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1 What Animal?: Darwin's Displacement Of Notes 1 What Animal?: Darwin’s Displacement of Man 1. Jacques Derrida, ‘The Animal That Therefore I Am (More to Follow)’, Critical Inquiry 28/2 (2002): 369–418. 2. W.H. Auden, ‘Address to the Beasts’. The Faber Book of Beasts. Ed. Paul Muldoon. London: Faber & Faber, 1997. 1–3. 3. Natural History Museum London, 2008, http://www.nhm.ac.uk/visit-us/ whats-on/darwin/index.html, accessed 10.11.2009. 4. The Beagle Project, http://www.thebeagleproject.com/voyages.html, accessed 10.11.2009. 5. See Diana Donald and Jane Munroe, Endless Forms: Charles Darwin, Natural Science, and the Visual Arts (New Haven, Conn. and London: Yale University Press, 2009). 6. University of Cambridge, 2009, http://www.darwin2009.cam.ac.uk/, accessed 10.11.2009. 7. A recent literary example is Will Self’s satire on primatologist discourse, in particular the work of Dian Fossey and Jane Goodall – and the sentimental idolisation of the same – in Great Apes. See Dian Fossey, Gorillas in the Mist (London: Phoenix, 2001), Jane Goodall, My Friends the Wild Chimpanzees (Washington, DC: National Geographic Society, 1967) and Will Self, Great Apes (1997, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1998). 8. Gillian Beer, Darwin’s Plots. Evolutionary Narrative in Darwin, George Eliot and Nineteenth-Century-Fiction (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983, repr. 2000, 2009) and George Levine, Darwin and the Novelists. Patterns of Science in Victorian Fiction (Harvard University Press, 1988). 9. George Levine, ‘Reflections on Darwin and Darwinizing’, Victorian Studies 51.2 (2009): 223–45, 231–2. 10. Redmond O’Hanlon, Joseph Conrad and Charles Darwin: the Influence of Scientific Thought on Conrad’s Fiction (Edinburgh: Salamander, 1984), Michael Wainwright, Darwin and Faulkner’s Novels: Evolution and Southern Fiction (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008). 11. Martin Fichman, Evolutionary Theory and Victorian Culture (Amherst, NY: Humanity Books, 2002), Jonathan Smith, Charles Darwin and Victorian Visual Culture (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006). 12. David Amigoni, Colonies, Cults and Evolution: Literature, Science and Culture in Nineteenth-Century Writing (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007). 13. Gowan Dawson, Darwin, Literature and Victorian Respectability (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007). 14. Amigoni, Colonies, Cults and Evolution, 27. 15. Joseph Carroll, Literary Darwinism. Evolution, Human Nature, and Literature (New York and London: Routledge, 2004), 23–5. For a thorough critique of Carroll’s approach, see Frank Kelleter, ‘A Tale of Two Natures: Worried 216 Notes 217 Reflections on the Study of Literature and Culture in an Age of Neuroscience and Neo-Darwinism,’ Journal of Literary Theory 1.1 (2007): 153–89. 16. See Elizabeth Grosz, The Nick of Time. Politics, Evolution, and the Untimely (Durham: Duke University Press, 2005), 8. 17. Thomas Henry Huxley, Evidence as to Man’s Place in Nature (London: Williams and Norgate, 1863), 57. In the following, references are given after the quote with the abbreviation MPN. 18. Giorgio Agamben, The Open. Man and Animal, transl. Kevin Attell (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2004), 16. 19. The normative implications of contemporary biotechnology – but also the possible emancipatory potential of a de-naturalisation of the female body in particular – have been explored by Donna Haraway in her seminal essays ‘A Cyborg Manifesto: Science, Technology, and Socialist-Feminism in the Late Twentieth Century’ in Simians, Cyborgs, and Women (New York: Routledge, 1991), 149–81, and ‘The Biopolitics of Postmodern Bodies’ in American Feminist Thought at Century’s End: A Reader, ed. Linda S. Kauffman (Oxford: Blackwell, 1993), 199–234. See also Anne Balsamo, Technologies of the Gendered Body. Reading Cyborg Women (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 1996). 20. Animals are central to contemporary ethical debates in Western societies, a fact reflected in a vast number of recent publications. Significantly, many titles advertise the assumption that humans are just ‘other animals’, or, vice versa, that animals belong to the cultural realm, are part of an (‘other’) anthropol- ogy: Steve Baker, Picturing the Beast. Animals, Identity, and Representation, 2nd edn (1993, Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2001); Hartmut Böhme et al. (eds), Tiere. Eine andere Anthropologie (Köln and Weimar: Böhlau, 2004); Paola Cavalieri, Peter Singer (eds), The Great Ape Project. Equality beyond Humanity (New York: St Martin’s Griffin, 1993); J.M. Coetzee, The Lives of Animals (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999); Erica Fudge, Perceiving Animals. Humans and Beasts in Early Modern English Culture (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2000); Diana Fuss (ed.). Human, All Too Human (New York: Routledge, 1996); Jennifer Ham, Matthew Senior (eds), Animal Acts. Configuring the Human in Western History (New York: Routledge, 1997); Donna Haraway, Primate Visions. Gender, Race, and Nature in the World of Modern Science (New York and London: Routledge, 1989); Arien Mack (ed.), Humans and Other Animals (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1999); Shirley C. Strum, Linda Marie Fedigan (eds.), Primate Encounters. Models of Science, Gender, and Society (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000); Frans de Waal, The Ape and the Sushi Master. Cultural Reflections by a Primatologist (New York: Basic Books, 2001); Cary Wolfe (ed.), Zoontologies. The Question of the Animal (Minneapolis and London: University of Minnesota Press, 2003). Reaktion Books are running an entire ‘Animal Series’ about the cultural role of animals, including volumes on Crow, Tortoise, Cockroach, Ant, Oyster, Bear and Rhinoceros. 21. Giorgio Agamben, Homo Sacer. Sovereign Power and Bare Life, transl. Daniel Heller-Roazen (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1998), 1. 22. In his last interview, Jacques Derrida identified our treatment of animals as one of the most pressing ethical issues of our times which, however, can- not be resolved in relation to ‘rights’: ‘The relationship between humans and animals is about to change, but I don’t believe that this can be based 218 Notes on rights. Who says “right” says “obligation”, and I can’t imagine animals observing their obligations…’ Jacques Derrida, ‘Ce que disait Derrida...’ Interview with Franz-Olivier Giesbert. Le Point, 14 Oct. 2004, 80–5, 84 (my translation). 23. Gillian Beer, ‘Has Nature a Future?’ in The Third Culture: Literature and Science, ed. Elinor S. Shaffer (Berlin and New York: de Gruyter, 1998), 23. 24. Agamben, The Open, 77. 25. Beer, ‘Has Nature a Future?’, 26–7. 26. For an exploration of the potential of Darwin’s thought, based on the idea of continuity between nature and culture, see Grosz, In the Nick of Time. For an analysis of the structural analogies between Darwin’s and Foucault’s work, see Philip Sarasin, Darwin und Foucault. Genealogie und Geschichte im Zeitalter der Biologie (Frankfurt a. M.: Suhrkamp, 2009). 27. See Stephen Jay Gould, Ontogeny and Phylogeny (Cambridge, Mass. and London: Belknap Press/Harvard University Press, 1977), especially 72–80. 28. Charles Darwin, The Descent of Man, ed. H. James Birx (New York: Prometheus Books, 1998), 43. In the following, references are given after the quote with the abbreviation DM. 29. The terms are often employed synonymously. I will use ‘regression’ to designate the biological, physical and psychological return to earlier devel- opmental stages in the individual, ‘degeneration’ for the cultural and social dimension; but often, these aspects are indeed inseparable. 30. See Daniel Pick, Faces of Degeneration. A European Disorder, c. 1848–c. 1918 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989) and William Greenslade, Degeneration, Culture and the Novel 1880–1940 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994). 31. David G. Horn, The Criminal Body. Lombroso and the Anatomy of Deviance (New York and London: Routledge, 2003), 12. See also Mary Gibson, Born to Crime. Cesare Lombroso and the Origins of Biological Criminology (Westport, Conn. and London: Praeger, 2002). 32. Max Nordau, Degeneration (Lincoln, Nebr. and London: University of Nebraska Press, 1968), 556. 33. Nordau, Degeneration, 16. 34. Nordau, Degeneration, 16. 35. Nordau, Degeneration, 35–6. 36. Edwin Ray Lankaster, Degeneration. A Chapter in Darwinism (London: Macmillan, 1880), 29. 37. Lankaster, Degeneration, 59–60. 38. Kelly Hurley, The Gothic Body. Sexuality, Materialism, and Degeneration at the Fin de Siècle (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 5. 39. Hurley, The Gothic Body, 56. 40. Anne McClintock, Imperial Leather. Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Context (New York: Routledge, 1995), especially 40–2. 41. Susan Bernstein, ‘Ape Anxiety: Sensation Fiction, Evolution, and the Genre Question’, Journal of Victorian Culture 6.2 (2001): 250–71, 255. 42. Bernstein, ‘Ape Anxiety’, 255. 43. See Robert J.C. Young, Colonial Desire. Hybridity in Theory, Culture and Race (London and New York: Routledge, 1995). Notes 219 2 Creating Connections: Humans, Apes and Missing Links 1. Charles Darwin, Letter to Joseph Hooker, 11 Jan. 1844. The Life and Letters of Charles Darwin, Including an Autobiographical Chapter. Vol. 2. Ed. Francis Darwin (London: Murray, 1887), 23. 2. Charles Darwin, The Origin of Species. 1859. Ed. Gillian Beer (Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 228. 3. Peter Morton, The Vital Science. Biology and the Literary Imagination, 1860– 1900 (London: Allen & Unwin, 1984), 89. 4. John Milton, Paradise Lost, ed. Scott Elledge, 2nd edn (New York and London:
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