a
a
at
to
the
the
are
and
his
the
is
and
and
long
vio as
ifhis
such
reac
public
1980.
actions faint
cyclical
cyclical
prophet
breeding
by
unlikely,
coherent
of
Human
have
oppose,
converts,
and
a
and
There
celebrated
certain
excesses,
then,
Since
Truly,
a
to intellectual
intellectual
the
of
harass
of this
the
is
his
very
Press,
of
and informed
of
or life.
to
both
fortunate
accepted
he
most
and
schismatics,
is
self-interest
bitterly
enthusiasm,
be
commit
contrast and
of
fickleness
individual
also
succeeded
Prophet
timid
bridling
enemies
to
is
of
seemed
Prophecy,
truism
too
existence.
prophets,
Although
figure,
the
generation.
complain
the
prophetic Tsuzuki's
the
charge
cruel
University
Britain's
life
to
prophet
for
conducive
abuse
the
sad
way
articulation
sex"
a
a
for
usually
a
or
the
controversy
the
prophetic
as
by
defend
public the
then
is
of
Enthusiasts
one,
of
and
of
a
of
prophecy
for
cynics
not
such
are
imprison.
previous
questioned,
it and
1844-1929:
and
and
tumultuous
for
dissidents
Chushichi
one.
else,
important
the
lead
Cambridge
and
61
Carpenter.
expansionism.
pathetic
inconsistencies,
sects,
in
of periods
plainly
late-Victorian
partisans
bias
and
or
easy
Britain,
thankless
definition
is
more
of
themselve~,
renowned
maelstrom
out
motives
rival
enemies
winning
York:
would
an
evanescence
a
Carpenter difficulties-the
a
in
by
contention,
czars
generation;
expose
one.
life
not Boom
Edward
one
of
of
passe
the
the
even
a
not
persecute
prophetic everything
vexing
his
uncritically,
also
of
New
form
which
as
is
of and
in a
brutal
discredit,
spelled
self-important,
hard
is
is
almost
as
Edward
a
even
wrath
century
and
and
setting centre
the
cultural
It
Carpenter
is
constant
fawn
the
and
a
carp
is
US$34.50.
perhaps
is
prophetic
spells
for
prophets,
off
of
the
message,
the
considerable
enterprise.
prophet
for
and
plainly
assume
above
authorities
a
at
biography
of
it
nothing
from
new life
The
quiescence
young
£15.
to
London
prophets
challenged,
critics is
a
OF
Tsuzuki.
prophet
life
these
of
and
prophet
in
Willis
is
business.
the
of
striking, that
splinter
followers
endures
a
seventeenth
came
exaggerate
supporters
of
Nor 237.
his
is
transient
God
influential
inspire
LIFE
persuasive
survival
of
his
he
a
x,
That
the
All
Kirk
for
and
sympathetic
burden
opinion-are
the
and
life
trend-setters,
history
fashions
appeal trend
tion,
and
stretches
as
heart.
and
scrutinized.
spend doctrines
successful prophet
threaten,
difficult
hypocrisy,
heretics
lently,
THE zealots
Pp.
Chushichi
Fellowship.
by "A 62 Russell winter 1982-83 "A God above the bias of sex" 63
and nurturing ofprophets: mid-Victorian Brighton. Indeed, he was born dedicated "peripatetic lecturers" who would travel the country to teach to and grew to maturity in a quintessentially middle-class, mid-Victorian those two great social groups hitherto excluded from the university: home, complete with distant father, remote mother, indifferent women and working men. Carpenter, serious about his calling as a brothers, adoring sisters, loyal servants, and a cloying atmosphere of teacher and eager for experience of life outside ofCambridge, answered pious religiosity, strident moralism, self-confident prosperity, and Stuart's first appeal and set off in the winter of 1873 to lecture in the high-minded Liberalism. As a boy Carpenter was studious and devout industrial midlands and north. This was a world wholly new to Car and, in the autumn of 1864, went up to Trinity Hall, Cambridge, fully penter, and the poverty, filth, cruelty, degradation, and immorality of intending to pursue a quiet life of piety, scholarship, teaching, and industrial society appalled him. But the conditions also bewitched him; service as a clerical don. ugly as the spectacle was, he was nonetheless unable to avert his eyes For Carpenter as for so many other earnest young Victorian gentle from the squalid scenes he witnessed in places such as Leeds, Sheffield, men, however, Cambridge proved both a liberation and a transforma and Nottingham. In particular, he found himselfutterly unable to return tion. It freed him from his family's restrictions and expectations, from to the pampered, cloistered, and elegant life he had been enjoying in his own fears of social and intellectual inadequacy, and, eventually and comfortable Cambridge. By the end of his first circuit of lectures Car unexpectedly, from his faith; it transformed him to Radical politics and penter knew it was there, in the industrial north ofEngland, that his true Christian Socialist theology, to sexual redefinition and reorientation, and ministry lay, and, therefore, in June 1874 he resigned both his Fellow to a life ofwriting, teaching, and labour outside ofthe university and the ship and his clerical appointment and moved to Sheffield to begin "my Church. In the short run, to be sure, Carpenter's career seemed to be a life's true work". model of orthodoxy and achievement: first-class degree and clerical For the remainder ofhis long life Carpenter lived in the rural environs Fellowship at Trinity Hall in 1868, ordination and a curacy in Cambridge of Sheffield and pursued a career of lecturing, organizing, and writing in 1870. Yet at every stage of his intellectual and religious advancement which would earn him an international reputation. Teaching continued Carpenter found himselfquestioning his most cherished beliefs as well as to be his greatest passion, and he satisfied it fully-through lectures and his very purpose as a cleric and scholar. Much of that doubting and evening classes at Mechanics' Institutes, working-men's colleges, trade restlessness was a natural product oflife at Trinity Hall itself, for in the union schools, I.L.P. courses, and Socialist Sunday Schools, many of 1860s that college enjoyed a much deserved reputation as the most which he took a leading role in establishing. It seems, indeed, that he politically Radical and intellectually unorthodox college in the univer never turned down an invitation to speak or to teach anywhere in Britain, sity: Henry Fawcett and Leslie Stephen were senior Fellows, Charles and in the course of fifty years he travelled to nearly every corner of the Dilke-a fellow commoner two years senior to Carpenter-was Presi island to spread his message to working men, trade union officials, dent of the Union and the most admired undergraduate in the college, socialist sectarians, and left-wing intellectuals of every sort. Impressive and F.D. Maurice used the college, with great success, as a recruiting as that achievement was, however, it was through his prolific writings, ground for converts to his progressive, indeed heretical, Liberal most famously Towards Democracy (1883), Civilisation: Its Cause and Anglicanism and Christian Socialism. Carpenter was deeply influenced Cure (1889), and Love's Coming of Age (1896), that Carpenter gained his by both these facets of life at Trinity Hall; by the time he received his widest audience. His sixty books and pamphlets and nearly 200 magazine Fellowship he had already moved from Liberal to Radical political and newspaper articles were immensely readable and popular and helped loyalties and from a traditional Anglican to an outspoken Christian to establish him as a revered and respected prophet. Socialist theological position. But a prophet ofwhat? Scholars have variously labelled Carpenter as a What finally completed this dual emancipation and metamorphosis prophet of"a Socialist millennium", "the New Life", "World Religion", and transformed Carpenter from a Radical Cambridge cleric into a "Tolstoyism", and "Homosexuality". Mr. Tsuzuki describes Car Socialist prophet was his experience as a lecturer in the University penter's prophetic vision as one of "human fellowship", and the term, Extension Scheme. Established in 1873 by James Stuart with the purpose despite its vagueness, is an appropriate one and far preferable to all other of making Cambridge open to that "vast multitude of persons who characterizations of Carpenter's essential message. It is superior because cannot command continuous leisure", the University Extension prog it expresses both the goal and the means of his prophecy: personal ramme aimed at recruiting from Cambridge a number of talented and salvation and collective redemption achieved through individual regen- 64 Russell winter 1982- 83 "A God above the bias of sex" 65
eration and social reform. In Carpenter's view there is an irreducible and ofthe strengths of Mr. Tsuzuki's book that he describes the remarkable indestructible core of "humanness" in every individual, a "humanness" range of Carpenter's work: in favour of working-class education, female which consists more or less ofthe attributes ofprelapsarian man; at heart, suffrage, trade unionism, pacifism, vegetarianism, anti-vivisectionism, that is, men and women are virtuous, honest, compassionate, loving, homosexual rights, the I. L.P., Socialist League, Social Democratic Fed free, and happy. The tragedy of modern life is that that core has been eration and No-Conscription Fellowship, and the wearing of sandals hidden and neglected; men and women have come to acquire, con instead of"leatheren coffins". Freedom was the common aim ofall these sciously and unconsciously, a great many outer layers of prejudices, causes-freedom from legal injustice, economic exploitation, intellectual assumptions, expectations, habits, and fears which have cumulatively ignorance, cultural exclusion, social pressure, sexual stereotypes, and warped their personalities, concealed their potentialities, and alienated political oppression-and Carpenter believed that that emancipation them both from each other and from their true selves. The genesis ofthis would allow men and women to regain their "common humanity" and, tragedy, the source of the secular Original Sin which has tainted all therefore, to enjoy true happiness and virtue. modern life, lies not in the formation of society itself, Carpenter argued, The breadth ofCarpenter's interests and variety ofhis work explain his but in the development of industrial, capitalist society. It is the institu undoubted notoriety in late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century tion ofwage labour, the concentration ofcapital and regimentation ofthe Britain; he seemed to be involved in or concerned with nearly every work-place, the growth ofindustrial cities, the enshrinement ofthe profit public issue and was therefore known to a broad spectrum of British motive, and the elevation of individual competition over collective coop opinion. But it was the nature of his remarkable personality, especially eration which have masked and distorted the true nature of human when expressed through his sensitive writing style, which accounted for beings and have been responsible for the pervasive unhappiness and evil the extraordinary reverence in which he was held by friends, allies, in modern life. acquaintances, and readers alike. To those who met him, Carpenter To alter the lamentable conditions in which they find themselves, personified his prophetic message. He was a kindly, generous, and loving Carpenter asserted, it is necessary for men and women to peel off the man who lived a simple life, nearly free from possessions, in a plain accumulated layers of capitalist culture, to slough offthe skins of indus agricultural labourer's cottage; he seemed to have rediscovered his trial civilization until they reach, both individually and collectively, their human "core" and to be leading the life all men and women would share common "humanness". Such a paring is not, however, an easy task. Few in a properly constituted, genuinely free society. To those who read him, individuals possess the necessary wisdom, courage, and resolve to iden Carpenter's emotional, affecting, and often sentimental prose style was tify, confront, and remake their moral values, social biases,political equally infectious and inspirational. By his example as well as his teach presuppositions, and intellectual assumptions. Moreover, Carpenter ings Carpenter became a hero to an entire generation ofBritish socialists. understood fully that individual action, no matter how well intentioned Fenner Brockway, for instance, remembered that among his young or purposeful, was severely constrained by social pressures, cultural comrades Carpenter was a beloved figure: prejudices, economic realities, and political institutions. Individuals can and ought to take the lead in freeing themselves from the restraints that His Towards Democracy was our Bible. We read it aloud in the summer have shackled their "true humanity", Carpenter concluded, but com evenings when, tired by tramping or games, we rested awhile before returning plete and permanent freedom and happiness can come about only as a from our rambles. We read it at those moments when we wanted to retire from result of thoroughgoing reform in every aspect of social, political, religi the excitement ofour Socialist work, and in quietude seek the calm and power ous, and cultural life. Carpenter, therefore, was enough ofa Christian to that alone gives sustaining strength. We no longer believed in dogmatic believe that heroic acts of individual free will could be efficacious and theology. Edward Carpenter gave us the spiritual food we still needed. I redemptive, but enough of a Marxist to realize that true grace was more likely to come through peaceful class struggle and gradual social reform Another admirer was the young Bertrand Russell. Russell came to ism. know of Carpenter through the latter's writings on sexual matters, Because of his conviction that each and every aspect of human life specifically his three short pamphlets, Sex-Love, Woman, and Marriage, impinged on every other and that all needed immediate reform, Car penter concerned himselfwith a dizzying variety of causes, and it is one I Fenner Brockway, "A Memory of Edward Carpenter", New Leader, Lon., 5 July 1929. in in
to of
is
as by
ac
his
be
67 the the
the
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it
mes
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Unwin, death votes
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all
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Russell had
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account
officials,
on Morrell,
seems his had
so memorial
although
not,
sex" rather
had to review
met partially
his
during
on
evidence
I
And pamphlets;
Allen
Carpenter's succeeded nearly
a
of
this he
would
did
after birthday home largely
had charm
brought
visited
out union
Carpenter
least
Of
attitudes
that
had
what of
condemned
again annual
bias
his
partly He at to
Ottoline
they
from
honoured
they
his likeable,
Even sort
on
war, work-day, he
conference causes
supposed been trade an
(London:
friends,
the Carpenter,
(1920),
time
men.
met is
a 4
as and
to
that
the
therefore the are
life. and
at
Lady
Carpenter's
had
celebrated
Aside
shape
two with
only close
of
Kasrils
1960s men.
Carpenter
to above
by achievements.
They
mountains
disciples.
and indeed, Creeds men,
to
references
although Casement, movement
pilgrims.
trying
his
up-he
the "was
which
ministers,
the
Sharing eight-hour natural
two
his
"The else,
rights, and God all Some
opposed
married ROllald 1916).
lI8.
beloved
with was
with of taste;
all
the
the him."3
helped
was
labour
alld
"A found,
for life
until
reported received
turned
he lI6,
who connection working
Carpenter's socialist
Christian his
it
impressed
cabinet between
and
indifferent
he
?Aug.
up
much
many his
outlived above To
liked
for immune.
and mistakenly,
studded occasions.
a I 1920):
Feillberg British when link
was
Russell
young
between
and
simple and year prepare homosexual
Russell
had
But
deeply
homosexuality] are considerable.
.... 14°9, Russell's
arguments two leaders,
sympathizes
for
to Carpenter as April
suffrage
Barry
As died He Carpenter,
Pagan
of and
direct each
celebrate
religious
He
been
entirely, sympathies, 9. ed. (24
been Russell 1894
least
(no.
2
contact Party those powerful
marriage such
end to socialism
27
revered,
at
shrine a too in 19
when
had
"mysticism". female not remembered most
had
Edward
offices.
his last
the
and on
attainment.
Russell,
Edinburgh far as
Casement's
was
Goldie. Lon., held
5. the
Alys attempting
War
June to
political
Carpenter
8 writings than at
Labour forgotten; not be did the create
others, 1
Carpenter's
as
contemporaries,
to in
[i.e.
far
intellectuals,
Russell
Russell such
to
prophet's to
p. though was
of and
before
cherished and
Berlra'ld was
N.C.F.
morning
NatiOll,
they sympathies"
a by
been from closer
other type
been
World
better
memory
The
aged women
letters arguments, The Dear
1969), the
Edward things
This
.\ 4 was
helping pioned, what achieved;
service complishments his come sages socialist Victorian ever, Russell have socialism
one's First same of at "This the for which little largely, unclear, friends many it ant.
his months feelings message, his
a
(7
of be at
of
to
It in to
to of was he the
an the
and
and
read May
and
book
self
to
non Car
fairly
that" about
"the
in
their
views bias
had sexual Pearsall
is was
(II as true be
what Wilde's on
failed
of
and
have tiny
the agonizing
nothing
towards
Dickinson, subject"
to Russell
reform Russell them or be Woman, such
he
plain, a
function
wrote
"I member
allusion) Alys
purpose
his
discuss
prosecution.
to
published. relationships, which
a the
man"
Oscar
for much
me
to of towards
to above
aspire
on seems real
union",
Society;
1894.2 Carpenter Carpenter
found the
Lowes therefore
brief
pamphlet makes
divorce,
it
invite
to
works to critical. a
other, priggish, God
in when
sexual gave the
of however,
therefore for
seemed Free midst
read
to a failed
introduced
and
a
it
the homosexual, for attitude
he
and him
"and
in
the that
time enthused
not
more
Dickinson, Russell
manifesto
press
of ought as of
ever first
were "child-bearing separate
Tsuzuki
Apostle, "physical
in I
allusive
and
a subject
he a
naivete,
but
Place
Society.
was
very
was
Alys, misunderstood and
the chaste,
who
Marriage
good ifhe
Mr. word
the (except
Its
ethereal base
his admiration
it
to imprisonment,
"Dickinson
these thing while attracted
as the Free as Labour than
write defence
fellow
misconstrued
had
on point
In "as As
and
that
a
in
at pamphlets
and
be
that
him than
be
he attitude
Every his even omits his will be
replace what good
self-righteous,
friends,
relationships
small works even arguments, devout
to if
wise.
to
it. Carpenter",
rather he
a
get by
reported three
moving.
...
and
his
Marriage only
Carpenter's, Sex-Love,
make to therefore
rather Writing
by
should with and
he impartially
Such
these oversight
earning even his in
give
should
to are
of entirely
and
and the arguments.
Russell's
judged as love,
therefore,
Alys, an in and
works
intellectual,
Edward
But
1982-83 read
it he me
He of
were
homosexual souls"
seized
pamphlets
could
difficult timely, printed
indefinite
to
by
I
lines friend of Society;
inexperienced,
of it
was
possible. these written his
marriage,
intended
argued
as
too
these words said.
been Marriage," Marriage
is
the
winter
were as Free
Russell to
Woman circumspect
relationships.
of
actions sublimation nor
intelligent,
is it Love
Carpenter's
seems a
circle close
surprising,
on
but
children-perhaps
1894). found
courtship union
children".
in
a
of have
Russell,
praise
titles "homogenic", "It of
and and
liberating, high-minded, he I fashion Sex About
of
which intended
1894).
talk,
Russell
To public
full especially between
Place
Sept. rocky Carpenter
of .... hardly
definite
high
writings;
Tellingly,
extremely
The 66
all Her introduced himself
insightful, Smith. Feb. called useful, as 1894). sex
Carpenter
good all subject
(12 and 2 latter's ity. and exploitative, "mystical
control sex". seemed read meaning
termed penter heterosexual more be
allusive Indeed, was Carpenter's his subject
not
small
no
was
Wesleyan
It
means,
purpose.
in
in
materialist
revolutionary
not
not
3
8
-
ethical
82
19
reformist
History
Georgia
winter
of
inspiration,
of
image:
in
Russell
own
Leninist
his
achievement.
University
68 Department