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ICES Journal of Marine Science (2016), 73(4), 1235–1243. doi:10.1093/icesjms/fsw002

Original Article Fishing gear transitions: lessons from the Dutch ﬂatﬁsh pulse trawl

Tim Haasnoot1,2*, Marloes Kraan2, and Simon R. Bush1 1Environmental Policy Group, Wageningen University, Hollandseweg 1, Wageningen 6706 KN, The Netherlands 2Institute for Marine Resources and Ecosystem Studies (IMARES), PO Box 68, IJmuiden 1970 AB, The Netherlands *Corresponding author. tel: +31 6 122 36160; e-mail: [email protected] Haasnoot, T., Kraan, M., and Bush, S. R. Fishing gear transitions: lessons from the Dutch ﬂatﬁsh pulse trawl. – ICES Journal of Marine Science, 73: 1235–1243. Received 29 September 2015; revised 29 December 2015; accepted 3 January 2016; advance access publication 1 February 2016.

This paper focuses on the transition in the Dutch cutter fleet-targeting flatfish, from the conventional beam trawl to the pulse trawl fishing gear. In doingso, we explore the process of geartransition, presenting the challengesthat fishers and policy-makers face.The pulse trawltechnique represents a particularly controversial gear transition as it makes use of electricity, which has been banned by the European Union since 1988. However, it is seen by those developing it in the Netherlands as an important alternative fishing gear to the conventional beam trawl technique, which is becoming increasingly inefficient with rising fuel prices and well-documented impact on benthic habitats. By using a multi-level perspective on socio-technical transitions as the analytical framework, we explore the development of the pulse trawl and the interaction between different levels. We also discuss the influence of technology-push on its transition into practice and regulation. This paper demonstrates the importance of social dimensions in the adoption of new fishing gears and in doing so contributes to our knowledge on how technological transitions in fisheries can be managed. Keywords: multi-level perspective, pulse trawl technique, socio-technical transitions, technology-push, transition theory.

Introduction The Dutch demersal fishing fleet is an example of a fishery that Catchability and fishing mortality in commercial fisheries are directly has undergone a series of substantial gear transitions in response related to the type of gear that is employed by fishers (Hilborn and to technical and market developments and changing fishing regula- Walters, 1992). Whether a fishery can reduce its fishing impact is tions. Technological innovation was aimed at improved fishing effi- therefore partly dependent on the uptake of new fishing gears ciency. The first major innovation, after earlier introductions of (Rijnsdorp et al., 2008; Eigaard et al., 2014). By adopting new gears, steam and motorized propulsion, took place in the 1960s when or altering existing fishing gears, fishers are able to positively (and the demersal fleet shifted from employing an otter trawl targeting negatively) influence their impact on the sustainability of a fish groundfish to a beam trawl-targeting flatfish (Rijnsdorp and stock and on the surrounding marine environment. Like other pro- Millner, 1996; Rijnsdorp et al., 2008). Although beam trawling for cesses of technological change, the shift to more sustainable fishing flatfish is a very efficient fishing technique in terms of catch per gear is complex due to high degrees of uncertainty and contestation unit effort, it requires a high-energy input (Rijnsdorp et al., 2008), around innovations (Dewees and Hawkes, 1988; Van Ginkel, 2001; causes substantial mortality of both undersized target and non- Bavinck and Karunaharan, 2006; Bush and Belton, 2012). New target fish, leads to changes in the species composition of inverte- fishing gear may conflict with the (short-term) economic goals and brates (van Marlen et al., 2014), and causes physical disruption of safety concerns offishers (Eigaard et al., 2014).Besides these potential the seabed (Depestele et al., 2016). These negative effects triggered conflicts, new fishing gear also needs support from a wide group of research and development into alternative, economically efficient actors, including industry, states, scientists and NGOs, to prevail in fishing techniques with lower impact. A second technical innov- both practice and policy. The introduction of new gears therefore ation was the replacement of the beam by what has been called a goes far beyond technology design and innovation to include what SumWing. A hydrodynamic wing-shaped “beam”; reducing weight Geels (2004) and colleagues (Geels and Schot, 2007; Grin et al., and bottom contact and therefore drag resulting in less oil consump- 2010) label socio-technical transitions. tion with 20% (Stichting voor Duurzame Visserijontwikkeling,

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2010). The third technical innovation was the replacement of tickler on the context of the complex socio-technological system. In recog- chains used for mechanical stimulation of the seabed with the beam nition that technological change occurs as a result of (rather than trawl to the use of electrodes giving an electrical stimulus. As outlined despite) social and political processes, attention has now turned by Soetaert et al. (2013), this alternative electro-trawl technique, to a so-called co-evolutionary understanding of social-technical otherwise known as a “pulse trawl”, was seen as an alternative for change (Schot and Geels, 2008; Grin et al., 2010): paying attention diminishing the ecosystem effects of the conventional beam trawl. to both technological innovation and the wider social, political, The actual process of innovation and adoption is in many ways and economic context in which the innovation is embedded. contrary to the initial hopes of the Dutch government, scientists The consequence of this co-evolutionary understanding is that and fishers who hoped the pulse trawl gear would quickly integrate technological transitions are neither linear nor rational processes. into the industry given its apparent benefits. Despite the adoption of Instead, the innovation and introduction of technologies is under- the pulse trawl in the Dutch cutter fleet delivering improved eco- stood as dependent on the continual interplay between technical nomic efficiency and ecological performance, the process of adop- knowledge and developments on the one hand and socio-cultural tion has been highly contested. Low levels of consensus around values, different power structures, and social innovation on the the use of electricity in fishing, which has been banned in the other (Bos, 2004; Paredis, 2011). This co-evolutionary perspective European Union since 1988 (Quirijns et al., 2013), and the high is understood in terms of “socio-technical transitions” (Rip and levels of uncertainty around the physical impact on non-target Kemp, 1998; Rotmans and Loorbach, 2009; Grin et al., 2010). species and benthic habitat,have contributed to opposition from in- These transitions trace the dynamic interface between the influence dustry and environmental groups alike. In this paper, we explore of social values over technology development and adoption, as well how this process of socio-technical innovation became so contested, as how power relations change through technologies and shape and how this contestation was played out in the Netherlands and in everyday practices (Paredis, 2011). As argued by Johnson and Europe. In doing so,weoffer key insightsinto thewiderassumptions Wetmore (2009), “understanding how values are entwined in socio- of how “new and improved” fishing gears can be effectively intro- technical systems is crucial to steering technology to a future we duced by moving away from technological push (Di Stefano et al., want” (p. 205). Therefore, any analysis of technological adoption 2012; Peters et al., 2012) and considering the social dimensions of should not only focus on the technology itself but also on social pro- technological transitions. cesses of design, use, and learning that influence the form and func- Using a retrospective case study approach, we reconstruct the tion of technical hardware. introduction and uptake of the pulse trawl since 1988 (for a timeline The analysis of socio-technical transitions is structured by the of events, see Supplementary data, A). Data were collected through MLP of Geels (2004). The MLP seeks to explain how innovations semi-structured interviews with a purposive sample (Curtis et al., emerge and are mainstreamed in practice and regulation over 2000) of 17 actors and institutions, ranging from scientists, time by breaking transition processes into the socio-technical fishers, policy-makers, fisheries representatives, engineers, and niche, regime, and landscape levels as is shown in Figure 1. Socio- NGO’s involved in the transition process of the pulse trawl in the technical transitions begin at the niche level, described as protected Netherlands. Two respondents refused to cooperate with an inter- spaces that enable emerging innovative technologies to be tested and view and gave brief written statements explaining their refusal. All developed (Hermans et al., 2013). These niches are crucial to transi- interviews were recorded, transcribed, then coded for analysis tions, because they provide spaces for learning, experimentation, based on a predetermined framework. Data were triangulated and innovation in reference to, but often unconstrained by, prevail- from multiple sources to ensure that evidence was reconstructed ac- ing institutional and economic norms and practices. Within a niche, curately, in terms of facts and sequence (De Vaus, 2001). actors interact, share and deliberate over their ideas, creating their The following section introduces the multi-level perspective own norms, discourses, and practices and social networks. But (MLP) of transition theory as the analytical framework for this niches do not exist in a vacuum. They develop in reference to case study. We then present the socio-technical transition of the what is referred to as the regime level—a set of actors and institu- pulse trawl technique in four phases that correspond to the major tions, which coordinate and steer innovations according to prevail- decision-making events from its introduction in the 1970s to the ing regulative, normative, and cognitive rules. The regime level present. The case is followed by a discussion, which summarizes coordinates and aims to guide and steer innovation at the niche the key lessons learned for better understanding and managing level along a predictable trajectory (Grin et al., 2010). In doing so, the process of fishing gear innovation and transition. The final it balances regulation with innovation through the alignment and section draws conclusions and outlines recommendations for stability of rules (Geels, 2004). Finally, these niche and regime policy and further research. levels are embedded in the landscape level, which encompass processes beyond the direct influence of regime and niche actors such A transition theory approach to gear innovation as demographic trends, political ideologies, societal values, and Technological change is commonly framed in terms of the creative macro-economic patterns (Geels and Schot, 2007; Geels, 2011). tension between technology-push and demand-pull processes (Di By understanding the composition and interaction in and Stefano et al., 2012; Peters et al., 2012). Technology-push in particu- between the three MLP levels, it is possible to reconstruct how tran- lar emerges from the idea that new technologies are instruments to sitions can be achieved, including those towards complex outcomes solve environmental and developmental problems, which is also re- such as sustainability (Grin et al., 2010; Hermans et al., 2013). At the ferred to as atechnological fix (Paredis, 2011). As Nye (2014) argues, centre of the approach are questions around the extent to which such “technological fixes” presume that failure to change is an in- innovations, such as new fishing gear, can be mainstreamed in trinsic shortcoming of human capacity and therefore aims to cir- policy and practice. For instance, how do institutions and actors cumvent these shortcomings rather than to address changes in in existing regimes foster innovations? What conditions are neces- practices and lifestyle. According to Sarewitz and Nelson (2008) sary for a niche innovation to be taken up and restructure the only in a few situations technological fixes are successful, depending regime? Can niche innovations replace a regime, or do they

commercial vessel GO-65 and it showed higher sole catches and lower plaice catches compared to the conventional beam trawl. No improvement in size selectivity was found, but further research was advocated (Van Marlen, 1997). In 1988, however, all research and development was halted when the European Union put a ban on electrical fishing in place. According to Linnane et al. (2000) and Van Marlen (1997), the ban reflected the fear that electro-trawls would lead to a rapid and uncontrolled increase in fishing efficiency. At the time, the beam trawl fleet was already under severe international criticism, with poor regulation and control resulting in overshooting quotas (Soetaert et al., 2013). As one respondent from the Dutch fishing industry argued, the introduction of an even more efficient fishing technique at that time was therefore politically untenable. As a result of the ban, all research and development on electrical fishing techniques was halted throughout Europe. And with a stabi- lized crude oil price, the dominant motivation to develop an alter- Figure 1. Schematic explanation of the MLP. (a) Landscape-level developments exert pressure and influence regime and niche levels; (b) native, more efficient fishing gear to replace the conventional beam Regime-levelconsists ofa networkof actors andinstitutionsthatsharea trawl became less urgent. set of regulative, normative, and cognitive rules. (c) Multiple However, the resultsand knowledge that had been built up before innovations are developed at the niche level by niche actors in the ban in 1988 clearly demonstrated the potential for an electric combination with regime actors.(d) Innovationsemerge thatchallenge fishing gear on minimizing impacts on benthic habitats and the regime and start a process of realignment between the niche and species. Recognizing this, the Dutch company Verburg-Holland regime level. (e) Regime is destabilized by the landscape level creating B.V. decided to resume research and development of an electric an opportunity for innovations to break through. (f) If the niche fishing gear in 1992 (Soetaert et al., 2013), with direct support innovation successfully aligns with the regime level, then an from the Dutch Ministry in the form of time on one of their research opportunity for new regime configuration emerges (adapted from vessels. The government was willing to invest in research on an elec- Schot & Geels, 2008). This figure is available in black and white in print and in colour at ICES Journal of Marine Science online. tric fishing gear despite the ban. A former employee of the Ministry clarified why research commenced when the gear had been banned. He argued that, “There was quite some criticism on the [traditional] instead contribute to changes in the behaviour, routines, and prac- beam trawl, so then it is wise to look for an alternative. I think that tices of regime actors? It is also possible to determine the extent to the pulse trawl technique was considered to be the main alternative, which changes in technology are “pushed” by regime and niche because the Ministry had already invested a lot in it”. actors. By 1998, both Verburg-Holland B.V and the Ministry were opti- There is a continuous drive for modifying fishing gears and prac- mistic about the progress on the pulse trawl technique and they tices around the world, with commercial fishers constantly introdu- approached the Dutch Institute for Fisheries Research (RIVO, cur- cing technology to remain economically competitive, enhance the rently IMARES) to give scientific guidance to the further develop- performance of their equipment, and/or respond to changes in ment of a pulse trawl gear. The fishing industry also became rules and regulations (Valdemarsen, 2001; Tietze et al., 2005). involved through the Federation of Fishing Associations (FFA, cur- Advances in fishing technology over the last century have been in- rently VisNed), which represented a significant part of the demersal strumental in increasing the efficiency of fishing fleets contributing fishing industry (Van Marlen et al., 2014). Their involvement led to to the overexploitation of fish stocks (Agboola, 2014; Eigaard et al., the development of a pulse trawl with a width of 12 m to match the 2014). In response, fishing technologists have started to focus more common size of the conventional trawl and open up the possibility on conservation-oriented goals of gear development, placing inno- of retrofitting existing vessels (Van den Berge and De Bruijn, 2000a). vations in fishing technology as a key input to sustainably managed Despiteinvestmentsinthepulse trawl projectbythefishingsector fish stocks (Kennelly and Broadhurst, 2002; Eigaard et al., 2014). In during the 1990s, many fishers did not feel the need to invest in an the rest of this paper, we seek to understand how fishing technolo- alternative fishing technique for the beam trawl. They were sceptical gies can be better understood as socio-technical transitions, and about the pulse trawl and disagreed with the societal critique on the the consequences such an understanding might have for managing conventional beam trawl (Van den Berge and De Bruijn, 2000a). gear-related sustainability transitions. However, according to the chair of the FFA at the time, the wider fishing industry did see the need to solve problems associated with bycatch and the high fuel consumption (Van den Berge and De Four phases of gear transition Bruijn, 2000b). To enable continued research on the pulse trawl, Phase 1: Experimentation, ban and research an experimental license for research was sought by the Ministry at The first trials with marine electro-trawls in Europe were conducted the EU. Although the licence was granted, the Ministry only agreed in the 1970s in the Netherlands (De Groot and Boonstra, 1970; to start discussing options to legalize the use of electricity if research Boonstra and De Groot, 1974; Agricola, 1985), Belgium (Vanden results would be gathered aboard a commercial vessel during a pilot Broucke, 1973), Germany (Horn, 1976), and the UK (Horton, project. Initiatives to undertake such a project were initially stranded 1984). But it was not until 1986 that the first attempts were made around disagreement about who should pay for the gear and for to commercialize marine electric fishing gear in the Netherlands hiring a commercial vessel (Van den Berge and De Bruijn, 2000b). (Van Marlen, 1997). A prototype was tested in 1987 aboard the It took until 2004 before this could take place.

Phase 2: research aboard a commercial vessel industry, Civil Society Organisations (CSO), scientists, and policy In 2004, the pulse trawl system was ready to be tested aboard a com- officers. The Task Force was instructed to develop an economic and mercial vessel. For this, the flatfish cutter UK153 was selected by the environmental sustainable perspective for the North Sea cutter fleet Agricultural Economics Research Institute (LEI) in consultation (Task Force Sustainable North Sea Fisheries, 2006). In their final with representatives of the fishing industry. One year later, the report, “Fishing with Headwind” (2006), they described the urgent Ministry initiated a steering group for the pulse fishing pilot, consist- situation in the Dutch fishing industry and advised to establish a ing of the Ministry and representatives from the two industry associa- Fisheries Innovation Platform (Visserij Innovatie Platform, FIP) to tions, the FFA and the Dutch Fishers’s Federation (Nederlandse steer innovations in the fisheries sector. One of the outcomes was Vissersbond). Scientific advice was provided by the Institute for the establishment of Study Groups (kenniskringen)consistingof Marine Resources and Ecosystem Studies (IMARES) and LEI, both fishers from the same fleet, but from different regions in the of whichfed back researchresults duringthesteeringgroup’smeetings. Netherlands to stimulate and empower fishers to innovate towards Meanwhile, wider pressure on the sector to innovate was building. more sustainable fisheries (see De Vos and Mol, 2010). The Dutch cutter fleet was faced with furthereconomicpressure due to The FIP saw the pulse trawl technique as a priority for reducing rising fuel prices and decreasing fish quota (Ministry of Agriculture, fuel consumption and discards in sole fisheries. As a consequence, Nature and Food Quality, 2006). At the same time, the European the Study Group “Pulse & SumWing” was established in 2008, con- Commission announced support for the development of sustainable sisting of fishers that were willing to test and develop the pulse trawl fishing techniques by increasing the budget available for sustainability technique in addition to the SumWing. As two interviewees linked innovations (European Commission, 2004). In response, a described, the fishers involved in this study group had closely fol- group of interested beam trawl fishers, Verburg-Holland B.V. and lowed the pilot project of the UK153 and, in contrast to the majority the steering group met in 2006 to discuss the wider introduction of of the fishing industry, saw potential in this fishing technique to the pulse trawl (Visserijnieuws, 2006). catch an equivalent amount of sole with considerably lower fuel A major boost to the ambitions of the Dutch industry was given costs compared with the conventional beam trawl. in 2005 when the European Commission indicated that it would be The Ministry managed to arrange an investment scheme with the possible to further expand the introduction of the pulse trawl if the European Commission in 2008 for five vessels owned by fishers International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) would participating in the Study Group. This scheme covered 40% of the provide a “positive advice” (Visserijnieuws, 2006). The advice that investment in a pulse system, with a maximum investment of ICES forwarded to the Commission’s Scientific, Technical and E176,000 per vessel (Visserijnieuws, 2008). The goal was to gain Economic Committee for Fisheries (STECF) was cautiously posi- broad experience with the pulse trawl and to share these experiences tive: despite clear benefits to benthic species and habitats and clear with other entrepreneurs involved in beam trawl fishing. By doing gains in fuel efficiency, concern was raised about potential spinal so, the Ministry wanted to stimulate the further introduction and damage to cod, potential effects on invertebrates and effects on elec- the future use of the pulse trawl gear (Visserijnieuws, 2008). In tric sensory systems of elasmobranchs (ICES, 2007). As outlined in 2009, both the SumWing pulse and pulse trawl were installed on the STECF’s written conclusion, “Although the development of this the vessels and within months these proved to be both reliable and technology should not be halted, there are a number of issues that profitable. Other interested skippers however struggled to get need to be resolved before any derogation can be granted” (p. 6). loans from the bank to invest in the pulse trawl technique due to However, the EU ultimately rejected this assessment and introduced the ongoing uncertainty over whether the 5% derogation for the ex- a derogation (under Annex III (4) of Council Regulation (EC) No. perimental licenses from the European Commission would be 41/2006) for 5% of the beam trawler fleet by Member States fishing extended. According to a researcher from the LEI, and corroborated in ICES zones IVc and IVb to use the pulse trawl on a restricted by a former employee of the Ministry, this all suddenly changed: basis, provided that attempts were made to address the concerns “After a leading fishing company had ordered four Pulse Wings, expressed by ICES. the other fishers started to ask mewhereand how they could register. Although permission was granted from the European There were only a few more days to go before the registration period Commission for a wider introduction of the pulse trawl technique, ended”. This order convinced other fishers that the pulse trawl tech- the Dutch fishing sector remained pessimistic about the technique due to technological problems with the gear and lower landings nique was reliable and profitable. Eventually the number of regis- compared with conventional beam trawls. As one interviewed re- tered fishers exceeded the number of available pulse trawl licenses, searcher outlined, the fishing sector representatives withdrew their so now the amount of licenses became a stagnating factor to a support to the pilot project during a meeting of the steering group wider transition to the pulse trawl technique (Visserijnieuws a, at the end of 2006. Decreasing plaice quota and the decreasing 2010). total landings of the Dutch cutter fleet negatively affected the reven- Urged by the fishers, both the Dutch Fishers’s Federation and ues, while costs kept rising due to the rising fuel prices, leading to a VisNed sought more experimental licenses from the Dutch Ministry negative net economic result. As a result of this, the majority of the withsupportfrombothWWFandtheNorthSeaFoundation Dutch fishing sector did not feel the need to keep investing in an in- (Visserijnieuws b, 2010). During the Agriculture & Fisheries Council novation they did not believe in. (AGRIFISH) of December 2010, it was decided that the number of experimental licenses could be expanded to 42 based on Article 43,850/ 1998, which is a regulation for the conservation of fishery resources Phase 3: The breakthrough in the Dutch cutter sector through technical measures for the protection of juveniles of marine Meanwhile, the Ministry had initiated the “Task Force for Sustainable organisms (Council of the European Union, 1998; Rijksoverheid, North Sea Fisheries” (Task Force Duurzame Noordzeevisserij) in 2005 2010). However, these 42 experimental licenses were not enough to because of the deteriorating economic situation in the North Sea fish- enable all registered fishers to make the transition towards the pulse eries. This Task Force consisted of representatives of the fishing trawl technique.

Phase 4: European resistance and break through important political issue. As a former Ministry employee observed: After this expansion, concern around the pulse trawl gear outside “The fishing industry really wanted more licenses, expectations had the Netherlands grew. In response to the concerns and criticism of been raised and there were hardly any scientific objections against European fishers, meetings were organized by the steering group this fishing technique. With some power play we got it in the regu- pulse fishing to provide more information to fishers in Belgium, lation”. The other European member states were unable to vote Germany, and the UK (Visserijnieuws, 2012). When asked how against the Dutch provision in the regulation, because then they these meetings were, a former employee of the Ministry said: would also vote against a regulation that contained important subsidies to them. We spoke toone ofthose fishermen that had stoodinthe article Still the EP also had to vote on the provision in the regulation. of the Sunday Times. I asked him: Do you really believe that The parliament’s rapporteur decided not to include the expansion these four cutters, which are the culprits according to you, in the EMFF, as it had no place in these negotiations. The State come here every week all the way from Texel to catch dead Secretary for the Ministry of Economic Affairs then decided to sole? Do you truly believe that they come here to fish for schedule a meeting with the European Commissioner of Maritime dead sole? Why would only you catch dead fish, while they Affairs and Fisheries and the president of the European Fisheries catch living ones? I did not hear the man anymore during the Council (Rijksoverheid, 2014). During that meeting it was agreed rest of the meeting. that the expansion to 10% of the Dutch cutter fleet could be granted, based on Article 14 (This article states that: To facilitate This quote illustrates a degree of pushback between the Netherlands the introduction of the obligation to land all catchesin the respective and other EU countries. Where we see a clear technology-push by fishery in accordance with Article 15 (“the landing obligation”), the Netherlands, we also see a clear pushback reaction from other Member States may conduct pilot projects, based on the best avail- European member states because of the remaining uncertainty able scientific advice and taking into account the opinions of the around this new fishing gear and notions of protectionism (Kraan relevant Advisory Councils, with the aim of fully exploring all prac- et al., 2015).The underlying mechanism appearsthe more atechnol- ticable methods for the avoidance, minimization and elimination of ogy is “pushed”, the more resistance it generates. unwanted catches in a fishery (Rijnsdorp et al., 2014). This meant Despite the opposition from other North Sea fishing nations, the that now approximately 84 licenses were made available for using Dutch government began to incorporate the pulse trawl technique the pulse trawl technique (Rijksoverheid, 2014; Turenhout et al., into several longer term management plans, for example the 2014). According to a former employee of the Ministry, the expan- VIBEG-agreement (Rijksoverheid, 2012). This agreement prohibits sion was perceived as a procedural scandal by some European bottom trawling in 25% of the Dutch North Sea Coastal Zone from member states. 2016 onwards, including two Natura 2000 areas: the North Sea Currently, the pulse trawl technique is acontentious fishing tech- Coastal Zone and the Vlakte van de Raan delta next to the Belgium nique that has been broadly implemented in the Netherlands. border, and is signed by a coalition of environmental NGOs, industry However, there is clear pushback from other European member and government. The consequence is that fishers will only be able to states being directed to expressing concern about the remaining un- continue fishing in these “prohibited” areas with gears that do not certainty around this new fishing gear (Kraan et al., 2015). In other affect benthic habitat, giving further impetus to the use of the pulse words, it is only at a later stage in the transition process that Dutch trawl. actors and institutions began to see that their technology-push But despite the support for these plans, their implementation driving the “license push” backfired the process of obtaining per- remains dependent on the decision of the European Commission manent admission/expansion of the pulse trawl technique within to allow a wider introduction of the pulse trawl technique by expand- the EU. It even resulted in a growing resistance to the pulse trawl ing the numberoflicensesorbythe permanentadmission ofthe pulse in other European member states (Visserijnieuws, 2015). Dutch trawl technique (Visserijnieuws, 2011).Meanwhile, ICES urged that a actors and institutions are now striving for an increase of the control and enforcement system needed to be setup before the per- acceptance of the pulse trawl technique among a wide group of sta- manent admission or wider introduction of the pulse trawl technique keholders and other EU member states through increased involve- (ICES, 2012). One respondent from the Ministry stated that the ment of international stakeholders, the setup of a research agenda permanent admission for the pulse trawl technique was met with and increased transparency through the website www.pulsefishing too much resistance from other EU member states. Furthermore, .eu. It was agreed to give an annual progress report to the NSAC, efforts to expand the derogation from 5% to a proposed 40% also so that everyone can follow and comment on the progress around encountered resistance from other EU member states and the EC. the pulse trawl technique (Visserijnieuws, 2015). Thereby the func- In 2014, an alternative strategy was adopted by the Netherlands, tion of the NSAC Pulse Focus Group more or less resembles to expand the number of licenses. At the time, the European Council the function of the Study Groups, but now at the European level. was discussing a subsidy scheme for the modernization of the A summary of the major events during the pulse trawl transition European Fisheries Fund (EMFF). A provisionwas takenup, follow- can be found in Table 1. ing a Dutch proposition, in the regulation of the EMFF to alter the technical measures (The EMFF is the financial instrument that helps Discussion deliver the reforms of the Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) and that The introduction of the pulse trawl basicly represents a socio-tech- will support the implementation of the EU Integrated Maritime nical transition thatled towide ranging changesatthe regime levelof Policy (European Commission, 2014).). However, as the EMFF the beamtrawl fishery inthe North Sea.AstheNetherlandsown 75% has no relation to the technical measures this unusual procedure of the North Sea sole (Solea solea) quota (Productschap Vis, 2012), a was met with little sympathy in Brussels. According to one respond- substantial part of all sole landings in Europe can be attributed to ent of the Ministry, no one in Brussels seemed to understand whythe vessels using a pulse trawl. Overall, this case study shows that under- Netherlands was doing this. But for the Netherlands it was a very standing the pulse trawl in socio-technical terms allows us to

Table 1. Summary of major events during pulse trawl transition organized by phase and transition level. Socio-technical ﬁshing gear transition

Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 4 Transition levels Landscape Stable oil prices, but growing Growing concerns and criticism High oil prices, poor economic Concerns and criticism on the effects concerns and criticism on on conventional beam trawl. results and concerns and of trawling continue to grow and effects conventional beam trawl Fish quota are under pressure criticism on conventional beam oil prices decrease and oil prices rise trawl result in high pressure Regime Dutch regime actors and Cooperation between regime and Dutch regime actors organize European regime actors and institutions stimulate research selected niche actors leads to themselves in the FIP and Study institutions are increasingly being and development on a pulse technology push Group to facilitate the involved (North Sea AC) by Dutch trawl at the niche level breakthrough of the pulse trawl regime actors and institutions Niche Weak cooperation between The pulse trawl is stabilizing into Pulse trawl proofs to be reliable and Research continues on the effects of niche actors; weak pressure a dominant design proﬁtable and the gear is ready to the pulse trawl from landscape level breakthrough

identify how new gears change fishing behaviour, routines and prac- around the development of the technology within the Netherlands, tices (in line with wider observations of Geels and Schot, 2007; Grin without adequately focusing on the highly contested nature of the et al., 2010). Changes in fishing behaviour, routines and practicesare technology at the European level. The case demonstrates the pitfalls not limited to fishers, but also include inspection authorities, fishery of transition strategies that have “pushed” through technologies managers, government officials, people working in maintenance while little attention was paid to changes required in the regime in and distribution networks as well as research (Van Slooten, 2007). which its application is embedded. One could even argue that the observed transition has also led to But what we also see is that Dutch actors and institutions mainly changes in cultural and symbolic meanings of what constitutes adopted the technology-push strategy beyond the national borders fishing (see Bear, 2012). Fishing with electricity is nowadays part of the Netherlands. Before that point, within the relative confines of of the Dutch fishing culture. However, other fisheries actors might the Dutch fishing sector arena, the transition process was managed still perceive this technique with fear or have basic objections through anovel set oflegitimising arrangementsthatdid take careful against the use of electricity to catch fish. consideration of the social dimensions of the gear transition. The socio-technical transition of the pulse trawl fishery demon- The first of these arrangements, observed in Phase 1, was the strates the basic importance of recognizing the social and political funding and close interaction between the Dutch Ministry as changes that are required to create fishing gear configurations that the dominant regime actor in the Netherlands, and the key niche work in practice but also in policy (Rip and Kemp, 1998). How actors, such as the company Verburg and the RIVO, who were re- the Dutch cutter fleet eventually took up the pulse trawl technique sponsible for researching and developing the pulse trawl technique can be explained in terms of a co-evolutionary socio-technical tran- after the ban on electric fishing. Second, in Phase 2, was the bridging sition (as defined by Schot and Geels, 2008); meaning that the role that the steering group pulse fishing played in bringing together technological development is strongly linked to developments in the niche and regime actors. The role of the steering group was basic the social domain. So while it appears that the uptake of the pulse in promoting the pulse trawl technique and in trying to persuade trawl from a socio-technical niche to the regime level was successful, Dutch fishers to make a transition. It was instrumental in facilitating it remains partial in two key aspects. At the national level restrictions the movement of the pulse trawl gear into Dutch policy and regula- remain on the number of vessels licenced by the EU, and adoption at tion. Third, after renewed support of the pulse trawl gear in Phase 3, the European level (and therefore in other member states) is also the Study Group Pulse & SumWing provided a protected learning limited. These dual outcomes of the innovation process of the environment around the niche. Allowing for participating fishers pulse trawl technique can be explained by applying an MLP. to advocate that the pulse trawl technique was both reliable and Consistent with the MLP, landscape level dynamics out of the profitable beyond the niche to the Dutch cutter sector. control of the regime and niche actors, initially stimulated action— These organizational innovations demonstrate that active en- notably through the Task Force Sustainable North Sea Fisheries gagement with a wide range of social actors and institutions can (2006). Rising oil prices and the criticism and concerns on the envir- produce outcomes that are more legitimate and which account for onmental impact of the conventional beam trawl exerted pressure on a wider array of political and economic factors in technological the regime level to come up with an alternative fishing technique. change (Miller et al., 2013). These organizational innovations dem- With the setup of the FIP, we saw how representatives of the fishing onstrate the central function of social dimensions of transitions (cf. industry, NGOs, scientists, and policy officers organized themselves Di Stefano et al., 2012; Peters et al., 2012). By the application of the to respond and incorporate these landscape pressures into both the MLP, it became clear that the emerging of the organizational inno- niche and regime level. As noted in other sectors (Grin et al., 2010; vations reflects adegree of learning throughout the transition. While Paredis, 2011; Hermans et al., 2013), technology actors (firms, gov- little attention was paid to the social processes in the first two phases, ernments) tend to exclude certain actors and solely focus on techno- the setup of legitimizing and facilitating arrangements, like the FIP logical development, while social aspects are being neglected. We see and the Study Group, illustrate how the inclusion of social, financial, this in the pulse trawl case as well, where actors organized themselves and political dimensions resulted in the successful uptake of the

pulse trawl technique by the Dutch flatfish cutter fleet in the third within these systems, gives policy-makers and managers the oppor- phase (cf. Lawhon, 2012). Intriguingly, despite the successful break- tunity to influence future fishery related sustainability transitions. through and acceptance of the pulse trawl technique in the Dutch To avoid the pitfalls of technology-push, policy-makers and man- cutter fleet, the Dutch actors and institutions fell back into a tech- agers should realize that “even” the design and implementation of nology-push strategy when addressing the European regime in the fishing gear technology is as much an outcome of social relations fourth phase. between a wide group of actors as it is made up of material electro- We argue that the failure of the Dutch regime actors to adequate- des, beams, and nets. In practical termsthis meansthat the success of ly consider the social and political dimensions of the pulse trawl at a gear transition depends on the extent to which a broader group of the European level can be characterized as a technology push, actors and institutions are involved in the learning and development which resulted in a “license push”. This might be explained by process within innovation niches. poor recognition by the Dutch actors and institutions of the frag- We also conclude that defining the boundaries of the socio- mented nature of environmental policy at the European level of technological regime at the national level can limit the success of a the regime, which does not solely consist of the Netherlands but transition process in multi-level governance arrangements such as also incorporates the EU in the form of the European Parliament, the EU. By incorporating European actors and institutions within Commission, and other EU member states (see, e.g. Jordan et al., the regime, just as national level actors from the Netherlands were 2012). As innovators are not always aware of the presence of other included, would have reduced the influence of politicized responses stakeholders, or the effect that fishing gear innovations have on at such a late stage. Our results also point to an opportunity for these other stakeholders, the transition process can be derailed. policy-makers at the EU level to be more proactive in supporting Incorporating a broader set of stakeholders however does not auto- sustainability transitions developed within member states. One matically solve this problem of fragmentation. Without considering way this could be done is by installing a framework for technological the organizational set-up of this inclusion of stakeholders, the risk is innovation that can provide guidance for inspection authorities, as that other actors can submit an endless wish list of research topics to well as stakeholder involvement, legitimation processes for licenses, slow down or halt the breakthrough of an innovation. Recognizing and setting out a strategy for research. Links could also be made to this, might lead to another set of organizational innovations, this the ongoing regionalization of EU fisheries policy, thereby contrib- time at the EU level. uting to a better engagement with the socio-technical context in A considerable amount of research has been conducted on the which the innovative gear will be embedded. Ultimately, such a potential ecosystem effects of the pulse trawl compared to other gear innovation framework would provide a systematic approach implemented fishing gears within the EU. However, this case for either to reject or accept a fishing gear innovation within the clearly demonstrates the importance of credibility, saliency and le- EU. We argue that such a framework would contribute to a gitimacy in the uptake of science to policy (Cash et al., 2002). climate of innovation and prevent unnecessary delays and compli- Gear transitions are influenced not only by the best available cations, while at the same time could build more legitimate checks science, but also by how fair, credible and relevant the arguments and balances for innovative gear development. are to citizens and stakeholders. As Wilson (2009) notes, although Based on these results, it is clear that the social configuration in the desire for scientific answers is great, automatic authority of which the fishing technique is embedded plays a major role in how a science belongs to the past. As a result, the inclusion of stakeholder technique is perceived and used. Although the integration of tem- perspectives in science and management in meaningful ways is be- poral and structural technological development in fisheries man- coming increasingly important (Ro¨ckmann et al. 2015). It is agement cannot be considered a trivial task, a socio-technical exactly this pattern we observe for the pulse trawl transition. perspective helps to better understand the process of technological Replacing the conventional beam trawl with the pulse trawl development in fisheries. Uptake of this approach in steering pro- implies changes in the sociotechnical configuration that goes cesses at the national and EU level, but also in the advice given by beyond the Dutch border. In doing so, the case clearly shows the im- organizations such as ICES, could better deal with the complex portance of including the social and political context in which and contested nature of technological development in fisheries technological innovations are embedded. In line with wider obser- management. vations, the case lends further weight to the need to see the governance of socio-technical transitions as a “irreducibly politicized process” that has to be seen in the wider context of how “societal Supplementary data goals are determined and revised, collective decisions are enforced, Supplementary material is available at the ICESJMS online version and resources are authoritatively allocated” (Meadowcroft, 2009, of the manuscript. p. 335). By breaking down this process into recognizable phases, and in doing so, reconstruct how a technology was “pushed”, by who and in whose interest, we can better understand patterns and Acknowledgements practices for increasing the likelihood of successful transition man- We thank the two reviewers for their valuable feedback. We also agement. In other words, we can understand how technological thank all interviewees for sharing their time and knowledge with us. push (including our “licence push”) can be avoided. We are convinced that in doing so, the actors and institutions in the pulse References trawl case may have been able to steer a far smoother and more man- Agboola, J. I. 2014. Technological Innovation and Developmental ageable path for a potentially more sustainable fishing gear. Strategies for Sustainable Management of Aquatic Resources in Developing Countries. Environmental Management, 54: Conclusion 1237–1248. 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