Educational transitions in Mexico: socialism and evolution Torrens, Erica and Barahona, Ana

24-1100-Tory 1-108

Indian Science Chair: Wujastyk, Dominik Diagnostics, Senses, and Subjectivities in Transition: Classical Āyurveda and Contemporary Āyurvedic Practice Brooks, Lisa

35 Translations and Transitions: Muhammad Iqbal’s Ilm Ul-Iqtesad and Two Languages of Economic Science in Late Colonial India Chaudhry, Faisal The transitional science of the Indo-Greeks as seen in the Vṛddhayavanajātaka, Yavanajātaka and Bṛhajjātaka Mak, Bill M.

24-1100-Tory 1-125

Transitions of Power: cultural biographies of electricity in Russia, India and Britain, 1880-1939 Chair: Kay, Michael Organizer: Kay, Michael “New Wine in New Bottles”: Marketing Electricity as ‘Everyday’ Technology in Urban Colonial India c. 1890-1915 Chatterjee, Animesh ‘For Health’s sake – Use Electricity’: Electrical Advertising in interwar Britain. Coleman, Paul Constructing Images of Electricity – Marketing Strategies of Foreign Companies in Russia (1880 – 1917) Nikiforova, Natalia

24-1400-Tory 1-125

Astronomy From the Naked Eye to the Edge of Knowledge Chair: Smith, Robert “Horrid Quasar”: Scientific Controversy and the Boundaries of Acceptable Research Becker, Barbara J. Arab World Science: Transnational Astronomy and Modern Egypt Determann, Jörg Matthias Mechanical Thinking in Ptolemaic Astronomy Hamm, Elizabeth

24-1400-Tory 1-91

Editing a scientific journal in the long eighteenth century Chair: Moxham, Noah Commentator: Fyfe, Aileen Organizer: Moxham, Noah “Correspondence and Kirwan”: Lorenz Crell’s editorial tactics for establishing his chemical journal in Britain during the 1780s Gielas, Anna Following Henry Oldenburg: the next generation of scientific editors in Britain (1677-1727) Moxham, Noah

24-1400-Tory 1-129

Sky and Earth: Geology and Meteorology in the U.K. Chair: TBA Mediating landscapes: picturesque sensibility and early geology in Britain Ksiazkiewicz, Allison Historical geographies of meteorology in late-Victorian Britain Naylor, Simon Newton, the Newtonians, and the Burnet Controversy Rossetter, Thomas

36 24-1400-Tory 1-93

Reaching out with HPS: engaging with diverse disciplines, sectors and publics. Chair: Jamieson, Annie Commentator: Stark, James Organizer: Jamieson, Annie Off the Shelf: The Use of Museum Collections in the Teaching of History of Science, Technology and Medicine. Coleman, Paul Discovery: Exploiting the Potential of History and Philosophy of Science to Enhance University Curricula. Jamieson, Annie History-onics: adventures with thespians! Kay, Michael

24-1400-Tory 1-113

Intersections Chair: Welchman, Jennifer Paradoxes of Authority: Replacement, Reduction, and Refinement Schulte, Samuel From Bibles to banknotes: Victorian microscopic writing and the wonder in things Kennedy, Meegan Between biomedical and psychological experiments : the unexpected connections between the Pasteur Institute and the study of ape mind in early twentieth century France Thomas, Marion

24-1400-Tory 1-108

Transitions of Scale and Place Chair: Ede, Andrew Fritz London and the scale of quantum mechanisms Monaldi, Daniela ‘This discovery is a grand desideratum in science:’ Exploring the Transition from Colonial to Cosmopolitan Science, 1755-1859. MacDonald, J. Marc Rare earths, German radium, and the rise of nuclear physics in Berlin Roqué, Xavier

25-0900-Tory 1-108

Late Scholasticism and the Scientific Revolution Chair: Rampelt, Jason M. Organizer: Rampelt, Jason M. The Paduan Heresy Palmieri, Paolo Francisco Suarez, Instrumentalism, and English Natural Philosophy Rampelt, Jason M.

25-0900-Tory 1-91

On the Body Chair: TBA Anatomical Generation Games: The Parkers of Pimlico Crane, Rosi

37 Extrascientific Factors in Electrophysiology Transitions, c. 1740–1830 Wagner, Darren N. “The Colour-blindness of thinkers”: Friedrich Nietzsche, Physiological Aesthetics, and Physio-Aesthetic Epistemology Mitchell, Benjamin

25-0900- Tory 1-93

Configuring and Reconfiguring the ‘Pure’ and the ‘Applied’ in the History of the Mathematical Sciences Chair: Dryer, Theodora J. Organizer: Dryer, Theodora J. Confidence Planning and the Applied Statistician: A History of Depression-Era Rationality, 1920-1940 Dryer, Theodora J. Negotiating Theory and Practice in Twentieth-Century Mathematical Modeling Kjeldsen, Tinne Hoff The Mathematics of Human Defect, 1908-1935 Porter, Theodore M. Making Math Matter: Pure and Applied Approaches to Mathematics Instruction in Early American Textbooks Redman, Emily

25-0900-Tory 1-125

Archetype or Stereotype? Chair: TBA The Archetype of the Whore: The Challenge for Women in Science Gordon, Robin L. Fashionability and Credibility in the Royal Society and Académie des Sciences, 1660-1700 Harrison, Sadie ‘Where C. P. Snow’s two cultures are brought together’: The Royal Institution in the 1950s and 1960s Cole, Rupert

25-0900-Tory 1-129

Practical Chemistry: Industry and War Chair: Ede, Andrew Double Transit: the Chemical and Industrial Revolutions, 1760-1840. Christie, John R.R. Prelude to the Chemists’ War: The Murky Pre-History of Chemical Weapons Ede, Andrew

Chemical warfare in World War I: What were the “poison gases” used? Gal, Joseph

25-0900-Tory 1-113

Understanding Through Traditional Knowledge Chair: TBA The Science of Optics in Tradition and Transition: Discussions of Vertigo from 1st-Century CE Greece to 11th-Century Egypt Americo, Maria On the Language and Wisdom of the Indians: Friedrich Schlegel and early 19th century Philology Palmieri, Kristine

38 Patronage as an Agent? Ali al-Quchji’s Intellectual Adventure from Samarqand to Istanbul Umut, Hasan

25-1100-Tory 1-129

Knowledge from the Edge Chair: Hnatuk, Tyler Organizer: Hnatuk, Tyler Commentator: Lightman, Bernard Scientia Populi Atkinson, Bill The Digital Body: Whence and Whither? Dineen-Porter, Nox Intelligence Testing Methods in Ontario, c.1900-1925 Hnatuk, Tyler Bridging the Borderland: Spirits and Science in a Victorian Spiritualist Periodical, 1893-1897 Scott, Sabrina

25-1100-Tory 1-113

Science and Literature Chair: TBA The Evolution of the Origin: Rhetorical Transitions Between the First and Sixth Editions Gendron-Pontbriand, Eve-Marie Communicating Science through Fantasy in the 19th, 20th and 21st Centuries Dihal, Kanta ‘Frenzy for fertilizer’: Recycling human waste in the nineteenth-century French novel Mathias, Manon

25-1100- Tory 1-91

Chemistry at the Guillotine. Sponsored by FoHCS Chair: Lloyd, Hattie Organizer: Lloyd, Hattie Organizer: Salomon, Charlotte Abney Spreading the Revolution: Guyton’s Fumigating Machine in Spain during the Napoleonic era Serrano, Elena Thomas Beddoes and the Reigns of Terror James, Frank A. J. L. Patriotic chemistry in the lecture theatre, London 1801-1812 Lloyd, Hattie Chemistry and Revolution in Gustavian Sweden Salomon, Charlotte Abney

25-1100-Tory 1-93

Plants from practice to print: early modern colonial botany in transition Chair: Kroupa, Sebestian Commentator: Terrall, Mary Sir Hans Sloane’s personal copy of his own book: A Voyage to…Jamaica (1707-25) and the transition from specimens to print Rose, Edwin

39 Plants for Paradise? Pierre Poivre, Tropical Fruits, and Agricultural Reforms in Eighteenth-Century Isle de France (1767-1772) Brixius, Dorit Plants from practice to print: early modern colonial botany in transition Kroupa, Sebestian Georg Joseph Kamel (1661-1706) and his correspondence network: Natural knowledge in transition between London, Madras, and Manila Kroupa, Sebestian

25-1100-Tory 1-108

Case Studies of the Mind Chair: TBA Exploring the technology of early experimental research into colour perception. Weidenhammer, Erich Les archives de la clinique externe de l’Hôpital Montfort d’Ottawa, 1976-2006: l’infirmière psychiatrique au sain de l’équipe multidisciplinaire Moya, Silvia Maria Functional and Prestige Technology in Early Psychological Science: The Technological Systems of the Chronoscope and the Tachistoscope Schoenherr, Jordan Richard

25-1100-Tory 1-125

Magic in Medicine and Math Chair: TBA From Demonic Temptation to Divine Will: The place of magic in Agrippa’s De Occulta Philosophia Libri Tres Kavey, Allison The Devil’s Cure: Magical Medicine and the Problem of Plausibility in the Seventeenth Century Waddell, Mark A. Transitioning Between the Natural and the Divine: John Dee’s and Johannes Kepler’s use of Mathematics in Natural Philosophy Wessell, Erin

25-1400- Tory 1-91

Heritable transitions: historical and philosophical reflections on the contemporary sciences of humans, animals, and plants Chair: Berry, Dominic Organizer: Berry, Dominic Organizer: Lefkaditou, Ageliki From pure lines to phytobricks: historicising plant synthetic biology Berry, Dominic The past in the present: race-related research and the normative force of history Fossheim, Hallvard From racial types to populations: the 1940s reinvention of American physical anthropology Lefkaditou, Ageliki From breeding to biopharming: molecular sheep in 1980s Scotland Myelnikov, Dmitriy

40 25-1400-Tory 1-129

Into the Cold: Science in the North Chair: TBA The Canadian Arctic Survey of John Henry Lefroy, 1843-1844: Magnetic Instruments in Moments of Transition Goodman, Matthew “The changes in the face of the globe should be attended to:” Thomas Pennant and Arctic Zoology in the Enlightenment Miller, Emelin The Far North as a Chronobiological Laboratory Shackelford, Jole

25-1400-Tory 1-113

Danger and Data: The Creation and Control of Information in Science Chair: Ede, Andrew Goodbye gumshoe, hello scientific super sleuth: how Wilmer Souder used standards, science, and secrets to engineer a new kind of expert witness Frederick-Frost, Kristen Contamination Along the Transnational Asbestos Commodity Chain, 1918-1977 van Horssen, Jessica False Hope: the Ethics of Therapy for Children with Cancer, 1945-1970 Rohrer, Robin

25-1400-Tory 1-108

Mathematical Problems: Application and Ideas Chair: TBA On the Brink of a Transition to a New Conceptual Framework for the History of Chinese Mathematics Au Yong, Ke-Xin Numbers as fairness: price indexes and capitalist governance Goux, Hippolyte Mathematical Diagrams in the Transition from Roll to Codex Lee, Eunsoo

25-1400-Tory 1-93

Religion and Science Chair: Shackelford, Jole From Natural Philosophy to Natural Religion: Teleology and the Theologia Rationalis Rossiter, Elliot Censoring Astrology in late sixteenth-century Italy: Coeli et terrae reconsidered Tarrant, Neil William Paley “in a French dress” : The French Translations of Natural Theology by C. Pictet de Rochemont Vandaele, Sylvie

25-1400-Tory 1-125

Modern Science Issues Chair: TBA Comparative Comparative Psychology Arnet, Evan Why the British Didn’t Accept GM: Historical Perspectives Holmes, Matthew 41 25-1600-Tory 1-93

Tech World/World Tech Chair: TBA Wireless Worlds: Transitions in wireless communications and associated etymological shifts at the turn of the twentieth century Bruton, Elizabeth From Metallurgy to Materials Science: exploring disciplinary transitions through scientist’s life stories Horrocks, Sally Tracing – and trusting – the technological fix Johnston, Sean F.

25-1600-Tory 1-91

Editors and Referees at Learned Society Journals in the 20th Century Chair: Fyfe, Aileen Organizer: Fyfe, Aileen The coming of age of American Physical Society’s periodicals: Editorial strategies and refereeing practices of the Physical Review and its sister journals under John T. Tate’s editorship (1926-1950) Lalli, Roberto ‘For mercy’s sake, don’t send me any more papers to referee for a long time!’ The politics and pressures of peer-review at the Royal Society 1950-2015 Rostvik, Camilla Mork The View from Here, There and Nowhere? Situating the Observer in the Planetarium and in the Solar System. Bigg, Charlotte Abstract Relations: American mathematical periodicals and the sociability of mid-twentieth century international mathematics Barany, Michael

42 Abstracts Abir-Am, Pnina Geraldine

Organizer This session examines key aspects of the transition to gender equality after WW2, as it pertains to women in science. The session inquires into various struggles of the transition, from the overt to covert discrimination, the changing pace, the challenges of recruitment and retention, and the persistence of under-representation of women in science today. Rossiter’s talk focuses on the transition moment of affirmative action legislation in 1972, and how it became a game changer by enabling women to sue their employers for unequal treatment in hiring, promotion, or firing. Ruby Heap’s talk highlights the Canadian specificity in addressing the “problem” of women in science and engineering on two fronts: the need for new policies at the national level and the rise of feminist activism in Canada, parallel to the growth of feminism worldwide. Barbara Louis examines the meaning of transition for émigré women in social sciences who coped with multiple transitions simultaneously, from Europe to America and pre-WW2 academic science to post-WW2 Cold War applied social science. Pnina G. Abir-Am examines how the sudden necessity to comply with affirmative action by universities led to complications for the first generation of women scientists hired. Many of that generation became sacrificial lambs in an imperfectly administered, and often twisted, quest for “gender equality”. Her talk focuses on the difference mentorship or lack of it made to the contrasting careers, as a drop out and as a Nobel Laureate, of comparable women in the field of molecular biology.

Abir-Am, Pnina Geraldine Paradoxes of transition to a New Field: The Problem of Mentorship for Women in Molecular Biology The transition to affirmative action legislation in 1972 (Rossiter 2012; this session) caught the universities largely unprepared, to the effect that compliance was often motivated by the need to retain status as a government contractor with little if any understanding of the challenge to diversify the academic labor force. Since the new legislation focused on access to education, the area of retention soon became much worse than the area of recruitment. In addition to lack of institutional preparation, the lack of mentorship by male colleagues, often a generation older, proved toxic for the first generation of women hires who often ended as fires. This talk examines the cross-gender mentorship potentially available to women molecular biologists in the Bay area. (especially UC-Berkeley & USCF) in the 1970s. The talk inquires why better and wider mentorship was available to a "trailing spouse" than to a single woman scientist who further embodied the gender revolution of the 1970s in her overt social and cultural choices. In an attempt to tease the complex challenges of the transition of the 1970s to demands for gender equality in the future, the talk further contrasts the diverse careers of comparable women from the transitional generation of the 1970s, careers which ranged from joining the "leaking pipeline", (dropping out of academic science) to winning the Nobel Prize.

Americo, Maria The Science of Optics in Tradition and Transition: Discussions of Vertigo from 1st-Century CE Optics was one of many fields of ancient science which made the transition from the Greco-Roman world of the classical and late antique periods to the medieval Islamic world. When it reached the Islamic world, it was taken up in earnest by an Egyptian polymath named Ibn al-Haytham (c. 965-1040 CE), known today as the “father of modern optics,” especially for his pioneering work concerning how light is related to vision. While Ibn al-Haytham’s innovation in the field of optics is unquestionable, so is his commitment to the tradition of scientific and medical writers who came before him. In this paper, I unpack Ibn al-Haytham’s discussion of vertigo and vision from his optical work, Kitab al-Manazir. In searching for his sources for this material, I compare and contrast his discussion of the topic with those from a pseudo-Aristotelian work on natural philosophy, a medical treatise by Galen, and the work on optics by Claudius Ptolemy. I argue that the way in which Ibn al-Haytham’s discussion of vision and vertigo combines his earlier Greek source material from various scientific fields with his research, insights, and innovations is characteristic of the science of his age. To explain the significance of this statement, I provide a brief narrative of late antique/early medieval Islamic science, and the way in which this new civilization dealt with the transition of vast amounts of scientific tradition into its intellectual sphere.

43 Arnet, Evan Comparative Comparative Psychology Conwy Lloyd Morgan, today remembered largely for Morgan’s Canon, was one of the founding figures of comparative psychology. I compare his formative influence on the field in England and in America. In England, he expressly sought to establish it as a science by distancing it from both the Victorian naturalist tradition and speculative meta- physics about the mind, but connecting it with evolutionary theory and prevailing philosophy of science. However, his work was largely theoretical and he never managed to develop the material infrastructure for his vision of comparative psychology in England. Across the Atlantic though, his conservatism about animal psychology and theoretical emphasis on experiment was uptaken by scientists operating in America’s ascendant laboratory culture, and especially through the work of Edward Thorndike, Morgan was to have an important influence in early American comparative psychology. Nonetheless, it was no easy journey across the Atlantic, and I seek to document the interestly different understanding of Morgan’s theorizing that emerged in the American scientific context. Most prominently, despite the critical importance of evolution to Morgan’s program, the new American interpretation shifted emphasis to learning and helped set the grounds for a comparative psychology largely divorced from an evolutionary framework .

Atkinson, Bill Scientia Populi The history of applied bioscience (including biotechnology, biomedicine, and more recently genetic engineering and proteomics) has, like the history of science in general, moved away from a triumphalist depiction of progressive break- throughs by heroic individual researchers. Ancillary to this discredited approach is the assumption that the applied biosciences must relate to a broader demotic culture only by a diffusion (top-down) model of science popularization. In this construal, experts occasionally deign to edify the masses by talking down to them. This entire model has now been called in question. Accordingly my paper will explore key instances of the movement of ideas into formal science from popular writings, particularly SF (speculative and science fiction) – a transition that was previously considered to be impossible, therefore nonexistent. To do so I will examine three sub-categories of this type of ideological transition: successful, unsuccessful, and as yet unresolved.

Au Yong, Ke-Xin On the Brink of a Transition to a New Conceptual Framework for the History of Chinese Mathematics Since the birth of the field of the history of mathematics, pre-modern Chinese mathematics has been understood as a highly pragmatic endeavour geared towards solving only practical problems and devoid of any concern with the theories and proofs that characterize the Euclidean tradition. Its development is generally portrayed as a four-stage plot: early beginnings before and during the Han dynasty (202 BCE – 220 CE), maturation during the Sui-Tang period (589 – 906), a “golden age” in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, followed by a sudden and mysterious decline from which it never recovered until the influx of mathematics from the West. Recently, however, two points of conten- tion have arisen among historians that are pushing this traditional understanding to the brink of a possible transformation. These two points are the absence of proofs and the notion of decline. This paper examines the reasons behind the disagreements. It also explores the possibility of a new framework that would make these unresolved issues irrelevant to our understanding of pre-modern Chinese mathematics.

Avxentevskaya, Maria The Early Modern 'Stammbuch': A Transition from Informal to Institutional Networking The genre of 'Stammbuch', i.e. 'liber amicorum' or ‘traveling memory book,’ became popular in mid-sixteenth century in Protestant circles. Stammbücher participated in maintaining the early networks of scientific communication, as many of the 'alba amicorum' were kept by university professors, physicians, and educated artisans, moving across scholarly communities. This genre features a range of spectacular visuals and ‘paper technologies,’ and displays the relations of intellectual trust within and between specific groups, which later converted into formal institutional links. This paper explores the pattern of transition from the informal relations of trust within learned communities, as displayed through Stammbücher, and the formal contacts between institutional representatives, in verbal and visual form, in the context of networking culture. Celebrated university professors and physicians, leading academies and learned

44 societies, collected notes from fellow scholars, while traveling across the top European institutions. Their album entries called attention to the ingenious professional novelties and the telling details of experimental inquiry, often anticipat- ing the experimental values of the Royal Society of London. The Stammbuch-related practices sharpened experienced perception and helped process individual experiences into scientific ontologies, which informed the formalized relations between scholarly institutions. I will employ a web application, such as Spatial History Project (Stanford), to visualize the sociological analysis of networks, and to examine how the Stammbuch-related communications facilitated a transition from the informal transfer of secret and tacit knowledge to the formalized relations of institutional knowledge exchange.

Axworthy, Angela Mathematical Teaching from the Faculty of Arts to the Institution of the Royal Lecturers in Early Sixteenth-Cen- tury France This talk focuses on the creation of a new institutional frame for the teaching of mathematics in early sixteenth-century France, that is, the institution of the Royal Lecturers, founded by François I in 1530. By considering the mathematical works of Oronce Fine (1494-1555), first Royal Lecturer in mathematics, the aim of this talk will be to present the mathematical program and conception of mathematics which underlined the institutional transition from the teaching of mathematics within and around the Faculty of Arts at the University of Paris to the constitution of a mathematical teaching independent of the University. This shift also affected the content of the mathematical curriculum, as it gave a larger place to practical mathematics.

Barahona, Ana Educational transitions in Mexico: socialism and evolution This manuscript presents the genesis and development of the so-called Mexican socialist school system of the 1930s, whose leading stakeholder was President Lázaro Cárdenas. In 1934, still during post-revolutionary years, Mexico underwent the most politicised and controversial education reform in its modern history. Much has been said about this ambitious project of social change. However, the increasing appeal and effectiveness of a global perspective when interpreting and reinterpreting worldwide developments and events impelled the authors to take a fresh look at this ideological, political, and social project, whose goal was to perpetuate the post-revolutionary ideals ultimately entrenched in the enlightenment tradition of appraisal of human reason, science and education as the chief means of attaining a stable and free society. The authors endeavour to employ some of the methods, questions and theory of history affecting global science to deepen the understanding of the complex context from which socialist schooling in Mexico emerged and, in particular, to shed light on the teaching of natural sciences—with special emphasis on the theory of biological evolution—in the 1930s. In order to analyse the construction of the pedagogic discourse that oriented the focus and approach toward the teaching of biological evolution during this period, the authors revised and studied the curricula, school programs and textbooks of the Cárdenas era and compared them in terms of change and continuity with teaching materials from previous historical periods, thereby viewing the topic of Mexican education from a new angle.

Barany, Michael Abstract Relations: American mathematical periodicals and the sociability of mid-twentieth century international mathematics After years of discussion over funding, structure, politics, and other matters, the American Mathematical Society launched the abstracting journal Mathematical Reviews in 1940. Observing that “During the last twenty years the center of gravity of world-wide activity in mathematics has definitely moved from Europe to the United States,” Warren Weaver of the Rockefeller Foundation thought it clear that “such a journal can operate on the highest plane of scientific excellence under American auspices.” The AMS’s official announcement promised the new journal “will serve as a key to the current mathematical literature of the world.” I will use the early history of Mathematical Reviews and its context in American and international mathematical publishing as a key to the changing role of the mathematical literature in constituting a the world of mathematical people and theories. From American mathematicians’ editorial, logistical, technical, and financial considerations, I will develop an account of the form and effects of mathematical sociability at mid-century, explaining how periodicals and their associated editorial infrastructures made possible a newly

45 interconnected community of researchers by simplifying and abstracting some of their institutional and intellectual relations, while displacing or eliding the complex and resource-intensive work needed to maintain such ties.

Bassi, Joe How US Science moved West: Boulder, Colorado and the development of US space sciences in mid-twentieth century America From being considered a “scientific Siberia” in the 1940s, Boulder, Colorado transitioned into “AstroBoulder” by the early 60s. How does a small town in the foothills of the Rocky Mountains, then home to only a middling state university, become a world center for atmospheric and space sciences in less than two decades? This development of Boulder as a scientific center represented an important transition of US science as it "moved west” in the 20th century. The answer to this question lies in the complex confluence of individual scientific ambitions relating to sun-earth connection research, the pre and early Cold War context of science in the US, and political machinations at various levels of government. This presentations lays out the early phases of this transition process, and particularly focuses on the efforts of solar astronomer Walter Orr Roberts, Colorado Senator “Big Ed” Johnson, the Boulder chamber of Commerce, and others in bringing sun-earth science to Boulder in the late 1940s and early 1950s. This investigation thereby sheds some light on the process by which scientific/academic centers (or “peaks”) were created in the US west in the 20th century. Becker, Barbara J. "Horrid Quasar": Scientific Controversy and the Boundaries of Acceptable Research It has been over a half century since the discovery of the star-like radio sources we now call "quasars". Quasars' enig- matic characteristics and unusual spectral signatures sparked a lively and at times contentious debate within the astronomical community over the physical structure and rightful place of these bodies in the universe. After enduring an initial period of exciting theoretical flux, most astronomers came to accept the emerging mainstream view that quasar redshifts are produced by small, high energy, active galaxies located at cosmological distances. A vocal minority, led by the late Halton C. Arp, argued instead that the evidence showed quasars to be peculiar companions to nearby galaxies. This paper will discuss the course of the resulting controversy from its inception to the present day to show how a scientific community copes with the threat of conflict from within when alternative theoretical views are introduced by dissident colleagues. Belenkiy, Ari Groping Toward Linear Regression Analysis: Newton’s Analysis of Hipparchus’ Equinox Observations In February 1700, in designing a new universal calendar which would supersede the Gregorian, Isaac Newton needed a precise tropical year. However, 17th-Century astronomers were uncertain of the long-term variation in the inclination of the Earth’s axis and were suspicious of Ptolemy’s equinox observations. As a result, they produced a wide range of tropical years. This uncertainty led Newton to choose the ten equinox observations of Hipparchus of Rhodes as the most reliable among those available. Averaging them, he combined the result with Flamsteed’s equinox observation, joining them with a line whose slope gave a deficiency of the tropical year versus the Julian year. Though Newton had a very limited sample of data, he obtained a tropical year only a few seconds longer than the average one between his and Hipparchus’ time. As a by-product, Newton spotted, alongside Flamsteed, an error in the position of Hipparchus’ equatorial ring, which was a matter of concern to later science. Actually, Newton wrote down the first of the two so- called ‘normal equations’ known from the ordinary least squares (OLS) method. In that procedure, Newton seems to be the first to employ the mean (average) value of the dataset, while the other leading astronomers of the era (Tycho Brahe, Galileo, and Kepler) used the median. Fifty years after Newton, in 1750, Newton’s method was rediscovered and enhanced by Tobias Mayer. Remarkably, the same regression method served with distinction in the 1920s.

Bellis, Richard Cut to the Point: How the production of woodblocks for relief printing in the sixteenth century influenced the representations of anatomy in Andreas Vesalius’s 'De humani corporis fabrica' The anatomical representations in Andreas Vesalius’s De humani corporis fabrica (1543) have commonly been treated by scholars as a product solely of the author, despite several artists being involved with their production. Unusually, 46 Vesalius paid for the production of the woodblocks himself, and this has been taken as proof of the control he had over the whole process of making the anatomical images. This has resulted in the printed images being seen as representative of the arguments that Vesalius put forward in De fabrica. Meanwhile comparatively little has been said on the processes through which the representations were made. Each stage in the production of woodblocks involved interactions by artisans with tools and materials, and transitions through mediums towards a printed image. This paper examines the three stages of design, transfer, and cutting through recreating these past practices in order to better understand the ‘gestural knowledge’ (as Otto Sibum termed it) required to make woodblocks, and how these practices affected the final outcome of the printed images. I argue that Vesalius did indeed have great control over his images, but that this stemmed from his interaction as a fellow artisanal practitioner with the artisans producing the woodblocks; the consequence of which relocates Vesalius within a network of artisans working with materials, rather than being abstracted from the making process.

Beltrán, José Transits on paper, transits over time: The making and remaking of a natural archive “Only the end of an age makes it possible to say what made it live, as if it had to die in order to become a book,” wrote Michel de Certeau back in the 1980s. History is all about transits. The years from 1670 to 1720 in France, roughly the glorious second half of the reign of Louis XIV, experienced the double transit to which all ages are destined: that of death and, then, the one by which they are given a history. The object of this paper is a corpus of manuscripts produced by Minim friar, natural historian and draftsman Charles Plumier (1646-1704). A result of his three journeys of natural exploration through the West Indies, his was an iconographic archive of nature far afield, consisting of notes, descriptions, sketches, and drawings of Caribbean flora and fauna. At his death, however, the corpus remained forgotten in his convent. It was only in the mid-eighteenth century that it began to be the object of several transits: it moved out of the convent, and it was given new meanings. This paper seeks to trace the story of Plumier’s corpus not when it was originally constituted, but at the time when it was given a history.

Berry, Dominic

Berry, Dominic From pure lines to phytobricks: historicising plant synthetic biology Synthetic biologists promise to revolutionise biology by making it more engineerable. They have set about creating new techniques, tools, and gene sequences that are intended for use across the organic world (known as biobricks). Thus far they have been confined to single-celled models, principally bacteria and yeast. Recently however, plant scientists have begun to carve a place for themselves within the field. What does it mean to make a plant more engineerable? As synthesis techniques improve and plant DNA comes to be refashioned, what ramifications do synthetic plant materials (and synthetic biology plants) have for extant agricultural and horticultural modes of production? How should we conceptualise plant synthetic biologists, and their biobricks - known as phytobricks - in the long history of plant breeding? Based on a mixture of historical archival research into the history of plant breeding, and ethnographic

47 study of plant synthetic biologists working in Edinburgh, Cambridge, and Norwich, this paper addresses the questions outlined above. Integrating the methods of HPS and STS, it characterises UK plant synthetic biology with the aim of providing grounds for international comparison. At the same time, and in line with the aims and ambitions of the University of Edinburgh ‘Engineering Life’ project, I also reflexively consider the role of the historian in pursuing such research, and the risks of giving further attention to a science that is already heavily publicised. It is suggested that precisely because of synbio’s relatively extensive public profile, that historical work is perhaps all the more necessary.

Bigg, Charlotte The View from Here, There and Nowhere? Situating the Observer in the Planetarium and in the Solar System. Developed in the early twentieth century by optical instrument-maker Carl Zeiss for the new science museum in Munich, the Deutsches Museum, the modern planetarium combines an innovative dome structure with a sophisticated projector. Put forward as a “theatre of time and space”, the planetarium proved very popular indeed and has since spread world-wide. It is now seen as a forerunner of immersive spaces such as IMAX or virtual reality devices. It is interesting to note however that the original set up at the Deutsches Museum featured a juxtaposition of the newfangled, “ptolemaic” planetarium with a room-sized, “copernican” planetary, thus materially connecting the planetarium with a long tradition of mechanical devices modelling the solar system. My chapter will focus especially on the expository and didactic uses and functions of these devices, in particular regarding the practical ways in which the spectactor was expected to engage with them. Different devices indeed imply a different spatial position and bodily relationship of the spectator with regards to the (model of) the solar system. The view from the earth, from the sun or from beyond the solar system altogether reflect different ideas about how the solar system is to be best understood. Orreries and planetaria can thus be understood as materializing and promoting particular epistemological, pedagogical and philosophical conceptions of the knowing subject; they both encapsulate and partake in the reconfiguration of vision in modernity.

Bil, Geoff Enchanted Ethnobotany: Plant names and Print Culture in Romantic Natural History That Romantic botanists tended to view the systematizing, disenchanting aspects of Enlightenment epistemology in a critical light is well known. What has been less thoroughly explored, however, is the relationship between Romantic botany and indigenous knowledge. One reason for this omission, I suggest, is that historians of botany have formed a more or less totalizing impression of the discipline’s imperial significance from the predominance of Linnaean binomi- al species names in published botanical writings. My analysis, on the other hand, contrasts the marginality of indigenous plant names in published texts with their far greater prominence in unpublished materials. Given this discrep- ancy, I argue for a figurative interpretation of indigenous plant names in early- to mid-nineteenth-century Romantic botanical writings, as implicit gestures toward knowledge-making floral and cultural domains beyond the printed text. By extension, the limited – albeit suggestive and strategic – placement of indigenous plant names underscores the colonial botanist’s position as an expert, almost occult intermediary between European cultural words and indigenous natural worlds. I examine this tendency in the mid-nineteenth-century botanical writings of William Colenso in New Zealand. My intention is threefold: to contrast Colenso’s print persona with his assumed private domain of mystery and expertise; to augment a growing scholarly awareness of indigenous knowledge-making contributions to imperial botany; and finally, to reflect on Romantic natural history’s self- reflective, critical stance toward its own writerly con- tainment.

Binnema, Ted Stories in Maps: The Transmission of Aboriginal Knowledge to European Cartographers, 1500-1900 Maps actually generated by aboriginal people tell many interesting stories. In my paper I will focus particularly on the stories told by non-aboriginal people to other non-aboriginal people about aboriginal cartographic knowledge. The prominent historian of cartography, J.B. Harley, has argued that intellectual trends made it more difficult for Europe- ans to appreciate aboriginal maps over time: “From at least the seventeenth century onward, European mapmakers and map users have increasingly promoted a standard scientific model of knowledge and cognition. ... This mimetic bond- age has led to a tendency ... to regard the maps of other non-Western or early cultures (where the rules of map-making were different) as inferior to European maps.” In my paper, I will argue that the historical literature significantly under- estimates the degree to which Europeans appreciated, relied upon, and indeed extolled aboriginal maps, both before

48 and after the seventeenth century. This paper will offer a sweeping exploration of evidence from throughout North America from the 1500s to the end of the nineteenth century.

Bower, Shannon Stunden The Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Administration Goes to Ghana The Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Administration [PFRA] was created in 1935 by the Canadian federal government to assist in agricultural adjustment on the Canadian Prairies, in the context of a period of economic depression and what was seen as extended drought. Until the PFRA was absorbed into the federal Department of Agriculture in 2012, the agency represented the nexus of various projects of prairie environmental transformation with broad social, economic, and political consequences for the region at large. The PFRA was also involved in a number of overseas projects, including one in the newly-independent African nation of Ghana. From the mid-1960s, the PFRA was on the ground in Ghana, undertaking studies, developing projects, and ultimately seeking to create a local analogue for itself: a PFRA- like entity that would advance Ghanaian irrigated agriculture. This paper will focus on the perspectives of the engineers, technicians, and other professionals within the PFRA who were involved in efforts in Ghana. It will explore how PFRA agents sought to deploy their expertise in unfamiliar environmental and cultural contexts. It will shed light on the culture of engineering that was in operation within the PFRA and that was to be exported to Ghana. Ultimately, it will examine one of Canada's contributions to the technical and scientific project of international development.

Brixius, Dorit Plants for Paradise? Pierre Poivre, Tropical Fruits, and Agricultural Reforms in Eighteenth-Century Isle de France (1767-1772) This paper examines the exploration, collection and understanding of useful plants which were introduced to eighteenth-century Isle de France (present-day Mauritius). The common narrative about Mauritius is mostly centred on the search for nutmeg and clove, yet, this paper suggests that it was much more important to introduce food crops and other useful plants to turn the island into a self-sustaining colony over the course of the eighteenth century. For this purpose, French government officials and botanists were sent to several parts of the world in order to gather useful crops and knowledge about tropical plants and agriculture. When encountering these tropical plants, the Frenchmen relied on local knowledge, which they incorporated and brought with them to the Isle de France where the plants were acclimatised. This paper intends to follow the plants’ paths from their country of origin to their cultivation and use in the colonial gardens by suggesting that the plants – together with knowledge about them – underwent transitions according to climate, soil and purpose.

Brooks, Lisa Diagnostics, Senses, and Subjectivities in Transition: Classical Āyurveda and Contemporary Āyurvedic Practice This study is inspired by recent work in sensory history that seeks insight into epistemological and social order through the study of sensory representation. Here, I examine the contrasting ways that āyurvedic physicians (vaidyas) in Kerala experience their own senses, subjectivity, and medical authority in relation to contemporary and classical āyurve- dic diagnostic technologies. In contemporary Kerala, vaidyas often explain their own practice and critique others’ methods in terms of “śuddha” (authentic) Āyurveda. One criterion for judging this is the nature of diagnostic techniques employed by the physician. A frequently cited diagnostic maxim, from the classical Sanskrit medical treatise Astāṅgahṛdayasaṃhitā, instructs the physician to perform a threefold method of examination including observation, touch, and questioning (AHr 1.1.22). Some vaidyas include diagnostic imaging and lab tests within their understanding of “observation,” viewing pulse diagnosis as beyond the realm of sensory possibility for a contemporary physician. However, others reject these technologies in favor of pulse diagnosis as śuddha Āyurveda, not acknowledging that this practice entered the stream of āyurvedic practice relatively recently. First, I examine the system of diagnostics based on the physician’s senses as articulated in classical āyurvedic compendia via my own primary text translations. Based on informal interviews of eight āyurvedic doctors in Kerala, the second section of the paper analyses the ways that these practitioners position themselves and their medical authority in relation to recent historical shifts in diagnostic techniques and how this shapes the way that they describe their own senses and subjectivity.

49 Bruton, Elizabeth Wireless Worlds: Transitions in wireless communications and associated etymological shifts at the turn of the twentieth century By the early to mid-1890s, a multitude of terms were being used to describe the various experimental systems of wireless communications and related electromagnetic experiments being conducted: “space telegraphy”, “aetheric telegraphy”, “new telegraphy”, and “magnetic telegraphy”. The variety of terms used matched the multiplicity of claims being made about these early wireless systems as well as the increasing number of practitioners in the field. When there was a technological stabilisation around 1896 a terminological stabilisation also occurred with “wireless” or “wireless telegraphy” (at least in Britain) becoming the accepted taxonomy. Nonetheless when Guglielmo Marconi applied for the first wireless patent in March 1896, it was entitled “Improvements in Telegraphy and in apparatus therefor”, a modest title for such a wide-ranging patent and a title based on the old rather than the new. As the commercialisation of wireless began, so the language shifted yet again, with some terms referring to specific systems with “Marconi telegraphy” becoming synonymous for a while with “wireless telegraphy”. The interchangeability of these two terms matched the rise in popularity of the Marconi wireless system and also fell out of use as the Marconi Company's power and influence decreased. In this paper, I will explore the transitioning terminology used to discuss early wireless communications systems and related etymological shift which took place at the turn of the twentieth century in order to map wider historical trends and related claims in the field of wireless.

Bush, Martin Colonial thinking about astronomy and the symbolism of the Australian flag The Australian flag provides a striking example of the cultural significance of astronomical knowledge. Many national flags include stars as symbolic elements. The Australian flag is one of the few invoking an identifiable constellation, the Southern Cross, and hence specific astronomical understanding. Through the nineteenth century that understanding made a transition from overt knowledge to implicit cultural resource. This paper analyses the astronomical reflections found in mid-nineteenth century Australian diaries, letters and newspapers to examine this transformation from scientific practice to cultural symbolism. My argument is that the use of astronomical imagery arose from scientific practices foundational to colonialism but acquired particular significance within Australian culture through the construction of powerful emotional connections between astronomical ideas and memories of place. This process reinforced a global imaginary, ever-present in colonial society, which pictured the world as connected. The association of stars with places remained through the social and cultural changes that occurred in the latter half of the nineteenth century to create an enduring resonance between popular understandings of astronomy and Australian identity. These arguments build on a key theme in popular science studies: popularization exists on a continuum for both authors and audiences. This implies that understanding the cultural role of science involves considering the scientific overtones found within the wider popular culture alongside explicit popularizations of scientific discourse. Studying this transition of astronomical knowledge from explicit practice to embedded cultural meaning is a powerful tool for enhancing this understanding.

Bycroft, Michael Exactitude without numbers: law and error in the qualitative physics of Charles Dufay (1698-1739) Contrary to a widespread opinion, there is no shortage of big picture narratives in the history of science. We have too many big pictures, not too few. Consider the historiography of the event known as the second scientific revolution (SSR). There are at least six influential accounts of the intellectual changes that occurred in the natural sciences in the decades around 1800. We owe these narratives to Hélène Metzger, Gaston Bachelard, Michel Foucault, Thomas Kuhn, John Pickstone, and the editors of The Quantifying Spirit in the Eighteenth Century (1990). The problem is that these narratives disagree on key questions such as the fate of classification in the SSR, the relative importance of description and explanation, the role of quantification, and the degree of continuity between eighteenth-century science and the SSR. Highlighting these points of disagreement is the first aim of this paper. My second aim is to show that these tensions derive in large part from the difficulty of incorporating different branches of science into a single schema. My third aim is to propose a partial solution to this difficulty that consists in drawing an analogy between the changing role of classification in natural history and the changing role of quantification in experimental physics. This analogy may be illustrated by the eighteenth-century histories of electricity and crystallography.

50 Bycroft, Michael

Organizer Many historians agree that, in the words of the Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science, the decades around 1800 were a ‘transition period’ that marks the beginning of ‘modern science.’ Many also agree that the key to the transition was the ‘liberation of the quantitative spirit.’ The latter may be characterised intellectually as the widespread application of mathematics, precise instruments, and taxonomic methods to natural phenomena. It may be characterised institutionally as the formation of communities of specialised experts with their own journals, societies, and canonical texts. The aim of this session is to clarify and enrich the notion of the quantitative spirit by considering key episodes in the physical sciences from the beginning of the eighteenth century to the end of the nineteenth. One premise of the session is that this long chronology is necessary if we are to give a balanced assessment of the significance of the period 1770-1830 in the evolution of the quantitative spirit. A second premise is that the quantitative spirit was tied to transformations in the divisions of the sciences: the convergence and divergence of old sciences and the emergence of new ones. Hence the speakers pay special attention to phenomena (such as crystals), individuals (such as Thomas Young), and activities (such as measurement) that lay at the boundaries of different sciences and of the communities that practised them.

Campos, Luis Synthetic Biology and the Ghost of Asilomar The ghost of Asilomar haunts contemporary synthetic biology. Synthetic biologists and their interlocutors frequently (and increasingly) refer to the landmark 1975 biosafety conference as a touchstone for contemporary issues. They debate whether Asilomar was a "good" or exemplary event; recount the history of who did what and what it meant; and question whether "another Asilomar" meeting is necessary to deal with events in the development of synthetic biology today. In short, memories and folk histories are deployed and interpreted by contemporary actors (and their critics) building and contesting the emergence of synthetic biology. In this talk, on this 40th anniversary of the original Asilomar meeting, I will explore the interesting resonances between the historical Asilomar as a future-directed event, and synthetic biologists' past-directed reflections on the putative "lessons of Asilomar" for contemporary biotech.

Carolino, Luís Miguel Science without Academies? Academies and the Patronage of Science in Early-Modern Portugal It has long been noted that the formal organization of scientific societies in Portugal occurred in the later stages of the scientific society movement in Western Europe, the Royal Academy of Sciences of Lisbon being established in 1779. Nevertheless, before the official institutionalization of science, several learned academies flourished under the patronage of Portuguese aristocrats. These academies remained as informal organizations devoted to a variety of subjects, including history but not explicitly science. Because of their informal and broad nature, historians of science have largely ignored them. Yet, as historians have recently demonstrated, early modern historia comprised not only records of human past, but also accounts of natural world. Furthermore, historians of scientific institutions and patronage practices have emphasized the sociological view according to which an institution comprised not only formal organizations but also the establishment of unofficial relationships on the basis of a shared collective behaviour and ethos. This was the case of the learned academies established in Portugal in the seventeenth century. This paper aims to provide an overview of these learned academies and their scientific activities. Based upon the Portuguese case, it further aims at discussing the question of why the transition of the scientific activity from private patronage to state-sponsored organizations took longer in countries such as Portugal, which had already experienced some degree of political centralization since the sixteenth century.

Chatterjee, Animesh “New Wine in New Bottles”: Marketing Electricity as ‘Everyday’ Technology in Urban Colonial India c. 1890- 1915 The introduction of electricity supply into India in the late-nineteenth and early twentieth centuries coincided with the emergence of an Indian middle class debating its own identity and autonomy, the rising influence of Indian nationalism, and the development of ‘modern’ and Westernised urban centres. This paper will examine the multiple and

51 multifaceted discourses used by British engineers and administrators to market public electricity supply during this period, and the ways in which electricity became central to everyday discourses on technological modernity, Indian nationalism, and the Indian middle class’s conceptions of privilege, entitlement and morality. In doing so, this paper aims to redefine the key category of “everyday technology” conceptualised by David Arnold. In Everyday Technology (2013), Arnold focuses on several factory-produced goods that became embedded in the everyday lives of the Indi- an populace. He restricts the term to small-scale technologies (bicycles, sewing machines, typewriters) that entailed minimal government intervention in their production, dissemination, and use, and argues that big technologies such as railways and electrification could not be termed as everyday technologies because of their scale and financial com- plexities. By studying the predominantly colonial representations of how the everyday lives of the Indian middle class should be modified around electricity supply, this paper will argue that the concept of “everyday technology”can be studied in cultural and social terms rather than just financial or technological scale. It will also bring to light newer aspects of the place of electricity within wider historical processes in colonial India.

Chaudhry, Faisal Translations and Transitions: Muhammad Iqbal's Ilm Ul-Iqtesad and Two Languages of Economic Science in Late Colonial India My talk will consider the growth of vernacular forms of ‘economic literacy’ in British India in the period from 1850 to roughly 1900, just prior to the first stirrings of mass nationalism. In the talk I will use the history of colonial India to pose several broader questions about the relationship between the emergence of ‘the economy’ as an ostensibly distinct realm of experience and object of awareness and the ideal of knowing its inner workings through developing a properly ‘scientific’ language of economics. Alongside of discussing several key contexts for making sense of why actors in the subcontinent should have become increasingly preoccupied with economistic idioms of understanding—the critique of Britain’s ‘drain’ of wealth from and ‘deindustrialization’ of India being only the best known example—I will focus on one particular work by the famed North Indian philosopher and intellectual Muhammad Iqbal. Completed in the first years after the turn of the century, Iqbal’s Ilm-ul-Iqtesad (“The Science of Economics”) represented an important attempt at both translating Western economic theory into the Urdu language and also at translating between two clashing traditions in Western economics. Therefore, I will focus especially on Iqbal’s way of grappling with the concept of value that was at the core of the two very different approaches to finding a ‘scientific’ foundation for economics in the years after 1870, when the classical tradition in political economy began giving way in the face of the ‘marginal- ist’ revolution.

Christie, John R.R. Double Transit: the Chemical and Industrial Revolutions, 1760-1840. This paper poses the co-incident history of two exemplars of epochal change characteristic of Western modernity, to examine modes of interaction between rapidly changing forms of scientific knowledge and material production. Se- lected issues for discussion are 1), the relative dependence, independence or co-dependence of developments across the practices of chemical science, chemical technology and chemical manufacture, 2), forms of entrepreneurial innovation, and 3), the features (educational, institutional, political) which characterized relevant social relations in urban, indus- trializing locations. The terrain is Franco-British, original homes of, respectively, the chemical and industrial revolutions. The geographical location for the examination of chemical industrialization is the west of Scotland, in particular the town of Glasgow, offering as it does one paradigmatic example of urban chemical industrialization, plus a significant diversity of forms of industrialization, and a relevant set of educational, political and commercial institutions. The chemical practice involved is alkaline, acidic and gaseous; much of it was textile-directed (to calico and linen), to do with the production of bleaching and dyeing materials. Analysis of the foregoing inevitably provokes broader, possibly controversial consideration of frameworks of interpretation. Some chemical and economic historians currently retreat from concepts of discontinuous, revolutionary change. Other colleagues are attracted by the interpretive opportunities offered by Joel Mokyr and Margaret Jacob, using concepts of 'knowledge economies' and 'Industrial Enlightenment'. My analysis is in critical dialogue with such frameworks of interpretation, and concludes with historiographical reflection upon such interpretive dilemmas, and upon their possible resolutions.

52 Cole, Rupert ‘Where C. P. Snow’s two cultures are brought together’: The Royal Institution in the 1950s and 1960s In the early-to-mid 1960s key figures in The Royal Institution’s (RI) administration explicitly adopted the rhetoric and ideas of C. P. Snow’s ‘two cultures’ writings in planning for the future of the institution. Indeed, one of the main reasons a group of influential Managers chose the chemist George Porter in 1964 to succeed Lawrence Bragg as the RI’s scientific director and resident professor was his intervention in the ‘two cultures’ debate during a RI discourse on the second law of thermodynamics – Snow’s original test question of scientific literacy. This paper examines how and why the ‘two cultures’ became an integral part of the conversation about the RI’s transition into the last third of the twentieth century and its influence on the RI's activities. It will trace the institutionalisation at the RI of Snow’s technocratic and declinist ideas about science in Britain from the 1950s, examining the RI under Bragg, who was an important influence and patron of Snow; through to the latter part of the 1960s when, I will argue, the ‘two cultures’ rhetoric subsided under Porter’s tenure, as changing cultural attitudes toward science and its role in society emerged.

Coleman, Paul ‘For Health’s sake – Use Electricity’: Electrical Advertising in interwar Britain. By the end of the First World War the importance of improving the supply of electricity for industrial purposes had been recognised by the Lloyd George government, which viewed access to a ‘cheap and reliable supply of electricity’ as being vital to the future prosperity of the country. During the interwar period advocates of electrical products and services in Britain began to advertise domestic electrical goods and services, competing with the established gas industry in an attempt to create a demand for these products. This was demand needed to balance the electrical requirements of industry and lighting enabling companies to produce electricity more economically. Therefore meeting Lloyd George’s demand for a ‘cheap and reliable supply of electricity’, which was required to power his plans to rebuild Britain’s economy and society after the war. This paper builds on Bill Luckin’s (1990) Questions of power by examining the language and imagery used to sell electricity to the British public, particularly the appeals to modernity, cleanliness, economy and convenience over older forms of heating, lighting and cooking. Further to this I examine the possible reasons for much of the electrical advertising in Britain at this time being directed housewives. I argue that one potential reason was their enhanced familiarity with electrical devices after operating high voltage electrical machinery in munitions plants during the war. This would also account for the way in which issues related to electrical safety are absent from electrical advertising during this period.

Coleman, Paul Off the Shelf: The Use of Museum Collections in the Teaching of History of Science, Technology and Medicine. The Centre for the History and Philosophy of Science, at the University of Leeds, is home to the Museum of the His- tory of Science, Technology and Medicine, whose remit is to uncover, preserve and promote the use of artefacts from the University’s own scientific past in teaching, public engagement and the promotion of our discipline. The museum is involved in a wide range of outreach and educational initiatives, with objects from our collections being used in lectures within the University as well as in the development of workshop sessions for local schools. While actively encouraging the handling and actual use of objects within the collections we also recognise some of the risks and difficulties involved and we are actively developing strategies and techniques to maximise access to the collections and experience of material culture for a variety of different publics. This paper highlights the advantages and disadvantages of object handling within our collections before moving on to examine a range of different approaches that we are developing, including digitisation of objects, to improve the level of access for visitors and students. It also examines the different types of outreach activity being carried out by the museum and the variety of ways in which these activities make use of both objects from the collection and research expertise in the Centre for HPS. The presentation will include a video demonstration of one of our object handling sessions developed for use with high school groups.

Crane, Rosi Anatomical Generation Games: The Parkers of Pimlico Pinpointing the disciplinary shifts that occurred in zoology at the end of the nineteenth-century is notoriously difficult. Standard accounts tell us that comparative anatomy and morphology gave way to a laboratory-based physiology

53 and by the new century the emphasis had shifted to investigations of heredity. But within the disciplines surrounding anatomy and morphology changes of techniques and emphases occurred that have been largely overlooked. This study of the lives and careers of two generations of a single family sheds light on this transitional period in the history of zoology. The Parker family, well-known and respected by their contemporaries, have not received any attention from historians. Patriarch, William Kitchen Parker (1823-1890) a Methodist friend of Thomas Henry Huxley (1825-1895) lived in Pimlico, London. His scientific career on detailed studies of the anatomy of vertebrate skulls was published over three decades. His oldest child, Thomas Jeffery Parker (1850-1897) moved to Dunedin in 1880. Here he forged a career as an original researcher on embryology of kiwi as Professor of Biology and Curator of the University Museum. His evolutionary views were shaped by eight years spent as Huxley’s demonstrator in London. Middle son, William Newton Parker (1857-1925) also worked for Huxley, before his appointment as Professor of Biology at University College, Cardiff. He is best-known for the translation of August Weissmann’s monograph 'Germ-plasm A Theory of Heredity' (1893). A third son, Michael Prendergast Parker (1859-1934) became a successful scientific illustrator.

Crawford, Matthew The Print Identity of an Andean Wonder Drug: Printed Accounts of Cinchona Bark in Europe (1570-1800) Most people in early modern Europe encountered non-European plants in printed texts. Printed images and descriptions played a vital role in shaping the ways in which early modern Europeans understood plants from other regions of the globe. This paper will examine how printed images and descriptions shaped and were shaped European conceptions of exotic plants by examining the case of one plant in particular: the cinchona tree. In the early modern Atlantic World, the bark of the cinchona tree became an important and valuable medicament as a result of the bark’s efficacy in treating intermittent fevers, a prevalent and deadly ailment in the early modern world that we now recognize as a symptom of malaria. Printing played a vital role in the spreading knowledge of the bark’s medical properties in the seventeenth- and eighteenth-century Atlantic World. Indeed, like many other New World materia medica, most Europeans encountered cinchona bark in print before they encountered it in person. By examining printed images and descriptions of cinchona bark from the late sixteenth to the late eighteenth centuries, this paper will explore the possibilities applying the notion of a “print identity,” a term normally reserved for early modern authors, to early modern botanical medicaments. In addition to describing the ways in which the print identity of cinchona bark changed over the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, this paper will discuss the role that printing played in establishing not just the identity but the trustworthiness of new and exotic medicaments, with which few European physicians and healers had little to no prior experience. In particular, this paper will suggest that the stories told about plants in early modern Europe played a crucial role in establishing the medical utility of foreign flora.

Cull, Brendan Ovide Brunet, the Atelier Photographique de Livernois & Cie., and Sites et végétaux du Canada: The Art and Science of Early Canadian Botanical Photography In 1867, Abbé Ovide Brunet, a Catholic priest and botany professor at the Université Laval, and the noted Québec City photography studio of Livernois & Cie. presented an album of thirty-five albumen print photographs as part of the Canadian exhibits at the Exposition Universelle in Paris, France. This early photographic botanical project, entitled “Sites et végétaux du Canada,” employed the nascent technology of photography to showcase Québec’s flora. Through an acknowledgement of the art- and science-value of the album’s images, and a consideration of their broader connection to botanical illustration, I argue that the photographs, curated by Brunet and taken by Livernois & Cie., reflect nineteenth-century notions of Nature and its study within the emerging field of botany. The creators of this album were members of a highly educated and well-connected network of academics, artists, and photographers. These interactions provide a jumping off point for exploring the influence of art and science on this album, which was created and exhibited at a time of transition, when photography provided a new medium to image, collect, and store Nature’s beauty, and when science was increasingly looking to mechanically objective means of understanding the world and its wonders. This paper presents an analysis of the various contexts, which imbued these images with meaning. It places the album within the history of botanical illustration and considers photography’s impact on “accurate” and “artistic” depictions of Nature.

54 Cunningham, Clifford J. Dark Stars: Their Transition from Babylonian to Greek, Persian, Hebrew and Byzantine The role of ‘dark stars’ in astronomy is explored in detail for the first time. The transition of Ptolemy’s 'ivy leaf', and the dark stars associated with it, are traced over cultures spanning three millennia: from its origin in an ancient Bab- ylonian tablet to medieval times. Byzantine, Persian and Hebrew manuscripts are examined to highlight and resolve conflicting statements about the star catalogue in the Almagest, including some remarks on nebulous objects. A new insight is offered to explain the presence of dark stars, and their role in European astronomy and literature is surveyed to the present day.

Dacome, Lucia Cultures of Quarantine: Framing Borderlands in the Eastern Mediterranean This paper explores the role of quarantine stations as sites of creation and disruption of early modern Mediterranean borderlands. In particular, it focuses on the new lazaretto built in Ancona (Italy) in the mid-eighteenth century, when the city started to engage in conspicuous trade across the Eastern Mediterranean. One of my aims is to explore how Ancona’s new lazaretto reconfigured relations among urban and maritime spaces, medical knowledge and the regula- tion of both human and non-human movement in and out of the city. After Ancona became a free port in 1732, the increase in maritime traffic led pope Clement XII to commission the creation of a new quarantine station. The famous architect Luigi Vanvitelli was charged with the task of completing the project. The result was the creation of an impressive pentagonal artificial island located within the port of the city. Being big and beautiful, the new lazaretto became a focal point in Ancona’s urban scene. Its history offers a particularly felicitous point of entry into the investigation of the role quarantine stations as liminal spaces where medical knowledge informed physical and social borders, and defined sites of surveillance, detention, and segregation as well as of negotiation, translation, and exchange. This paper examines how the new lazaretto’s spaces and practices participated in the making and breaking physical, social and cultural frontiers. While doing so, it explores the peculiar circumstances of a site that was meant to facilitate trade and mobility but was itself largely inaccessible.

Determann, Jörg Matthias Arab World Science: Transnational Astronomy and Modern Egypt Most studies on the history of Arab astronomy focus on pre-modern periods, rarely covering the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. They also consider Arab astronomy as synonymous with Islamic astronomy and as part of an Islamic “civilization” with its medieval “golden age” and eventual “decline.” In contrast, this paper focuses on Egyptian scientists who, since the 1960s, have researched the Moon and Mars. Collaborating with peers from around the globe, these scientists were transnational actors, forming part of world science. They were also cosmopolitans, having multiple citizenships, identities and loyalties, during periods when national governments funded most space research. Using a telescope in Kottamia, Egypt, and the United States Lunar Orbiters, Egyptian astronomers and geologists contributed to mapping the Moon and selecting the landing sites for American astronauts. This collaboration succeeded despite tensions between the Egyptian and American governments during times of Arab–Israeli wars. This paper thus complicates the notion of the Apollo program as an “American” project. Scientists from Egypt, formally a non-aligned nation, also participated in further endeavors bridging the Cold War divide, such as the Apollo–Soyuz Test Project and the restoration of American–Chinese scientific relations during the 1970s. In subsequent decades, Egyptian scientists and others compared deserts on Mars with those in North Africa and searched for water in both. As advisors to Qatar, Sudan as well as Egypt, they also championed technoscientific development in the Arab world and Third World in general.

Dihal, Kanta Communicating Science through Fantasy in the 19th, 20th and 21st Centuries Science popularizations tend to frame their scientific contents as absolute facts, yet at the same time do not adhere to the conventions of neutrality and objectivity that are expected of regular scientific writing. Metaphor and analogy are used at length: the use of these rhetorical devices is essential for the didactic function of these works. In some cases, popularizations present an overarching metaphor which creates a fantastical narrative that embeds the ‘factual’

55 contents of the book. George Gamow named this the ‘scientifically fantastic story,’ a genre best known from science popularizations for children since the nineteenth century, but which has also been used in works for adults. This paper looks at three popularizations for adults that present a fantastical narrative as a large-scale thought experiment through which concepts from modern physics are explained in a more tangible manner: Edwin Abbott Abbott’s Flatland (1884), George Gamow’s Mr Tompkins series (1939-1965), both of which have been updated by other writers in the late twentieth century, and Terry Pratchett, Ian Stewart and Jack Cohen’s The Science of Discworld series (1999-2013). The scientific fantasy presents a compelling case study because of the manner in which science and fiction are employed equally, relying on the reader to be able to distinguish between the two. This paper will explore the history of the use of this fictional setting, paying particular attention to the clash between the speculative nature of the fantastical framework and the alleged objectivity of the scientific content.

Dineen-Porter, Nox The Digital Body: Whence and Whither? While using science to attain a perfect body is not a new idea, the recent advent of wearable technology to monitor body functions and actions, and then to display them in real time, has given this worn concept a renewed profile. Par- adoxically, however, devices purported to foster a biomedical ideal of perfect health may also assume that the human bodies they monitor are infinitely malleable, and hence – counterintuitively – defeat their own aims by subscribing to an unrealistic one-size-fits-all concept of healthiness. Since the data collected by such devices is readily commensurable with data collected from identical devices on other bodies, individuals may come to prioritize the ‘digital body’ (i.e. data-based models) over direct experience of their physical bodies. Thus one listens not to one’s flesh, but to the readouts. What might be the social, cultural, and political consequences of this new level of technologically mediated self-awareness? How are individuals who use this technology resisting or reconfiguring the essentially algorithmic discipline(s) of their devices?

Doolittle, Jeffrey “One Must Know Weights and Measures”: Adapting Classical and Biblical Metrology in Early Medieval Medical Texts Recent studies have begun to shed some much-needed light on the substantial intellectual projects behind the medical compilations of the early medieval Latin west, as well as some of the organizational energies that informed their creation. This paper contributes to this ongoing reassessment of early medieval medical manuscripts through a comparative analysis of the collection of treatises on weights and measurements found in Montecassino, Archivio dell’Ab- bazia 69, a manuscript containing thousands of medical recipes most likely produced at Montecassino itself in the late ninth century. These brief yet demonstrably practical measurement reference texts include discussions of classical and biblical systems, as well as conversions between the systems, all drawn from several disparate sources including Isidore of Seville and late antique adaptations of the works of Pliny the Elder. When compared with examples of metrology tracts from other ninth-century medical manuscripts, I argue that these under-studied texts provide insight into a remarkable intellectual transition occurring at Montecassino during the abbacy of Bertharius (856-883). They are indeed evidence of the purposeful compilation and correlation of classical and biblical systems of knowledge for early medieval monastic use. Montecassino scribes collected materials from several disparate and sometimes contradictory sources into a single tract, and the measurements, symbols and conversions they included directly reflect the wider concerns of the manuscript. The Cassinese scribes made strategic choices in framing these treatises, and our appreciation of those choices can begin to illuminate the manifold uses of the medical manuscript itself.

Dorsch, Kathryn Cold War Science on the Fringe: The UFO as Scientific Object While the "modern" UFO (short for 'unidentified flying object') as understood in American culture is now a realm mostly reserved for crackpots and conspiracy theorists, this was not always the case. The UFO intially gained the attention of the United States Air Force as a potential threat to national security and became the object of an official, top secret investigative study. This first line of inquiry - do UFOs present a threat to national security? - was quickly resolved, and the UFO transitioned into an object of scientific inquiry. Over the next twenty years of official USAF UFO investigation, the identity of the UFO became contested: were unidentified aerial phenomena, these "flying

56 saucers", worthy of scientific investigation? Or are they simply the emblems of crackpots and conspiracy theorists? My paper will consider how a scientific object comes into and goes out of being, giving special attention to repeated efforts to develop an ever-more-accurate reporting form and the challenges of capturing accurate observer data from "reliable" witnesses. Typifying quintessentially American Cold War fears and anxieties, the UFO can help us track larger changes and crises taking place in the American scientific community, as well as follow the contentious relaitonship between the American public and establishment science. Taking a cue from Gordin, Kaiser, Buhs, and others, my paper will also argue that "fringe" science deserves serious historical study. I will suggest that it can help us to better understand, frame, and contextualize current scientific "controversies."

Dryer, Theodora J. Confidence Planning and the Applied Statistician: A History of Depression-Era Rationality, 1920-1940 In the late 1920s and 1930s there was a shift toward model-based thinking in economic thought that proliferated throughout Europe and the United States. Significantly, this turn relied on the distinction of ‘applied mathematics’ seen in the development of new data structures, techniques, and expertise geared towards managing the agrarian sciences. Agriculture was central to both socialist and liberal state planning programs and as such became a laboratory for new applied economic and mathematical planning techniques. This paper offers an analysis of this moment by following a statistical model from its inception in Eastern Europe, where it was used as a heuristic tool for planning sweet beet production through a leading statistics program in London, England where it broke away from the Bayesian paradigm to the United States Department of Agriculture where it became an emblem for the rising applied statistics enterprise. An enterprise that developed and facilitated ‘applied mathematics’ as a core component of state building offering a sense of certainty in a time of crisis and change. In total this paper explores the cross-Atlantic production of economic and statistical models during the era of Great Depression. How these ‘designs of certainty’ came to exert tremendous influence over scientific planning programs in the United States and beyond.

Ede, Andrew Prelude to the Chemists' War: The Murky Pre-History of Chemical Weapons Prior to the use of the chlorine cloud at Ypres in 1915, English, French and German scientists were all working on chemical weapons. At least, that is the story that each nation told about the others. Separating all the facts from the propaganda may be impossible, but understanding the mythology helps to explain the role of chemists and other scientists in World War I.

Elsdon-Baker, Fern The Descent/Dissent of Evolutionary Futures: Historical Representations and Narratives of “Directed” Evolution and Inheritance in the Late Twentieth Century The “inheritance of acquired characters” was widely used as an umbrella term throughout the nineteenth and the early twentieth century. However, the historiographical representation of the development of evolutionary theories has tended until recently to uphold a pan-selectionist version of Darwin’s “Darwinism.” The notion that allowing any role for the inheritance of acquired characteristics is “anti-Darwinian” can be found in the work of the “pure Darwinians” including Wallace and Lankester in the late 1800s. These and later historical accounts tended to present simplified conceptions of the inheritance of acquired characteristics, as representing “directed” versions of “use inheritance”--a mechanism that is preeminently related to mammals including humans. Whilst, within certain disciplines (e.g. botany) inheritance of acquired characteristics covers a set of less problematic mechanisms, they are often viewed as most contentious in relation to mammals and in particular humans. Debates here often related less to the plausibility of the biological mechanisms concerned but more to a plethora of concerns over religious or spiritual accounts of directed or teleological processes, or about non-religious ideas of social and political progress, and human’s possible exemption from natural selection. Prior to the recent “epigenetic turn” in evolutionary biology these concerns also became bound up with a perceived threat of “creationism” or “intelligent design” which further contributed to a hard line selectionist Neo-Darwinian representation of evolution during this period. This paper will examine this broader historiographical context in relation to debates and narratives surrounding “Darwinism” in the 1980s/1990s between proponents of “Neo-Darwinian” and “Neo-Lamarckian” positions.representation of evolution during this period. This paper will

57 examine this broader historiographical context in relation to debates and narratives surrounding “Darwinism” in the 1980s/1990s between proponents of “Neo--Lamarckian” positions.

Espada-Brignoni, Teófilo Our mango or their mango: Puerto Ricans, their fruits and the Agricultural Experiment Station According to Patricia Fara, the social imaginary and prejudices of the 18th century were reflected in the botanical descriptions of naturalists and explorers. Additionally, she argues that the history of botany and agriculture can shed light into the complex relationships between the State and science. In this paper I explore the relationships between State, science, and identity during the firsts decades of the Agricultural Experiment Station in Mayagüez, Puerto Rico. The United States government founded this station in 1901 after the Spanish-American war in 1898. This station published reports that addressed the commercial possibilities and impossibilities of Puerto Rican agriculture. Additionally, these documents portray a moral assessment of the island’s inhabitants and the state of its fruits and vegetables. In its 24th report for example, the Puerto Rican mango is defined as a fruit of “ordinary or poor flavor with an abundance of objectionable fiber in the flesh” (Kinman, 1918). While the report acknowledges that Puerto Ricans consumed large quantities of this fruit, its author argues that a type of mango that could be sold in the United States should substitute the local tree. Along with the mango, other fruits and vegetables were examined in a similar manner. In this paper I explore the following questions: how was Puerto Rico defined, during the firsts decades of the Agricultural Experiment Station? how the Puerto Rican workforce was portrayed? and what kind of economical and moral assessments were used to promote certain kinds of fruits and Puerto Ricans.

Fallon, Cara Kiernan Healthy Forever? Aging, Mobility, and the Transformation of Later Life Between 1900 and 2000, life expectancy increased by three decades—from 47 to 77—a greater increase in one century than from the entire previous history of humankind. With dramatic changes in life expectancy came changing expec- tations for individual control of health and function in later life. Rather than accepting the rise and decline of bodily health as a natural process, mid-twentieth century science and medicine contended that old age could be a time of continued health, independence, and physical function. This paper examines changes in a material object—the cane— to explore broader transformations in attitudes and beliefs about aging in twentieth century America. I examine how the cane transformed from a symbol of wealth, power, and style into a stigmatized mobility aid associated with the disabilities of the elderly. My argument is two-fold: first, I argue that the cane emerged as primarily a medical instrument as the aging process itself came under scientific scrutiny and medical management during the mid-twentieth century. Second, I contend that even as these devices enabled greater mobility and freedom, they also marked users as disabled, a process which became increasingly stigmatized as failing to achieve the emerging imperative of independent, functional “healthy aging.” Drawing on a variety of sources including medical advertisements, clinical research, and material objects, this paper provides historical perspective on an important contemporary problem: the growing support for "healthy aging" that nonetheless relied on extensive medical management.

Fossheim, Hallvard The past in the present: race-related research and the normative force of history People normally do not doubt that the researcher working on race-related research has a set of responsibilities. What is less obvious is whether the actions of researchers of past generations might be said to have a normative effect on how such researchers should behave today. I will argue that researchers' responsibilities do in fact have such a historical dimension—in other words, that one is not necessarily 'past responsibility' simply because the practice or act in question was performed by earlier researchers. In research producing results affecting our understanding of ethnicity, the research activity contributes not only to limited, easily identifiable effects, but also to defining a group of human beings. Such co-definition will tend to modify not only the understanding of the group within the discipline, but wider groups as well. Not least, a partial result to be expected is that the research comes to co-define—directly and indirectly—how the group in question views itself. The mechanisms at work in such processes, and the potentials for historical responsibilities, are embedded at the level of researchers interacting with each other, with their subjects, and with other

58 agents in the broader inter-subjective field of research. By way of example, I will attempt to trace the ethically relevant historical implications of one such case where the past is not past in a moral sense.

Frederick-Frost, Kristen Goodbye gumshoe, hello scientific super sleuth: how Wilmer Souder used standards, science, and secrets to engineer a new kind of expert witness The late 1920s and early 1930s were rife with headlines describing court cases involving murder, kidnapping, and forgery. Within these tales, a new kind of expert witness appeared –a man of science– who took on “reasonable doubt” with mathematics and microscopes. Wilmer Souder [1884-1974], a physicist at the National Bureau of Standards, was one of the scientists who were increasingly asked to examine evidence and testify in court. By the end of his career, Souder conducted hundreds of handwriting, typewriting, and ballistics analyses, trained members of several nascent crime laboratories, and had over thirty years of experience as an expert witness. He was seen as an authority in the field. The question is why. Why did a physicist who nominally specialized in the thermal expansion of materials become an expert in scientific crime detection? Certainly his experience with precision measurement was often used to justify his authority. However, his true power as an expert was derived from his unusual position as a federal employee, which enabled him to avoid the taint of direct remuneration. Souder was seemingly beholden only to the scientific mission of the standards-making organization that employed him. This privileged position allowed him to advocate for specific methods of identification and training to be used as a touchstone for new professionals, effectively creating a self-supporting network. The knowledge that circulated within this network was often kept secret, which aided the professionalization of field but ultimately created tension with the people it was designed to convince –the jury.

Fyfe, Aileen

Organizer By the twentieth century, publication in journals had come to dominate both the communication of scientific knowledge and the building of scientific careers. This panel focuses on the relationship between journals and the communities of scholars who ran and read them. Journals run by learned societies were made possible by the (usually voluntary) activities of editors and referees, as well as authors – and participating in those activities in turn helped shape what it meant to be a scientist. This session examines what editors and referees did; the editorial processes they worked with; and the basis for the decisions they made. It also looks at how these activities fitted into wider scientific careers and communities during the expansion and internationalisation of twentieth-century science.

Gal, Joseph Chemical warfare in World War I: What were the "poison gases" used? Prior to the use of the chlorine cloud at Ypres in 1915, English, French and German scientists were all working on chemical weapons. At least, that is the story that each nation told about the others. Separating all the facts from the propaganda may be impossible, but understanding the mythology helps to explain the role of chemists and other scientists in World War I.

Gendron-Pontbriand, Eve-Marie The Evolution of the Origin: Rhetorical Transitions Between the First and Sixth Editions Justly considered as one of the most influential books ever written, Charles Darwin’s "On the Origin of Species" con- stitutes a moment of transition in the history of ideas, having redefined the relationship between science and religion, as well as man’s place in the physical world. It is not surprising, then, that the "Origin" has inspired much research in several disciplines, including the history of science. Less attention has been paid, however, to transitions within the text itself, namely between the various editions. Many scholars have asserted their preference for the first edition, which they consider a truer representation of Darwin’s thought. Yet, though they are often alluded to, the differences between the first and sixth editions have not been studied in detail. Our contribution hopes to bring some insight from corpus linguistics to the history of science. With the help of a computerized method of semantic annotation already defined

59 and applied in previous work, we will chart the evolution of certain rhetorical parameters between the first and the sixth, thus allowing for a better characterization of the transition stage that each of these editions represents.

Giannini, Giulia The Transition from Renaissance Academies to Scientific Societies The emergence of scientific academies can be dealt with by comparatively considering three major cases: the 'Acca- demia del Cimento' (Florence, 1657), the Royal Society (London, 1660) and the 'Académie Royale des Sciences' (Paris, 1666). Although the Cimento Academy had no official existence from an administrative point of view, it was the first experiment-based group in Europe founded by a Prince and, as such, reveals important insights about the evolution of the ‘Academy form’ and about the genesis of its institutional character. The process of institutionalization was gradual and took shape through a series of trials, difficulties and concerns that often found their expression in the correspondence. This paper explores the transition from Renaissance academies to ‘modern’ scientific societies.

Gielas, Anna “Correspondence and Kirwan”: Lorenz Crell's editorial tactics for establishing his chemical journal in Britain during the 1780s In 1778 Lorenz Crell launched the first specialised chemistry journal, the Chemisches Journal (later Chemische An- nalen). Throughout the 1780s, this German professor approached British men of science, hoping to convince them to read, subscribe, and contribute to his new periodical. This paper focesus on Crell's editorial tactics for transmitting his journal to the personal libraries of British natural philosophers and to the meeting-rrom of the Royal Society of Lon- don, at a time when British commercial scientific journals did not yet exist. Crell's editorial tactics include his correspondence with influential natural philosophers such as Joseph Black, but also his heavy reliance on allies. Crell's most important associate was the Irish chemist Richard Kirwan, resident in London throughout the 1780s. A Fellow of the Royal Society, Kirwan became so vital to Crell that he referred to him as his 'agent in London' This paper provides examples of the ways in which Kirwan responded to Crell's editorial tactics, in situations in which Crell perceived cultural difference and geographical distance as obstacles beyond his own capacity to overcome. This paper not only sheds light on the role of intermediaries in the physical and cultural transmission of learned publications in the late eighteenth century, but also invites reflection on how Crell's efforts to develop the trade in commercial scientific journals between Continental Europe and Britain throughout the 1780s contributed to the emergence of this new genre of publication in Britain in the 1790s.

Golinski, Jan

Organizer This session explores continuities and innovations in presentations of astronomy for popular audiences since the late eighteenth century. The contributions examine such technologies as the orrery, planetarium, and magic lantern. They consider the relationship between the apparatus of astronomical performances and the social spaces in which they have occurred.

Golinski, Jan Sublime Astronomy: The Eidouranion of Adam Walker and His Sons. In this paper, I explore the careers of Adam Walker and his sons, who delivered public lectures on astronomy in Lon- don and the English provinces from the 1780s to the 1820s. I trace the Walkers’ long-running success in the market for popular scientific lectures to their deployment of the “eidouranion” or transparent orrery, and I make a suggestion about the design of this theatrical display apparatus. As the centerpiece of the Walkers’ shows, the eidouranion was complemented by a presentation that emphasized the aesthetic appeal of astronomy, especially in terms of the sublime. By conveying the majesty of the cosmos in their lectures, the Walkers elicited quasi-religious feelings of wonder and awe in their audiences. The rhetorical accomplishment secured the eidouranion’s place among the scientific spectacles of the Regency metropolis, and allowed the Walkers to discuss even the potentially controversial topic of the existence of life on other planets.

60 Goodman, Matthew The Canadian Arctic Survey of John Henry Lefroy, 1843-1844: Magnetic Instruments in Moments of Transition This paper is concerned with an extraordinary feat of scientific travel – the voyage of exploration undertaken by John Henry Lefroy in the Canadian Arctic between 1843 and 1844. Lefroy’s mission was to observe the various properties of the earth’s magnetic field in high northern latitudes and to contribute these data to the global magnetic scheme of which it was a part – known to posterity as the Magnetic Crusade. As such, Lefroy, together with an assistant, a guide and a Hudson’s Bay Company party, carried 180lbs of magnetic and meteorological instrumentation across almost 6,000 miles of demanding Canadian terrain. Drawing on the manuscript and published versions of Lefroy’s extensive journal, observation book and correspondence, this paper seeks to mark not only the passage of the scientific traveller, but the passage of his instruments too. The aim is to explore instruments in expeditionary contexts, and the transition which results from carriage through a difficult and changeable environment. The peculiarly mutable nature of magnetic instruments – and the effect this has on the relationship between instrument and observer and ultimately on observation and the production of a science – will be further discussed. Recent work by Carter (2009), Enebakk (2014), and MacDonald (2015), has reopened the study of geomagnetism in the nineteenth century. My research comple- ments and extends these studies by exploring the exigencies of travel on magnetic instruments; how instruments in transition were accommodated; and the expeditionary context in which much of this particular science took place.

Gordon, Robin L. The Archetype of the Whore: The Challenge for Women in Science Transitions comes in many forms and may be smallish events or paradigm shifting explosions of knowledge. For this paper, I will focus on the challenge of the transition for a woman who attempted to join the ranks of natural philosophers, but seemed to provoke an archetype in her detractors, that of the Whore of Babylon. My thinking about this transition was triggered while reading of the rumor that Newton’s niece, Catherine Barton, was given to Charles Mon- tague as a mistress in exchange for a political post. The gossip was certainly aimed at Newton but did so by portraying Catherine Barton as either a victim or hussy. The truth did not matter. There are numerous examples in the history of science where women might have been skilled researchers yet, their work was either maliciously criticized or characterized by gossip quite similar to that experienced by Catherine Barton. One such example is Lady Margaret Cavendish who was the first woman to be allowed to visit the Royal Society in 1667. Margaret wrote on several scientific topics, making it clear that she was enormously intelligent, and liable to make pointed observations about her contemporaries, using humor that they did not appreciate. Her critics loathed her and left no doubt in their own writing. In this paper I will explore the idea of the archetype of the whore and how easily it has emerged in the face of women making a transition from a traditional role to one that challenged the status quo.

Goux, Hippolyte Numbers as fairness: price indexes and capitalist governance (1910-1940) Beginning in the 1920s, economic indicators and price indexes were presented as technical solutions to problems of wealth distribution and economic fairness. I argue that with the development of agricultural "price parity" before the New Deal, statistical indexes became especially prized as the archetypal form of capitalist governance because they functioned as “technologies of distance,” in this case moral distance: they moved the political into the realm of the technical. Within the context of a larger reflection on quantification and ideas of the social contract, I will present one case: The price-parity index. To co-ordinate agricultural prices with the rest of the economy, the index, an example of such a “technology of fairness,” was used to respond to the crisis, all while rationalizing, at least in appearance, ideas about the free play of market. This notion with roots in farm politics, developed by social scientists and economist of the “agricultural intelligentsia” expressed a mode of operation with much broader currency. Farmers saw the index as embodying key tenets of their moral economy, and protecting these by placing them above the legislative and administrative process, but such a process would form the basis for a new mode of political discourse.

61 Grier, Jason Scientific Universalism and the Experimental Philosophy of Isaac Newton In the General Scholium of the Principia (1713) Isaac Newton defended his theory of gravitation against the accusa- tion he lacked a causal explanation by pronouncing: “it is enough that gravity really exists.” Newton, therefore, was maintaining consistency with the position he had taken in his “New theory about light and colour” (1672) in which he argued his optical theory was “not an hypothesis but most rigid consequence” of the phenomenon. His commitment was to an experimental philosophy that took it as fundamental that the laws of nature were universal. The results of an experiment or observation could be repeated regardless of where one was. Thus, experiment went beyond the accumulation of isolated experiences. In explicating this view Newton’s natural philosophy represented a break from that of Robert Boyle, for whom an experiment was a discreet historical event. This paper considers the dispute between Newton and Robert Hooke over Newton’s optical theory and contends that the controversy was crucially about the question of whether experimental philosophy was about the accumulation of unique, particular events—as Boyle believed—or if experiments could be rendered abstract and universal—which was Newton’s position. Though now questioned by science studies, the belief that science is universal and exists outside of culture has, and continues to have, major consequences. In this paper I contrast the experimental philosophies of Boyle and Newton in order to tease out the development of the ideology of scientific universalism and its implications.

Hahn, Andre M. Practicing Different Paradigms: Rupert Sheldrake's "New Science" Rupert Sheldrake, in A New Science of Life (1981), sought to create a framework for biological research that drew on concepts from mathematics and physics while embedding his proposals within larger philosophical and theological themes. While A New Science was disparaged by a reviewer in Nature who called it “a book for burning”, it found a home in emerging scientific discourses among “New Age” groups. Rather than valuing specialization, these groups valued a broad sense of interdisciplinary research and speculation directed towards goals of environmental stewardship, intercultural discourse, and the incorporation of a broader range of human mental states. A New Science, along with Sheldrake’s subsequent work which expanded and tested his initial proposals, met the mold of this interdisciplinary mindset to a tee. Sheldrake’s work, along with others associated with “New Age” science, illustrated an attempted transition towards new scientific frameworks by circumventing unwelcoming institutions and audiences. This transition was portrayed as a “new paradigm” or “post-materialist” form of science framed against a materialist-reductionist research agenda laid out by the scientific revolution of the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries. Like the early modern scientific revolution, the “new paradigm” was tied to a particular politics that challenged existing social structures. For example, through calls for public voting on scientific research and delegation of empirical duties to those interested, Sheldrake sought to develop a “participatory scientific practice” with the public as a co-creator of scientific knowledge, rather than a passive recipient of its results

Haines, Elizabeth Demographic mapping beyond the state: the cartographic definitions of labour in early twentieth-century South- ern Africa The development of techniques for measuring and understanding human populations has been written in great detail through histories of the nation state (often via the lens of Foucauldian governmentality), and in particular with regard to the influence of military goals and practices. Yet parallel to governmental demography, private organisations have also been developing techniques to represent particular populations (as consumers, labour, or calculable loss). Since public and private mappings are far from mutually exclusive, these have been both rival and complementary endeavours, however, examples of ‘for-profit’ demographic mapping are often less available to the researcher and have seen very little study. They deserve more attention, as these spatially calculative analyses have had deep and enduring effects on the geographical organisation of human society in the twentieth-century. These effects are intra- and inter-national. They have significance for histories of science, technology and medicine. This paper takes up this approach by looking at the history of late nineteenth-, and early twentieth-century demographic mapping in Southern Africa as carried out by a variety of interlinked institutions. It will explore the connections and disparities between the demographic mapping of the British South Africa Company, and the Chamber of Mines, Johannesburg (who sought to secure labour

62 pools and ‘routes’) with the demographies of the nascent colonial states. It will expose the particular representational techniques that were adopted for populations that were conceived as (or hoped to be) supremely fluid and mobile.

Hall, Alexander Darwin through God's pen: representations of evolution in the British religious press, 1945-1985 As the decline of religiosity promised by proponents of secularisation has been less pronounced than predicted, historians have increasingly been re-examining the relationship between the two societal domains so often pitched at the centre of debates; science and religion. Despite repeated critique, the notion that scientific endeavour and religious belief are necessarily in conflict remains a pervasive concept in British society. My research explores the role of the media in interacting with, creating, and amplifying such dichotomous framings of science versus religion. This paper analyses coverage of evolutionary theory in the three longest-running British religious newspapers The Jewish Chron- icle, the Anglican Church Times, and the Catholic news weekly The Tablet. By analysing these religious publications’ evolutionary coverage, this paper explores divergence within denominations and between authoritative expert voices, journalistic and editorial opinion, and readers’ letters and comments. Exploring beyond official prescribed theological positions on evolutionary concepts, such as human origins, this paper illustrates a more nuanced relationship between evolution and religion, highlighting differences between members within religious communities and the transition of authoritative voices within these traditions over the post-war period. This paper encourages historians of science to reflect on how the often controversial science of evolution was understood by prominent mainstream religious com- municators during the post-war decades. Such case studies enable historians to develop a clearer understanding of how sections of the media have played different mediating roles in communicating science to specific sectors of society.

Halpern, Orit “Demo or Die!”: the Architecture Machine Group, Responsive Environments, and the “Neuro-Computational” Complex Few discourses have gained greater popularity in our present then the idea of “smart” cities and responsive environments as an answer to contemporary concerns about the future of human populations, security, economy, and ecology. Within these discourses, life is reconfigured as a commodity whose consumers both assimilate and metabolize information while simultaneously serving as its producers. I am labeling this emerging condition the “neuro-computational complex”; a new form of political economy grounded in a reformulation of both perception and intelligence to facilitate the ongoing penetration of computing into everyday life, and that serves as a contemporary infrastructure for both financial and logistical systems. This rather unintuitive merger of computation as the very support structure for life is linked to a history of cybernetics, design, and the human sciences. This paper will trace the relationship between highly visible contemporary smart city developments, such as Songdo in South Korea, and mid-century initiatives to merge cybernetics, design, and the human sciences. Using a series of case studies from the Architecture Machine Group at MIT, I will discuss how ideals of feedback, data management, modularity, and control created new attitudes to the city as an experimental “test-bed” or “demo”, a self-reflexive, and self-monitoring organism which was infinitely enhanceable, improvable, and mobile. This new logic of the computational “test-bed” or “demo” has now come to pre- occupy our ideas of how to manage life under conditions of real, and imagined, environmental, security, and economic uncertainty.

Hamm, Elizabeth Mechanical Thinking in Ptolemaic Astronomy Mechanical thinking often bridged the divide between natural philosophical thinking and mathematical astronomical reasoning. Recently scholars such as James Evans and Christián Carlos Carman (2014) have examined the bidirection- al influence of theoretical astronomy and sphairopoiia (the art of constructing physical models depicting the heavens). Others such as Sylvia Berryman (2009) have explored the use of mechanical hypotheses in natural philosophy. This excellent scholarship has enhanced our understanding of the role of mechanical thinking in the ancient world. The works of Claudius Ptolemy offer an opportunity to further explore the use of mechanical thinking by practitioners of ancient science. I will explore examples from both the Almagest and Planetary Hypotheses where Ptolemy utilized the discipline of mechanics to explain celestial motion and where he made changes to his astronomical models for the sake of constructing a mechanical or manual device. This research shows that while philosophical, mathematical, and

63 mechanical thinking had different aims, there was overlap in their use, and it offers a more nuanced understanding of how ancient astronomers conceptualized and practiced their work.

Hardy, Kristen A. Palpable Selves: Discerning Inner Lives Through Embodiment in the Victorian Sciences During the Victorian era, the increasing 'scientization' of race and sex occurred within the context of broader shifts in the hermeneutics of bodies and selves. Physiognomial notions of character discernment found new expression in the more 'respectable' science of anthropometrics. Ideas about the generation of emotions and bodily sensations no longer depended as critically on theological presuppositions, but, increasingly, were shaped by the physiological researches of scientists inclined toward materialist explanations. New conceptions of vision and language emerged. The surfaces of bodies—varying in skin tone, hair coverage, musculature, fat distribution—were objects of significant interest, on account of what these tissues might reveal about the inner nature of those they ensheathed. The humanity of newly encountered population groups was debated partly on the grounds of what might be discerned of an inner emotional life and capacity for nuanced affective relations via examination of the configuration of the visible, tactile, and otherwise sensorially tangible body. The bodies of women, both in the metropole and abroad, were also of special interest to those who sought to investigate the relations between sensation, emotion, and physiological expression thereof—and raised difficult questions regarding 'normal' human affective scope and its 'pathological' and 'degenerate' forms. This paper will consider nineteenth-century British ethnographic and medical-sciences literature, with the aid of affect theory, to address the nature and role of these complex 'affective metrics' in justifying social and political inequalities, particularly racial hierarchies and sex/gender binaries that have endured into the present.

Harrison, Peter Evolution and Eschatology: From Charles Bonnet to Transhumanism This paper focuses on eschatological themes in evolutionary thinking, beginning with early modern sacred histories and Charles Bonnet’s ideas linking epochal geological change and the progression of species. While Bonnet’s theories hark back to Leibniz and ultimately Augustine, elements of the progressivist and eschatological themes of his work carried over into nineteenth- and twentieth-century evolutionary narratives. These include not only the specifically Christian versions of evolution proposed by such varied figures as Charles Kingsley and Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, but also the “spiritualist” accounts of evolution set out by Alfred Russel Wallace and Frederic Myers. And, arguably, in the twenty-first century, optimistic transhumanist versions of the future can be read as secularized eschatologies.

Harrison, Sadie Fashionability and Credibility in the Royal Society and Académie des Sciences, 1660-1700 This paper will identify attire as an element of the modest experimental philosopher’s credibility. In the second half of the seventeenth century, natural philosophers worked to establish the credibility of the experimental method in En- gland and France. As the practice of acquiring empirical evidence through observation and experiment was an emerging epistemology, its merits were not obvious nor were they self-evident. Rather, groups of “experimental philosophers” navigated already existing norms of social credibility and appropriated them into the practice of their science. Clothing was a way to appear modest and sober in English experimental circles, just as it could be deployed to look like the ideal sociable honnête homme in France. Fashionability, or the rejection of fashion, is evident in the writings of English philosophers Boyle, Evelyn, and Pepys, and of Parisian savants Fontenelle and Huygens. These philosophers dressed the part of an honest, trustworthy philosopher according to already existing social strategies.

Heap, Ruby Addressing the “problem” of women in science and engineering in Canada: The Impact of the 1970’s This paper will discuss the key impact of the 1970’s on two major chapters in the history of Canadian women scientists and engineers: first, the conceptualization of the under-representation of women in science and engineering as a gendered “problem” requiring specific policies and interventions and second, the rise of activism within the community of women scientists and engineers in Canada. It will examine the triggering factors that marked these developments, including the growth of the “contemporary” women’s movement in Canada in the wake of the publication of the Re-

64 port of the Royal Commission on the Status of Women in 1970, the rapid enrolment of young women in institutions of higher education and the federal government’s efforts to develop a national Science and Technology Policy aimed at increasing Canada’s international economic competitiveness. This discussion intends also to highlight the major gaps in the extant scholarship devoted to the history of Canadian Science and Technology Policy on the one hand, and to the history of Canadian feminism and the Canadian women’s movement on the other hand.

Hesketh, Ian

Organizer This session explores key episodes in the history of the development of evolutionary narratives of humanity, from the early modern period to the present. While it has long been recognized that evolution is a “historical science” on account of the fact that the evolutionist explains events and processes that have taken place in the past, these papers will focus on discussions of the future in particular evolutionary narratives. In early modern sacred histories, for instance, Christian theories of eschatology were central in informing the larger direction of evolution. Meanwhile, in the late Victorian period, concerns about degeneration and heat death ramped up the stakes for an evolutionary conception of humanity, as evolutionists sought to inform public policy in order to overcome the perceived challenges of the future evolution of man. Moreover, focusing on the future gives us insight into how late twentieth-century debates between Neo-Darwinians and Neo-Lamarckians actually centred on questions of teleology and progress. And the recent uptake of Darwinism by a group of feminists known as new materialists is at least partly explicated by their embrace of a changeable and apparently anti-teleological future existence. By thus exploring these key episodes, the papers will argue that evolutionary narratives, whether from the early modern period or the present, are not just shaped by conceptions of the past but by visions of the future as well.

Hesketh, Ian Degeneration, Heat Death, and the Future Evolution of Man In Victorian Britain, as the discovery of vast timescales were thrusting human history deep into the past, many historians, anthropologists, archaeologists, biologists and various other popularizers of science sought to situate that history within an overarching evolutionary framework. Such “evolutionary epics” formed a genre of science writing that explained human history within the larger evolutionary story of all life, thereby combining the historical insights of both the natural and human sciences. While much recent work has examined how such grand narratives popularized a progressive and purposeful evolutionary story of life, little has been said about how the genre responded to late nineteenth-century fears of degeneration and heat death that necessarily problematized the future evolution of humanity. There were some Darwinians, such as Edwin Ray Lankester and Francis Galton, who advocated taking control of the evolutionary processes in order to secure humanity’s survival into a distant futurity. However, there were other, more spiritually inclined evolutionists, such as Alfred Russel Wallace and Frederic Myers, who argued that man’s earthly existence was just one stage in an evolutionary process that would continue in the afterlife. While these two models, the secular and the spiritual, represent very different visions for the evolutionary future, this paper will argue that both were developed to face the same challenge of an uncertain future by advocating the overcoming of contemporary evolutionary constraints, whether in this world or the next.

Hnatuk, Tyler

Organizer The history of technoscience understandably emphasizes those disciplines that attain and thrive within the mainstream. But what of the forgotten fields – those that received wisdom now considers occult or pseudo-sciences? Have such cognitive castoffs as mesmerism and spiritualism nothing to say to us moderns unless we analyze them in a condescending postmodernist way? We answer in the negative. And since a key goal of history is to recreate the perils and possibilities of any given point in the past, our papers will examine recent history in light of some technoscientific roads less travelled by.

65 Hnatuk, Tyler Intelligence Testing Methods in Ontario, c.1900-1925 The introduction of the Binet scale for intelligence testing in Ontario has been credited to the work of Dr. C.M. Hincks (1885-1964) at the psycho-educational clinic at the Toronto General Hospital in 1916. Research on classification and psychological testing at the Huronia Regional Centre (1876-2009) complicates this picture. First established as the ‘Orillia Asylum for Idiots’, Huronia was the first and largest residential institution of its kind in Canada. As early as 1911, Superintendent J.P. Downey announced plans to use a Binet test on the children living there. This paper explores how an earlier chronology and revised pathway for intelligence testing methods impacts institutions such as Huronia in the broader contexts of health care and the human sciences; medical and psychological knowledge; and the Canadian eugenics movements and their associated historiographies. I use this point of chronology and knowledge transit to inspect three related transitional moments: the first Canadian administrative separations between ‘lunacy’ and ‘idiocy’, and the development of a problematic of classification; the consequent emergence of a discourse on ‘the menace [to present and future society] of the feebleminded’; and the changing performances of intelligence testing according to alternate socio-technical contexts.

Holmes, Matthew Why the British Didn't Accept GM: Historical Perspectives By the late 1990s British consumers had turned against genetically-modified (GM) crops, in what the contemporary agricultural community considered an unexpected rejection of biotechnology. This paper argues that public rejection of GM arose from a combination of food safety and environmental concerns, plus technological unfamiliarity. Under a broad definition of biotechnology, as the manipulation or application of biological organisms for industrial purposes, plants created through biotechnology have been longstanding occupants of the British landscape. Beginning with the 1953 release of hybrid “Proctor barley”, modern biotechnology in the form of modified crop plants has irrevocably altered Britain’s agricultural environment. Laboratory experiments and small-scale crop trials from the 1960s saw the development of numerous forms of biotechnology. Many of these research programmes involved artificial manipulation of crops using little-known methods such as somatic hybridisation and chemical hybridising agents (CHAs). By the time GM crops entered the European regulatory process during the 1990s, biotech companies and plant science organisations had moved far beyond classical breeding techniques. Decades of experimental work made the concept of manipulating crop genes familiar to both the scientific and agricultural community. Yet perceptions of biotechnology were very different for British consumers. The latter lacked familiarity with new techniques in biotechnology, which were often carried out under strict commercial secrecy. When combined with long-existing food safety and environmental concerns, such unfamiliarity contributed to contemporary perceptions of GM as an alien and potentially dangerous technology

Horrocks, Sally From Metallurgy to Materials Science: exploring disciplinary transitions through scientist’s life stories ‘I’m Anthony, Tony, Kelly, a retired professor of Materials Science, when I first started it used to be called Metallurgy.’ Historians of science have generated many rich and complex accounts of the emergence of new disciplines. These have detailed not only the intellectual development of new fields but also the contingent local contexts and social relations that have, as John Pickstone reminded us, determined when and where new disciplines have become established. These contingencies tend to be absent from the sometimes ‘whiggish’ histories of scientific disciplines to be found in textbooks, leading historians to be wary of the disciplinary foundation stories told by scientists themselves. This paper will draw on a collection of life story interviews with British-based Materials Scientists, including some of the pioneers of the field, collected by An Oral History of British Science, a National Life Stories project based at the British Library, to argue that scientists’ narratives of disciplinary transition and transformation can be valuable resources that uncover much about this process. These narratives reveal how changes was experienced and understood by the individuals involved, the rhetorical strategies they used to distance one field from another, the ways in which these could be deployed to secure resources and the role they played in shaping individual scientific identities and careers. By including interviews with subsequent generations of Materials Scientists the collection also enables us to explore the ways in which change might be contested and reinterpreted by later generations.

66 Huang, Hsiang-Fu Missing Links? Between Nineteenth-Century Theatrical Orreries and Modern Planetariums. Far before the installation of the Zeiss projector at the Deutsches Museum, the universe had been displayed in domestic or public spaces. The Eise Eisinga Planetarium and Adam Walker’s Eidouranion were two examples among various orreries in the Enlightenment. In Britain, the Eidouranion initiated a phenomenon of theatrical astronomy lectures, which blended factual instructions with sensational entertainment and sometimes religious reflections. These shows were particularly a regular fixture during Lent. Juveniles were often the target audience. Aside from metropolitan theatres, itinerant showmen also brought astronomical lectures to provincial towns or the countryside. This lecturing trade flourished until the mid-nineteenth century. My paper will focus on the cultural and pedagogical significance of theatrical lectures of orreries between approximately 1820 and 1860, the golden age of these astronomical shows. Although the lecturing trade declined after the mid-Victorian era, the elements of its performance, including rhetoric, acoustic, and visual cultures, persistently influenced popularization of astronomy afterwards. Nineteenth-century shows of orreries could be seen as the “missing links” in the genealogy of performing astronomy.

Hvenegaard, Glen Frank Farley: A Pioneer Naturalist and Early Environmentalist in Alberta This paper will discuss the work of a prominent early settler in East Central Alberta, to argue that at least some of the region’s early non-aboriginal immigrants cared deeply about the natural world. Frank Farley (1870-1949), a keen amateur ornithologist, participated actively in conversations with distinguished ornithologists such as federal scientist Percy Taverner and Professor William Rowan, the first chair of the Zoology Department at the University of Alberta. Despite an active and successful business career, Farley found time to make significant contributions to ornithology, wildlife protection, and environmental education, writing numerous scientific articles, mentoring several individuals who went on to distinguished careers in science, as well as writing the pioneering work, Birds of the Battle River Re- gion in 1932. Additionally, Farley served as the first warden at the Miquelon Lakes Bird Sanctuary. We will argue that his life suggests the challenges and opportunities confronting the first environmental scientists – both amateur and professional – who worked in Alberta, a group whose significant contributions are rarely acknowledged.

Irish, Stephen The demise and legacy of analytic crystallography Detailed theories of crystal structure were first proposed in France at the end of the 18th century. They were given comprehensive articulation by René Just Haüy, the theorist whose work became the central point of reference for this era of crystallography. This period might be said to coincide, roughly, with the dates of his major publications, which appeared during the years 1784-1822. His was a physical theory about matter with clear connections to chemistry. The time of Haüy’s ascendancy is described as the “analytic” phase of crystallography. It was succeeded by a more mathematical approach founded upon symmetry considerations that had been developed in Germany by Christian Weiss and Friedrich Mohs. This transition, from the physical and analytic to the mathematical and descriptive, is the subject of the paper. Whereas the new approach appeared to recast crystallography on a different theoretical basis, most historical actors, as well as most historians, have regarded Haüy’s work as the foundation upon which his successors built. The paper will attempt to identify and characterize this continuity, observing that this transition was not abrupt and that the legacy of analytic crystallography extended well into the nineteenth century. Special focus will be given to the work of British researchers, among them David Brewster, John Herschel, William Whewell, Henry James Brooke, and William Hallowes Miller.

Jähnert, Martin Between Problem Solving and Conceptual Development: The Correspondence Principle as a Research Tool (1918– 1926) In the summer of 1923, Niels Bohr gave a lecture at Harvard University on the quantum theory. He had done so many times during the 1920s in Germany, Britain, the Netherlands, and now also in the US. For his almost 300 lis- teners, Bohr's presentation was everything but an exposition of well-known ideas. At least the professor for theoretical physics at Harvard, Edwin Kemble, thought so as he would give another talk ``to restate Bohr a little more slowly and

67 simply.'' In the very first sentence of his talking notes, Kemble explained: ``the correspondence principle is the important tool.'' In this talk, I will discuss the applications of this tool by physicists like Kemble who used it during the 1920s to tackle various problems in quantum physics. I will argue that the correspondence principle was reshaped as it was integrated and put to use in various research fields. Studying this transformation through implementation, I will argue, allows us develop the idea of a “physics of problems” and a “physics of principles” beyond a simple dichotomy of the two into a means of capturing the dynamic relation between problem solving and conceptual development in the old quantum theory.

James, Frank A. J. L. Thomas Beddoes and the Reigns of Terror Between 1787 and 1792 Thomas Beddoes was Reader at Chemistry at the University of Oxford. He then resigned due to his views as a democrat, republican and supporter of the French Revolution. As a consequence his name appeared on a Home Office List, along with Joseph Priestley’s, as a ‘disaffected and seditious’ person and was subjected to government harassment against British Jacobins during what has been called, with some exaggeration, Pitt’s terror. This was ironical because Beddoes saw as early as 1792, well before the reign of terror began in Paris, that Jean-Paul Marat and Maximilien Robespierre were betraying the original ideals of the Revolution and leading it towards increasing violence. Just before the start of the Revolution, Beddoes had visited Antoine Lavoisier and had adopted his chemical ideas. Both his political and chemical views meant that Beddoes had severe difficulty in raising funds for his Medical Pneumatic Institution in Bristol, since as James Watt pointed out donors were reluctant to contribute to someone seen as a Jacobin, materialist and Lavoisierian. This talk will explore, through understanding Beddoes’s position, how politics and chemistry became so inextricably linked and how he was, to some extent, able to overcome the problems thus created.

Jamieson, Annie Music, Noise and Silence: the muted history of understandings of hearing risk through music. “If anyone were told that the loudest parts in the first movement were only a weak child compared to those in the last movement, he would be afraid for his eardrums…” (Gustav Mahler on his 2nd Symphony) The idea that loud noise might damage hearing dates back to antiquity, when Pliny described hearing loss in those who lived near a large Nile cataract. The first systematic study of the risks of industrial noise was by Barr (1888) who showed that boilermakers suffered significant hearing impairment compared to other shipyard workers. However, it was not until the Who’s Pete Townsend made public his music-induced hearing loss in the 1980s that we began to fully recognise that music could be similarly damaging. Whilst there is substantial historical literature on the dangers of industrial or other unwanted noise (e.g. Dembe, 1996), and on music as nuisance noise (e.g. Thompson, 2004; Bijsterveld, 2008), there has been little attention directed towards the risks of loud yet desirable sound to both musicians and audiences. This paper will explore the historical development of understandings of hearing risk specifically through music from the late 19thC to the mid-20thC. From concerns about ‘nervous’ damage, or distraction through unwanted music (e.g. Babbage and Dickens’ 1860s campaign against street musicians), it will move through claims about the effects of early 20thC large- scale orchestral works such as Mahler’s 2nd Symphony, to end with Stokowski’s desire for crowd-stunning loudness in his telephonic transmissions with Bell labs in 1940s America.

Jamieson, Annie

Organizer Those working within HPS understand its potential to engage a variety of audiences and to encourage the appreciation of diverse approaches to a range of disciplines. This session explores three case studies from the University of Leeds showcasing different ways of interpreting HPS materials for different audiences. Both the history of research and the institutional ethos in Leeds are conducive to the exploration of ways to incorporate HPS into teaching in other areas. Interest in this area in Leeds dates back to the work of Edgar Jenkins in 1990. More recently Gooday et al. (2008), and Jamieson and Radick (2013) have demonstrated how the relationship between HPS and other disciplines can be developed. In this session, Jamieson demonstrates how new HPS modules are being developed to embed the discipline into the University’s wider strategy of curriculum broadening, which encourages students to adapt knowledge from their primary discipline in different ways. Coleman engages with the museum sector to explore the use of material culture

68 to engage audiences with HPS themes outside of the University. Kay expands the reach of HPS still further, working with theatre students on dramatic interpretations of HPS materials to engage directly with wider publics such as country house visitors and school pupils. At Leeds, we are demonstrating the practical benefits of taking HPS to new disciplinary sites and contexts to engage with new audiences. The session will suggest ways in which HPS can fruitfully intersect with other areas in mutually beneficial relationships.

Jamieson, Annie Discovery: Exploiting the Potential of History and Philosophy of Science to Enhance University Curricula. Since 1997, tuition fees in English universities have increased from 0 to £9000 per year. Together with a changing research funding agenda, which emphasises the need for public engagement with research and measurable research impact upon society, it is increasingly vital to tailor our curricula to both improve value for money for students and showcase our research within teaching. In response to these drivers, the University of Leeds has implemented an innovative, institution-wide strategy of ‘Broadening the Curriculum’. This entails increasing opportunities for students to extend their skill set and address their interest beyond their degree programme subject by offering a wide range of ‘Dis- covery Modules’ that students can study as part of their degree but outside of their home department. These options are organised into ten interdisciplinary ‘Discovery Themes’ to help guide students in their choices, thus bringing their experience closer to the US model of major and minor subjects. This paper will show how HPS can act as a gateway subject by giving students a wide perspective on a range of issues that helps them to understand and engage with the Discovery ethos. At the same time, creative engagement with Discovery can recruit more students onto HPS modules. The case study of the development of a flagship blended-learning module for the theme ‘Technology and its Impacts’ will show how HPS at Leeds has creatively exploited the diversity of our research in an innovative new course to mutually benefit students, the institution and our own discipline.

Johnston, Sean F. Tracing – and trusting – the technological fix This paper traces the notion of the “technological fix” through North American expert and popular cultures during the twentieth century. Its proponents identified it as an engineering or technological approach suitable not merely for tackling technological problems but also as a basis for efficiently diagnosing and resolving social, cultural and political issues. This confidence, or hubris, concerning the relevance of technological solutions for modern human concerns grew during the Great Depression but became particularly popular after the Second World War. Proponents, notably chemist and urban planner Richard L. Meier and nuclear engineer-physicist Alvin Weinberg, framed the concept as a tool to augment conventional politics and economics. They argued for the rapid societal progress achievable through technological problem-solving. The concept has been widely disseminated since the mid-1960s, with contemporary supporters arguing that technological fixes can avert the diverse problems produced by climate change to ensure sustainable environments. The paper analyses the discourse about technological fixes circulating among American engineers and scientists, on the one hand, and humanist and social-science critics, on the other. Drawing upon articles, speeches, cartoons and television programmes, it traces how the notion was promoted, exemplified and critiqued, and how it was represented in popular culture. I argue that disparate voices have contributed to wider cultural reflection on the short-term benefits and unintended side-effects of technological solutions, particularly in relation to health and environmental issues. By examining the historical assessments of technological fixes, this work reopens the central claims to fresh audiences.

Kavey, Allison From Demonic Temptation to Divine Will: The place of magic in Agrippa's De Occulta Philosophia Libri Tres Agrippa von Nettesheim's De Occulta Philosophia Libri Tres (1531) has most often been characterized as an ency- clopedia of natural and astrological magic. Lehrich, alternatively, provided evidence of a strong theological message to be found in book three, but he did not attempt to integrate that into the magical thought presented in the rest of the work. This paper argues that Agrippa took magic in a new direction in this book, developing it from Trithemius' presentation as a system of forces that could be manipulated but should always be approached with concern because of the potential for demonic intervention into a fully realized cosmology in which magic operates as an important intermediary between humans and the divine. From the natural magic presented in book one through the intertwined

69 magical theology of book three, De Occulta Philosophia Libri Tres represents a determined effort to make magic a centerpiece of the divine creation. Rather than solely reading this text for the magical work presents, it is important to interpret it as a sophisticated approach to intertwining magic and religious belief, embedding the first in the second to produce a genuinely magical Christian world view.

Kay, Michael Give the doc a phone: innovative uses of telephony in the late nineteenth-century British medical community Oudshoorn and Pinch (2003) have demonstrated how users matter in the development of technologies; the construction of use is not determined solely by the producers and providers of the technology, but also by the ways in which people engage with it and decide to use it. This paper will engage with this approach by examining four examples of innovative, user-driven applications of telephony to medical instrumentation in the late nineteenth-century - including the audiometer, the sphygmophone, and the metal detector - and evaluating the ways in which they were received and used by medical practitioners. The medical profession was then a community harbouring multiple divisions amongst practitioners including: between generalists and specialists; and between those who saw medicine as craft knowledge - based on practitioners’ individual experiences - and those who advocated a scientific approach to medical practice, promoting research and technological solutions (Lawrence, 1985). This paper argues that this network of conflicting interests determined the reception of telephony upon its introduction in 1877: some practitioners saw it as an opportunity to innovate and experiment, whereas others rejected it as an unwanted technological incursion into their profession. The use of telephones for non-conversational purposes has not been much addressed by existing histories of telephony, and historians of medicine and medical technologies have not focused on the role of the telephone in medical instrumentation. This paper will therefore be of interest to historians of both medicine and telecommunications.

Kay, Michael

Organizer Our session examines the process of transition whereby electricity entered the commercial and domestic spheres in different national and cultural contexts. David Arnold (2013) has noted how identical technologies take on different meanings in different societies, even when the physical form remains unaltered, and he therefore calls for a greater understanding of the "cultural biographies" of technologies. We engage with this approach with regard to the history of electricity in Russia, India and Britain, between 1880 and 1939. Firstly, Nikiforova analyses how foreign electricity companies in Russia marketed electricity by constructing an image of elegance, innovation and affluence linked to national identity and pride. Chatterjee demonstrates how the marketing of electricity in colonial India relied on discourses focused on colonial representations of the everyday domestic and urban lives of the Indian middle class. Coleman, finally, discusses how the discourse of interwar British electrical marketing focused predominantly on modernity, cleanliness and convenience, and the importance of electricity as a prerequisite for future national prosperity. We also engage constructively with Thomas Hughes' Networks of Power (1983), and Graeme Gooday's Domesticating Electricity (2008); we appreciate the importance of Hughes' use of international comparative case studies, whilst focusing, as does Gooday, on the attempts of electricians and companies to promote domestic electrical futures to diverse audiences. However, we also move beyond both Hughes' and Gooday's accounts to show how images of electricity were constructed and used in diverse cultural contexts; additionally, examining non-Western examples provides new perspectives on traditionally Western technologies.

Kay, Michael History-onics: adventures with thespians! This paper presents examples of dramatic interpretations of HPS topics and research materials. These have been produced as part of 'Electrifying the country house', a University of Leeds project developing educational resources for country houses based around their historic electrical technologies. The use of drama in some of our project outputs, involving theatre students at the University, enabled us to engage creatively with wider audiences, improving the impact value of these activities. An innovative approach to combining HPS and drama with which I will engage is one demonstrated by Boujaoude, Sowwan and Abd-El-Khalick (2005), who used drama in science teaching to portray the lives of historical scientists and help pupils to better understand how science works. I will discuss the project's various dramatic outputs concerning the introduction of electricity into the domestic sphere, including a short, four-person

70 live performance, a short film for display at one of our partner country houses, an online interactive resource for school pupils aged 8-11, and a musical. This will include video clips of some of these outputs. I will evaluate the advantages and challenges of working with drama students to deliver these outputs, including: scripting and staging; the differences between live and filmed performances; working with larger and smaller groups of students; gathering and assessing feedback. I will argue that this is an effective and rewarding method of broadening participation and engagement with HPS research, and one which can be used as a model to be applied to different areas of HPS.

Kennedy, Meegan From Bibles to banknotes: Victorian microscopic writing and the wonder in things In 1824, Isaac Disraeli muses upon the tradition of minute writing: “writing which no eye could read!” Technical developments in the 1830s suggested the microscope as an eye that could read tiny print. John Mayall, a well-known Victorian microscopist, reminisced about the childhood experience that piqued his interest in microscopy: “My ideal delight,” he recalled, “was to be allowed ‘to peep’ down the tube at ‘The Lord's Prayer’ written within a space of 1/100th of an inch square.” Such writing, usually Biblical, linked the microscope to natural theology, where the instrument was already praised as a window into the divine. From mid-century, however, authors demonstrate a shift in microscopic writing from the sacred to the public sphere. William Peters debuted his microscopic writing machine at the 1851 Great Exhibition, miniaturizing mundane texts like a roster of the Quekett Microscopical Society and suggesting the use of his machine to thwart banknote forgery. In 1860, James Nicholls considers putting microscopic writing into buttons or jeweled bracelets for the use of spies; and photographed microscopic text was transmitted by pigeon post during the Siege of Paris. The convention of microscopic writing as “divining” persisted; but the transitions in microscopic reading and writing demonstrate how Victorians secularized microscopy, redirecting their wonder toward the instrument itself, the ingenuity of the inscribing machine, and the discernment of the viewer. This talk draws upon scholarship on popular science and visuality (Lightman, Morus, Plunkett, Anne Secord, etc.), thing theory, and on work with the Peters machine at Oxford.

Khan, Mujeeb The Medieval Transition: Medicine in Motion The medieval period appears to be a vagary of medical history. Between the literary theorizing of the ancient world and the experimentation and re-theorizing of the early modern world, situating medieval medicine remains a conundrum. This paper takes the medieval period as a transitory period in medical literature and uses variation in this literature to elucidate changing conceptualizations of medicine. In secondary scholarship, transitions in medical literature had often meant explicit shifts representative of new modes of thinking or criticisms of old ones. However, these older linear readings of medical history resulted in anachronistic narratives, a fact substantiated in more recent scholarship which identifies the distortion in these narratives on medical literature, for example, in earlier historiographical emphases on Galen as the, rather than an, interpreter of Hippocrates. Through a focused study of three medieval traditions, the Chinese, Islamic, and Japanese medical literary traditions, this paper traces local developments in medical literature. In particular, it demonstrates how conformity to earlier knowledge concealed two facets of medical literature not present before the medieval period: text as practice and form as opinion. To do so, it considers the works of Abū Bakr al-Rāzī (d.925/932) and Ibn Sīnā (d.1037) in the Islamic world, Sun Simiao (d.681), Wang Tao (d.755), and Wang Huaiyin (fl.978-92) in China, and Tanba-no Yasuyori (d.995) in Japan. Including brief analyses of medieval Anglo-Saxon and Roman medical literature, this paper concludes by introducing medical literary changes as a new perspective in situating medieval medicine in the larger history of medicine.

Kim, Clare

71 episodes from the histories of design, engineering and the mathematical sciences, this session will explore the institutional and intellectual motivations of such exchanges alongside their material and epistemological transformative effects. Daniel Cardoso will track the theories about design formulated by engineers and mathematicians working in the Computer-Aided Design Project. Looking beyond the university setting, Clare Kim will consider the design-influenced interpretation of mathematical theories that emerged in postwar museum exhibits. Investigating influences of mathematics and computation to design theory, Theodora Vardouli will interrogate the uses and meanings of graph theory within the scientizing and rationalizing work of the LUBFS Centre in the early 1970s. Finally, Orit Halpern will explore how mid-century initiatives to merge cybernetics, design, and the human sciences critically frame current ideas of smart cities. Ultimately by bringing into conversation scholars from disparate fields, this session will explore the potential promise and drawbacks of adapting analytics and theories from each other’s fields for historical research.

Kim, Clare Mathematics Meets Design: Ray and Charles Eames and the Aesthetics of the Mathematica Exhibit Mathematical artifacts and visualization techniques loomed large in the production and dissemination of mathematical knowledge at the turn of the twentieth century. Historians of science and mathematics often point to the three-dimensional string and plaster models that were heavily displayed at various mathematical centers. Originally utilized for teaching purposes, such displays became valued for their more aesthetic and historical dimensions with the rise of mathematical modernism, which favored symbolic formalism and the treatment of mathematical theories without immediate reference to the physical world. But a connection between mathematical representation and education remained in the postwar period, unrecognized by historians. It owed more to the midcentury influence of communication theories than to changes in mathematical practice, and is indebted more to the design principles of Charles and Ray Eames than to the disciplinary commitments of mathematicians. That connection was the construction of an interactive mathematical exhibit at the California Museum of Science and Industry in the 1960s called “Mathematica: A World of Numbers…and Beyond.” Commissioned by the IBM Corporation, the Eames design team aimed to produce an exhibit that would educate the public about mathematics. This paper shows how these designers carried specific tools of design and adapted them to the construction of the Mathematica exhibit as a new media environment for mathematics. It also pays attention to how they produced alternative representations and materialities of mathematical theories in consultation with other mathematicians.

Kjeldsen, Tinne Hoff Negotiating Theory and Practice in Twentieth-Century Mathematical Modeling This paper offers a big picture analysis of mathematical modeling in the second half of the twentieth century. The notions of pure and applied mathematics will be discussed in the context of interactions between developments of new theoretical results in mathematics and how they were understood in other ‘practical’ and ‘applied’ areas. The notion of mathematical modeling, which emerged in the early twentieth century, will be a point of focus. The discussion will be related to concrete episodes of theoretical developments of so-called Cold War theories linear inequality theory, convex analysis, game theory, mathematical programming and mathematical biology. The focus will be on the mathematical practices, broadly understood, in engaging with model making in the area of tension between 'pure' and 'applied' mathematics.

Kroupa, Sebestian Plants from practice to print: early modern colonial botany in transition This session is designed to bring together material, social, global and environmental approaches to early modern natural knowledge and seek parallels and connections between the Atlantic and the Indo-Pacific world. Focusing on particular actors and situating knowledge production in specific geographical and social milieux, each paper traces the transitions of plant knowledge across different geopolitical, cultural and material frontiers over the course of the eighteenth century. Discussing what this knowledge meant in practice or as a practice, respectively, this session aims to unfold the dynamic relationship between plants, people, states and material aspects in the early modern colonial enterprise. While the first paper is concerned with the transitions from nature to paper and from paper to print, following the paths of Charles Plumier’s corpus of manuscripts on Caribbean nature, while paper two strives to link local and global perspectives by pursuing the journey of useful plants from the encounters between the Europeans and

72 the indigenous people to their transplantation into Mauritius’ colonial gardens. Paper three, finally, endeavours to map how natural knowledge and material was mobilised between the East Indies and Europe, exploring the construction of trans-national networks of circulation and the motivations of the actors involved within these structures.

Kroupa, Sebestian Georg Joseph Kamel (1661-1706) and his correspondence network: Natural knowledge in transition between London, Madras, and Manila Shortly after arriving in the Philippines in 1688, the Bohemian Jesuit pharmacist Georg Joseph Kamel turned to the local natural resources as to identify alternative kinds of remedies. Remarkably for a Jesuit missionary, Kamel soon entered the correspondence networks of English surgeons stationed in Madras, and through them, of naturalists in London. Based on an extensive archival research and analysis of the letters and consignments involved, this paper sheds light on the construction and operation of long-distance networks of knowledge exchange at the turn of the eighteenth century and, consequently, on the transition of natural knowledge between disparate geographical, political, and social contexts. Extending across three 'colonial enterprises' (Jesuit, Spanish, and English) and providing thus insights into interactions in a network based on factors other than nationality, Kamel's case highlights the associations between early modern colonial science and trade. While the infrastructure for knowledge circulation across geopolitical frontiers was provided by pre-existing networks of commerce, the material exchange between distant spaces was mediated by merchants and surgeons who travelled within them. Particular emphasis shall be put on the agency of merchants of Asian origin and their role as go-betweens, brokering relationships between disparate geographical and cultural contexts.

Ksiazkiewicz, Allison Mediating landscapes: picturesque sensibility and early geology in Britain During the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, British mineralogists and geologists appropriated different forms of inquiry such as art and architecture to help them wrestle with the natural and artificial aspects that informed their scientific sensibilities. The relationship between humanity and Nature, as debated in philosophical and artistic circles, paralleled discussions in earth studies and the developing new science of geology. While aesthetic categories such as the picturesque enabled artists to negotiate and articulate attitudes towards Nature that emphasized harmo- ny and balance, these same techniques in scientific depiction cultivated and supported a sense of empirical vision of geological landscapes. The production of a coloured geological map of England and Wales was one of the first projects undertaken by the Geological Society of London, founded in 1807. George Bellas Greenough (1778–1855), first President of the Society, supported chemical and mineralogical interpretations of earth structure, and used colour to represent the relative positions of strata while maintaining a ‘naturalistic’ palette in the depiction of formations on his map. Mineralogist and French émigré Comte de Bournon (1751–1825) catalogued the mineral collections of Sir Charles Greville (1749–1809), Sir John St Aubyn (1758–1839) and Sir Abraham Hume (1749–1838) who were each influential figures in artistic and scientific communities. Geologist and sculptor White Waston (1760–1835) produced stone tablets of geological sections made from the very materials represented. Using these three examples, this paper will look at the movement or passage of aesthetic sensibility between geology and the visual arts.

Lalli, Roberto The coming of age of American Physical Society’s periodicals: Editorial strategies and refereeing practices of the Physical Review and its sister journals under John T. Tate’s editorship (1926-1950) When John T. Tate became the Managing Editor of the Physical Review in 1926, the journal was widely regarded as a minor publication in the landscape of physics periodicals. Under Tate’s editorship this state of affairs underwent a radical transformation. By the mid-1930s the major publication venues of the American Physical Society (APS) -- the Physical Review and the newborn Reviews of Modern Physics -- had gained momentum, and the Physical Review had become one of the leading physics periodicals in the world. The growth of international prestige of the APS periodicals was mostly a consequence of broader socio-political-economical transformations that elevated the status of the Ameri- can physics community with respect to the European ones. The present paper investigates how these broader transformations were reflected in the historical evolution of the editorial practices of these journals all through the period of Tate’s editorship. First, I will discuss the editorial strategies that Tate implemented in order to face the challenges posed as well as the possibilities offered by deep changes such as the growth of the American Physics Society, the increasing

73 specialization of physics practitioners and an unprecedented separation between theoretical and experimental physics. I will next show how specific editorial strategies resulted in an evolution of the refereeing practices of the journals and in an attempt to build a standard refereeing system during the 1930s. Finally, I analyze the interconnections between the changing editorial practices of the APS journals and their increasing international relevance. Lee, Eunsoo Mathematical Diagrams in the Transition from Roll to Codex The origin and method of text illustration has been studied by K. Weitzmann in his seminal book, Illustrations in Roll and Codex (1947). In a systematic analysis of illustration methods in early book illumination, he discussed how the size, direction, configuration, and placement of miniatures changed with the transition of media from roll to codex. While he attempted to survey many sorts of illustrations, his study focused on literature texts and their accompanying illustrated scenes. Largely missing are studies of how mathematical and scientific illustrations changed over time in the transition from roll to codex. The methods Weitzmann used in analyzing the change in literature illustrations can be also applied to the change in mathematical diagrams. To investigate the change of diagrams, this paper examines several examples from Euclid’s Elements that have been iteratively reproduced in both papyrus rolls and parchment codex. The comparison between diagrams in papyri and diagrams of the Greek manuscripts will show us Weitzmann’s methods are effective in tracing the change of mathematical diagrams. My investigation of the change will generally follow Weitzmann’s criteria: 1) migration of diagrams; 2) selection of diagrams; 3) superimposition of diagrams; 4) expansion of diagrams. However, I will argue that not all Weitzmanns’s observations can be applied to mathematical diagrams, as mathematical diagrams were rarely separated from text while literature scenes were more commonly separated.

Lefkaditou, Ageliki

Organizer This session addresses hereditary transitions in three senses: in the organic materials in question, within the theories and methodologies of heredity that are in play, and between the past and present. We move chronologically between the most significant disciplinary transitions in twentieth and twenty first century bioscience. As the four papers transition from humans, to animals, to plants, arriving back at humans, they expose the debt that any bioscience practitioner owes to the histories of their discipline and of the organic materials that are the subject of their research, while emphasizing the salience of research conducted on humans as linguistic, historical, and self-understanding beings. Each paper contributes to an analysis of historiographical transitioning between the past and present, demonstrating that scientific methods and practices closely associated with one set of moral, social, or political ends may be reinvent- ed to serve new ones; that contemporary disciplinary change is also social change; that historical work can and should inform contemporary biosciences; and that researchers cannot, and should not, hope to escape their disciplinary past. Together, these histories combine methods from the history and philosophy of science with science and technology studies and normative analysis. A wide range of source materials has been drawn upon, from archival investigation to museological research, oral history, laboratory ethnography, and collaborations with national institutions. Lefkaditou, Ageliki From racial types to populations: the 1940s reinvention of American physical anthropology By the 1950s the dice had been cast in favour of a new physical anthropology integrated in the wider context of evolutionary synthesis. The two UNESCO declarations on race (1950, 1951), drafted by the world’s leading anthropologists and geneticists, cemented the intellectual and political will to abandon typological thinking and reinvent the study of human variation and evolution away from any associations with Nazi science. In the US, these events had been preceded by at least a decade of intense discussions within a new generation of young and ambitious physical anthropologists. Despite considerable inconsistencies and disagreements about the future of the field, their aspirations, and methodology, they were all eager to redefine their place and authority in this shifting environment. The paper explores these attempts by following the work and personal communications of the American physical anthropologist John L. Angel. His sustained professional ties and friendships with nearly all major scholars of his times facilitated meetings, joined publications, and exchanges between people as unlikely as Earnest Hooton, Carleton Coon, Ashley Montagu, and Sherwood Washburn. Thus, the paradoxical pairing of his training and commitment in the typological tradition with his liberal, antiracist views becomes the lense through which to look at the complex grid of personal, scholarly, institutional, and political affiliations that influenced post-war anthropology. In the end, the paper is a reflection on 74 the significant and lasting effects of moments of scientific transition not only on disciplinary arrangements but also on individual trajectories.

Lieffers, Caroline “Perishing in the Cause of Science”: Justus von Liebig’s Food for Infants and the Laboratory’s Material Limits In the summer of 1867, controversy erupted in the European scientific community. Justus von Liebig’s new “food for infants,” which the chemist had been aggressively promoting for more than two years, appeared to be deadly. When a noted Paris accoucheur tested the concoction of cow’s milk, flour, and malt on four newborns, the babies died within days, suffering from clear digestive distress. Set against a backdrop of high infant mortality and the 1867 Paris Inter- national Exposition, where the material products of industrial chemistry were taking centre stage, the Liebig scandal raised unsettling questions about whether laboratory findings could transition safely to practice. The first half of this presentation will trace the professional debate that erupted over Liebig’s food, which cast doubt on the chemist’s role as a neutral, ethical, and reliable figure in matters of both personal and public health. The second section will survey the controversy’s depiction in the popular press, revealing late nineteenth-century anxieties about chemistry’s ascendant authority in matters of food, bodies, and society. As it stretched chemistry’s reach beyond the laboratory, synthesizing the most precious of substances for both private households and public health projects, Liebig’s infant food was a powerful material metonym for the potential risks and rewards of trust in science, and the challenge of constructing and enforc- ing such trust in the first place.

Lightman, Bernard

Organizer The papers in this proposed session will draw on research conducted by members of a research team of scholars exploring the public perception of the relationship between science and religion, past and present. A Templeton Religion Trust funded project, “Science and Religion: Exploring the Spectrum” includes historians, philosophers, sociologists, and social psychologists. The proposed session focuses on a specific moment of scientific transition in Britain—the publication of Darwin’s Origin of Species (1859)--that has had a profound impact on how the relationship between science and religion has been viewed by members of the intellectual elite. In general, the Origin has been seen as having disturbed a harmonious relationship between science and religion based on the acceptance of the principles of natural theology. However, scholars working on the history of the relationship between science and religion over the last thirty-five years have rejected a historiographical approach that over-emphasizes conflict. Instead, lead by such scholars as John Brooke and Ronald Numbers, they have adopted the “complexity thesis” as an antidote to the “conflict thesis” or any other thesis that applies one model to history. Yet, historians working in this field of study have tended to assume that the “conflict thesis” is still widely accepted, especially by members of the public. But is this really the case? Has it ever been the case? In this session the participants attempt to answer this question through an examination of British periodicals, publishers, and publics from the 1860’s to the present.

Lightman, Bernard Periodical Reviewers and Draper’s History of the Conflict Between Science and Religion J. W. Draper’s History of the Conflict Between Science and Religion (1874) is a key text in the history of the relationship between science and religion. Scholars have traced the beginnings of the conflict model to the publication of this book. The conflict model was the accepted historiographical model right up until the 1970’s. But what did contemporary periodical reviewers think of Draper’s book? Did they accept the conflict thesis as outlined in it? Or did they find flaws in it? Through an examination of the contemporary periodical reviews of Draper’s now iconic work, I will discuss how they characterized the public debate in the 1870’s on the relationship between science and religion. I will also examine how the reviews were part of the process whereby periodicals created a public space within which the relationship between science and religion could be explored.

75 Liskova, Katerina Sex between health and pleasure: Sexology and the quest for the female orgasm in communist Czechoslovakia Every state has a vital interest in biological reproduction. As vehicles for making new citizens, female bodies are especially prone to discipline by various experts. The push for fertility in communist Czechoslovakia came with an unexpected twist: the quest for the female orgasm. In the socialized medicine of early 1950s Czechoslovakia, women with difficulties bearing children underwent treatment at the Františkovy Lázně spa. Between the years 1950 and 1952, almost 11,000 women from all walks of life and from all over the country sought to be cured there. About 19% of them did not show any somatic problems, which confounded local gynecologists. Many of those women complained of various deficiencies in their sex lives and blamed their sterility on these shortcomings. Doctors from the Sexological Institute in Prague, the world’s first university-based center for sexual science that had been founded in 1921, were summoned to shed light on the problem. How did sexologists make sense of women’s conditions? What advice did they offer to improve the problems? The answers were connected to the broader framing of sexuality, which shifted between early years of state socialism and its late stages. The 1970s witnessed the institutionalization and spread of sex therapy. This paper traces the evolution of how physicians applied the science of sexology to understand proper, healthy and satisfying (hetero)sexuality, throughout the communist period in Czechoslovakia. It argues that changes in the political climate also reverberated through the sexological sciences.

Llach, Daniel Cardoso Maps Laced With Data: Designing the Computational Image, Imagining Computational Design, 1959-1970 This paper traces the theories about design formulated by engineers and mathematicians working under the umbrella of the CAD Project, a research project funded by the United States Air Force between 1959 and 1970 at the Mas- sachusetts Institute of Technology. A joint effort combining faculty and students of the electrical and mechanical engineering departments at MIT, the CAD Project sought to put recent advances in servomechanisms, time-sharing, numerically controlled machinery and cathode ray tube monitors in the service of design and manufacturing for military and commercial purposes. Besides coining the phrase “Computer-Aided Design,” CAD Project members were responsible for developing or laying the foundations for numerous innovations including interactive computer graph- ics, computer-vision, and object oriented programming languages. Besides a contemporary impulse towards language development and symbolic manipulation, the paper shows, a new intellectual concern about design as a human-machine endeavor guided this technological project. As project members —chiefly Steven A. Coons and Douglas Ross— debated (often contentiously) the boundaries of human and machine agencies in design, devised empirical methods to “understand” creative practices, and endowed design representations with new powers derived from their numerical structures, they helped articulate a discursive and technological landscape that fundamentally re-shaped the way design disciplines, from architecture and engineering to product design, perceive their practices and the world.

Lloyd, Hattie Patriotic chemistry in the lecture theatre, London 1801-1812 This project is about finding new ways to understand historical audiences for science, using the case study of the audience at Humphry Davy’s chemistry and geology lectures at the Royal Institution of Great Britain in London, 1801- 1812. Davy lectured to his audience throughout the Napoleonic Wars. Previous studies describing Davy’s audience have focussed on the lecturer: switching to the perspective of the audience, the historiography changes. In this paper, I argue that Davy and his audience in London co-constructed chemistry as a patriotic enterprise. Contemporaries described Davy’s audience as mostly female. In her history of the British identity (1707-1837), Linda Colley demonstrates that displays of female patriotism in Britain following the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars with France reached unprecedented levels. Using press reports and the papers of female actors in Davy’s audience, I tie chemistry in the lecture theatre to an idealised form of female moral patriotism. Chemistry in late-eighteenth century Britain is often associated with political radicals such as Joseph Priestley and Thomas Beddoes. Although Davy spent his youth in radical circles, the press reports of his lectures at the Royal Institution show that following the French Revolution, chemistry in London assumed a new guise in Davy’s lecture theatre. Chemistry threw off its radical associations, and was re-framed as contributing to the war effort and national stability. In the lecture theatre, Davy’s newly isolated sodi- um and potassium metals became weapons of war capable of securing stability.

76 Lloyd, Hattie

Organizer In 1794, the French chemist Antoine Lavoisier met his end at the guillotine as a tax farmer. It was a time of political upheaval: the Napoleonic Wars that raged over vast swathes of the globe in the early-nineteenth century followed the American and French Revolutionary Wars. What happened to chemistry in Europe after Lavoisier? This paper session examines how actors across Europe used chemistry to strengthen their political standpoints across the major transitions at the turn of the century. Looking at four case studies in Britain, Sweden and Spain, these case studies exemplify how chemistry was shaped by national agendas in volatile political climates. We address the following questions: was chemistry developing in the same way throughout Europe, and how did political upheaval affect chemistry's development in different localities? Can chemistry in return be seen to have had an effect on revolutionary politics? How influential were French chemistry and Lavoisier? How much chemical exchange was there between nations? This proposed paper session has the official sponsorship of the Forum for the History of Chemical Sciences (FoHCS).

Lutz, Raechel Refining a State: Technologies of Oil Refining and the Making of a Petroleum Society This paper is a version of the second chapter in my dissertation “Oil in Water: An Environmental History of Oil Refin- ing in New Jersey, 1877-1974” which analyzes the many ways the petroleum economy has been carved onto America’s landscapes and the politics that shaped such changes. Oil histories have investigated consumerism, sites of extraction, and the politics of oil, but none have investigated the specific technological processes of oil refining and how those processes have influenced societies dependent on oil and petrochemical products. I build on the work of scholars interested in the connections between the oil industry, nature, and politics and use the concept and material processes of oil refining to analyze what it means to make petrochemicals from crude oil and to sketch the influence of such processes on society and nature. This chapter explores the technological history of the oil refinery, and argues that we can use the refinery as a methodological and theoretical tool to analyze the influences of petroleum and petroleum products on society. I discuss how the technological changes in petroleum technology – shifting from kerosene to gasoline, ad- vancements in anti-knock technologies, and the discovery of catalytic cracking processes and the material limits of the hydrocarbon molecules of petroleum – determined the kind of products available to consumers and ultimately helped shape the ways consumer society expanded over the twentieth century.

MacDonald, J. Marc ‘This discovery is a grand desideratum in science:’ Exploring the Transition from Colonial to Cosmopolitan Sci- ence, 1755-1859. During the Enlightenment there was a transition from colonial to cosmopolitan science. Scientific secrecy, which had characterized the policies of European overseas empires, eroded and cosmopolitanism reasserted itself. French and British governments pressured the Spanish to accept the right of their naval expeditions to sail the Pacific Ocean in the name of scientific exploration. Natural philosophers and philosophes promoted voyages to improve science. Jean- Jacques Rousseau lamented that Europeans, despite centuries of voyages, lacked satisfactory observations of distant lands to address important debates, including whether orangutans were men or beasts. Joseph Priestley argued that “a grand desideratum in science” was for European philosophical societies to unite to fit “ships for the complete discovery of the face of the earth.” Rousseau, a Genevan, and Priestley, a Briton, had little in common. Yet, they were connected through a cosmopolitan network of explorers, naturalists, translators, philosophers, and scientists that supported scientific voyages into the nineteenth century. Continental naturalists of this network inspired Charles Darwin’s celebrated voyage on the Beagle and influenced his subsequent research. Appeals made in the 1750s for new voyages, and improved knowledge about distant lands, culminated in the 1850s with Darwin’s theory of evolution. My research will enhance our historical understanding of collaboration, among Europeans and indigenous inhabitants of southern regions, and of how natural-history collection transpired in different geo-political spaces. Tracing the movements of members of such networks, across multiple borders and into different cultural zones, will demonstrate how cosmopolitan science differed from colonial forms.

77 MacLachlan, Anne STEM Ph.D. Programs and Women: Shaping Opportunity through US Policy and Institutional Change, the Decade of the 1980s. The purpose of this paper is to answer the question why the numbers of women earning Ph.D.s in science fields have increased so erratically since the 1970s focusing on the decade 1980-1990. It is based on a unique combination of a historical analysis of the institutional framework shaping the expansion of scientific research and the training of Ph.D.s at US universities with a mixed methods study of 158 STEM Ph.D. recipients from the University of California. The 1980s was a kind of golden age for scientific research. Increased funding to support women and minority students in tandem with equal rights legislation expanded opportunity, but were a result of particular US social conditions and large changes in policy. The 1989 fall of the Soviet Union led to policy changes affecting support for scientific training. Doctoral program structure had not changed internally in the 1980s and expansion had not “solved” the problem of including underrepresented populations in an upward trajectory of Ph.D. acquisition. This is illuminated by connecting larger policy and institutional trends with the specific experience of doctoral students at a leading research university. The greatest contribution of the paper is contextualizing the study findings in the larger institutional landscape and linking them to the subsequent major studies of others.

Mak, Bill M. The transitional science of the Indo-Greeks as seen in theVṛddhayavanajātaka , Yavanajātaka and Bṛhajjātaka In 2012, a new manuscript of the Yavanajātaka not used in Pingree’s 1978 edition was discovered in the NGMPP collection. Subsequently, new readings from this manuscript, especially from the last chapter on mathematical astronomy, were found to be essential in providing some new interpretations of this historically important Indo-Greek jyotiṣa text. Together with two other jātaka texts, Mīnarāja’s Vṛddhayavanajātaka and Varāhamihira’s Bṛhajjātaka, these early jyotiṣa texts provide us the most detailed evidence of the scientific knowledge (astronomy and medical science) of the Indo-Greeks. In this paper, I would like to examine the transitional nature of Indian science during the early first millennium CE in context, that is, from their Vedic antecedents to the subsequent classical form as evident in works of the following millennium.

Marshall, Heather Frank Farley: A Pioneer Naturalist and Early Environmentalist in Alberta This paper will discuss the work of a prominent early settler in East Central Alberta, to argue that at least some of the region’s early non-aboriginal immigrants cared deeply about the natural world. Frank Farley (1870-1949), a keen amateur ornithologist, participated actively in conversations with distinguished ornithologists such as federal scientist Percy Taverner and Professor William Rowan, the first chair of the Zoology Department at the University of Alberta. Despite an active and successful business career, Farley found time to make significant contributions to ornithology, wildlife protection, and environmental education, writing numerous scientific articles, mentoring several individuals who went on to distinguished careers in science, as well as writing the pioneering work, Birds of the Battle River Re- gion in 1932. Additionally, Farley served as the first warden at the Miquelon Lakes Bird Sanctuary. We will argue that his life suggests the challenges and opportunities confronting the first environmental scientists – both amateur and professional – who worked in Alberta, a group whose significant contributions are rarely acknowledged.

Martin, Rebecca The Importance of Simultaneous Transitions: Anatomical Modelling and the Rise of Evolutionary Theory. When two transitions occur at the same time in related fields of knowledge, it seems necessary to assess if and how these might have connected with and influenced each other. In the middle of the Nineteenth Century there was a move in anatomical study towards the use of mass produced and standardised wax and papier-mâché models. At the same time, we also see the broad acceptance of evolutionary theory within the sciences. This paper will explore the possibility of a links between these two simultaneous transitions in science and medicine, assessing the feasibility and worth of such a study. The work of Adrian Desmond on anatomy and evolution in the period preceding these transitions shows us that this anatomy was ‘no homogeneous, neutral form of knowledge’ (Desmond, The Politics of Evolution (1989), 372). This paper will build upon this work, illustrating the connections between a wider acceptance

78 of evolutionary theories and the development of normative body images. However, this is more than just a tale of changes in material culture as a result of shifts in accepted knowledge. There are two ways in which these new models could have interacted with the evolutionary debates of the period, either in support of monogenic or polygenic ideas of human origin. In fact, these models can be seen to have changed the nature of evolutionary dialogue possible in anatomical classrooms. This paper looks to enunciate the complex relationship between these two transitions, ultimately asking whether one transition can help us define another.

Mathias, Manon ‘Frenzy for fertilizer’: Recycling human waste in the nineteenth-century French novel This paper considers attitudes towards excrement both as a form of pollution and as source of life. The focus is on France in the second half of the nineteenth century, when the country was highly dependent on agriculture and manure yet also challenged by the rising volumes of human waste in urban centres. An enhanced understanding of agricultural chemistry led to a range of publications advocating the use of human excrement as fertilizer. But by the second half of the century, interest in human manure was gradually eclipsed by the rise of chemical fertilizers and a concern with safety owing to advances in bacteriology. The transition from the valuing of excrement to a concern with its disease-spreading properties will be the focus of the paper. I concentrate on socialist philosopher Pierre Leroux’s ecological system reusing human faeces as manure. Although Leroux’s system is explored by leading authors well into the 1890s, it has never been examined from a literary perspective. Moving away from existing studies which focus on urban waste, I will analyse agricultural texts by novelists George Sand, Gustave Flaubert and Émile Zola, which reveal conflicting and ambivalent attitudes towards faeces as filth on the one hand and valuable life source on the other. But they also go beyond this dichotomy to pursue a more troubling attraction towards filth as death, abjection, and decay. The central hypothesis is that the novel can play a unique role in thinking about our own physicality and our place within the wider ecosystem.

McGuire, Coreen Inside the Chamber of Silence: Phyllis M.T. Kerridge’s Standardisation of Audiometric Tests Women in science have received greater attention from scholars in recent years, as their work in various fields have been recognised as influential. In the field of audiometry, however, women have received little attention despite their disproportionate involvement within its sphere. Drawing on previously unused sources from the Royal Ear Hospital Archives and the BT Archives, this paper addressed the neglected work of Dr. Phyllis M.T. Kerridge (1902-1940), a physiologist whose pioneering work significantly contributed to clinical audiometry. Adopting a transatlantic perspective, we argue Kerridge’s intense focus on audiometric standardisation during the 1930s affected the promotion of oralism (a pedagogical method for teaching the deaf speech) in the United States and Canada, as well as the development of pre-NHS state care for the deaf in Britain. We trace this influence by focusing on how Kerridge’s research into accurate and objective data on hearing was created in the hearing clinic she managed between 1937 and 1939. Her clinic was the first of its kind in the UK and was notable for featuring a unique “Silence Room,” an early anechoic chamber which offered conditions for creating standardised criteria for audiometric tests. Following the approach pioneered by Latour and Woolgar in Laboratory Life, we position the Silence Room within the transitions of audiometry and broader hearing culture, arguing Kerridge’s research is significant for approaching the construction of deafness as deviant from the standard of “normal hearing.”

Millar, Sarah Louise Knowing the Unknowable: producing scientific knowledge on the deep sea on maritime voyages of Pacific exploration in the mid-Nineteenth-Century This paper considers the emergence of the marine sciences on national voyages of exploration in the mid-Nine- teenth-century, a period of time commonly considered to predate any sustained effort to interrogate the underwater environment. In an attempt to understand something of the largely unfathomable ocean, measurements were taken daily of water current, temperature, and salinity; depth soundings and bottom sampling were frequently undertaken, and the collection of animal life enabled more consistent classification of species and the production of a diverse array of representations. This paper considers the variety of tasks undertaken that related to the submarine environment and how the everyday, embodied practices of scientific investigation on board ship influenced the scientific information

79 that was produced there. These shipboard practices are considered using the example of three voyages of exploration in the South Seas in the 1830s and 1840s: the French Pacific exploring expedition led by Dumont d'Urville in 1837- 41; the United States Exploring Expedition led by Charles Wilkes in 1838-42 and the British Antarctic Expedition led by James Clark Ross in 1839-43. What emerges is a complex dynamic between personnel, space, instrumentation and environmental conditions that produced a fraught and fragile network, nonetheless contributing significantly to a burgeoning interest in the deep sea. It also highlights the ocean as an unknown and largely unknowable space for the Nineteenth-century investigator, raising epistemological and ontological questions over the type of knowledge that could be produced from its murky depths.

Miller, Emelin “The changes in the face of the globe should be attended to:” Thomas Pennant and Arctic Zoology in the Enlight- enment The Welsh naturalist, Thomas Pennant, published the synthetic overview, Arctic Zoology, in 1784. Limiting himself to the fauna, archaeology, and cultures north of 60 degrees latitude, Pennant applies Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon’s ideas about the dependent relationship between humans, animals, and geography to the lands along the Artic Circle. Originally meant to be a zoological survey of the North American continent, Pennant begrudgingly changed direction after the United States successfully finalized their overthrow of British rule in 1783. Utilizing an immense network of naturalist contacts throughout northern and eastern Europe, Canada, and the United States, Pennant traced “Arctic” fauna from the Orkney Islands through Scandinavia, Russia and Greenland. Arctic Zoology demonstrates how Pennant conceptualized notions of geographical and geological change as inextricably linked to population changes of animals, humans, and plants. This particular understanding of “change over time” is borne out in the Welshman’s particular brand of patriotism, which in his own terms can be labeled as “militant naturalist.” Through Arctic Zoology, I will discuss how the Arctic as a specific “environment” was an ideal landscape for Pennant to test Leclerc’s geographical determinism. In addition, I aim to show how Pennant’s conception of political and population changes in humans effected his portrayal of Arctic natural history. Ultimately, we can draw conclusions about Pen- nant’s understanding of anthropogenic changes to landscapes and animal populations in relation to his Enlightenment utilitarianism.

Mitchell, Daniel Jon Dimensions of meaning and the meaning of dimensions in James Clerk Maxwell’s mathematics of measurement: a social and disciplinary perspective The late-nineteenth century gradually witnessed a liberalization of the kinds of mathematical object and forms of mathematical reasoning that were admissible in physical argumentation, yet historians of nineteenth-century physics tend not to problematize knowledge exchange between mathematics and physics communities, nor recognize the mathematical novelties in theoretical research in physics. This is probably an unfortunate by-product of the perceived mathematical maturation of the physics discipline at the beginning of the nineteenth century. I oppose this view by investigating a clash between Joseph Everett and James Thomson, who acted as proxies for James Clerk Maxwell and William Thomson (James’ brother) respectively, over the permissible algebraic manipulations of dimensional formulae. I argue that their positions boiled down to whether the meaning of these manipulations ought to stem from formal rules or correspondence with operations in the physical world. The former strategy was associated with the increasing disciplinary specialization of the mathematical community, the latter with a longstanding pedagogical tradition in arithmetic, which gained renewed vigor through dramatic changes to science education in Britain during the 1860s and 1870s. What looks like a dispute over a seemingly esoteric mathematical tool turns out to concern the relevance of symbolical algebra to the representation of the concrete results of measurement, and hence ultimately the permissible forms of mathematical argument in physical theory. The paper offers a case study into a transformation crucial to the emergence of theoretical physics, in which intermediate steps in a mathematical argument need have no direct physical meaning.

80 Mitchell, Benjamin “The Colour-blindness of thinkers”: Friedrich Nietzsche, Physiological Aesthetics, and Physio-Aesthetic Epistemol- ogy Interest has been a growing in the past decade in what has been called Nietzsche’s “Physiological Aesthetics”. Yet this term, taken from Grant Allen’s 1877 work of the same name, appears only a handful of times in Nietzsche’s corpus, and seldom, if ever, in the evolutionary context that Allen described. Nietzsche’s interest in the relationship between physiology, aesthetics, and epistemology goes back much earlier than the appearance of Allen’s text. This talk will show how Nietzsche’s early interest in the intersection of physiology, aesthetics, and epistemology in the thinking of figures such as Arthur Schopenhauer, Friedrich Zöllner, and Herman von Helmholtz helped lead him to his physiologically inflected form of relativism. It was a relativism that emerged from his broader interests in education and the physiology of perception, and culminated in the importance he came to place on creative limitations in philosophy, physiology, and art.

Monaldi, Daniela Fritz London and the scale of quantum mechanisms Fritz London presented his seminal idea of “quantum mechanisms on a macroscopic scale” at the first international meeting of physicists after WWII, the International Conference on Fundamental Particles and Low Temperatures, which was held in July 1946 at the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge, UK. London’s aim was to explain the low-temperature phenomena of superfluidity and superconductivity on the basis of the new conception of matter that emerged from quantum mechanics. His unifying interpretation of the “superfluids” was vindicated in the 1960s, and it earned London a place of honour among the spiritual fathers of condensed matter physics. This paper explores the genesis of London’s innovative interpretation, linking it to broader developments in physics, in particular, to the evolution of physicists’ views about the nature of particles.

Mouat, Jeremy Frank Farley: A Pioneer Naturalist and Early Environmentalist in Alberta. This panel will consist of three papers that examine separate periods in western Canada, from the point of first contact between indigenous peoples and European visitors and traders, through the homesteading period following the region’s formal incorporation into the new Dominion of Canada and the subsequent establishment and growth of new towns in the early 20th century, and finally to a point in the 1960s when the expertise of a federal agency based in western Canada – the Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Administration – was such that it could engage in development work in Africa, promoting irrigation. Taken together, these three papers suggest the ways in which western science and its practitioners in western Canada became established in the region, looking at the diverse areas of cartography, ornithology, and agricultural science.

Moxham, Noah

Organizer Journals are now widely regarded as crucial to the making and communicating of scientific knowledge, but it was only in the nineteenth century, some 150 years after the foundation of Philosophical Transactions, that they became more significant than books, treatises and oral presentations. This panel focuses on that in-between period, a long eighteenth century, and it focuses particularly upon the role of the people who edited journals in this period. What did they think their periodicals were for? How did they solicit, acquire or select contributions? How did they promote and distribute their publications? In a period when 'the scientific journal' had yet to become a clearly recognised genre, these are important questions for understanding the communication of natural knowledge in the public sphere. These papers, by putting pressure on the generic identity and coherence of the scientific periodical at key points in its history, help to identify crucial transitions in the development of science communication during this period.

81 Moxham, Noah Following Henry Oldenburg: the next generation of scientific editors in Britain (1677-1727) Henry Oldenburg’s status as the founder of the scientific periodical (Philosophical Transactions) and the first scientific editor are truisms of the history of early modern science. Yet the extent to which Oldenburg’s distinctive editorial preoccupations were shared by or differed from those of his successors over the next fifty years has never been investigated. Oldenburg’s characteristic concern with the novelty, currency and commercial viability of his publication, and his reliance on other books, pamphlets and periodicals for copy, were in fact far from typical. This paper argues that Oldenburg’s successors, in particular Hans Sloane, Edmond Halley, and James Jurin, who between them edited Transactions between 1695 and 1727, adopted distinct editorial styles, shaped by their respective financial concerns (or lack of them), individual research preoccupations, and an increasing alignment between the activity of the Roy- al Society’s meetings and the contents of the periodical. It also traces a development from strident proclamations of editorial independence in 1700 to an increasing sense of institutional involvement in Transactions, both at the level of corporate visions of what the periodical should be and of increasingly frequent interference in editorial decisions as the eighteenth century progressed – a process reinforced by Isaac Newton’s wish to assert control over the periodical while the calculus dispute was at its height, and achieved through the institutional mechanisms of the Royal Society.

Moya, Silvia Maria Les archives de la clinique externe de l’Hôpital Montfort d’Ottawa, 1976-2006: l’infirmière psychiatrique au sain de l’équipe multidisciplinaire Suite à la désinstitutionnalisation psychiatrique, les soins sont transférés au sein des communautés où maintenant s’activent des équipes multidisciplinaires formées de professionnels de la santé mentale. Cette nouvelle approche est inaugurée en 1973 à l’Hôpital Montfort (Ottawa) lors de l’ouverture d’une clinique externe dédiée aux soins psy- chiatriques. L’équipe multidisciplinaire – composée d’un psychiatre, d’un travailleur social, d’un psychologue, d’un ergothérapeute, d’un récréologue et d’une infirmière – prend en charge le suivi des patients. Cette communication a pour but de présenter les sources primaires sur lesquelles repose le projet de recherche sur la place de l’infirmière au sein d’une équipe multidisciplinaire durant le mouvement de désinstitutionnalisation psychiatrique en Ontario. L’accès des dossiers actifs et inactifs des patients psychiatrisés au Département de psychiatrie de l’Hôpital Montfort se révèle être une porte d’entrée privilégiée dans la compréhension des soins psychiques de notre époque. Ces dossiers témoi- gnent de l’organisation des soins des professionnels de la santé : une véritable mémoire écrite qui conserve l’histoire de soins de chaque patient. L’analyse de la section «évolution psychiatrie» des dossiers médicaux des cliniques externes – où les différents intervenants de l’équipe multidisciplinaire rédigent leurs notes de façon régulière – permet de mieux comprendre la place des différents professionnels en santé mentale dans la deuxième moitié du 20e siècle, alors que se développe le concept d’équipe multidisciplinaire. L’intersectionnalité est utilisée comme cadre théorique pour nuancer mieux cerner la contribution des infirmières à l’équipe multidisciplinaire et d’y poser un regard critique.

Myelnikov, Dmitriy From breeding to biopharming: molecular sheep in 1980s Scotland After the successful genetic modification of mice was announced in 1980, revolutionary applications for medicine and agriculture were envisioned. Whereas mouse researchers used the new techniques to examine gene expression, scientists working with farm animals adapted the methods in the hope of improving breeds. At the Animal Breeding Research Organisation (ABRO) in Edinburgh – the precursor of the Roslin Institute where Dolly was cloned in 1996 – a group of geneticists, molecular biologists and embryologists pursued a different project of synthesising valuable proteins in milk, a practice that became known as "pharming". The new programme moved the site away from its long history of breeding research, with full backing of ABRO’s new management, who reoriented towards the cutting edge in response to the dramatic cuts to agricultural research enforced by Thatcher’s government. This paper argues that as ABRO transitioned between classical and molecular genetics, between mice and sheep, it had to bring in the social world of molecular biology alongside the techniques. The institute started a biotech spin-off and sought patent protection, turning into a hybrid public-private venture by 1990. Still, its infrastructure, expertise and reputation in animal breeding were crucial in the practical and rhetorical construction of molecular sheep. While the biopharming programme was not a

82 commercial success, its legacy channeled the future research at the Roslin Institute. This paper will therefore end with a reflection on how our interpretation of Dolly can be augmented by this historical reconstruction.

Naramore, Sarah E. Making Medicine American: Benjamin Rush's "American Editions" and the adaption of European Knowledge in Post-Revolutionary America By the turn of the nineteenth century American physician Benjamin Rush (1746-1813) had rejected the medical system under which he had been trained at the University of Edinburgh. He designed instead an American system of medicine which promised to respond better to the health challenges faced by his fellow countrymen and women. This rejection, however, did not result in an abandonment of European knowledge, but rather an adaptation of key texts and figures for the American landscape. Between 1809 and 1812 Rush produced four “American Editions” of British medical texts: The Works of Thomas Sydenham, Sir John Pringle’s Observations on the Diseases of the Army, William Hillary’s Observations on the changes of the Air and the Concomitant epidemical Diseases in the Island of Barbadoes, and George Cleghorn’s Observations on the Epidemical Diseases of Minorca. This paper considers Rush’s use of these texts to support a new mode of medical thinking. In all cases Rush heavily annotated the original British texts for the stated purpose of adapting them to an American audience and American disease. However, these annotations also direct the reader to a specific interpretation of the books different from both the intentions of the original authors and European commentators. Taken together these editions highlight more than Rush’s own ambitions, but the why in which context shapes information and the production of intellectual authority.

Naylor, Simon Historical geographies of meteorology in late-Victorian Britain This paper considers attempts in the nineteenth century to coordinate and regulate the practices of Britain’s volunteer meteorological observers. It focuses in particular on the Royal Meteorological Society and its role in the establishment of a network of observers that would guarantee a comprehensive geographical coverage of the weather of the British Isles. The establishment of a set of standardised instrumental and observational practices was crucial to the production of robust information about the British weather. The paper highlights the significance of key sites of instrumental experimentation, such as the work that was carried out at Strathfield Turgiss in the English county of Hampshire to test various types of instruments and instrument stands. Contemporary guides to the deployment and use of meteorological instruments are also considered, such as Henry James’s 1861 Instructions for Taking Meteorological Observa- tions, and William Marriott’s 1881 Hints to Meteorological Observers. From the early 1870s the Royal Meteorological Society managed a large network of observers, largely through the labours of its Secretary, William Marriott. Marriott maintained an extensive correspondence with the Society’s volunteers, through which he attempted to enforce the Society’s instrumental and observational standards, as well as principles of data management. These were reinforced through site visits by Marriott and George Symons, the head of the British Rainfall Organisation. In its consideration of sites of experiment and observation, and in its tracing out of networks of correspondence, the paper develops a historical geography of meteorology in late-Victorian Britain.

Neuss, Michael J. Calculating the Circulation of Blood: Harvey’s De motu cordis (1628) as an Exercise in Accounting This paper argues that William Harvey’s famous quantitative argument from De motu cordis (1628) about the circulation of blood borrowed heavily from the calculative and rhetorical skills of merchants, including Harvey’s own brothers. Historians have missed this connection, in part because modern translations of De motu cordis obscure the language of accountancy that Harvey himself used. Like a merchant accounting for credits and debits, intake and output, goods and moneys, Harvey treated venous and arterial blood as essentially commensurate, quantifiable, and fungible. For Harvey, the circulation (and recirculation) of blood was an arithmetic necessity, explained through the reckoning of accounts commonly called the “quantitative argument” by modern historians. The literature on the scientific revolution has traditionally cast Harvey as a transformative figure, while missing the transition of mercantile ways of thinking about circulation into medical domains that Harvey facilitated. This paper illuminates that movement of knowledge from commercial to corporeal domains, and in so doing, reveals the mercantile origins of key aspects of De motu cordis. Put another way, this paper takes seriously and attempts to explain Harvey’s own language of a reckoning

83 of accounts. It treats as significant the comparatively deep knowledge of arithmetic that Harvey had mastered, relative to his contemporaries.

Newell, Catherine L Food Fundamentalism: Diet as Science and Spiritual Practice This paper examines how food cultures fuse science and religion in American society; in particular, I look at how popular science and Internet media have facilitated the integration of science and religion at the level of individual spiritual practice. I illuminate how science is used to justify a diet/lifestyle and explore the world of “diet cults”: people who identify themselves not by a religion but by their diet (vegan, Paleo, gluten free, locavore). The science used is often broadly interpreted, and, following Latour, “black boxed”—what is significant in the use of science to provide evidence for a diet are the outputs, not the minutia of research and the scientific methodology. Diets are based in sciences such as anthropology, ecology, systems biology, nutritional studies, biomedicine, and physiology, but adherents view the leveraging of science to substantiate the diet practice as part of a lifestyle and path to spiritual enlightenment. Evidence for diet as spiritual practice is found in online “conversion narratives,” personal stories describing the conversion to a certain diet. While on one level this paper explores how food, health, and diet can be a source of spiritual fulfillment, on another level I illustrate how food can serve religious as well as physical needs. Far from being in a state of conflict, at bottom what I hope to show is how religion and science are firmly integrated in everyday life. As religious affiliation wanes in America, perhaps we are transitioning into a new era of science-based spirituality.

Nickerson, Sylvia British publishers as agents within evolution and religion debates, 1860-1890 Three London-based publishers – Longmans, Macmillan and John Murray – served an increasingly global trade in mass-market books and print media emergent in the latter nineteenth century. At the same time these publishers were expanding their bookselling business, evolutionary theory and its social, political and religious implications were increasingly debated in their books and periodicals. To what degree religious beliefs and science provided valid ground for physical and/or metaphysical investigation was a frequent topic in the printed products these publishers produced, sold and distributed. This paper examines to what degree each publisher promoted a pro-evolutionary agenda, and shows how their publications shaped public perceptions of evolutionary theory and its social, political and religious implications. The ground upon which these publications set to work is defined by an analysis of book reviews in periodicals and correspondence from individuals who read the print materials produced. How these publications changed the image of science and redefined its publics will be tracked over the three decades in question.

Nikiforova, Natalia Constructing Images of Electricity – Marketing Strategies of Foreign Companies in Russia (1880 – 1917) In nineteenth-century Russia predominantly foreign companies operated successfully on the electrical market. Russia had its own developments and inventions, but relied on foreign expertise and equipment. In the 1880s three foreign companies supplied power and manufactured electrical appliances in St.Petersburg. These companies developed marketing strategies that would make the novelty acceptable and welcomed by Russian consumers. Companies constructed an image of the technology relying on various themes: elegance and innovation (Siemens&Halske); appeal to women’s taste and promise to transform household practices (Belgian Society for Electric Lighting); functionality and simplic- ity (Helios). Electric lighting was first encountered by audiences through dazzling visual effects at Imperial spectacles. These supported the Emperor’s scenario of power and national ideology by using illuminated national flag, symbols, and church crosses. Advertisements developed national pride by utilizing Russian traditional motifs and Lubok, suggested an idealized reality, and emphasized the desirability of material abundance. Electric lighting became a feature in department store advertisements, and was inscribed in the visual culture of modern commodity spectacle inspired by the idea of exhibitions. The paper will look at pictorial conventions, symbolism, historical allusions and social themes in representations of electricity in Russian advertising, engaging with Loeb’s Consuming Angels (1994) and Gooday’s Domesticating Electricity (2008), where advertisements were analyzed in relation to the ideas of progress, national identity, social values. This representation of electric lighting as a part of consumer culture and material values develops Richards’ conception in The Commodity Culture of Victorian England (1991).

84 Omodeo, Pietro Daniel

Organizer This session brings into focus the mechanisms and practices of institutionalization, assimilation, transformation and dissemination of knowledge, especially of innovative scientific practices (e.g., experimental approaches, observational standards or argumentative methods) and of natural theories (e.g., planetary or matter theories), within the early modern European network of academic institutions. This concerns universities as well as scientific academies, which were connected through territorial, political and confessional ties informing statutes, curricula and teaching. The institutionalization of knowledge at universities was marked by the embedment of new theories in pre-existing curricula and cultural traditions. The latter consisted in practices of teaching and of knowledge dissemination, customary forms of professors’ recruitment, disciplinary hierarchies and the reliance on a codified corpus of canonical sources prescribed by statutes. The establishment of scientific academies was characterized by the progressive shift from a social system of knowledge grounded on patronage to one based on state-sponsored organizations. This process was marked by the creation of collective and experiment-based organizations, complementary to universities. Their establishment institutionalized specific scientific practices, alternative processes of legitimacy and new protocols of argumentation and communication. Less formalized circles and international networks circulated knowledge and techniques via exchanges of letters, books and instruments, and reinforced scholars’ collective identity through their adherence to shared values. New means of communication of knowledge led to the creation of scientific journals such as the 'Philosophical Trans- actions', the 'Journal des Sçavants' and the 'Acta eruditorum'.

Omodeo, Pietro Daniel The Transition from Renaissance Humanism to Reformed Scholarship: Perspectives on Science at Melanchthonian Universities In this communication I will consider the institutionalization and transformation of Renaissance humanism and Scholasticism at universities that followed the guidelines of Philipp Melanchthon during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. I will particularly discuss the translation of the humanistic program of mathematical humanism (e.g. that propounded by Regiomontanus in fifteenth-century Italy) at Lutheran-Philippist Philosophical Faculties, where mathematical and astronomical studies were fostered but also overdetermined by ethical and religious meanings. This amplified scientific debates such as those on planetary hypotheses and cometary theory. A new late-humanistic scholarly tradition was established through university networks extending from German Mitteleuropa to the Baltic Area, the Netherlands and Great Britain. On the one hand, the existence of this institutional space permitted a wide circulation and development of ideas, as paradigmatically showed by the geocentric reworking of Copernican astronomy initiated by Melanchthon’s circle in Wittenberg. On the other hand, the consolidation of this tradition along confessional and political lines hindered scientific and philosophical approaches perceived as alien to the humanistic-Scholastic line, as was the case with Ramist logic and Cartesianism.

Opitz, Donald L. Size Matters: Flora, Florilegia, and the Foundations of Botanical Knowledge In this paper I explore how representations of botanical "objects" in folio publication entered into priority disputes over the naming of colonial botanical flora. Focusing on the case of Victoria regia, I consider how folios representing the flower persisted during the period in which cheap periodical literature proliferated in the early decades of the nineteenth century. I suggest the folio botanical genre, as a form constitutive of gentlemanly science, established botanical authority based on conventions of class, and in the process domesticated a botanical object as an amusement of genteel society.

Owen, Janet Finding Natural Selection at the Ends of the Earth I am studying Alfred Russel Wallace’s collecting expeditions in northern New Guinea (1858) and Charles Darwin’s in Tierra del Fuego (1833-4). Both men were great observers and systematic collectors of specimens and data, which they drew upon to develop their ideas about natural selection. They were also adventurers who took significant personal risk to embark on major global expeditions of scientific and personal discovery. Acts of collecting in extreme environments

85 are intense physical and mental experiences that engage all the senses. New Guinea and Tierra del Fuego were places at the end of Wallace and Darwin’s respective worlds where they acquired rare ethnographic as well as natural history specimens. These two collecting journeys are the subject of my current research, with a particular interest in how they beat to a rhythm in the field. Challenging periods of active collecting that sometimes wrought havoc with physical and mental wellbeing, were interspersed with periods of travel, preparation, processing, stillness, reflection and recuper- ation. Through exploring this rhythm and the nature of sensory encounter involved, we can understand more about both men as collectors and scientists. My research is supported by the British Academy and University of Cambridge. In relation to the conference theme of ‘transitions’, this paper will shed new light on the major shift in scientific thinking represented by their respective theories of natural selection, and on the personal transformational journeys embarked upon by two young men at early stages in their careers and lifetimes.

Palmer, Benjamin Sincere hand and a faithful eye: Epistemic virtue and authority in Robert Hooke’s Micrographia Exactly what Robert Hooke was trying to achieve with his 1665 book Micrographia has occupied the minds of art historians, historians of science and philosophers alike. It has been argued by some that Micrographia was propaganda of sorts to promote the fledgling Royal Society and by others that it offered a new ‘pedagogy of sight’. More interesting perhaps, than the text itself, are the accompanying sumptuous illustrations, or schema throughout. Some, such as the archetypal flea, fold out to nearly half-meter in size in the original print. If, as outlined in Daston and Galison’s Ob- jectivity, scientific illustration in the 18th century followed ‘truth-to-nature’, and the 19th century saw a move towards mechanical objectivity, Hooke’s approach in illustrating his 17th century Micrographia could be described as sitting uneasily between the two. I contend that this tension is representative of the often incongruous nature of Hooke’s social and political realities. Using the principles of epistemic virtue in truth-to-nature and mechanical objectivity, I will argue that the illustrations in Micrographia present a symbolic rhetoric of transition. Of the attempts of the Royal Society to transition to a position of purpose and power in Restoration England, Hooke’s struggle with social status in his efforts to establish himself as a person of scientific authority; and his role in the advancement of a new epistemic philosophy.

Palmieri, Paolo The Paduan Heresy Giacomo Zabarella and Cesare Cremonini at Padua elaborated a model of Scholasticism that challenged the Chris- tian reconstruction of Aristotle’s natural philosophy that came to be prominent in the footsteps of Thomas Aquinas. Their combined efforts to read Aristotle in the light of the pagan Greek commentators, Plotinus and Neoplatonism, and above all of the omnipresent and towering figure of Averroes, allowed them to challenge the fundamental tenet of Scholasticism, the separation of substance and accident. It can be said that without doubt both Zabarella’s analysis of matter and Cremonini’s sophisticated theorizing on the five senses and the imagination demonstrate a heretical line of thought that can be found alive and well in Galileo’s musings on primary and secondary qualities and in his complex theory of matter.

Palmieri, Kristine On the Language and Wisdom of the Indians: Friedrich Schlegel and early 19th century Philology The philological project of the early 19th century was characterized by modes of inquiry and ways of knowing that are incommensurable with those of the modern disciplines. This incommensurability speaks to the existence of a fundamental transition in the knowledge practices of the period. Through an examination of Friedrich Schlegel’s 1808 text On the Language and Wisdom of the Indians, this paper aims to delineate the bounds of this epistemologically distinct form of philology, which aimed to construct the knowledge of man holistically. It does so by placing the four sections of Schlegel’s text into conversation with one another and examining the book as a comprehensive whole, within the context of a single philological project. In so doing this paper aims to argue against the identification of philology as a general field of study, which contained within it the discrete seeds that grew into the modern disciplines. As a result of this approach, this paper differs from the majority of the existing scholarship dealing with this text, which tends to focus either on a single section or to examine each section in isolation from the others. It also rejects teleolog-

86 ical interpretations of the text that read it in light of later developments in german politics and culture, especially those pertaining to nationalism.

Porter, Theodore M. The Mathematics of Human Defect, 1908-1935 The quantitative study of human heredity, which arose in connection with asylum tabulation and reporting about 1815, was already seeking a medical-scientific basis in family research by 1840. This form of investigation tallied sick individuals, and may be understood almost as biometry avant la lettre. Mendelians aspired to break with these statistical traditions and to define the hereditary factor as its basic unit. Mendelian inheritance, however, was no less biomet- ric than biometry, since it could only be confirmed with the appearance of Mendelian ratios, most often the 3 to 1 of recessive alleles. Most biologists and biological psychiatrists saw genetics as a break from empirical, number-grubbing traditions--at last a basic science of genetics involving real causes in place of mere averages. The more-or-less simultaneous appearance of Kraepelin's new diagnostic categories gave Mendelism a big boost in psychiatry. The work of the Eugenics Record Office seemed to make a success of this strategy for inheritance of neuropathy and feeblemindedness, but came under increasingly sharp criticism just as the genetics of blood groups took over as the model form of human genetics. By 1930, it was widely seen as failing for inheritance of mental defect, which reverted to statistics and was mostly excluded from the basic science of genetics. This paper, based mainly on the final chapter of my book in press, draws on archival research in Germany, Switzerland, the US, and Britain.

Raj, Kapil The Dutch Conquest of Malabar and the Making of the Hortus Indicus Malabaricus, 1670-1677 Drawn by the lucrative pepper trade to the south-western coast of India, the Dutch wrested control of the region from the Portuguese between 1658 and 1663 and established their own colony, Dutch Malabar, with Cochin as its principal city. Hendrik Adriaan Van Reede tot Drakenstein (1636-1691), a military officer, served as the commander of the territory from 1670 to 1677. During this period he received orders from the Netherlands to make an inventory of the region's flora in order to gain knowledge of the medicinal properties of the plants for managing the health of the thousands of Dutchmen in the Indian Ocean region and at the same time getting a better idea of export potentials. Although the authorship of the result, the 12-volume Hortus Indicus Malabaricus describing 740 regional plants and published in Amsterdam between 1678 and 1693, is attributed to Van Reede, this was a collaborative enterprise involving tens of South Asians, from the Malabar coast, but also from regions hundreds of miles away, with significantly diverse practical skills and theoretical knowledge about plants and medicine. Based on evidence provided by the text itself, this talk will detail these disparate inputs and the translation processes put to work that made it possible to render the whole in standardized Latin form with illustrations of each plant. It will also reflect on the processes of intermediation necessary to make this multicultural project possible.

Rampelt, Jason M.

Organizer Our panel 'Configuring and Reconfiguring the 'Pure' and the 'Applied' in the History of the Mathematical Sciences’ was developed in accord with the Three Societies ‘transitions’ theme. This panel will address how the ‘pure’ and ‘applied’ distinction loosely defined has changed or been sustained over time. Each of these papers addresses a significant shift or break from tradition in the mathematical sciences from which emerged new modes of thought, practice, and pedagogy. These transitions in quantitative thinking significantly altered the sciences and societies in which they were embedded and thereby study of these transitions offers, for example, new insight into human heredity, economics, and the social value of mathematics education. These papers will address how mathematicians and others developed and sustained categories such as pure and applied, empirical and basic, vocational and traditional in context. Further addressing how political and social influences as well as administrative activities such as collecting, organizing, and maintaining data helped configure and reconfigure the mathematical sciences and how these configurations influenced these historical processes in turn.

87 Rampelt, Jason M. Francisco Suarez, Instrumentalism, and English Natural Philosophy Seminal figures in English natural philosophy who were responsible for the first steps into the New Philosophy were not educated in that manner of thinking. How then they were educated, and how that education played a role in their innovations reveals key points of transition. In particular, several Englishmen show a strong affection for Francisco Suarez’s Metaphysical Disputations (1597), sometimes by clear citation and adaptation of his ideas, in others by adopting Suarezian terminology and concepts. Suarez can be seen in the writings of Francis Glisson (medicine), John Wallis (mathematics), and John Ray (botany), demonstrating the reach of Suarez into the environment which would produce the Royal Society. This intellectual history is ironic in two respects. First, it is surprising that Protestant philosophers, several of which who had originally considered professions within the Church of England, placed such value on the work of a Jesuit scholar. Second, it was Suarez, a scholastic, who provided for them a needed justification for abandon- ing the Aristotelian substances for an instrumental approach to natural things. Both ironies challenge our conceptions of the social and intellectual divisions which stand in the way of observing possible lines of continuity in the Scientific Revolution.

Raposo, Pedro Astronomy between solemnity and spectacle: the Adler Planetarium and the Chicago world exhibitions of 1893 and 1933-4. Chicago hosted two epoch-making world exhibitions: the World’s Columbian Exposition of 1893, and the Centu- ry of Progress Exposition of 1933-4. Astronomy was well represented at the Columbian Exposition, but it was even more prominent in the Century of Progress Exposition. A building named Hall of Science hosted exhibitions covering several branches of scientific knowledge, but astronomy had its focal point in the Adler Planetarium, which had been inaugurated in 1930. Worried that the new institution could become a mere venue for scientific entertainment, the founders of the Adler Planetarium had purchased a remarkable collection of antique scientific instruments. By doing so, they hoped that the Planetarium would rank alongside with the leading science museums in Europe. Century of Progress provided an opportunity for the Adler Planetarium to seek an appropriate balance between spectacle and cultural credibility, while affirming itself as a full-fledged astronomy museum. In this paper I will address the ways astronomy was presented in the 1893 and 1933-4 world exhibitions, in order to analyze the opportunities and challenges involved in the rise of modern planetaria, and particularly in the establishment of the Adler Planetarium, the first institution of its kind in America.

Redman, Emily Making Math Matter: Pure and Applied Approaches to Mathematics Instruction in Early American Textbooks The rapid expansion of the educational system in late nineteenth century America led to widespread dissatisfaction with the precollege curriculum, including that of mathematics. At that time there was a general recognition that traditional education of the nineteenth century—one based on the European tradition of focusing on Greek, Lat- in, and mathematics—must be replaced. Many argued that there needed to be a “well-accepted reason” for teaching mathematics, or the subject must be discarded from the curriculum entirely. This assertion came in the wake of a widening popular opinion that school subjects should directly train students for practical life—a theory known as the social efficiency model. In response, and fearful that mathematics instruction would not be deemed “practical” enough for inclusion in the precollege curriculum, professional mathematicians began to mobilize to help justify the place of mathematics in the curriculum, as well as to begin the reform of curricula and textbooks. Yet despite an increasing coherence of a mathematics education community, the philosophy of social efficiency continued to hold sway with many in the United States. By the 1920s, many educational leaders openly espoused recommendations that schools excise “useless and uninteresting work” and instead focus on useful applications to science and business. This paper explores the ways in which early 20th century U.S. textbooks define and redefine mathematics in terms of traditional vs. practical, and pure vs. applied.

88 Richert, Lucas Psychiatry in Transition: The Radical Therapist, 1970-1972 In 1970, American radical psychiatrists were provided a new forum for their concerns when Michael Glenn, a US Air Force psychiatrist initiated the Radical Therapist Collective and started the journal The Radical Therapist. This paper investigates The Radical Therapist's establishment, publication, and legacy. I argue that, despite its limited run, The Radical Therapist served as a forum to interpret, reformat, and broadcast anti-psychiatric and radical theories to a larger audience – thereby complicating the interplay of theory and socio-political action. It was a means to influence change in psychiatry, mental health, and society more generally. A close reading of The Radical Therapist reveals that: (1) the journal caused displeasure among other radical groups, symbolized the radical psychiatrists’ tenuous position with the larger framework of activist movements, and (2) there was significant difficulty in arresting long-standing ideological inconsistencies. The journal captured the diversity of radical thought and dealt with power and the medical model, the empirical basis of psychiatric practice and diagnosis, mental health care, and the psychiatric oppression of minority groups. Involuntary hospitalization, psychoactive drugs, electroshock, behavior modification, and psycho- surgery also served to split radical psychiatrists, and by 1971, the journal and the collective began to rupture. I suggest that the brief history of The Radical Therapist not only encapsulated this period of enormous transition in change within psychiatry, but also tested the limits of radical psychiatrists’ tolerance for each other.

Rohrer, Robin L. False Hope: the Ethics of Therapy for Children with Cancer, 1945-1970 The treatment of children with cancer was a new “science” in 1940s America—one with a short history and limited success. In 1947 Harvard pathologist Sidney Farber’s use of aminopterin to induce limited remissions in children with leukemias faced harsh criticism from colleagues. The major criticism of Farber’s trials was mostly an ethical one: that the use of “chemotherapy” only prolonged suffering in dying children. Critics emphasized the toxicity of aminopterin and the false hope that it brought to grieving parents. Rather than a hero, Farber was often regarded as violating the most basic principle: “first do no harm.” The next two post-war decades saw an infusion of funding, particularly by the National Institutes of Health in the United States, into creating new drugs to treat adults as well as children with cancer. Researchers developed single agent chemotherapy drugs in the 1950s, multi agent regimens in the 1960s and new radiation and surgical interventions and support therapy by 1970. By this time approximately one-half of children with various cancers were achieving long term remissions and even cures and debate surrounding these interventions was largely over. This paper focuses on the nature of the ethical debate, the major players and institutions, the role of public opinion and why the debate closed. The author examines archival materials, letters and oral interviews from the National Cancer Institute, the National Institutes of Health archives and published journal literature.

Roqué, Xavier Rare earths, German radium, and the rise of nuclear physics in Berlin Through the Weimar Republic, the Austrian physicist Lise Meitner (1878–1968) and the German chemist Otto Hahn (1879–1968) built up the radioactive department of the Kaiser-Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry (KWIC) in Berlin. Eventually commanding most of the institute’s space and budget, Meitner and Hahn’s department became Germany’s leading centre for radioactive research, playing a key role in the rise of the nuclear sciences in the interwar years. In this paper I seek to reassess this role by taking into account the financial and material constraints of the laboratory, in particular its dependence on the German chemical industry and its stock of radioactive substances. From the early 1920s on, Meitner deemed the constitution of nuclei a research priority, yet the KWIC was under-stocked for an elite radioactive centre, having to make do with a fraction of the radium available in the Cavendish in Cambridge, or the Institut du Radium in Paris: “Even mesothorium and radiothorium, which were discovered and are produced in Germany, are available in much larger amounts at the other institutes” (Hahn and Meitner to F. Glum, 20 Jan 1927, Archiv zur Geschichte der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft). How did the Berlin radioactivists cope with this situation? And how did the institute’s reliance on major lighting companies and rare earth producers affect its research program? I will discuss the opportunities and constraints shaping the transition from radioactivity to nuclear physics in Berlin through the Weimar years.

89 Rose, Edwin Sir Hans Sloane’s personal copy of his own book: A Voyage to…Jamaica (1707-25) and the transition from specimens to print In January 1754, a year after the death of the famous naturalist and former President of the Royal Society, Sir Hans Sloane, James Empson (d. 1765), Sloane’s curator, compiled a report for the Trustees of the new British Museum. Empson outlined the structure of Sloane’s collections and listed the main manuscript catalogues and a number of printed books. These printed works included Sloane’s copy of his own book, A Voyage to…Jamaica, which Sloane used ‘as an index to his own collection of Jamaica plants’. Sloane’s Jamaican herbarium originated from his voyage to Jamaica in 1687, when he collected and recorded over 800 new species and inspired the first travel account which systematically classified the natural history of the West Indies. This paper examines Sloane’s personal copy of A Voy- age to…Jamaica and its copious marginalia, which provide an important insight into the transitions between natural historical specimens, printed books, the organisational structure of Sloane’s collections and his transatlantic network of correspondents. These additions emphasise the importance of printed works for classifying specimens according to the system devised by John Ray, which dominated British natural history during the early eighteenth century. Sloane’s annotations provide a direct link between his natural historical collections and the printed work it inspired, which remained an important source for natural historical knowledge.

Rossetter, Thomas Newton, the Newtonians, and the Burnet Controversy In 1681 the English Clergyman Thomas Burnet published the first two books of his Sacred Theory of the Earth, a work which purported to explain such biblical events as the Creation and the Flood in terms of Cartesian natural philosophy. Although well received at first, this work would generate much controversy during the 1690s. By this latter time, Isaac Newton had published his Principia, and, with the efforts of his various disciples, Newton was beginning to turn into “Newtonianism”. Although Newton took no public part in the “Burnet Controversy”, he had corresponded with Burnet over his theory of the earth a decade previously just prior to the book’s publication. He also corresponded with some of Burnet’s detractors during the later controversy. Additionally, a number of Newton’s most prominent followers published responses to Burnet’s theory during the 1690s, using Newtonian natural philosophy both to attack Burnet’s theory and to construct alternative theories of the earth, and using the controversy to attack Cartesianism and to promote the new Newtonian natural philosophy. In this paper, I shall examine contributions to the Burnet Con- troversy from Newton, Richard Bentley, Edmond Halley, William Whiston and John Keill in order to consider, firstly, how the advent of Newtonianism shaped the debate over the history of the earth in the late-seventeenth century, and secondly, how the Burnet Controversy contributed to the early development of Newtonianism and to the transition from a Cartesian to a Newtonian worldview.

Rossiter, Margaret Walsh March 25, 1972: Transition Day for U. S. Women Scientists? On March 25, 1972 U. S. President Richard M. Nixon signed the Equal Employment Opportunity Act of 1972. This new piece of civil rights legislation promised to transform professional opportunities for women and minori- ties, because the previous Civil Rights Act of 1964 had exempted universities, government agencies, and non-profit institutions, where most women scientists of the time worked. Under this new legislation, as of March 25, 1972 an aggrieved woman could sue her employer (or would-be employer) for not hiring her, not treating her equitably, or not promoting her. This legislation especially impacted women in science. The opportunity for major change was there, but the law did not enforce itself. In fact the signing just started a long struggle, for the law was hard to implement. Judges were reluctant to intervene in university affairs, university recordkeeping was primitive or non-existent, and accountability was diffuse and byzantine. It took a series of cases to establish the precedents and procedures of the new academic workplace. These included several long-term battles by women in science, including biochemist Sha- ron Johnson’s seven-year losing battle with the University of Pittsburgh and chemist Shyamala Rajendar’s eventually successful eight-year “class action” lawsuit against the University of Minnesota system in 1980. Its million-dollar set- tlement attracted much attention and helped turn the tide, though other lawsuits continued into the 1990s, as Jenny Harrison’s case against the mathematics department at the University of California at Berkeley. But it all started with the signing of the legislation on March 25, 1972.

90 Rossiter, Elliot From Natural Philosophy to Natural Religion: Teleology and the Theologia Rationalis In this talk, I look at the connection between religion and natural philosophy in the early Royal Society. One of the principal aims of prominent society members like Robert Boyle and John Locke was to show that the new experimental philosophy was safe for religion: this involved objecting to the Epicurean denial of final causes in nature and show- ing that divinely ordained ends were evident to empirical reason. The contribution that I make is to show that such a project actually modifies religion through its emphasis on ends evident to experimental natural philosophy. I argue that this is evident in the Theologia Rationalis of Dr Thomas Sydenham, a companion of both Boyle and Locke.

Rostvik, Camilla Mork ‘For mercy’s sake, don’t send me any more papers to referee for a long time!’ The politics and pressures of peer-review at the Royal Society 1950-2015 In 1963 Dr Morley of the Nuffield Foundation wrote the booklet Self-Help for Learned Journals. It was met with enthusiasm, and as one reviewer put it: “draws attention to our faults and tells us relentlessly how to mend our ways.” But with a strong focus on finances and streamlining peer-review, the booklet was part of a shift towards the modern competitive journal and was, as one less impressed reader saw it, both “paternalistic” and “patronizing.” In this paper I will provide an overview of the politics and pressures of peer-review from 1950 to today, using the Royal Society as a case study. Drawing from the Society’s rich archive of withdrawn referee reports, the paper will compare and contrast today’s challenges of time pressure on referees, issues of diversity and bias, and problems of hierarchy within the system. In 2015, three major studies on peer-review suggested that we are now at a crossroad for the future of the academic journal. The historical dimension, ranging from furious authors to Dr Morley’s “light touch booklet”, to female referees invited as ‘Sir’s and worries about “pot-hunting PhD students,” shows that, while much has changed from the 1950s, more remains the same.

Rothenberg, Marc Northern Science Goes to War: Science and the Federal Government during the US Civil War The Civil War was the first war in which the U.S. federal government relied heavily on the advice of the scientific community. In issues ranging from aeronautics to submarine warfare, from communications to navigation, the Lincoln administration turned to members of the scientific community for guidance on investing in military research and development. The Northern scientific community responded enthusiastically, while in some cases struggling to reconcile the international, non-partisan ethos of science with the nationalistic need to support the war effort. At the center of the efforts of the scientific community was Joseph Henry, the leading American physicist of his day and the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Denounced by some as a Southern sympathizer because of his struggle to preserve the neutrality and non-governmental status of the Smithsonian during the war, he personally served the nation as the first, albeit informal, presidential science advisor. By 1865, through the efforts of Henry and his colleagues, scientific knowledge had become part of the U.S. military arsenal and a nationalistic activity, a relationship we now take for granted.

Salomon, Charlotte Abney

91 Salomon, Charlotte Abney Chemistry and Revolution in Gustavian Sweden The prominent community of mineralogical chemists based in the mines of Sweden worked steadily throughout the revolutionary Gustavian Era, a period bracketed by two major political upheavals, the 1772 Coup of Gustav III and the reformist Coup of 1809 that deposed Gustav IV Adolf. Though the tumult fell short of full revolution and the influence of the political climate on the progress of mineralogy is rarely mentioned in relation to the science, most chemists in fact worked entirely within the government Bureau of Mines and were directly affected by and sometimes influential within political debate. This paper concentrates primarily on the political participation and activism of Jo- han Gottlieb Gahn (1745-1818), a prominent chemist and Assessor in the Bureau famous for his discovery of the element manganese. A close family friend of the revolutionary Hans Järta, Gahn changed his political positions at various times during his career, but exerted considerable influence throughout, obtaining a royal exemption from censorship laws allowing members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences to receive scientific journals from abroad, representing his home district at the Riksdag parliament assemblies in 1778 and 1808, and serving on the committee authoring the reformed Swedish constitution of 1809. This talk explores and enumerates the influence of Gahn’s practical scientific endeavour on his political actions as well as the broader influence of the Gustavian-era political transitions on the practice of mineralogical chemistry in Sweden.

Savelli, Mat

Organizer This session brings together three presenters to discuss how the health sciences were deployed by government author- ities and professionals in Communist Eastern Europe, with a specific focus on gender. In particular, the three papers demonstrate how newly established disciplines including sexology, public health, and psychiatry were used to challenge existing ideas about women, their place in society, and their relationships with men. The papers frame these scientific and medical discussions within the broader modernization projects carried out by the Communist governments. They demonstrate how the position of women remained divided between the ‘new’ and ‘old’ worlds of the pre- and post-war period. Ultimately, the papers demonstrate the central place that scientific rhetoric held in launching projects aimed at altering women’s identities and gender relations.

Savelli, Mat Psychiatry, Psychopharmacology, and Threats to Women’s Health in Communist Yugoslavia In the period after WWII, the new Communist government of Yugoslavia gradually made psychiatry a priority. As epidemiological surveys revealed, new segments of the population were falling prone to mental illness. Among women, rates of depression, suicide, and alcoholism were increasing at particularly alarming rates. New treatments, based on the emerging science of psychopharmacology, seemed to offer hope of stemming this tide, but a number of professional and popular barriers hindered their use. In order to combat this problem, psychiatrists launched a campaign to warn about the rising danger of mental illness in women. This paper analyzes the psychiatric and psychopharmacological discourse around women and mental health in Communist Yugoslavia. Focusing on the period from the mid-1950s until the mid-1980s, it examines how women were increasingly framed as suffering from poor mental health. Relying upon a source base of psychopharmaceutical advertisements, psychiatric textbooks and journals, and articles in popular women’s magazines, it analyzes how this emerging threat was framed. Ultimately, it argues that discussions around women’s mental health both relied upon Western tropes of mental illness as a threat to the domestic sphere, as well as paying lip service to the new found equality that women were meant to enjoy in the new political system.

Schilt, Cornelis J. From ancient Egypt to modern methods: Transitions in Newtonian scholarship Isaac Newton is mainly known for his groundbreaking contributions to mathematics and our understanding of the cosmos. Yet he devoted ample time to alchemy, religious studies, and, surprisingly, chronology. A project started at the same time Newton composed the Principia, the posthumously published Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amend- ed was heavily criticized for its idiosyncratic reading of classical sources and soon vanished into obscurity. However, Newton’s connection of scientific and scholarly research was unparalleled and his critical interpretation of ancient

92 sources would become mainstream only decades later. The 1970s heralded huge changes in historiography. Our modern understanding of men and women of science as actors in a complex field of social and cultural interactions differs significantly from the post-Enlightenment narrative with its narrow focus on contemporary science. Newtonian scholarship witnessed a likewise transition: originally primarily engaged with Newton’s science, today’s spectrum includes all of Newton as we know him. This is also due to the increasing availability of Newton’s notes and draft manuscripts via the online Newton Project. What were once the private writings of a rather recluse individual are now open access transcriptions that can be consulted by anyone, from anywhere in the world. They allow us to come to a new level of understanding of Newton as a creative human being, using new methodologies. Focussing upon the Chronology, this paper tracks transitions in Newtonian scholarship and explores the ways in which we can apply existing and new research techniques to understand Newton’s scientific and scholarly creativity.

Schoenherr, Jordan Richard Functional and Prestige Technology in Early Psychological Science: The Technological Systems of the Chronoscope and the Tachistoscope Scientific instruments are generally considered in terms of their utilitarian function for measurement or demonstration. However, prestige technologies have played a critical role in the development and legitimation of experimental disciplines such as psychology. In the technological system in which an instrument is devised (i.e., a donor discipline), it assumes a particular function to the extent that there is intersubjective agreement concerning its calibration and precision. The instrument then is seen as mediating between a natural phenomenon and the mental representations of the observers. While the understanding of the mediating function of an instrument can vary, epistemic claims are based on appeals to its utility in generating evidence. Over time, the continued association with this utilitarian value can create a prestige technology by those who lack the same understanding of the inventors and early adopters of the instrument, such as external research communities (i.e., a receiver discipline). In the context of early experimental psychology, the chronoscope was adopted from physics and astronomy ostensibly for its relative precision in comparison to competing chronometric devices. However, early accounts suggest that experimenters were aware of the limits of the device relative to other chronometric variants. Instead, it was adopted for ease of use. North Americans that returned from Europe appear to have accepted it as a reliable instrument despite these limitations, incorporating it into the research paradigm of the “new psychology”. Instead, their focus shifted toward presentation devices (e.g., Tachistoscope) although some researchers continued to be concerned with its calibration (e.g., gravity chronometer).

Schulte, Samuel Paradoxes of Authority: Replacement, Reduction, and Refinement In the 2011 Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals, the National Research Council uses the conceptual apparatus of ‘Replacement, Reduction, and Refinement’ developed by W.M.S. Russell and R.L. Burch in 1959 as a tool to develop more humane research practice in the United States. As the ‘Three Rs’ become institutionalized as part of the regulatory apparatus of the National Institutes of Health, a question arises of how this triad operates to negotiate the epistemic and ontic space between human and nonhuman. I propose that each ‘R’ is an expression of a paradox that emerges from the practice of animal experimentation: the more researchers use an animal, the more human that animal becomes and the use of that animal less humane. Using Marshall Sahlins idea of kinship as a mutuality of being and Robert Proctor’s notion of agnotology, I argue that the appeal of the ‘Three Rs’ comes from each concept’s ability to simultaneously produce kinship and ignorance, thereby managing the affective relationship between researcher and experimental object.

Scott, Sabrina Bridging the Borderland: Spirits and Science in a Victorian Spiritualist Periodical, 1893-1897 Examining the middle-class Anglosphere c.1890 shows the importance to many people of scientific evidence for fair- ies, angels, and spirits of the dead. This paper examines the ways in which Borderland – Victorian England’s foremost Spiritualist quarterly – attempted to establish and stabilize Spiritualism and similar spirit-based practices as ambient sciences-of-the-near-future. Borderland stressed the vitality of establishing and disseminating explicitly scientific methodologies of data collection, analysis, and interpretation of spirit phenomena. Results from this approach were then used to advocate for the cultural legitimization of Spiritualism within an increasingly science-oriented mainstream

93 public sphere. Using the language of science, sole editor and publisher W.T. Stead (1849-1912) positioned his periodical as a ‘school of occult sciences’ and scientific training, in which spirit phenomena was worthy of open-minded attention and rigorous experimentation. The contents and approach of Borderland thus limn a more complex picture of the history of science, and provide an important case study for the ways in which appeals to science characterized debates about the boundaries between science and not-science in Victorian England and later. For while Borderlands was published for only four years, it was strongly influential throughout Anglosphere Spiritualism for many years afterward.

Segerstrale, Ullica From group selection to kin selection - and back? Science and commitment in biological transitions There has recently been a deliberate attempt to challenge the well-established biological research paradigm of inclu- sive fitness, or kin selection, now half a century old. Back in the 1970s W.D. (Bill) Hamilton’s path breaking theory about the evolution of social behavior (later popularized by Richard Dawkins) caused a radical shift from “good for the species” group selection explanation to “selfish gene” inspired mathematical modeling instead. In 2010 however, E. O. Wilson and two colleagues surprisingly advocated a paradigm change for a return to group selection. In a Nature article they offered a mathematical demonstration that cooperative behavior could come about through a process of group selection, which for them meant that a theory involving relatedness was not needed. Their claims triggered protests by some 150 leading evolutionary biologists. Later the conflict even featured an exchange between Wilson and Dawkins. What might be going on? Among possible explanations are unrecognized differences in interpretations of scientific key concepts, as well as strong emotional commitments to either group or kin selection. The current discussion suggests the existence of deep-seated connections between some scientists’ scientific and moral/political convictions.

Sellberg, Karin Feminist Evolutionisms: Theories of Creativity, Change, and Connection Contemporary feminist philosophy classically tends to reject theories of evolution and ideas of historical and biological progress as patriarchal and/or capitalist constructs of temporality. Lately, however, a group of scholars known as the feminist new materialists have decided to ‘recover’ the writings of Charles Darwin and evolutionary science, constructing (what they claim to be) a non-teleological and anti-essentialist feminist theory of mutability, transversality and trans-species connection. This paper will critically analyze the new materialists’ reading of some key elements in evolutionary theory, in an attempt to explore the broader historical bases for their claims and the possible consequences these may have on feminist philosophies of materiality in general. Comparing and contrasting Elizabeth Grosz, Luciana Parisi, Myra Hird and Claire Colebrook’s readings of Charles Darwin and Henri Bergson, the paper will investigate the extent to which feminist new materialism successfully manages to construct a historical background to its claims. I will argue that although there may be some basis for a theory of mutability, it remains decidedly teleological. Despite an effort to construct a monist materialism through their historical readings, the new materialist analyses of evolutionary theory also become curiously vitalist and anthropocentric. Feminist new materialism uses evolutionary theory to develop a form of secular devotion, celebrating nature’s creativity, connectivity and changeability.

Serrano, Elena Spreading the Revolution: Guyton’s Fumigating Machine in Spain during the Napoleonic era Around 1801, Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau in collaboration with the instrument-maker Dumotiez designed his famous fumigating machine. It spread a controlled emission of a specific gas —described as an oxygenated acid— that was supposed to destroy the contagious miasmas in the air, objects, and bodies. It was designed for preventing the gangrene in soldiers’ wounds and for disinfecting the air of unhealthy sites, including jails, hospitals, sick people chambers, and ships. It was extensively used for stopping the contagion of the yellow fevers that periodically erupted in European port cities, in particular Spain. The machine was grounded on two major pillars of Lavoisier’s system of chemistry that proved to be wrong: the theory of acids and the theory of combustion. In William A. Smeaton’s words, it was “an interesting example of a satisfactory procedure based on a theory that was soon shown to be false.” The essay looks into the fumigating machine as a way to explore how beliefs and attitudes became embedded in societies and vice-versa, how ways of interpreting nature, society, and politics became embedded in artifacts. It will show, first, how the machine served to spread the new French chemistry among Spaniards; second, how it embodied a new relationship between the citizens and the state, and third, how this artefact was imported by the Spanish absolutist state, appro-

94 priated, and used for its own propaganda. Focusing on a chemical artefact, it shows the complex interplay between theory, material culture, and politics.

Seth, Suman Polygenism in Print: John Atkins and Naval Medicine in the 1730s and 40s In 1735, the former naval surgeon John Atkins penned what must be considered one of the more striking under- statements of his age. In A Voyage to Guinea, Brasil, and the West-Indies, he described the difference between the physical appearance of the inhabitants of Guinea and that of “the rest of Mankind”: “tho’ it be a little Heterodox,” he acknowledged, “I am persuaded the black and white Race have, ab origine, sprung from different-coloured first parents.” Polygenism was, of course, considerably more than a little heterodox. Unusual in his polygenism, Atkins was also unusual both in spending very little time in relating his heterodoxy to Biblical views and in proffering his most detailed remarks within a medical text. The fact that Atkins espoused polygenism in the same work in which he described diseases peculiar to native Africans led one of the few scholars to consider his texts in any detail to suggest that one might find “connections between concepts of race and concepts of disease.” That Atkins gave up on his polygenism in a later edition of the Navy-Surgeon (1742) without significantly changing his etiological understanding leads me to the opposite conclusion. In the 1730s, I suggest, environmentalist understandings of physical difference were beginning to change. Environmentalist understandings of disease, however, particularly with regard to the diseases of warm climates, were not. Atkins provides us with a fine example of a trend that would continue for the majority of the century: the widening gap between ‘race-science’ and ‘race-medicine.’

Shackelford, Jole The Far North as a Chronobiological Laboratory The extreme diurnal durations of daylight and darkness characteristic of far northern latitudes around the solstices were exploited for experimental study of biological rhythms in the early decades of the twentieth century by J. Lind- hard in Greenland and Rose Stoppel and her team in Iceland, but systematic attempt to vary the day length began in the 1950s with the work of Nathaniel Kleitman and his family in Tromsø and the expeditions of P.R. Lewis and Mary C. Lobban Svalbard (Spitsbergen), producing striking results that brought the physiological effects of desynchronization (jet-lag) into sharp relief. These artificial day-lengths were made possible by the relatively uniform background lighting conditions, combined with relatively constant temperatures and humidities, found in Far-North-Atlantic maritime locations around midwinter and midsummer. In 1961-62 Lobban returned to Svalbard to use this kind of “natural laboratory” to investigate the biological rhythms of workers in the mining community of Longyearbyen around the winter solstice. Ambient conditions were relatively constant regardless of which shift the miners worked, thus minimizing the effects of social synchronizers and accidental resynchronization when a nightworker is exposed to daylight at the end of the shift, factors that had stymied earlier shift-work studies. Prior the development of the sleep laboratory, the Far North provided the best conditions for such studies, producing important results for understanding the effects of desynchronization on human physiology.

Shi, Xiaolei The Changes of History of Technology in China since Needham’s work: from the View of the History of Mechanical Engineering In 1965, Joseph Needham published the mechanical engineering volume of the series of Science and Civilization in China, which have a lasting influence on the study of history of mechanical engineering in China. Now, after 50 years, the Chinese historians of mechanical engineering have stood his shoulders and moved forward some work in 3 aspects. Firstly, some Chinese scholars continued and revised many Needham’s work based on the new materials or evidenc- es, including not only the historical documents, but also the recent archeology materials. Secondly, in the methods of study, modern Chinese historian scholars adopt more ways than Needham to study the history of engineering in China, no matter in ancient China or modern China. In recent years, many related scholars have learned form the subjects of anthropology and cultural heritage, etc and made many progresses. Thirdly, Chinese historians of mechanical engineering can use more views to see the development of technology, not the narrow view before the reform and open (1978). In the same time, they begin to pay attention to the collision and adaptation during the communication of technology, certainly including the mechanical engineering part. In one word, it has many changes in the condition

95 of history of technology in China in recent 50 years. Undoubtedly it is the outcome of the pioneers including the big figure Needham and learning from the West by the young generation.

Shuttleworth, Sally Diseases of Professional Men, 1850-1900 In an address to a medical society in 1860, a young James Crichton Browne noted that „We live in an age of electricity, of railways, of gas, and of velocity in thought and action“. This new „velocity“ was such that „In the course of one brief month more impressions are conveyed to our brains than reached those of our ancestors in the cource of years, and our mentalising machines are called upon for a greater amount of fabric than was required of our grandfathers in the course of a lifetime.“ In this paper I will explore the medical debates concerning this increased „velocity in thought and action“, particularly as it entered into emerging discourses addressing diseases associated with professions. The focus will be on Britain, but with reference to America and Europe, where debates were rather differently configured. Areas covered will include the stresses of commuting and long hours, and the nervous strain induced by speculation. The aim is to move discussion beyond the rather narrow field of neurasthenia, to look at the rise of occupational medicine in response to the dramatic shifts in personal and professional lifestyles in the latter half of the nineteenth century.

Simic, Ivan Science, health and communist gender policies towards Muslim communities in post-WWII Yugoslavia This paper explores how the newly installed Communist government of post-WWII Yugoslavia utilised the the rhetoric of the health sciences in order to penetrate Muslim communities previously closed to them. The paper argues that scientific discourse was widely applied in every step of the communist intervention, particularly during the aggressive veil lifting campaign aimed at changing the dress of Bosnian Muslim women. The ban on veils was followed by massive public health campaigns, intended to improve the health and living conditions of the population, but also to monitor the unveiling. Behind these policies were firm beliefs in backwardness of the Muslim communities, and the severe subordination of Muslim women, both unacceptable to the communist modernization project. This paper, therefore, examines medical ascriptions to the veil, the discourse about unveiling and health, and the results of such policies. Ul- timately, the paper argues that the use of scientific rhetoric in the deveiling campaigns placed many women and men into very uncomfortable positions, altering gender relations of the entire community.

Simpson, Daniel Lost in Transition: Reconfiguring Encounter and Scientific Collecting in Australia, 1817-1822 Scientific transition is often considered retrospectively, as historians attempt to rationalise the intermediary moments between disciplinary paradigms. But how do we make sense of those moments which ultimately failed? What can we learn from looking at uncertain transitions, in which participants engineered the demise of older knowledge methodologies, and yet came up with nothing novel to replace them? In this paper, I argue that we have much to gain by detaching transitive moments from their precursors and supposed descendants. I use as an example the abortive and sometimes quixotic attempts of sailors to refashion the science of ethnographic collecting and encounter, onboard the first voyage of discovery to Australia of the post-Napoleonic War period, following a hiatus of nearly fifteen years. The 1817-1822 expedition commanded by Phillip Parker King completed a generational shift in the early nineteenth-century understanding of Aboriginal Australian culture, and not least because the last such authority upon the matter, who had returned to England in 1807, was King’s own father, Phillip Gidley King. The transition from older forms of curiosity and colonial patronage was however by no means straightforward; I explore the ambivalent and at times contradictory manner in which King and his crew attempted to reconcile their scientific inheritance with emergent forms of ethnographic and ethnobotanical investigation. While ultimately unsuccessful, the actions of these inexpert naval scientists had significant implications for the lives of Aboriginal Australian people, and set a precedent for much later attempts to create a coherent anthropological discipline.

96 Slotten, Hugh Richard

Organizer Recent research in the history of science has increasingly focused on specific geographic areas, especially national settings. Geographic space is also used as an organizing principle for international topics that focus on the crossing of geographic boundaries. This panel will explore the importance of geographic space as an organizing principle in the modern history of science (since approximately 1800). The panel presentation and discussion will be based on work connected with the final volume (volume 8) of the Cambridge History of Science series: Modern Science in National, Transnational, and Global Context (publication expected in 2018). Two of the participants, Hugh Slotten and Ronald Numbers, are editing the volume. The other participants are contributing essays to different sections of the volume. The panel will focus on four major themes exploring the importance of geographic space: 1) national context, including such issues as the development of national scientific traditions and institutions, the role of the state, and the reception in different countries of scientific ideas; 2) comparative analysis of national patterns within different regions of the world; 3) transnational developments involving especially the circulation of ideas, practices, and institutions across geographic boundaries; and 4) developments on a global scale (the globe as a whole), including the tension between global and local developments. Discussion with the audience will be especially important and the feedback will be incorporated into the planned volume.

Smith, Matthew Psychiatric Transitions in North America after the Second World War The years following the Second World War were heady times for North American psychiatry. During the war, psychiatry became a vital military service, screening recruits for their combat suitability and treating psychiatric casualties. While nearly 2,000,000 recruits were rejected on psychiatric grounds, a similar number of troops required psychiatric treatment. Such figures made not only psychiatrists, but also politicians concerned about the number of civilians also afflicted with mental disorders, leading to the 1946 Mental Health Act in the US and the formation of the Nation- al Institute of Mental Health in 1949. From being largely confined to mental hospitals prior to the war, psychiatry emerged as one of the most influential and generously-funded medical disciplines in North America. As this session demonstrates, however, the legacy of this period remains far from clear. While Smith’s paper describes how some psychiatrists viewed this era as the “Magic Years,” a time of unprecedented progress in terms of research, policy, and treatment, Richert’s paper illuminates how fissures would soon emerge. By analysing The Radical Therapist, Richert sheds light on an important aspect of the anti-psychiatry movement, which questioned both psychiatry as a scientific discipline and the very nature of mental illness itself. Similarly, Montgomery’s paper demonstrates how established diagnoses, such as PTSD, could be contested for political and cultural reasons. Together, the papers show, how in periods of scientific transition, politics play a crucial role in both shaping events and interpreting them later on.

Smith, Matthew The Magic Years? Insider Perceptions of the History of Post-War American Psychiatry The quarter century following WWII was a period of enormous transition, change and opportunity for psychiatry. Assessments of this era by contemporary psychiatrists (and subsequent historians), however, have varied wildly, leading to questions about the purpose and power of history, and its usefulness in informing both opinion and policy about mental health today. This paper examines an unknown historical manuscript that provides a unique, insider’s perspective on the period's divisive history. Written during the early 1970s by the prominent psychiatrist Daniel Blain (1898- 1981), The Magic Years, cast post-war psychiatry in a rosy glow. For Blain, psychiatry had advanced unprecedentedly, with psychiatric knowledge progressing, treatments improving markedly, crumbling asylums being replaced by community mental health care centres, funding for research increasing exponentially, and political awareness of mental illness growing unprecedentedly, leading to the Community Mental Health Act (1963). Most encouraging were research collaborations between social scientists and psychiatrists that promised to elucidate the specific environmental causes of mental illness, resulting in preventive psychiatry. These were magic years, indeed. Had Blain lived longer, of course, he might have seen these fruitful developments wilt on the vine. Yet, rather than scoff at Blain for being short-sighted and present-centred, I argue that we can learn not only from his insights, but also from his strong desire to provide a historical account of the period and, in turn, reflect more deeply about why we write the history we do.

97 Sommer, Andreas The American Society for Psychical Research, 1884-9: A Reconsideration Co-founded in 1884 by William James, the American Society for Psychical Research (ASPR) is commonly referred to as a counterpart of its namesake in Britain, the Society for Psychical Research (SPR). Questioning standard accounts of the early ASPR as an equivalent of the SPR, this paper reconstructs its formation and activities in juxtaposition to those of the British Society until 1889, when the original ASPR dissolved and became the SPR’s American Branch. I argue that rather than following William James in promoting the radical empirical research programme typical of the SPR in Britain, other ASPR psychologist members – notably G. Stanley Hall, Joseph Jastrow, and George S. Fullerton – successfully policed the boundaries of the fledgling psychological profession from within the ASPR by polemically undermining the work of James and the SPR, whose studies in telepathy and automatisms were then internationally negotiated as legitimate fields of scientific psychology. Paying close attention to the involvement of psychologists and science popularizers in American psychical research, this paper highlights the enormous significance of ‘materialism’ and ‘superstition’ as complementary late-nineteenth century bogeys determining the legitimate research scope of fledgling psychology in the US and beyond.

Stark, James The Age of Youth: Rejuvenation in Interwar Britain Improvements in healthcare and diet through the twentieth century have given rise to an unprecedented increase in life expectancies, with the proverbial three-score and ten years long since displaced as the standard in the developed world. Meanwhile, numerous different methods of slowing, halting, or even reversing the ageing process have been touted as possible ways of extending life without the need for the micromanagement of lifestyle. Focusing on a Britain in transition during the decades immediately following the First World War, this paper examines how the different ways that people have attempted rejuvenation – the restoration of youth or the appearance of youth – have changed over time, and what they can tell us about our shifting relationship with ageing. Whilst there were numerous different methods and products which claimed to achieve rejuvenation for the anxious ager, this paper concentrates on the central role of everyday methods – for example electrotherapy devices and skin care products – and in particular the ways in which daily, domestic routines were related to more ‘hard’ medical interventions such as hormone treatments or surgery. In doing so, I argue that our understanding of both the social and physiological dimensions of ageing and rejuvenation changed in response to new anxieties about the fitness of both individuals and society. The centuries-old, fantastical preoccupation with elixirs, philosopher’s stones and “cures” for ageing was gradually transformed into pragmatic, everyday solutions designed to restore lost vital force, extend fertility, and present a more youthful face to the world.

Tarrant, Neil Censoring Astrology in late sixteenth-century Italy: Coeli et terrae reconsidered In 1586 Sixtus V promulgated the bull Coeli et terrae creator Deus. Its provisions redrew established boundaries between orthodox natural and heterodox astrology, contradicting established Inquisitorial practice and principles of censorship established in Rule IX of the 1564 Index of Forbidden Books. I seek to re-examine the reasons why this bull was passed, and why it found support within the Inquisition. In a recent study Ugo Baldini argued that its passage reflected a “distinct shift towards rigour” characteristic of Sixtus’s pontificate. In this paper I seek to refine his thesis. I do this by exploring the transition of astrological ideas from the Patristic to the Early Modern era, considering how they were interpreted and used in the Roman Inquisition. The principles of censorship used by the Inquisition and built into the rules of the Index were established by Thomas Aquinas, who had in turn rooted his defence of certain astrological practices in the thought of Augustine. Aquinas, however, misrepresented Augustine’s ideas. Rather than accepting natural astrology, Augustine had in fact rejected astrology virtually tout court. By analysing documents such as Roberto Bellarmine’s Louvain lectures, I will argue that direct reading of Augustine’s thought encouraged leading clerics -- including members of the Inquisition such as Bellarmine -- to question the validity of Aquinas’s defence of astrology. This development encouraged them to reject established Inquisitorial practice, and to attempt instead to pursue a rigorous Augustinian approach to astrology.

98 Terrall, Mary

Organizer This session uses three cases – two from the Atlantic world, and one from South Asia – to explore geographies of knowledge, and modes of knowledge production, in relation to the conditions and exigencies of expanding and competing colonial empires. The papers will show how different kinds of sources – published books, secret proposals and other unpublished manuscripts, visual representations, letters – can be used to interrogate assumptions about connections between various kinds of scientific knowledge and colonial-commercial interests. They also address questions about how contingent circumstances and idiosyncratic positions can play into, and play a part in, universalizing or imperial projects.

Terrall, Mary Secrecy, Botanical Knowledge, and Colonial Policy: Michel Adanson’s Failed Project for a Trans-Atlantic French Empire The French botanist Michel Adanson spent five years in Senegal as a young man, working to establish himself as a naturalist and to earn support from the directors of the Compagnie des Indes. His attempts to capture the attention of Company directors for his experiments comparing Africa and Caribbean indigo, and his own method for preparing dye from the plant material, foundered in the escalating hostilities with the English, leading up to the Seven Years War. His masses of data on Senegal, intended for a series of illustrated volumes on natural history and geography, remained unpublished. After the war, Adanson advised the French government on the strategic uses of Gorée, the one foothold remaining to the French on the Atlantic coast of Africa. This paper explores questions of the geographies of knowledge in a time of empire-building, as the French built up their colonial presence in and around Cayenne. In an elaborate proposal for a secret expedition to collect plants and animals in Senegal for cultivation across the Atlantic, Adanson portrayed himself as the sole Frenchman with the experience and local knowledge to accomplish this mission. The patriotic naturalist-spy-consultant was destined to remain in the realm of fantasy. Though the expedition never happened, Adanson’s detailed plans for how to integrate natural knowledge into the state’s imperial ambitions, give a prescient portrait of the interlocking interests of individual savants, government ministers, and commercial traders that would continue to motivate science and serve empire in the decades to come.

Thomas, Marion Between biomedical and psychological experiments : the unexpected connections between the Pasteur Institute and the study of ape mind in early twentieth century France In the early twentieth century when the study of animal intelligence was thriving in France and elsewhere, apes were appealing research subjects both in psychological and biomedical studies. Drawing on two case studies (Guillaume/ Meyerson and Urbain), this paper shows how the long reach of biomedicine (linked to the prestige of Bernard and Pasteur) impinged on French biology and played a role in the tortuous, if not unsuccessful fate of animal psychology in France in the early twentieth century. It shows how attempts to use apes (and other zoo animals) to yield new insights on animal psychology faced heavy restrictions or experienced false starts, and examines the reasons why animal psychology could not properly thrive at that time in France. Beyond the supremacy of biomedical interests over psychological ones, this article additionally explains that some individuals used animal behaviour studies as steppingstones in careers in which they proceeded on to other topics. Finally, it highlights the difficulties attached to the scientific study of animals in a multipurpose and hybrid environment such as the early twentieth century Parisian zoo and also the Pasteur Institute of French Guinea.

Thompson, James Mapping the public endorsement of historicized myths about Darwin and evolutionary science Various kinds of historicized myths about Charles Darwin and evolutionary science linger in the cultural discourse, suggesting the necessity of conflict between evolutionary science and religion, as well as implying that evolutionary science is atheistic in nature. For example, the delay in publishing On the Origin of Species is often attributed to Dar- win’s anxiety over religious reactions, rather than Darwin taking time for intellectual consideration. Similarly, Thomas Huxley’s debate with bishop Samuel Wilberforce in Oxford in 1860 is often described as a duel between science and

99 religion in general, instead of as a scholarly debate between multiple attendants. Thus far, no previous research has empirically assessed how these myths might relate with people’s views about evolutionary science or, in particular, with people’s presumptions of who can or who is suitable to accept evolutionary science. In our research, we empirically mapped people’s familiarity and agreement with these and several other historicized myths about Darwin and evolutionary science. In addition to assessing people’s general awareness and agreement or disagreement with these kinds of views, we were interested in assessing the interrelations between these myths, various social identities, supernatural beliefs, and understandings of the nature of evolutionary science and science in general. In our presentation, we will explain our findings and their possible implications. We will also discuss the role that historicized misconceptions might have in the communication of science to multicultural and religiously pluralistic publics.

Toprak, A. Haris Formation of the Terminology on Electricity in the Late Ottoman Period: Risala of Yahya Naci Efendi vs. Ma- jmua of Bash Hoca Ishaq Efendi In the nineteenth century Ottoman scholars were faced with the need of translating engineering books in the libraries of military school. Among these scholars were Bash Hoca Ishak Efendi (d. 1836) and Yahya Naji Efendi (d.1824), who pioneered the creation of an Ottoman modern scientific terminology. The former wanted to integrate his accumulation of the classical Islamic knowledge to modern European sciences. Towards this aim he authored his most volumi- nous and well known encyclopedic work, Majmua al-Ulum al-Riyadiyah (Compilation of the Mathematical Sciences) which includes the natural sciences such as electricity, thermodynamics etc. The latter, i.e.Yahya Naji Efendi (d.1824), wrote a treatise called Risala-i Sayyala-i Barqiyye (A treatise on Electricity) on the properties of electricity through experiments. These two works are highly important because both has remarkable effects on creation of a new terminology and the transfer of modern type of knowledge. This paper aims to examine the transmission of technical knowledge in the late Ottoman Empire, which would bring about a dynamic interaction between modern European knowledge and classical Islamic science tradition. It also seeks to understand the evolution of scientific language in Ottoman engineering education, by way of analyzing the sections dedicated to electricity in the aforementioned books. My primary questions will be whether the two scholars’ methodologies and translation preferences differed; from which sources they made translations; and how authentic those sections are.

Torrens, Erica Educational transitions in Mexico: socialism and evolution This manuscript presents the genesis and development of the so-called Mexican socialist school system of the 1930s, whose leading stakeholder was President Lázaro Cárdenas. In 1934, still during post-revolutionary years, Mexico underwent the most politicised and controversial education reform in its modern history. Much has been said about this ambitious project of social change. However, the increasing appeal and effectiveness of a global perspective when interpreting and reinterpreting worldwide developments and events impelled the authors to take a fresh look at this ideological, political, and social project, whose goal was to perpetuate the post-revolutionary ideals ultimately entrenched in the enlightenment tradition of appraisal of human reason, science and education as the chief means of attaining a stable and free society. The authors endeavour to employ some of the methods, questions and theory of history affecting global science to deepen the understanding of the complex context from which socialist schooling in Mexico emerged and, in particular, to shed light on the teaching of natural sciences—with special emphasis on the theory of biological evolution—in the 1930s. In order to analyse the construction of the pedagogic discourse that oriented the focus and approach toward the teaching of biological evolution during this period, the authors revised and studied the curricula, school programs and textbooks of the Cárdenas era and compared them in terms of change and continuity with teaching materials from previous historical periods, thereby viewing the topic of Mexican education from a new angle.

Umut, Hasan Patronage as an Agent? Ali al-Quchji's Intellectual Adventure from Samarqand to Istanbul This paper examines the role of patronage in the scholarly activities of Ali al-Qushji (d. 1474), an important member of the well-known Samarqand Observatory. He was also a prolific scholar with a number of works in various disciplines including mathematics, theoretical and observational astronomy, kalam (Islamic theology), tafsir (Qur'anic

100 exegesis), and Arabic language. Over the course of his life during the fifteenth century, politicial instabilities forced him to immigrate across countries and consequently find new patrons. Therefore, he played a major role in the transmission of knowledge from Persianiate scholarly milieus toward the Ottoman scholars from India to Anatolia. Most of his books were commissioned vy four influential rulers of his time, namely ulugh Beg (d. 1449) and Abu Said (d. 1469) of the Timurids, Uzun Hasan (d. 1478) of the Ag Qoyunlus, and finally, Muhammad the Second (d. 1481) of the Ottomans. In this paper, I question the degree to which his patronage relations with these rulers determine the sort of scholarship he was engaged in and the works he composed. I will provide a general picture regarding his scholarship within the context of the intellectual debates of the cities in which he lived under patronage, as well as within the context of the political and intellectual policies his patrons wanted to implement. van Horssen, Jessica Contamination Along the Transnational Asbestos Commodity Chain, 1918-1977 How does environmental health and contamination change as it spreads across international commodity trade networks? How does disease expertise and disease experience change as the source of contamination transitions from location to location, and form to form? This paper uses data mining techniques to follow the spread of asbestos-related disease from Canadian and African mines around the global market. The first official diagnoses of asbestos-related disease occurred in the early 20th century, partly because asbestos itself did not find its place in global markets until the First World War. Thus the paper follows both disease and its physical causation as it spread around the world. The paper first examines the global spread of raw asbestos, then maps incidences of disease and disease detection technology via medical literature regarding asbestosis, lung cancer, and mesothelioma. The paper will also connect attempts made by leading companies like Johns-Manville and Turner & Newall to control the spread of disease and medical knowledge along the international commodity chain, which included funding false medical reports to obscure the clarity of medical literature. Combining international medical journals data mined for specific relevant content, and confidential corporate documents, this paper tracks asbestos-related disease around the world, the ways in which the medical profession responded to these diseases, and corporate attempts to control both disease and scientific knowledge.

Vandaele, Sylvie William Paley “in a French dress” : The French Translations of Natural Theology by C. Pictet de Rochemont A still famous proponent of the Natural Theology among the adherents of creationism, William Paley (1743-1805) is much less known in the francophone space than his famous reader and challenger, Charles Darwin. However, the Clock Metaphor, explained in his book Natural Theology (first published in 1802) and still used as an argument against the Evolution Theory, is recalled and discussed by some prominent French scientific thinkers such as François Jacob. First, we will present an overview of the French translations of Paley’s work, then we will focus on the translation of Natural Theology. We will describe the various editions of the original book and of the translated text. Finally, using a translatology approach and taking into account some elements found in the paratext, we will analyse how C. Pictet de Rochemont has manufactured the French version and will discuss the possible consequences on the understanding of Natural Theology by the French-speaking readership. In the meantime, we intend to advocate the importance of taking into account the translation process in the context of history of science research.

Vardouli, Theodora “To See in a Hard Intellectual Light”: Graph Theory and Design Theory in the LUBFS Centre In 1971 avant-gardist magazine Architectural Design featured work produced at the Cambridge University-based Land Use and Built Form Studies (LUBFS) Centre, a newly founded research organization investigating mathematical methods for architectural and urban design. Titled “Models of Environment”, the magazine’s dedicated section presented drawings of urban and building scale projects developed at LUBFS, coupled with the mathematical models that drove their programmatic and formal decisions. Set theoretic diagrams and adjacency graphs were placed side by side with traditional architectural plans, supporting a polemical argument boisterously voiced in the section’s editorial: New mathematical representational devices would enable the cultivation of a new structural vision, appreciative of invisible relationships between things instead of their sense-perceptible appearances. Designers would thus be emancipated from the precarious “drug” of architectural draughtsmanship and allowed to “see” their decisions “in a hard intellectual light”. In this paper I contextualize this proposition within broader cultural and epistemological debates during the

101 1950s-1960s that qualified structural and relational ideas with reformative visions about disciplinary knowledge and human subjects. I focus on a mathematical device that pervaded the published work of LUBFS: the graph. Framing the graph as a part-abstract, part-concrete entity that made structures and relations visible and workable, I interrogate its ambivalent role in LUBFS researchers’ efforts to rationalize and scientize the discipline of design. Through inquiry into the mathematical device enlisted in such efforts, I contribute new perspectives on the role of abstraction, aesthetics, and visuality in debates about architectural discipline and professionalism in the 1960s and 1970s.

Vardouli, Theodora

Organizer Modes of organizing knowledge used to be bound to a single discipline. Disciplines, Michel Foucault had asserted, “characterize, classify, specialize; they distribute along a scale, around a norm, hierarchize individuals in relation to one another and, if necessary, disqualify and invalidate.” Yet design, engineering, and mathematical theories produced in postwar research institutions more often highlight constraints on disciplinary boundaries. Designers and engineers sought to locate their methods in mathematical rigor and computation, while other mathematicians’ encounters with design and architecture encouraged a heightened consideration for questions of aesthetics and intuition. Considering episodes from the histories of design, engineering and the mathematical sciences, this session will explore the institutional and intellectual motivations of such exchanges alongside their material and epistemological transformative effects. Daniel Cardoso will track the theories about design formulated by engineers and mathematicians working in the Computer-Aided Design Project. Looking beyond the university setting, Clare Kim will consider the design-influenced interpretation of mathematical theories that emerged in postwar museum exhibits. Investigating influences of mathematics and computation to design theory, Theodora Vardouli will interrogate the uses and meanings of graph theory within the scientizing and rationalizing work of the LUBFS Centre in the early 1970s. Finally, Orit Halpern will explore how mid-century initiatives to merge cybernetics, design, and the human sciences critically frame current ideas of smart cities. Ultimately by bringing into conversation scholars from disparate fields, this session will explore the potential promise and drawbacks of adapting analytics and theories from each other’s fields for historical research.

Verschueren, Pierre Mapping a Field in Transition : Physical Sciences in France from 1944 to 1968 through Social Network Analysis After the Second World War, the French higher education system went through a period of unprecedented growth; the first signs of this massification manifested themselves through the rapid development of research, especially in physical sciences. The number of graduate students preparing a doctorat d'État ès sciences increased dramatically: from 64 defenses in 1944, the French Faculties of Sciences reached 832 in 1968. On the basis of the PhD committees, this paper intends to retrace very precisely the disciplinary dynamics during this time of transition, especially the process of fractalization. As a matter of fact, the doctorat d'État, required to become full professor in universities, played a crucial role in the production and reproduction of the scientific elites: for two professors, to be in the same committee is a link much more collaborative and robust than the traditional co-authorship, and therefore a relevant link for objectifying patterns of academic life and its interplays of social and scientific capitals. This study focuses on the case of Parisian Faculties of Sciences: over the 4.357 doctorats ès sciences physiques awarded between 1944 and 1968, 2.613 were defended before a Parisian committee (i.e. 60 % of the total). Those committees will be studied as constituting a network, not in a metaphorical but in a very formal sense, allowing us firstly to draw a dynamic relational map, then to discern the balances of power structuring this scientific field and shed new lights on their evolutions.

Virdi-Dhesi, Jaipreet Inside the Chamber of Silence: Phyllis M.T. Kerridge’s Standardisation of Audiometric Tests Women in science have received greater attention from scholars in recent years, as their work in various fields have been recognised as influential. In the field of audiometry, however, women have received little attention despite their disproportionate involvement within its sphere. Drawing on previously unused sources from the Royal Ear Hospital Archives and the BT Archives, this paper addressed the neglected work of Dr. Phyllis M.T. Kerridge (1902-1940), a physiologist whose pioneering work significantly contributed to clinical audiometry. Adopting a transatlantic perspective, we argue Kerridge’s intense focus on audiometric standardisation during the 1930s affected the promotion of oralism (a pedagogical method for teaching the deaf speech) in the United States and Canada, as well as the devel-

102 opment of pre-NHS state care for the deaf in Britain. We trace this influence by focusing on how Kerridge’s research into accurate and objective data on hearing was created in the hearing clinic she managed between 1937 and 1939. Her clinic was the first of its kind in the UK and was notable for featuring a unique “Silence Room,” an early anechoic chamber which offered conditions for creating standardised criteria for audiometric tests. Following the approach pioneered by Latour and Woolgar in Laboratory Life, we position the Silence Room within the transitions of audiometry and broader hearing culture, arguing Kerridge’s research is significant for approaching the construction of deafness as deviant from the standard of “normal hearing.”

Wachelder, Joseph Complementary technologies as markers of transition in science Objective markers signaling scientific transitions are scarce. The concept of complementary technologies proposed here might be useful. Giving a twist to Manovich (2001: 23), complementary technologies appear together, develop side by side meanwhile being appropriated in science. In the course of time, however, their originally harmonious co-existence starts creating problems. Eventually, they end up in an oppositional relationship. The heuristic value of the concept of complementary technologies is tested by applying it to the Talbot-Plateau law. William Henry Fox Talbot (1800 - 1877) and Joseph Plateau (1801 -1883) shared an interest in light. Talbot is one of the fathers of photography; Pla- teau’s name is connected to the phenakistiscope. Both men stumbled, in 1834, on a regularity, which is known as the Talbot-Plateau law. The revolving discs of the phenakistiscope produced successive light pulses, utilized, among others, for the study of afterimages. The Talbot-Plateau law suggested a photometer applying a rotating disc with an open sector. As such, it was also known to photographers. When at the end of the century, new methods of producing light pulses were introduced in the study of afterimages, e.g. utilizing different light sources and, especially, fast photographic shutters, the Talbot-Plateau law was placed under scrutiny. Complementary technologies can flag, ex-post factum, a period of transition. A more in-detail study of the transitional period itself learns that the phenomenon under study, the concepts used to describe it, and the relevant parameters are all subject to change, without being able to pinpoint one decisive moment and/or factor.

Waddell, Mark A. The Devil's Cure: Magical Medicine and the Problem of Plausibility in the Seventeenth Century This paper examines a controversial medical remedy that became popular in the seventeenth century: the weapon salve, which was purported to heal wounds cleanly, quickly, and painlessly over great distances when applied only to the weapon that had caused the wound, or to traces of the patient's blood. For more than a hundred years the salve was the subject of rarefied and contentious debate among physicians, philosophers, and theologians, even as it also became a staple in the unregulated medical marketplaces of an increasingly urbanized Europe. Because its marvelous efficacy was tested and disputed for decades the salve provides a window on how early modern people understood plausibility and trust at a moment when both science and medicine experienced fundamental and irrevocable transformations. Its changing status -- transitioning from merely one sympathetic remedy among many to a cause célèbre both hailed and pilloried by the virtuosi of early modern society -- highlights how standards of evidence, experiment, and credibility were themselves shifting at the same time, and raises new and important questions about how we should understand the intertwined dynamics of reputation, plausibility, and mendacity in the intellectual culture of the seventeenth century. (*** If possible, and if both papers are accepted, please place this in the same session as Allison Kavey's submis- sion. Thank you. ***)

Wagner, Darren N. Extrascientific Factors in Electrophysiology Transitions, c. 1740–1830 In the late eighteenth century, neurophysiology underwent a major shift from animal spirits to electricity in theories about how nerves worked. Many recent historical accounts suggest this shift derived solely from experiment and observation. My paper, however, explores that shift in neurophysiology as a correlate to the so-called “crisis in sensibility” in the late eighteenth century. The theory of animal spirits—a fine fluid that flowed through nerves—played a central role in the eighteenth-century culture sensibility, and especially in understandings and representations of feeling and sexuality in sentimental literature. As G.J. Barker-Benfield describes, sensibility was “synonymous with consciousness, with feeling, and eventually identifiable with sexual characteristics.” I show how the displacement of animal spirits in

103 neurology included electricity’s assuming many of its predecessor’s explanatory roles concerning sex, such as passion, sensation, arousal, seed, conception, disease, and disorder. The rise of electricity, I argue, was significantly facilitated by the fall of the culture of sensibility, which greatly lessened the credibility of theories and registers associated with animal spirits. Questions considered by this paper include: How does the socio-cultural participate in major scientific paradigm shifts? How are gender and sex implicated in those changes?

Waring, Sophie The Admiralty and the pluralisation of discipline Throughout the fundamental transitions taking place in the 1820s, Thomas Young sat at the heart of both scientific and political society. Young’s position as the Secretary of the Board of Longitude saw him act as one of few gatekeepers between scientific ambition and the Admiralty budget. Through the medium of Young’s experiences and interactions, this paper will explore the transitions taking place in the relationship of science, as it fractured into separate disciplines, with the Admiralty, as the dominant power on Whitehall. Young’s interactions with contemporary men of science, such as Herschel and Babbage, demonstrate how the highly political nature of measurement and quantification were fundamental to reform era shifts in the place of science in society. Furthermore, this paper will use debates surrounding specialisation and division of labour in the sciences, which were essential to the ‘liberation of the quantitative spirit’, to elucidate its role in the reform of both scientific thinking and society.

Weidenhammer, Erich Exploring the technology of early experimental research into colour perception. Psychology emerged in mid-to-late 19th century Germany as an experimental discipline exploring the human senses. By 1892, the University of Toronto had established (arguably) the first psychological laboratory in the British Empire. Like many laboratories founded around that time, it was led by students of Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920), who had developed the methodology and material culture of experimental psychology. The University of Toronto Psychological Laboratory’s first Director, James Mark Baldwin (1861-1934), departed in 1893. He was replaced by a German, Au- gust Kirschmann (1860-1932) whose eleven-year tenure transformed the Laboratory into a major centre for the study of the perception of colour and light. This paper explores the technology of early research into colour through archival sources and surviving historical artefacts. This evidence illustrates the development of locally made apparatus, as well as the contribution of newly founded laboratories to an emerging international trade in the experimental technology used to perform psychological research. This material culture notably included standardized pigments and filters as well as various mechanical colour mixers based on the “spinning disk” principle. This presentation will demonstrate some of the effects produced by these instruments using models. It will also reflect briefly on the value of scientific recreations/ tactile history of science as a research methodology.

Wessell, Erin Transitioning Between the Natural and the Divine: John Dee’s and Johannes Kepler’s use of Mathematics in Natu- ral Philosophy John Dee (1527-1608/9) and Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) sought to understand the hidden harmonies of the natural world. While each scholar had his own approach to natural philosophy, they both believed in the power of mathematics to reveal and explain nature’s secrets. To Dee and Kepler, mathematics itself was a transition, a means of moving between the earthly realm and the Divine in order to gain perfect knowledge of the natural world. I compare the ways in which mathematics took on mystical meaning in Dee’s and Kepler’s investigations of the natural world. To Dee, mathematics could act as a bridge with the Divine, a means of learning about the natural world from the angels. To Kepler, mathematics represented the Divine structure manifested in measurable relationships between physical objects. For both scholars, mathematics offered precise knowledge of nature and the ability to predict or manipulate it. Kepler was remembered as an example of the triumph of reason in the narrative of the Scientific Revolution, while Dee was dismissed because of his occult practices. A comparison between them shows that they followed similar methods and ideologies. My study contributes to the efforts of individuals like Nicholas Clulee, Deborah Harkness, and Stephen Clucas in re-casting the reputation of Dee and re-examining his methods as a scientist. The transition to modern sci-

104 ence depended greatly on philosophers’ sense of inquiry, their desire to investigate and explain the natural world. Dee and Kepler were not so dissimilar after all.

Yakubu, Yussif The Transitions in Darwinian Explanation There have been three major transitions in Darwinian evolutionary theory after Darwin. They are (i) the development of population genetics (1908- 1932), (ii) the advent of the Modern Synthesis (MS) (1936 – 1947), and (iii) the emergence of genism in the 1960s 1970s. Even though the theoretical advances of the 1960s and 1970s have been much discussed in the literature, not many seem to appreciate the profound shift they have made in Darwinian evolutionary explanation. The contribution of W. D. Hamilton seems to have an ambivalent characterization in the sense that it is viewed almost as Einsteinian by its admirers and yet the same scholars still want to characterize it as a theoretical innovation entrenched within MS. I would like to clear that seeming inconsistency by evaluating the magnitude and character of the transformation of Darwinian evolutionary explanation that was initiated by Hamilton (1963, 1964). Hamilton does appear to have started a whole new field of evolutionary research - sociobiology (Dugartkin 2007) and gene-centrism that relies exclusively on population genetics to explain evolution. Is this a new paradigm that buds off from MS, or is it just a sub discipline within MS? I will argue that what Hamilton initiated has built up sufficient contrast with the original MS to constitute a distinct paradigm.

Yalcinkaya, Mehmet Alper US philanthropy and the scientific field in Turkey in the early cold war era In the aftermath of World War II, US philanthropic organizations played a major role in the implementation of numerous modernization and development projects around the globe. As has been studied in detail, this period also witnessed the restructuring of the scientific institutions of many countries under US influence. In this paper I explore how these currents impacted Turkey – a country that was represented by many modernization theorists as a model case that could inspire other modernization projects in the Middle East and elsewhere. Between 1955 and 1970 countless American experts visited Turkey, and science was one of the key areas on which they focused. Funded by US philanthropic organizations, these experts helped found a high school of science, a new research university, and a national agency resembling the NSF. In each of these projects, however, the products failed to resemble what the experts had in mind. I examine the social and political context within which these projects were undertaken, the local dynamics that influenced the outcomes of these endeavors, and the plurality of attitudes to these projects among the experts themselves. I discuss the limitations of views that see these processes as cases of “Americanization” that were predominantly shaped by US experts acting in unison.

Yokoe, Ryosuke The Toxicity of Alcohol to the Liver: Changing Conceptions of Disease Causation In this paper, I intend to understand the scientific and social conditions that led to the establishment of the contemporary conception of alcohol’s toxicity to the liver. Throughout the middle of the twentieth century, cirrhosis of the liver was believed to be a disease of nutritional deficiency indirectly caused by alcohol. However, a series of studies during the 1960s and the 1970s gradually undermined this theory, eventually making its transition towards the direct toxicity theory that identified alcohol as an agent responsible for liver damage. The methodological flaws of older studies supporting the nutritional deficiency theory were questioned, while newer techniques of alcohol administration to experimental animals were innovated. A multifactorial conception of disease causation was emerging at the same time, allowing for a more nuanced understanding of alcohol’s toxicity in relation to some external predisposing risk factors. The paper will depend on the analysis of epidemiological, clinical, and experimental scientific journals. The complex interplay between these three forms of medical knowledge highlights their distinct contributions to the knowledge of disease causation. I will also combine the study of the ‘internal’ processes of scientific change and the ‘external’ sociological factors that shaped them (Shapere 1986), where medical knowledge will be acknowledged as a mediation of both scientific and non-scientific thought styles (Herzlich and Pierret 1986). The historical approach to alcoholic liver disease has the interpretive potential to convey how scientific knowledge is dependent on the context in which it was conceived.

105 Zytaruk, Maria From Field to Page: Mounted Specimens in the Victorian Book When the Great Exhibition opened its doors in 1851, visitors were treated to all manner of innovations in the book trades. The booth operated by the Bath publishers, Binns and Goodwin, displayed a particularly tantalizing item: Nat- ural Illustrations of the British Grasses. The novelty of the volume, its publishers advertised, lay in its being "illustrated with sixty-two real specimens." Binns and Goodwin's publication points to an overlooked but key genre of Victorian natural history: the printed book with mounted natural history specimens. In the middle decades of the nineteenth century, a handful of publishers brought out collections of seaweeds, mosses, wildflowers, ferns, and grasses. These published collections of specimens incorporated poetic extracts, biblical quotations, and some scientific information. While much scholarly attention (by James Secord, Aileen Fyfe) has been paid to the ways in which Victorian print culture popularized natural history and encouraged field collecting, the genre above has received little sustained attention. Drawing on first-hand research with examples held in the Natural History Museum of London and in the Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library, this paper argues that the phenomenon of books with "natural illustrations" represents a critical moment of transition between the Victorian scrapbooks of specimens compiled by private collectors and the period's more rigorously taxonomical collections of specimens (published in sheets) called exsiccatae. By studying the material features of these publications, this paper aims to shed light on the value and audience for these pre-assembled cabinets of specimens.

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