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Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism

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Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Land Empires Qing and Ottoman Empires in the Age of Imperialism 1800-1870 “Land Empires”: Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism c. 1800 Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Ottoman Empire: dates to 14th century - grew up around land trade (caravan) moving between Asia, Africa, Europe - most famous ‘silk route’ - 1453 conquered Constantinople (capital of Byzantium – former ‘Eastern Roman Empire’) - large quarter European merchants: most remained or returned soon after conquest - also: access to Mediterranean Sea, controlled black sea (trade from Russia) Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism By 16th century: integral part European trade networks - meant Europeans represented at Ottoman court: ‘Suleiman the Magnificent’ widely known and respected - developed army ‘Janissaries’ feared throughout Europe - by end of century Ottomans controlled most North Africa, Balkans, Eastern Europe, parts southern Russia, Iraq, ‘Holy Lands’, Persian Gulf, Black Sea, Red Sea and Mediterranean Sea Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism 1683 Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism C. 1800: considerable territory lost in Europe, Russia Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Long 18th Century: 1683 – 1798 “[1]…defeats and territorial withdrawals characterized this long eighteenth century…[2]The political structure continued to evolve… in a process that should be seen as transformation…. Central rule continued in a new and more disguised fashion as negotiation more frequently than command…[3]Important changes occurred in the Ottoman economy… the world economy came to play an ever-larger role in the everyday lives of Ottoman subjects.” [numbers inserted by me] [Quataert, The Ottoman Empire 1700-1922, p.37] Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Long 18th Century: 1683 – 1798 - 1683: withdrawal from siege of Vienna marked beginning loss territories Europe - 1686-1700: Russian-Ottoman War [“Great Turkish War”] - Russia joined alliance of Austria, Poland, Venice: organized campaigns into Crimea (1687, 1689, 1695-6) - Treaty of Constantinople 1700: 30 yr truce - Crimea basically autonomous Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Fortresses ceded to Russia 1700: Azov most important Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Long 18th Century: 1683 – 1798 - 1699 Treaty of Karlowitz: loss of European territories -- gave up Hungary, Romania, Croatia, Transylvania, Aegean Islands, Southern Ukraine - humiliating failure: acknowledged by Ottomans and Europeans Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Long 18th Century: 1683 – 1798 - For Europe: beginning of “Eastern Question” (Text)- long before 19th c. - Treaty fundamentally changed political relations with Ottomans: but what would large regions of disputed control mean for Europe? - what would clearly ‘weakened’ Ottoman empire mean for geo-political strategies – especially containment of Russia? Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Long 18th Century: 1683 – 1798 - for Ottomans: moment of ‘crisis’, generated debates about government - political transformations: decentralization- building up strength of provincial administrations -created new bureaucracy with civil servants and military loyal to Sultan Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Long 18th Century: 1683 – 1798 - simultaneously reducing powers of ‘traditional’ elites with invested (personal) interests: Religious clerics (ulama), Janissaries Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Long 18th Century: 1683 – 1798 - 1699-1774: wars with Russia - Russia seeking direct access to Mediterranean through Black Sea, Bosphorus Straits and Dardanelles Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Long 18th Century: 1683 – 1798 - 1774:Treaty of Kucuk Kaynarca - final “humiliating blow” - Russia acquired two important Crimean ports: Azov (fought over since 1700), Kerch - monopoly of north shore Black Sea: access it had long sought - Plus: passage through Dardanelles - full independence Crimea Khanate recognized: Russia annexed 1784 Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Independent 1774; Annexed by Russia 1784 for reasons of ‘defense’ Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Long 18th Century 1683 – 1798 - 1798: Napoleon’s invasion Egypt (Ottoman Province) (Text) - ‘conquest’ short-lived: Sultan sent Mohammed Ali with contingent Albanian soldiers - Napoleon returned to France to seize power 1799 [recall lectures on ‘Revolutions in Atlantic World’ – this was pivotal moment] - provided Mohammed Ali with opportunity to create semi-autonomous province Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Long 18th Century: 1683 – 1798 - (Text) exaggerates importance re: French influence as consequence of Napoleon - 18th century French influence already very strong in Empire [see below] Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Selim III (1789-1807): - recognized superiority European military - ‘New World’ European wealth had been invested in standing armies, new technology, extended training Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Sultan Selim III (1789-1807): - Selim supported program to re-organize military and administration - European officers brought to Istanbul to train modern army in rapid-fire artillery units - Grand Admiral also charged with modernize navy Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Sultan Selim III (1789-1807): - established ‘New Order’ 1792-93: restructuring administration – new bureaus (e.g. Important Affairs, Chief of Secretaries) - recognized importance of language: learning French new priority for young Ottomans [see point above about this NOT being result of French presence in Egypt] Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Sultan Selim III (1789-1807): - established permanent diplomatic representatives in European capitals: ‘windows’ for importation of European ideas – all ideas philosophical, political…. - also created embassy in Washington, US: beginning of close relations with America Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism New Administrative Bureaus: continued to be developed into 19th C. - Bureau of Private Property Registration - culmination of evolution taxation: shift to local families becoming dynasties - granting of formerly ‘public’ land (belonging to state) as ‘private’ to new elites in provinces - de facto privatization by end 18th C. NOT ‘imposition by or imitation of West! Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Sultan Selim III (1789-1807): also faced economic problems - no agreed- upon analysis contemporary commentators: - some criticized investment in modernizing army – among them those of ‘traditional’ military, social elite - some blamed ‘Europe’ – saw Ottomans as behind in economic (as well as) military development – needed better relations with West Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Recent Argument [Quataert]: consequences of developments in Global Economy more than any single decision on part of Ottoman government - development mercantilism (vis-à-vis colonies) - banking systems, insurance, investment companies: tied to emerging capitalism in Europe Ottomans little to no opportunity to develop export industry processed or manufactured goods Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism “A clever Ottoman businessman might make much money, but he did not recycle it into the businesses of others, especially not into new methods of manufacturing. The limited capitalism of the Ottoman Empire was extremely conservative.” [McCarthy, The Ottomans…] Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Second Issue Trade: - extensive with Europe, Asia (especially India) but problem with nature : export raw materials, importation more expensive manufactured goods Large part trade from Crimea and North/Horn Africa: slaves - majority for domestic, harem use not economic growth [opposite to what we saw in Americas] Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Slave Trades into Ottoman Empire: sources, routes Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism First-Hand Observer, 1785: “…. the commerce of the Turks with Europe and India, is more detrimental than advantageous. For the articles exported being raw unwrought materials, the empire deprives itself of all the advantages to be derived from the labour of its own subjects. Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism . On the other hand, the commodities being imported from Europe and India, being articles of pure luxury, only serve to increase the dissipation of the rich and the servants of government, whilst, perhaps they aggravate the wretched condition of the people , and the class of cultivators.” [from Comte de Volney, French, first-hand observer 1782-85, Egypt, Lebanon, Syria, Palestine] Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism French ambassador in Constantinople expressed the same conclusion in 1788: - referred to Ottoman Empire as "one of the richest colonies of France". Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Additional Issue: Education, Knowledge ‘outside world’ : - To whatever extent we determine that relations with Europe and/or the larger ‘global economy’ were central to defining ‘long 18th c.’, important to note that… ‘Ottomans (both state and people) were largely ignorant of Europe -- its People, its Economy and its Intellectual Development’ Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism Mahmud II (1808-39) built on earlier reforms: - ministries established with set duties, regular salaries - “Translation Bureau” 1821: European languages (especially French) taught - attention to translating foreign materials, documents-- reducing reliance on Greeks, Armenians - became ‘starting point’ for ambitious young civil servants Ottoman Empire: Age of Imperialism - Muslim, and non-Muslim students accepted: all part of creating yet another ‘new elite’ loyal to state - reflected in growth of bureaucracy: - c.1800:
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