DOCUMENT RESUME AUTHOR Evans, Ronald W., Ed.; Saxe, David

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 410 141 SO 027 446

AUTHOR Evans, Ronald W., Ed.; Saxe, David Warren, Ed. TITLE Handbook on Teaching Social Issues. NCSS Bulletin 93. INSTITUTION National Council for the Social Studies, Washington, D.C. REPORT NO ISBN-0-87986-071-5 PUB DATE 96 NOTE 418p. AVAILABLE FROM National Council for the Social Studies, 3501 Newark Street, N.W., Washington, DC 20016-3167. PUB TYPE Collected Works General (020) Guides Non-Classroom (055) EDRS PRICE MF01/PC17 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS *Controversial Issues (Course Content); *Critical Thinking; Elementary Secondary Education; Evaluation; *Futures (Of Society); Instructional Materials; Moral Issues; *Multicultural Education; Political Issues; Public Affairs Education; *Reflective Teaching; Social Problems; Social Studies; Teacher Education; Values; World Problems

ABSTRACT This handbook explores the issues-centered curriculum for social studies teaching and how student performance reflects an intellectual capacity to address public issues. The book is divided into 11 parts with essays to address specific aspects of the approach. The foreword, written by Shirley Engle, establishes a context for issues-based curriculum. Essays include: "Defining Issues-Centered Education" (Ronald W. Evans; Fred M. Newmann; David Warren Saxe); "Building a Rationale for Issues-Centered Education" (Anna S. Ochoa-Becker); "The Engle-Ochoa Decision Making Model for Citizenship Education" (Rodney F. Allen); "Using Issues in the Teaching of American History" (David Warren Saxe); "World History and Issues-Centered Instruction" (Richard E. Gross); "Issues-Centered Approaches to Teaching Geography Courses"(A. David Hill; Salvatore J. Natoli); "Issues-Centered Global Education" (Merry M. Merryfield; Connie S. White); "An Approach to Issues-Oriented Economic Education" (Beverly J. Armento; Francis W. Rushing; Wayne A. Cook); "Teaching Issues-Centered Anthropology, Sociology, and Psychology" (Jerry A. Ligon; George W. Chilcoat); "Issue-Centered Curricula and Instruction at the Middle Level" (Samuel Totten; Jon Pedersen); "An Issues-Centered Curriculum for High School Social Studies" (Ronald W. Evans; Jerry Brodkey); "Assessing Student Learning of an Issue-Oriented Curriculum" (Walter C. Parker); "International Social Studies: Alternative Futures" (James L. Barth); "International Relations/Foreign Policy Teaching Resources" (Mary E. Soley); "Domestic Economic Policy" (Ronald A. Banaszak); "Teaching about International Human Rights" (Nancy Flowers); and "Children's Rights" (Beverly C. Edmonds). An afterword is provided by James Shaver.(EH)

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NCSS National Council for the Social Studies Founded 1921

President President-Elect Vice-President Pat Nickell Richard Diem Tedd Levy Fayette County Public SchoolsUniversity of Texas Nathan Hale Middle School Lexington, Kentucky San Antonio, Texas Norwalk, Connecticut

Board of Directors Michael Hartoonian Ex Officio Janet K. Adams Stephen Johnson Fred Isele Peggy Altoff Terry Kuseske House of Delegates, Sara Smith Beattie Eric Ladue Steering Committee Chair Linda Black James Leming Adrian Davis Jody Smothers Marcello Executive Director Dorothy Dobson Denee Mattioli Martharose Laffey James J. Elliott Jeff Passe Syd Golston John Solberg Publications Director Sandra Haftel Robert J. Stahl Michael Simpson

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Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 96-071673 ISBN 0-87986-071-5

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Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 FOREWORD 11. Designing Issue-Based Unit Plans Shirley H Engle Joseph J. Onosko and Lee Swenson 89

PART 1 PART 3 DEFINITION AND RATIONALE CULTURAL DIVERSITY Introduction Introduction Anna S. Ochoa-Becker 1 Jesus Garcia 99 1. Defining Issues-Centered Education 12. Multicultural Issues in the Classroom: Ronald W Evans, Fred M. Newmann Race, Class, and Gender and David Warren Saxe 2 Gloria Ladson-Billings 101 2. Building a Rationale for Issues-Centered 13. Issues-Centered Education for Education Anna S. Ochoa-Becker 6 Language-Minority Students 3. The Historical Imperative for Hilda Hernandez and Devon Metzger 111 Issues-Centered Education 14. Issues-Centered Education Jack L. Nelson 14 in Multicultural Environments 4. Research on Issues-Centered Sharon L. Pugh and Jesus Garcia 121 Social Studies Carole L. Hahn 25 PART 4 PART 2 HISTORICAL TOPICS AND THEMES REFLECTIVE TEACHING STRATEGIES Introduction Introduction David Warren Saxe 130 Byron G. Massialas 42 15. Teaching Issues-Centered History 5. Criteria for Issues-Centered Content Patrick Ferguson 132 Selection Byron G. Massialas 44 16. Using Issues in the Teaching of 6. The Engle-Ochoa Decision Making American History David Warren Saxe .. .142 Model for Citizenship Education 17. A Critical Approach to Teaching Rodney F. Allen 51 United States History Ronald W Evans. .152 7. Preparing Citizens to Participate in 18. World History and Issues-Centered Public Discourse: The Public Issues Model Instruction Richard E. Gross 161 Laurel R. Singleton and James R. Giese 59 8. Teaching Controversial Issues PART 5 through Massialas and Cox Inquiry GEOGRAPHY, GLOBAL STUDIES AND Jadnn Cutler Sweeney and Stuart Foster 66 THE ENVIRONMENT 9. Critical Pedagogy and Social Education Introduction Cleo Cherryholmes 75 Josiah Tlou 164 10. Discussion Methods in an 19. Issues-Centered Approaches to Issues-Centered Curriculum Teaching Geography Courses Jeff Passe and Ronald W Evans 81 A. David Hill and Salvatore J Natoli 167

5 20. Issues-Centered Global Education PART 9 Merry M. Merryfield and Connie S. White.. .177 TEACHER EDUCATION AND SUPERVISION 21. Environmentalism and Introduction Environmental Issues Nancy Fichtman Dana 298 Stephen C. Fleury and Adam Sheldon 188 32. An Issues-Centered Education Nancy Fichtman Dana 299 PART 6 33. Supervision for Teacher Growth in SOCIAL SCIENCES Reflective, Issues-Centered Teaching Introduction Practice Ken Jerich 306 Patricia G. Avery 197 22. Issues-Centered Approaches to PART 10 Teaching Civics and Government FUTURE-ORIENTED, Patricia G. Avery, John L. Sullivan, ISSUES-CENTERED EDUCATION Elizabeth S. Smith and Stephen Sandell 199 Introduction 23. An Approach to Issues-Oriented James L. Barth 316 Economic Education Beverly J Armento, 34. Alternative Futures and the Francis W Rushing, and Wayne A. Cook 211 Social Studies Wilma S. Longstreet 317 24. Teaching Issues-Centered Anthropology, 35. International Social Studies: Sociology, and Psychology Alternative Futures James L. Barth 327 Jerry A. Ligon and George W Chilcoat 220 PART 11 PART 7 MATERIALS AND RESOURCES AN ISSUES-CENTERED CURRICULUM Introduction Introduction William R. Fernekes 338 William G. Wraga 228 36. Theory and Practice of 25. An Issues-Centered Elementary Issues-Centered Education Curriculum Dorothy Skeel 230 William R. Fernekes 339 26. Issue-Centered Curricula and 37. Government Policy-Making Instruction at the Middle Level Resources James K Daly 347 Samuel Totten and Jon Pedersen 237 38. International Relations/Foreign Policy 27. Teaching Societal Issues in Teaching Resources Mary E. Soley 351 School Science and Mathematics 39. Domestic Economic Policy Robert E. Yager and Martha V Lutz 247 Ronald A. Banaszak 357 28. An Issues-Centered Curriculum 40. Bibliography on Science, for High School Social Studies Technology, and Society Ronald W Evans and Jerry Brodkey 254 Samuel Totten and Jon E. Pedersen 359 29. Teaching Societal Issues 41. Road Maps for Multi-Culturalisms Across the Secondary Curriculum Jane Bernard Powers 364 William G. Wraga 265 42. Global Development/ Environmental Issues PART 8 Jeffrey L. Brown 369 ASSESSMENT 43. Teaching about International Introduction Human Rights Nancy Flowers 374 Walter C.Parker 276 44. Children's Rights 30. Assessing Student Learning Beverly C. Edmonds 377 of an Issue-Oriented Curriculum Walter C. Parker 280 AFTERWORD 31. Assessing Discussion of Public Issues: James Shaver 380 A Scoring Guide David Harris 288 INDEX 387

CONTRIBUTORS 404

iv Foreord

Shir leg II. Engle

The great philosopher-educator Alfred North length, or created their own products. And Whitehead (1929) posed a rationale for issues- they scarcely ever speculated on meaning, centered curriculum some sixty years ago that discussed alternative interpretations, or still holds validity today: engaged in projects calling for collaborative effort. The topics of the curriculum, it In training a child to activity of thought, appears to me, were something to be above all things we must beware of what I acquired, not something to be explored, shall call " inert ideas"that is to say, ideas reckoned with, and converted into personal that are merely received into the mind meaning and development. without being utilized, or tested, or thrown into fresh combinations. In the history of One would expect the teaching of social education, the most striking phenomena is studies and science in schools to provide that schools of learning, which in one ample opportunities for the development epoch are alive with ferment of genius, in of reasoning: deriving concepts from relat- a succeeding generation exhibit merely ed events, testing in a new situation pedantry and routine. The reason is that hypotheses derived from examining other they areoverladen with inertideas. circumstances, drawing conclusions from Education with inert ideas is not only use- an array of data, and so on. Teachers listed less: It is above all things harmful(1). those skills and more as intended leanings. We observed little of the activities that The statement continues to be a remarkably their lists implied, and teachers' tests accurate assessment of education, particu- reflected quite different prioritiesmainly larly citizenship education, in the United the recall of information. The topics that States today. Citizenship educationis come to mind as representing the natural largely reduced to a process of memorizing and social sciences appear to be of great isolated facts or bits of information without human interest. But on the way to the verifying their truth or using them to either classroom they are apparently transformed assess the meaning of past events or suggest and homogenized into something of limit- answers to our own newly emerging questions. ed appeal. (Alfred North Whitehead's As focused as it is on instilling recallable knowl- words on the uselessness of inert knowledge of the past, schooling has become in edge come to mind.) The fact that students Whitehead's words mere "pedantry and routine," rated the social studies to be of relatively utterly detached from real and present questions. low interest among the subject fields (at the John Goodlad (1983), who conducted one of bottom of the list for those in the upper the most thorough observational studies of recent elementary grades) must give us pause. American social studies, recalls: Why this curricular sterility? (468).

[Students] rarely planned or initiated any- Goodlad's picture of education in the United thing, read or wrote anything of some States is a static one, very similar to the view given us by Whitehead. America has engaged in likewise apply to claims of factuality pertaining educational reforms for decades, only to produce to the distant past. Facts about the past are right- a remarkably unchanged situation. The realities ly being questioned every day. New questions are facing our young are full of upheavals and newbeing asked about past events, and new informa- challenges. Perhaps the greatest challenge of all is tion is being uncovered. Historians change their the rate of change itself. Cultural stability has views of history, and new text books are written given way to an ongoing state of dynamic change to reflect these changes. A new set of facts in which decisions must be made even as the replaces the old. An example of this shift in his- questions themselves undergo revision. torical perspective is the difference in portrayals When more things are changing than are of Christopher Columbus. The Columbus story staying fixed, necessity demands an issues-cen- was rewritten once new questions had been asked tered curriculum. Past lessons can no longer be and new possibilities explored. Such revision depended upon to be copied. As humankind should continue as the past is studied and new develops new social and political ways of life, it meaning is derived. must also develop an ethic toward those ways of The educational situation is greatly compli- life. What in the past could prepare us for such a cated when fixed ideas about reality are continu- challenge? Even the problems that arise from ally substituted for real issues. Students are such an issue are not fully understood. Histori- required to memorize answers without question- ans and philosophers confidently say that we ing the truth of these answers. One example of have experienced more change in the present society imposing fixed ideas on students is the century than in all of previous time. On the plus popular notion of the ideal American family. side, we have revolutionized the way peopleThe stereotypical family often referred to make a living and have multiplied many times involves two parents living together for life in over the variety and availability of material a single household with the father working goods. On the negative side, we are consuming and the mother remaining at home to nurture the earth's natural resources at a rate that threat- the development of the children. This once ideal ens to make the earth ultimately uninhabitable. family structure dates back about 50 years and We threaten to overpopulate the world to such acan no longer be held as the American norm. point that massive poverty and starvation ensue, More common today are situations where both potentiallyleadingto humanextinction. parents work and the upbringing of children is Hundreds of such problems confront us todaymore heavily influenced by television than by concerning how humans can continue to survive parents, church, or school. Families are frequent- as a species. We have reached a time in citizen- ly torn apart by divorce and may include children ship education when history can only play a from different marriages. Children have a great minor role in our preparation for citizenship. deal of independence from their parents and Facts are often talked about as though theysiblings and too often must learn to deal with were exclusive claims to truth upon whichthe threat of drugs, crime, and idleness on their knowledgeable people agree and against whichown. Thus, studying and upholding the typical no evidence can be cited to refute. In the real family structure of former times as the norm for world, there are few claims to factuality that can today's society can hardly confront the issues meet these criteria, and those that do are usuallyrelated to family living in modern America. so narrow in scope as to be practically useless in Students must reevaluate the popular definition thinking about any question. The exact timeof family to reflect modern norms. when an event takes place may be of only limited Similar issues reflecting change in our society use in addressing real issues. When one extends and global community can be addressed in facts to interpret or explain an event, the factual- schools today. By the most widely held appraisal ity becomes more difficult to establish beyondof our affairs, we are in deep, deep trouble as a doubt. Most so-called facts are not facts beyond country and, in fact, as a world. Overpopulation question, but interpretations of the truth. presses the earth with far more people than can Although such facts upon which we base deci- possibly be sustained. Nevertheless, large num- sions every day are immensely useful, they are bers of people oppose population control useful only to the extent that their limitations are because of their deeply held religious beliefs or recognized. These limitations and uncertaintieslong-standing cultural ways of behaving. Over a

VI third of the earth's population lives today in past to become useful as a point of departure for abject poverty, and the situationis growing the study of the present and the future. worse. Most schools hardly touch upon this Educators of the social studies are not so issue. Egged on by industrialization, we contin- much involved with the establishment of ue to trash our soil, forests, water, air, oceans, and immutable truths as they are with the charting of magnificent landscapes at a rate that scientists an improved state of affairs. The sooner people say will reduce the earth to penury in less than a understand this conception of what the social hundred years. Resistance, especially among studies is about, the closer they will come to deal- many multinational business entrepreneurs, con- ing with large-scale problems. Citizenship edu- tinues against quite reasonable controls over the cation needs to involve a continued conversation consumption of resources. One common defense between students and their mentors while they against such environmental restrictions is that search together for better ways of doing things. money can't be made if the use of natural Looked at in this light, the issues-centered resources is curtailed, and if the generation ofcurriculum is not a curriculum to be added on profit is restricted, so, too, will be that of jobs. to an otherwise conventional education devoted Despite tremendous increases in industrial pro- to memorizing the insignificant minutia of sci- ductivity, however, the poor continue to increase ence and history. It is not a remedial curriculum as a proportion of the population while the rich to rectify the errors of fact and process of the grow richer. We are at odds to deal with a myri- conventional curriculum. It is not a belated ad of issues, from crime and drugs in the streets effort to acknowledge the usefulness of focusing to equitable education, from prayer in schools to some part of education on the study of real prob- abortion, from the rights of labor to strike and lems, past and present, which confront our soci- be secure in their jobs to the control of television ety and the world. Rather, it is a substitute for and gun sales. Such issues cannot be avoided in thenon-thinking, memory-bound process developing responsible citizens and shouldwhich constitutes so much of the educational therefore be a part of formal education. curriculum today. It is the way all education Even our most precious beliefs about the should be approached to produce informed citi- right to live freely and pursue happiness have zens who are involved in working out better become controversial. Whose rights shall take solutions to our problems. precedence? Is the right to work more important The following example of issues-centered than the right to a safe and stable environment? education provides a clear contrast to the con- Where does one person's license to use the earth's ventional curriculum: The author enrolled in a resources interfere with another's right to enjoy class on the history of the West at the University clean air and water? The Supreme Court cannot of Wisconsin in the summer of 1936. The class be the sole arbiter of all these many issues. We was taught by Professor Frederick Paxson, visit- and our children must take them on, working ing professor of history from the University of through the many problems that confront us. California at Berkeley. Paxson was widely recog- It is often said, especially by historians, that nized as the leading authority on the history of since the present is such a challenge, we should the American West. When he spoke on the look to the past for insight. This assertion is per- West, the whole scholarly establishment stopped haps valid only when we remember that even the to listen. Notwithstanding his acknowledged past is issue-laden and problematic. When wereputation as the leading authority in Western explore more penetrating questions of history, a history, Paxon devoted the entire summer to talk- new and changing history emerges. Savages ing with his students about the problems he had become native Americans credited with beinginterpreting Western history. He questioned the the first true conservationists. Black Americans explanations given by historians for the events at are at last recognized for the tremendous contri- Wounded Knee. Were the contributing factors of butionthey have madetoourculture. the battle the real causes? Were the purported Christopher Columbus is recognized for beingconsequences the real consequences? Paxson the mercenary he was. As we continually ask newturned every question in the entire course into a questions about the reality of past events, we further exploration of that very question. Paxson come up with different answers. In the end, it is was not so much interested that we memorize this questioning and challenging that allows the the claims that passed for truth in textbooks and

VII lectures as he was in enlisting his students in the real pursuit of truth, a pursuit in which he himself was genuinely enlisted and in which he worked diligently to recruit his students. To Paxson, as with all issues-centered curricularists, the search for knowledge is always an open-ended process. It takes place always on the edge of claims to knowledge and is never final- ized. It is characterized by both penetrating questions and the expectation of change. It cannot be pursued with a series of factually-oriented questions to which only one correct answer exists; rather, the open-ended search for knowledge embodies a continuous search for more authentic knowledge. Paxson directed the study of history toward the uncertain and the controversial; that is, he directed study toward those "facts" and questions of meaning that were both in doubt and hotly debated among professional historians. He sought not so much to perpetuate an accepted version of history as to open it up for further scrutiny. Memorizing the most widely held interpretations of history was thus subjugated to the exploration and possible revision or expansion of these interpretations, and therein lies the quin- tessential nature of issues-centered education. We often speak of the explosion of knowledge as a fundamental reality of our age which inevitably renders much of our old knowledge obsolete. The issues-centered curricularists rest their case on the proposition that in our rapidly changing world, the cutting edge of education must be at the emergence of new knowledge rather than at the persistence of old and frequently obsolete knowledge. The essays which follow explore the potential and means for extending an issues-centered curriculum to all of education.

Indiana University 1993

References Goodlad, J. I. "Study of Schooling: Some Findings and Hypotheses." Phi Delta Kappan, 64, 7:465-470, 1983. Paxson, F. Lecture notes, "History of the West." University of Wisconsin, Madison, 1936 Summer. Whitehead, A. N. The Aims of Education and Other Essays. New York: The Free Press, 1929.

VIII 1p Parl 0-e: Ele Milo-a liano-a

Introduction bo Om S. Ma-Becher

1part1 of the Handbook provides the What support does research provide for strongest possible justification for an an issues-centered curriculum? issues-centered curriculum. Unlike con- The authors selected to address these matters ventional or traditional social studies are scholars and teachers who have devoted their curricula, the issues-centered curriculum careers to exploring issues-centered curriculums does not measure success by the degree in both their teaching and their research. to which students can regurgitate the so-calledThe dedication and expertise with which they facts presented in textbooks and teacher lec- have pursued the development of issues-centered tures. Rather, it measures success by the degree curriculums are seldom matched. to which student performance reflects an In the first chapter, Ron Evans, Fred intellectual capacity to address public issues. Newmann and David Saxe describe the basic Rather than stressing the recall of informa- principles of issues-centered education, and its tion, the issues-centered curriculum encour-implications for curriculum, teaching practice ages students to actively participate in theand assessment. My subsequent chapter on improvement of society. rationale draws heavily on my work with the By definition, public issues are controver- late Shirley H. Engle, who devoted his career sial. They involve multiple points of view, with to promoting a curriculum focused on social ideas and insights from many fields of study, issues and decision making. including the humanities as well as the social Jack Nelson emphasizes the intellectual sciences. In dealing with public issues, citizens and historical foundations of different aspects must analyze, create, and appraise evidenceof social studies education. and, most importantly, make decisions. Carole Hahn has engaged in extensive Consequently, an issues-centered curriculum research on controversial issues and is probably emphasizes not only content, but also theas knowledgeable as anyone in this country development of advanced intellectual abilities. about teaching controversial issues. Her chap- Instead of memorizing textbook facts, stu-ter presents a comprehensive view of the dents define problems, actively search for andresearch efforts supporting an issued-centered evaluate evidence, make defensible decisions, curriculum. and engage in projects that impact persistent A note to the reader: If you are already and pervasive real world issues. An issues-cen- familiar with the literature regarding social tered curriculum offers the greatest promise issues, you may wish to read this section first. for improving citizen participation and theIf not, reading it at the end may serve to tie quality of democratic life in this society. the ideas presented together for you. In any Specifically, the chapters of this handbook case, I wish you reflective, stimulating, and seek to provide insight into such questions asprovocative reading. the following: Why teach about public issues? What are the historical underpinnings for an issues-centered curriculum?

11 0 DEFI ING ISSUES-CENTERED EDUCATION

bq RonalW. Evans. Fred M. Newmann, and David Warren Saxe

ssues-centered education focuses on problem- ment is offered. But issues-centered education atic questions that need to be addressed and should not be construed as people expressing bias- answered, at least provisionally. Problematic es and values that cannot be reconciled. The point questions are those on which intelligent, well- of issues-centered education is just the opposite: to informed people may disagree. Such disagree- develop well-reasoned responses based on disci- ment, in many cases, leads to controversy and plined inquiry, on thoughtful, in-depth study, and discussion marked by expression of opposing to move beyond relativistic notions of truth. views. The questions may address problems of Ultimately, an issues-centered approach to the past, present or future. They may involve dis- social studies aims at empowering the learner. agreement over facts, definitions, values andAs Alquist suggests, social studies should help beliefs. Answers may be rooted in a person's cul- us solve everyday problems in our lives, help tural background, in formal knowledge accumu- us develop an ethical foundation for personal lated in disciplines, and in "common sense" expe- and social relationships. "This is not critical rience. Examples of such problematic questions thinking for the sake of debate, argument or log- on the topic of governmental powers include: ical reasoning, but for constructive change, for What is a legitimate government and the transformation of society" (Alquist 1990). where does its power originate? For many, but not all advocates of issues-centered When should governmental authority approaches, the approach also includes develop- be ignored or rejected? ing a critical consciousness, or "conscientization" Should student newspapers have the same (Freire 1970). This means developing skills in right to freedom of the press as other news- perspective consciousness, the ability to recog- papers? nize, examine, evaluate and appreciate multiple Should I write a letter to the principal to perspectives on a particular issue or concern protest censorship? (Hanvey 1975), including perspectives critical of Should the colonists have protested British mainstream institutions and social practice. actions with violent demonstrations? This definition of issues-centered education (Giese and Glade 1988) leaves many problems yet to answer. Other chapters in the Handbook will offer the justification To say that questions are problematic means and rationale for why an issues-centered approach there are no conclusive, finally "right" answers.should be pursued, and they will address various But some answers, however tentative or provision- aspects of implementation. As part of the defini- al and subject to change in the future, are clearlytional task in this chapter, we will foreshadow better or more valid than others. The purpose ofsome especially important implications for cur- issues-centered education is not just to raise the riculum, pedagogy, and assessment. questions and expose students to them, but to teach students to offer defensible and intellectual- Curriculum Implications ly well-grounded answers to these questions. Important social issues may arise in the study Judgements about the validity of some answers of a variety of disciplines and human affairs, and may depend upon the context in which the judge- there is no inherent curricular logic or sequence in

4.2 which they should be studied. It must be left upand protest of unjust authority might be under- to teachers and curriculum developers to arrange taken in a United States history course during a and organize topics and to select the most funda- unit on the American Revolution. A second mental content. These arrangements might fol- possibility is development of conceptual units, low a variety of structures (chronological, themat- spiraling through the grades, but retaining dis- ic, discipline-based, concepts, problem-topics, cipline based courses. For example, in a course etc.). Regardless of the structure chosen, the study on World History, units could be organized of social issues is often most productively pursued around categories such as power and authority, through interdisciplinary and extradisciplinaryrevolution, race and ethnicity, social class, etc. inquiry (Wraga 1993). However, there are at least Another possible structure, for a secondary four important principles upon which all issuessocial studies curriculum, might be to create an centered curricula should be built. introductory course focused exclusively on First, depth of understanding is more impor- problems and issues, followed by in-depth topi- tant than coverage and superficial exposure. This cal courses which would focus on particular means that topics must be studied in sustainedconcepts connected to certain sets of issues, fol- ways that introduce students to important com- lowed by a concluding course on philosophy and plexities and details. For example, in a unit on thelife (see Evans and Brodkey's article in this American revolution, students might explore thebook, pp. 254-64). issues listed in the previous section. However, to Third, as indicated in the definition, the study make the study of these issues most meaningful,of issues must be substantively grounded in chal- the students will need to develop an understand-lenging content. A simple sharing of opinions is ing of the context in which colonial protests not sufficient. This will require teaching students occurred. They will need to study specific forms of reasoning, interrogation and presenta- instances in which governmental power was tion of evidence, and also the mastery of concepts challenged in sufficient depth and with enoughand theories that bring expert knowledge to bear detail to appreciate the multiple perspectives inunderstandingpersistentsocialissues. they will discuss, and to provide sufficient evi-Intellectually challenging content includes criti- dence for quality decision making. The same is cal perspectives and consideration of alternatives true for studying the protest of a censorship not commonly included in the curriculum: mul- policy. Students will need in-depth detail andticultural perspectives, diverse voices on issues contextual understanding in order to develop arelated to race, class, and gender and other well reasoned position and intellectually well- domains of discourse commonly devalued by tra- grounded arguments. ditional curricula and textbooks. The study of Second, topics and issues need to be connect- issues, if it is to lead to development of in-depth ed through some kind of thematic, disciplinary,understanding, must also include content from interdisciplinary, or historical structure. Simplyhistorical cases, literature, art and music. For studying one issue after another will fail to giveexample, a unit on immigration issues cannot students the intellectual structures they need to generate depth of understanding simply by rais- organize and think about relationships amonging a current policy issue. Study of the issue various issues and how their resolution might add should include data and cases from the historical to social justice. Where feasible, these structures record that can be used to form conclusions need to be developed both within individual about the results of immigration policy during classes and across classes and grade levels so thatdifferent time periods. First person accounts of they flow logically and build on previous learning. immigrants' lives could be examined, and media At least three curricular structures are possi- and scholarly sources as well as school curricular ble.First is a discipline-based structure in materials and community resources could be which courses are organized according to famil- tapped. Specific content would depend upon stu- iar disciplinary formats (e.g., history is present- dent and teacher interest as well as the curricular ed through chronological narrative, government framework within which learning occurs (see the is conceptualized as a set of structures-of- article by Massialas, pp. 44-50). control) and issues are infused to illustrate and Fourth, students must experience influence extend the meaning of traditional content. For and control in the inquiry process. A delicate, example, the study of governmental authorityjudicious balance should be struck between

3 13 teacher guidance in selection of issues and mate- newspapers, computers, the opportunity to inter- rials to be studied and student choices in theirview other adults in the community, interaction own education. Content selection in a productivewith peers in their class and in other classes. The issues-centered curriculum is responsive to stu- study of issues is often enhanced through use of dents' interest, their prior knowledge, and the multiple resources drawn from several disciplines local school and community context. and by taking a historical perspective. Issues-centered teaching has long been associ- Third, students need continuous practice in ated with liberal-progressive social ideas, but theusing extended oral and written language. approach to teaching issues in this book does not Students can't learn how to offer sound responses prevent teachers from applying traditional meth- to issues by speaking in three word phrases. They ods of teaching such as lectures, objective testing, have to learn to weave thoughts and evidence memory reliance, or repetition to complement the together in sentences, to construct reasoned and many issues-centered techniques that will bewell grounded arguments. This use of language found in this book. Issues-centered teaching does can be assisted and complemented through sym- not necessarily promote liberal-progressive ideas bolic art and graphics and physical models, but for social policy. Teachers and students can use ultimately should be expressed in the form of issues-centered teaching to explore and extend students' oral and written text. conservative ideas about social life just as well as Fourth, a major pedagogical challenge for liberal-progressive ones. teachers is to learn how to help students feel In applying an issues-centered program, acomfortable with the cognitive ambiguity that strong measure of reliance must be placed upon issues-centered education introduces. Not being students' learning (or at least being exposed to) a able to find the "right," conclusive answer is common core of knowledge, skills, and disposi- often troubling for both youth and adults. tions (see Hirsch 1996). Issues-centered teachingTeachers will need to help students see how they should lead students to accept democratic princi- make intellectual progress by expanding their ples as the basis of competent American citizen- understanding, even though they may not ship. That is, issues-centered teaching should lead achieve complete certainty. This aspect of issues- students to acknowledge the differences we find centered education is significant, and requires the in our communities, regions, and nation, but more development of skills in "perspectives conscious- importantly to identify those similarities and ness" (Hanvey 1975). This can be supported by principles that bind us together as citizens. consideration of alternative cultural and ideological perspectives often omitted from the standard Implications for Teaching Practice curriculum. It is also crucial for the teacher to There are no particular techniques or prac- offer a psychologically safe environment for stu- tices that "work" all of the time. Effective peda-dents to express doubt, to change their minds, gogy is responsive to special conditions of theand to adopt playful attitudes toward uncertain- teachers, courses and students. However, teach- ty The intellectual work of issues-centered cur- ing will be most effective if guided by principles riculum demands tolerance, respect for diversity such as the following: of ideas, and open-mindedness. These qualities First, issues must take the form of truly prob-can be nurtured only in classrooms that convey a lematic questions, even for the teacher. Althoughcommitment to critical studies and a solid the teacher will have more knowledge about the knowledge base. issues than students, the teacher must be involved in continual learning, in part by considering theImplications for Assessment students' own solutions. Students must be con- New forms of assessment will have to be vinced that they are constructing answers to developed to see how well students understand make sense for themselves, and are not simply issues, can resolve them, and offer defensible trying to follow some script for learning that haspositions. There are occasions when testing for been predetermined by the teacher. factual and conceptual accuracy through tradi- Second, in working out well-reasoned posi- tional methods is warranted and helpful. But new tions on issues, students will need access to a vari- forms of assessment that focus on the arguments ety of resources and tools that extend beyond the that students construct orally and in writing must teacher and the classic textbooksbooks, articles, be developed (see the article by Harris in this

4 14 book, pp. 289-97). As part of the effort to devel- American Revolution, Crisis of Law and Change. op new forms of assessment, it will be important Boulder, CO: Social Science Education Consortium, to introduce students to "models" of proficient 1988. performance in dealing with issues. These could Griffin, Alan. The Subject Matter Preparation of Teachers come from journalistic and editorial writing, of History. Ed.D. diss., Ohio State University, 1942. from televised debates, talk shows and speeches, Gross, Richard E. and Robert H. Muessig, eds. from court opinions and policy briefs, and from Problem-Centered Social Studies Instruction: Approaches many other sources. Teachers and researchers will to Reflective Thinking. Curriculum Series no. 14. need to explore ways to evaluate these, and devel- Washington, DC: National Council for the Social op standards to expect from students. Students Studies, 1971. will need to be convinced of the importance of Hanvey, R. G. An Attainable Global Perspective. these standards to their effectiveness as citizens. New York Center for War/Peace Studies, 1975. Hirsch, E. D., Jr. The Schools We Need New York Conclusion Doubleday, 1996. We have tried to offer a definition of issues- Hunt, Maurice P. and Lawrence E. Metcalf Teaching centered education broad and inclusive enough High School Social Studies: Problems in Reflective to be useful to a diverse group of educational pro- Thinking and Social Understanding. New York fessionals and concerned citizens, but also Harper and Row, 1955 and 1968. focused enough to show its distinctive features. Massialas, Byron and Benjamin Cox. Inquiry in Social We hope that a number of diverse but related Studies. New York McGraw-Hill, 1966. approaches may find enough common ground in Newmann, Fred M. Education for Citizen Action: this definition to advance issues-centered educa- Challenge for Secondary Curriculum. Berkeley, CA: tion itself as a field of practice and research. As McCutchan, 1975. seen in the chapters that follow, the primary Newmann, Fred M. and Donald W. Oliver. Clarifying intent of issues-centered education is to assist Public Controversy: An Approach to Social Studies. teachers in developing curricular practices that Boston: Little, Brown and Co, 1970. are intensely reflective, focused on problematic Oliver, Donald W. and James P. Shaver. Teaching Public questions. We believe that this approach, if Issues in the High School. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, meaningfully implemented, can help to improve 1966. the intellectual quality of discourse in social stud- Rugg, Harold 0. "Curriculum Design in the Social ies classrooms. The approach is built upon a tra- Sciences: What I Believe." In The Future of the Social dition of social studies theory and curricular Studies, edited by James A. Michener. Curriculum practice centered around the teaching of social Series, no.1. Washington, DC: National Council for issues, an approach developed and refined by the the Social Studies, 1939. work of Dewey (1910), Rugg (1939), Griffin Wraga, William G. "The Interdisciplinary Imperative (1942), Hunt and Metcalf (1955 and 1968), for Citizenship Education." Theory and Research in Oliver and Shaver (1966), Massialas and Cox Social Education 21 (1993): 201-231. (1966), Newmann and Oliver (1970), Gross and Muessig (1971), Newmann (1975), and Engle and Ochoa (1988) among many others.

References Alquist, Alberta. "Critical Pedagogy for Social Studies Teachers." Social Studies Review 29 (1990): 53-57. Dewey, John. How We Think. Boston: D. C. Heath and Company, 1910. Engle, Shirley H. and Anna S. Ochoa. Educating Citizens for Democracy: Decision Making in Social Studies. New York Teachers College Press, 1988. Freire, Paulo. Pedagogy of the Oppressed New York Continuum, 1970. Giese, James R. and Mary E. Glade. Public Issues Series:

S 15 BUI DING A RATIONALE FOR ISS ES-CENTERED EDUCATION

bq RD S. Ochoa-Becher

espite the diversity of definitions and con- The Need for a Rationale trasting views in the social studies field, Rationales for such subjects as math and most social studies educators agree that reading are virtually self-explanatory; they only preparation for citizenship is our most state the obviousthese skill areas are essential important goal. However, we do not agree for literacy. If people can't read or write, they can on how to define citizenship nor how to hardly be expected to be effective citizens. Social reach such a goal. While some define citizenship studies curriculum, by contrast, carries compet- as loyalty to the nation, others promote issues-ing claims regarding its goals, methods, and centered education, which hopes to prepare citi-content. Consequently, educatorslike those zens who, consistent with democratic principles,promoting issues-centered educationwho are informed but skeptical and will become criti- pursue one set of views over others must make cal decision makers in public life. The author istheir reasons for such claims explicit and public. among those who strongly support issues-cen-As Shaver (1977) stated: tered education. Issues-centered education is a curriculum A rationale necessarily includes the salient that uses public issues to emphasize controversial values and beliefs that are of particular questions as the content for social studies. It is an importance to its author(s). In the case of approach toward teaching and learning that does promoting critical and informed citizenship not intend to provide right answers, but under- for productive citizen action in a democracy, scores the need for students to learn how to one must ask what are these salient values. examine significant questions and become more thoughtful decision makers about public life. An The salient values the author advances within issues-centered approach highlights the critical an issues-centered curriculum emphasize democ- examination of social practices through the directratic citizenship and necessarily test the principle study of persistent and compelling social issues. of self-government. Can the people govern them- It requires analysis and evaluation of evidence, selves? Can educators prepare young people for demo- values, and decision making. cratic citizenship? Of course they can, claims the The purpose of this chapter is to provide issues-centered educator. But if democracy is to a set of concepts for educators to employ at all achieve its full potential, issues-centered educa- levels when developing a rationale for an issues- tors believe we must strengthen the current social centered curriculum. Since issues-centered edu- studies curriculum, leading it away from its linear cation represents an educational thrust that devi- study of the separate social science disciplines and ates from conventional social studies, which its methods of covering textbook chapters and emphasizes history, geography, textbooks, ques- depending on rote memory as a measure of learn- tions at the ends of chapters, and the lecture ing. Rather, the needed curriculum emphasizes method (Shaver, Davis, and Helburn 1979), itthe issues that citizens persistently facefrom behooves its proponents to advance a rationalethose concerning the environment to issues of statement that justifies this curriculum as anpluralism and distribution of wealthusing the alternative to current social studies practice. social science disciplines, where appropriate, to

16 substantially deepen student understanding. education will accomplish what the conventional Another salient value, derived from the beliefhistory-bound curriculum cannot. The need for that democracy is preferred over other politicalcompetent and critical citizens has never been systems, holds that democratic citizens must rise greater. Polls, surveys and assessment results con- above pure self-interest and be sensitive to the stantly remind us that many citizens lack the needs of others and the common good. Addres- knowledge and/or the commitment needed to sing this tension between self-centeredness and take advantage fully of democratic principles in the public welfare is fundamental to cohesion in a today's complex world. Proponents of issues-cen- free society The tension is evident in such ques- tered education believe that conventional social tions as: 1. Should I support the building of an studies practices have not and will not help us incinerator in my community despite its impact achieve this important goal. on the environment? 2. Should the community To arrive at a set of concepts that may serve as build a new library even if it means higher taxes a guide in developing issues-centered education for me? 3. Should the United States change its rationale statements, I compared several existing health-care systems to cover all Americans even ifrationalesEvans (1989 a and b), Shaver (1977 it means that I will not be able to choose my own b), and Engle and Ochoa (1988). This compari- doctor? Issues-centered education would bring son, however preliminary, of their prominent fea- selected issues (see the chapter by Byron G. tures, identified several domains that any rationale Massialas in this handbook) to the forefront, should seriously consider. These concepts are: guiding citizens to think of the public welfare, not Key democratic values (such as freedom, confining themselves to their own self-interest. equality, due process, justice, etc.). Without explicit attention to the importance of The nature of knowledge (interdisciplinary the common good, democracy will flounder. focus on issues with supporting content Examining other salient democratic values from the social science disciplines and reveals tensions between freedom and equality or the humanities). freedom and security. Maximizing justice, human The nature of teachers and teaching (focus- dignity, equity, and the importance of due process ing on the shift from authoritarian to facili- are values that are also centrally embedded in tative, probing, and interactive teaching). democratic thought. The nature of learners and learning (intellec- Professional educators, parents, community tual development and cultural background persons, and school board members should col- of students). laborate when developing a rationale statement The nature of society, domestic and global, for issues-centered education. They must view including all aspects of diversity. their work as a starting point that represents initial thinking about the purposes and reasons for a This author found much common ground particular curriculum. They must also understand across these three rationales. that complete agreement among these groups is not possible. The rationale is a carefully con- Three Existing Rationales structed statement of goalswell developed, The three rationales presented here were clearly defined, and reconsidered regularly. Such selected for specific reasons. No prioritization of statements, which will vary from community to their worth against that of others is intended. community, from district to district, and from Obviously, Engle and Ochoa were selected school to school, must be revisited and revised on because the author knows that work best. No one a continuing basis so they respond to the realities has given more thought to or has more vigorous- of implementation and to local, societal, andly called for thoughtful rationale-building in global changes. Shaver (1992) reminded us that social studies education than James P. Shaver. mindless issues-centered education is no more And Ron Evans represents a new generation of justifiable than mindless rote education. young scholars whose own work has demonstrat- While it is one thing to say that convention- ed commitment to the benefits of issues-centered al programs have not resulted in competent and education. Even though Evans does not regard critical citizens, advocates of issues-centered edu- himself as a theorist, his publications and profes- cation must assume that the burden of proof is sional efforts demonstrate that he has given seri- theirs. They must explain why issues-centeredous thought to the principles underlying issues-

7 centered education. Other theorists whose works emphasizes that history courses must be orga- deserve consideration but are not included herenized to apply history to contemporary issues are Hunt and Metcalf (1968), Massialas and Cox and to the lives of students. Evans thoughtfully (1966),Stanley and Nelson(1986),and provides his own example of an issue-centered Hartoonian (1985), to name a few. approach involving the study of issues related to To understand a rationale more thoroughly, it government and the economy. is worth examining what it implies about the The Evans rationale cries out for deeper nature of knowledge, learning and learners,development in one area. In fact, this criticism teaching and teachers, and society. The table on applies to most of us who have tried to build a page 13 presents summarizing assumptionsrationale for issues-centered education. As do about the Evans and Shaver rationales withEngle and Ochoa, Evans advances the notion of inferences made by this author about significantidentifying problems that are of interest to learn- aspects of their curricula, along with Engle anders, but he really does not talk about how that Ochoa's position on the same aspects. might be done in classrooms. He ignores, as oth- These three theorists reveal ideas that are ers do, the conditions that are needed to create certainly compatible with each other. Their sim- an issues-centered learning environment in both ilarities mask any minor differences betweenthe classroom and the school. (This need for them. Unfortunately, diversity of all kinds (dis- attention to school and classroom climate and ability, gender, race, ethnicity, religion, social the hidden curriculum is affirmed in Carole class) is not given explicit attention by any ofHahn's research chapter on pages 25-41 of this them. In the future, theorists cannot and should book.) However, the importance of the Evans not ignore diversity as a penetrating dimension rationale is in its explicit relationship between of both this society and the global community. social studies and developing critical citizens for a democracy (see chapter 28 by Evans and 1. The Evans Rationale Brodkey, below, pp. 254-64.) It seems clear to me that Evans (1989) sees social studies curriculum as an effort in learning 2. The Shaver Rationale to become a democratic citizen and not one of No one has done as much to heighten the promoting knowledge for its own sake. One doesawareness level of the profession to the impor- not study history just to know that Andrewtance of developing rationales for the social Jackson vetoed the proposal for the national bankstudies than James P. Shaver. His writings on the in 1828. Rather, issues-centered educators would subject are legion, and those developing such use this knowledge as it relates to banking issues rationales are well advised to consult them. His and the role of the federal government. own rationale for issues-centered education Evans asks a major and most appropriate (Shaver 1960 1977a, 1977b) emphasizes issues question, "What are the organizing principles ofthat are drawn from the personal experiences of the course (U.S. History)?" He states that teach- students, the social science disciplines, and/or ers have typically used the textbook to build significant concerns of society. Necessarily, these course structure rather than structuring theissues can be described as value-laden, having course around the ideas they consider important. both ethical implications and competing truth He urges teachers to identify issues that link the claims. Teachers must create a context where past to the present, although generally they have social issues engage learners, relating the issue to not explored societal issues. the personal concerns of students wherever pos- Social studies as it is currently taught and sible. Shaver has further emphasized that issues- practiced, he argues, is dysfunctional. A signifi- centered education must be interdisciplinary in cant indicator of the failure of conventional socialnature, including not only the social sciences, but studies is the low percentage of people voting. literature and the arts as well as an awareness of Today's social studies does not teach young peo- current and relevant research. ple to make full use of the knowledge they learn to aid them in making critical decisions. Not sur- 3. The Engle-Ochoa Rationale prisingly, students find social studies boring, a The rationale put forward by Engle and point Fred Newmann (1986) addressed. Students Ochoa (1988) places strong emphasis on the rela- also find history courses meaningless, and Evans tionship between an issues-centered social studies curriculum and the distinctive role of the citizen, sentative: particularly the citizen in a democracy. Democ- How do we know that a particular statement racy, in their view, is the preferred form of govern- is true? (Validating truth claims; evaluating ment because of its potential to afford dignity to evidence) each individual by way of its significant values What must be done to improve specific such as freedom, equality, and justice. Recognizing social conditions such as crime, homeless- that this democratic society has a long way to go ness, foreign policy, inequalities, etc.? to realize its full potential, Engle and Ochoa criti- How can I justify my decisions? (What cize current practices in the social studies that values? What evidence? What logic?) emphasize textbooks, lectures, and memorization and discourage students from thinking for them- In the Engle-Ochoa framework, knowledge selves. Such practices might fit citizenship educa- is seen as tentative in nature and is always open tion in nations with autocratic forms of govern-to further investigation. Their vision places ment; but they clearly contradict democratic equivalent emphasis on content (knowledge) and beliefs and practices. Instead, Engle and Ochoaintellectual process, which are inextricably inter- advance an issues-centered curriculum tied totwined. Content takes the form of social issues intellectual processes that contribute to reflective that citizens face. The social science disciplines decision-making abilities in citizenscitizenscan and do strengthen the understanding of who will understand and hold reasoned value social issues. Knowledge, or truth, claims in those commitments to democratic principles and prac- disciplines can also serve as the basis of student tices so that this democracy is preserved, nour-investigation. Salient statements in textbooks can ished, and expanded. Most indicators (voter apa-be used as hypotheses to be tested for their truth thy, dependence on images created by the media, value in the classroom. For example: etc.) reveal that the public at large does not 1. How did the Japanese perceive their first demonstrate the democratic values and practices encounter with Admiral Perry? How does that sustain and expand democracy. Learning this view, as presented in Japanese textbooks, must center on the use of facts and values in mak- differ from the view in U.S. textbooks? ing decisionsa complex intellectual process. 2. Lincoln freed the slaves, but was he a reluc- An important aspect of the Engle and Ochoa tant emancipator? rationale resides in the concepts of socialization 3. The oldest U.S. public building is not on and countersocialization and the relationship the East Coast where the colonists landed between them. Socialization is an inescapable but in New Mexico. Is this statement true? process in all cultures as a means to preserving How can we find out? What is its meaning? cultural values and traditions in the next generation. Here, parents, teachers, peers, and the Such statements and questions confront stu- media teach very young children to fit in and dents with controversy and the opportunity to conform to the existing social order. At these validate truth claims over others. They may learn ages, socialization ishighly conforming and that, in many if not most cases, we are not able to neither reflective nor analytical; that is, very reach the truth with complete certainty. young children often absorb cultural values quite Engle and Ochoa believe that skepticism mindlessly. However, as youth mature intoon any matter is the basis upon which issues- would-be citizens for a democracy, they must centered education is built. Any serious scholar become skeptical, questioning, and critical. working in the social science disciplines is more Democratic citizens must be proactiveknowl- concerned with the unanswered questions in the edgeable and challenging regarding the issues discipline than with mimicking the so-called that manifest themselves in their public lives. facts. Are facts really the facts? How do the facts The aim of countersocialization isto foster reveal the bias and ideology of those reflecting? independent thought and social criticism that is Social studies educators must guide citizens so crucial for democratic citizens. Counter- to ask: What are the facts? Are they facts or opin- socialization calls for a consciously reflectiveions? What meaning do these so-called facts process where students learn to ask challenginghave? Because the range of doubt is so vast, so is questions and probe for thoughtful and respon- the range of matters issues-centered education sible answers. The following questions are repre- can present. There is no shortage of issues to con-

9 19 sider and all knowledge must be related to issues. Contrary to the charges of some critics, The Engle-Ochoa rationale describes teach- issues-centered education values history and ing as highly interactive: the teacher and students other disciplines that shed light on contemporary are both learners and teachers concurrently. Thecitizen dilemmas. History and the social sciences teacher facilitates, probes, and learns. Studentsand issues-centered education are not mutually investigate, probe their fellow learners and the exclusive. These disciplines provide perspectives, teacher, and are engaged in the rigorous studyresearch, and scholarship that strengthen the cit- of social issues, involving intellectual analysis, izen's hand in addressing social issues. However, decision making, and social action. while these disciplines provide knowledge that is The inherent curiosity of learners can be somewhat dependable, this knowledge is always tapped to enhance learning. Problematic scenarios open to intellectual challenges, and, furthermore, are likely to capture their interest more effectively the social sciences do not supply all of the wis- than the mere coverage of linear topics can do.dom needed to make sound public decisions Engle and Ochoa recommend socializing the very based on democratic values. young to democratic values by way of biographies In fact, some critics may argue that if issues- of a widely diverse set of heroes and heroines who centered education becomes the order of the day, represent the cultural mix of our population and entire sets of important events such as the War speak to democratic values through real-life sce- of 1812, westward migration, and even the narios. This process of countersocialization canworld wars may be omitted and ignored in the result in a reappraisal of beliefs and ideas acquired curriculum and that diminished attention to through the conventional socialization process. these events will reduce loyalty to the United States as a whole. This point overstates the case. Citizens who have engaged in a thoughtful No curriculum can teach everything; selection is and critical analysis of their beliefs and who always required. Further, selection is always guid- recognize the complexity of public issues and ed by values, either implicitly or explicitly. public opinion are more likely to contribute No curriculum is value-free. Conventional social effectively to the negotiated consensus studies practices also reflect a value base. This required for meaningful and active democra- author believes that issues-centered educators tic life. (Engle and Ochoa 1988, 51) come closer to the realities of democratic citizenship than the conventional social studies curriculum through their emphasis on social issues and Preparing for Criticisms developing the capacity for critical thinking of Issues-Centered Education skills. Young people need guidance when it Critics of issues-centered education come comes to values and value decisions. Periodically, from many sources and raise various arguments. the school is likely to challenge the values of the Those educators who are advancing issues-home. Neither the school nor the classroom centered education must be mindful of some teacher can reflect all the differences in family arguments critics may raise when presenting avalues that exist in a particular class of students. rationale for issues-centered education. Despite conflicting community views, students must gain experience in addressing controversial Loyalty to Nation through issues and value dilemmas as they influence the Study of History Argument public decisions. Some critics feel that issues-centered education sublimates or diminishes the role of history The Great Books Argument or other social sciences to one of subordination. Mortimer Adler (1982) and others who Critics argue that issues-centered education support education via "great" books and "great" erodes attachment to nation because it character- literature feel that individuals can only receive izes history, and especially written history, as a complete education through reading these problematic and conflictive and not focused materials.Issues-centerededucationcould on the nation's heroes, heritage, and positiveundoubtedly identify many penetrating public accomplishments. The American Federation ofissues in the great books identified by the Great Teachers (Gagnon 1989), as well as other groups, Books Foundation. However, the intellectual also emphasize the goal of loyalty to the nation. process of problem solving and public decision

10 20 making needs explicit attention in the imple- A last note of caution: Documents, such as the mentation of an issues-centered education for American Federation of Teachers (1987) publi- democratic citizens. It is also interesting to notecation, can be seductive because they provide a that the Great Books Foundation is currentlyrationale that issues-centered education can identifying contemporary as well asclassical accept. However, their conclusion that history is works, seemingly to attract the current genera- the major discipline seems to be a complete non- tion of learners. sequitur. History is far from being the only source of knowledge and wisdom, and other social sci- The Changing Teaching Model Argument ences, literature (All the Kings Men, The Last Educating teachers so they can engage theirHurrah, etc.) and the arts can provide great students in both the content and intellectualinsights into persistent social issues. processes of issues-centered education is an extremely difficult task because it involves notBuilding the Rationale only a change in the ways we teach more interac- This chapter has emphasized ideas central to tively but also involves a substantial change in thebuilding a rationale for an issues-centered cur- role of teachers from an authoritative stance toriculum. Involving a broad base of professional one more facilitative and supportive, yet probing. and community participants in the rationale- This concern has some merit. However, justbuilding process at the local level iscritical. because something is difficult to do doesn't meanWhile educators must acknowledge the contri- it cannot or should not be done. Given the needbutions of theorists and curriculum specialists to heighten the education of citizens, a deeperin rationale building, those most responsible for and more thoughtful teacher education programimplementing the issues-centered approaches at both the in-service and preservice levels ismust play key roles in the planning process. clearly in order for professionals who will imple-Broad participation in the early stages is essential ment social studies in our schools. Universities asto the success of both a sound rationale as well as well as schools have some rationale building andfostering the necessary local support for imple- curriculum work to do. mentation of an issues-centered curriculum. The rationale itself must address the relation- The Essential Knowledge Argument ship of issues-centered education to a democracy Occasionally, some criticsespecially and to democratic values, which must be defined. essentialistswill complain that issues-centeredIn a democratic society, issues-centered edu- education is too amorphous, too vague about its cation is critical because a democracy has distinc- content and not specific enough about its intel- tive features that demand much stronger partici- lectual process. Essentialism is that school ofpation from itscitizens than other political thought that claims that essential knowledge orsystems. Education for informed and thoughtful content that is necessary for all students can and citizenship in a democracy must reflect those should be identified. Such vagueness, according essential characteristics of skepticism, indepen- to these critics, prevents setting explicit standards dence, and decision making. and undermines accountability. We must also be mindful of engaging the It is true that issues-centered education spec- learner and demonstrate sensitivity to the climate ifies content in categorical rather than specificof the classroom and the school. A sound ratio- ways (e.g., if social studies centers on socialnale must address the critical factors that influ- issues, clarifying which issues students address is ence all curriculum building, i.e., the nature of left to local schools and teachers). Learning is knowledge; the nature of learners or learning; the believed to be most effective and knowledge nature of teachers and teaching; and the nature of most useful when it is related to an issue thatglobal and domestic society with all aspects of applies to student-related concerns as well as to diversity. Examining assumptions in regard to extant issues in the larger society. Unfortunately, these concepts can result in a more comprehen- the content of the social studies curriculum issive and thoughtful rationale as well as a more often defined by textbooks produced for a meaningful social studies curriculum. national market, a condition that nourishes stan- In presenting some of the arguments dardization of the curriculum, standardized tests, advanced by critics of issues-centered education, and in too many cases, mindless teaching. the author advises those building rationales to

12 22 Three Rationales for Issues-Centered Education

CONCEPT EVANS SHAVER ENGLEANDOCHOA Knowledge istentative, not Knowledge is seen as both ten- Since knowledge istentative absolute, and is always in need of tative and testable. It is relevant in nature, all claims to knowledge n ature of verification. The thoughtful citizen when it provides insight into social may raise questions and foster skep- knowledge is always skeptical of truth claims. dilemmas. Knowledge that con- ticism. Content (knowledge) and There is little, if any knowledge cerns citizens provides the basis for intellectual processes are inextricably that can be defined as absolutely testing truth claims whether they intertwined. The social science disci- essential, yet knowledge is critical- are found in the disciplines, in social plines strengthen the understanding ly important tothe complete issues, or in the interests and expe- of social issues. Students investigate understanding of social issues. riences of the learner. This view of truth claims from textbooks, lectures, knowledge is interdisciplinary. video, and/or newspapers. This view of knowledge is interdisciplinary.

Teaching is a facilitative pro- The jurisprudential model of Teaching is highly interactive: n ature of cess that helps students define teaching helps the learners learn teacher and students are both teachers and issues and resolve problems. It is how to resolve public issues (Oliver learners and teachers concurrently. teaching not merely a matter of direct teach- and Shaver 1966). Based on Socratic The teacher facilitates, probes, and ing, lecturing or textbook reading. dialogue, it seeks to challenge stu- learns. Students investigate, probe dents' thinking about their choices their fellow learners as well as the and decisions, as well as the values teacher, and are engaged in the rig- involved in such choices. Teachers orous study of social issues, which are more than facilitators; they pose involves intellectual analysis, deci- areas of conflict in values, focus stu- sion making, and social action. dents on the need to justify their position on issues, and consistently probe students for the strongest evidence justification possible.

Learning is an active and Learners must be viewed as cit- Learners are curious and this n ature of reflective process engaged in by izens who, if properly motivated, curiosity can be tapped to enhance learners and learners who are more likely to be can be energized to be concerned learning. Socialize the young to learning energized by examining contem- about social issues, both public and democratic valuesby way of porary and controversial issues private. Learning is an active and biographies of heroes and hero- than by chronological treatments reflective intellectual process that is ines. Countersocialize youth to of history. intricately tied to the content and foster independent thought and processes needed to address public social criticism that is crucial to issues. To build effective citizens political freedom. for a democracy, learners must confront these matters in intellectually thoughtful ways.

Whether conceived at domes- Society, especially a democratic Society,bothglobaland n ature of tic or global levels, society is prob- one, is plagued by value dilemmas domestic, is persistently problem- society lematic, conflictive, and constantly (conflict) that need thoughtful and atic, conflictual, and pluralistic. changing. These publicissues critical attention by its citizens if It is constantly changing. In recent impact our lives, whether we give conflictual issues are to be alleviat- years there has been fairly wide- deliberate thought to them or not. ed or resolved. Conflict character- spreadrecognitionthat many It is the thoughtful analysis of izes democratic public life. issuesfacingcitizensinthis social issues and how they impact democracy have not only implied the lives of citizens and people domestic obligations but also man- everywhere that must form the ifest a global reality. Such issues basis of the social studies curricu- may be addressed in many parts of lum in a democracy. the school curriculum.

diversity INot explicitly addressed. Not explicitly addressed Not explicitly addressed

1 BEST COPY AVAILABLE THE HISTORICAL IMPERATIVE FOR, ISSUES-CENTERED EDUCATION

Du JacL. Nelson

The historical imperative for organizing Amid all the fuss and feathers, there is sub- social studies around social issues is con- stance, there is reality, in social studies. ... it ceptual, or intellectual. The power of will be said that the growth of social studies issues-centered education lies in the con- places on teachers an impossible burden, it text of its social and intellectual traditions, compels them to deal with controversial ques- providing the main conceptual fabric of this tions. ... They are in a different position from chapter: that of a teacher of Latin or mathematics. The roots of social studies education lie in They cannot master their subject reasonably human issues and in efforts to develop and well and settle back to a ripe old age early in test knowledge. life. The subject matter of their instruction Knowledge derives from issues that permeate isinfinitely difficult and itiscontinually the earliest to the latest developments in changing. If American democracy is to fulfill human thought. its high mission, those who train its youth Humans construct forms of knowledge in must be among the wisest, most fearless, and a time and place; these forms are likely to most highly trained men and women this change and deserve skeptical examination. broad land can furnish. (1929, 372) Restrictive or rigid forms of knowledge are inconsistent with the nature of human The social studies foundation most consistent knowledge and the complexity of human with Beard's statement is the study of issues. issues. It is time to return to an issues focus and Finding the Roots of Social Studies reliberate schools and students from rigid David Saxe (1992a) criticized authors of formalism. standard histories of social studies (Wesley 1937; Johnson 1940) for assuming that the field Issues and Social Studies Teaching began with the traditional teaching of history in Pervasive human issues remain at the center schools. That literature traces origins of the field of the human condition and at the core of knowl-back only toa 1916 National Education edge. The legitimate study of society, humanAssociation Committee on the Social Studies or knowledge, and competing views, therefore, to late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century requires a focus on issues. This imperativehis-American Historical Association committees. toric and contemporaryshould be the hallmark Saxe challenged the limited and limiting view of social studies teaching. that the field's orientation was traditional histo- Good teachers find that fulfilling this obliga- ry teaching, showing that social studies actually tion is difficult but necessary. Charles Beard, the had its beginnings in issuesin the social wel- progressive historian and leading figure in social fare and humanitarian literature earlier in the studies education in the 1920s and 1930s, nineteenth century. Contemporary social studies addressed the idea of social studies and its in the United States owes at least as much alle- complex expectations for teachers: giance to social issues for its founding and orientation as it does to the discipline of history.

0 IQ The basic concept of social studies instruc- increased complications, but the result is that tionto develop competent civic participantsmore issues need to be confronted. has roots far deeper and more widespread than a Global democratization in societies and recent century or a single nation. Social studies schools offers less separation between the world can be traced back far beyond the first use of the of affairs and the world of scholars than was the term. The elemental roots of social studies rest in case in older western civilizations. America rep- human issues that inform the human condition resented a break from the classical tradition, and organize human knowledge through the which made scholarship a leisure class activity need to find resolutions. Social studies follows unrelated to the world of action or human issues. from the earliest of human experiences. It is this Classically, scholars were expected to contem- history, not a set of formal dates, that positions plate great thoughts and avoid contact with the the imperative for issues study at the core. practical issues of life. Ancient class distinctions separated those presumed to be naturally suited Increasing Complexity of Human Issues to the life of the mind from those suited to Life in any society at any time is complex. action, whereas modern democratic education Sadly, even at the end of the twentieth century, assumes that students of all classes engage in pure survival is still the prime concern for some, consideration of issues. but many confront problems of life and society beyond those of essential existence. Improve-Criticism and the Development ments in life quality, civilization, and knowledge of Knowledge have themselves produced more complicated For thousands of years, humans were essen- lives and more complex human issues. Medical tially predatory and nomadic, but, as one eco- knowledge has increased life expectancy and nomic historian noted, "in the course of time, improved public health but created other prob- particular skills and techniques were invented lems related to aging, the political economy ofand developed, the cutting of stones, the making health care, and ethical questions about dying of special weapons, the building of transport and equality of treatment. Advances in commu-vehicles" (Cipolla 1964, 18). Prehistoric data nication and transportationcontributeto suggest that humans discovered many of their increased human issues around privacy, pollu- most important adaptations to the environment tion, and national sovereignty. Technologicaland social life in the millions of years before development has increased the pace and therecorded history. Increasing sophistication in horizons of human existencebut with a collat- trying and testing ideas and practice is a mark eral increase in life's complexity. Individual and of human life. Paleoanthropologist Richard social choices have become and will continue to Leakey said, "The urge to know is a defining fea- be more complex. ture of humanity" (1992 [with Lewin], 23). Among civilization's improvements isthe Social studies, including ideas about the global expansion of democracy. Political and eco- nature and purpose of knowledge, emerged as nomic life for predemocratic common people was humans tried to understand and cope with comparatively simple, though humanly debasing. human problems. Animism, witchcraft, astrolo- With democratic ideas, people were offered moregy, myth, science, humanities, and social science complicated responsibility coupled with increas- developed as ways to explain the human condi- ing freedoms. Democracy expects decision mak- tion. Although schemes of absolute truth or ing after consideration of diverse evidence and dogma have emerged in every time period, our perspectives so mass education, became a neces-understanding of knowledge carries the expecta- sary condition for democracy and a primary com- tion of criticism and of disagreement with ideas ponent of improved quality of life and civiliza- and actions. That approach challenges dogmatic tion. Such educational expansion contributed to answers to human problems. Criticism has been a more complex life. Education can create frus-a part of social life throughout human history, trations because it increases expectations andbut as Bottomore (1968, 4) noted: confusion concerning the indeterminate quality of truth and incisive criticism of contemporary It is only in societies which have become society. Few would argue that increased democ- literate, possess economic reserves, have racy and improved education are not worth the developed an urban life and in some mea-

15 25 sure a professional intellectual class, that the West superseded human issues and had any sustained criticism of the working of become a set of prescribed and static ideas linked society is possible. to religion and social class. That codification, as we know, did not adequately explain or enlighten Dissenters challenged early versions of sci- humankind, and its static quality limited intellec- ence and humanities. Sometimes critics suffered tual activity and consideration of human issues. heinous punishments for their dissent, but crit- The original seven liberal arts from the ics served to test ideas and patterns of thought. monasteries are not what we now call liberal arts. Superstition, alchemy, and moral trial by fire areAs Butts (1955, 177) indicated, "In the realm of pre-scientific and pre-humanities efforts to intellectual affairs, the center of gravity began to organize knowledge for understanding and forshift from the religious to human experience." coping with human issues. The working of the It also marked a return to human issues as social mind on problems and solutions is a topic ofstudy. The Renaissance emerged as a challenge social study, a very large body of philosophic,to religious domination and to established religious, and psychological literature going backauthorities, even as it embraced the classical tra- through recorded history. dition of knowledge. Scientific and intellectual inquiry flourished Such evidence of traditional codifications of in early India, China, and Africa. In the millen- knowledge, including dogma from classical peri- nium preceding the birth of Christ, ethical teach- ods and formal religion, is readily found in the ings involving the relation of nature to humanAmerican colonies. An early colonial example of destiny were a feature of early Indian Vedathe intellectual limitations often placed upon (hymns related to knowledge). Upanishads writ- schools is in the Massachusetts School Law of ings of that time, as well as Buddhism, point out 1647 (The Deluder Satan Act), which ordered that reality is beyond time and space. Mayerevery township of fifty households to teach chil- (1960, 32) claims that western cultures have dif- dren to read the Scriptures and foil Satan. Social ficulty understanding these ideas because we education of this time was often religious indoc- are so "intensely conscious of historical events," trination, not the examination of issues, and the and do not do as well in grasping reality as adogmatic approach to religion exempted legiti- whole as those who share Indian concepts. mate issues analysis. At various times in history, the static dogma Dogmatism Interrupts Development of established subjects, the absolutism of reli- Western cultures consider the medieval peri-gions, and excessive nationalism have restricted od as intellectually dark, one of conformity and knowledge and education. Copernicus rediscov- uniformity. In actuality, there was significant dis- ered and recast ideas from ancient Greek sent. Even though the main thread was ortho-astronomers like Aristarchus of Samos, whose doxy in knowledge, consistent with religious doc-work had been defamed by stoic philosophers as trine, there were deviations based on increasingoutside existing ideas of knowledge. Galileo, in secularization and more flexible ideas of knowl-proving Copernicus right, suffered attack from edge. The dominant view, however, incorporated religious zealots. Traditional scholars and reli- strictures that religion imposed and the authori-gious leaders ridiculed Charles Darwin's work tarian nature and formal categories of knowledge when first presented (Russell 1959). Scholarly that scholasticism stressed. paradigms organize the structure of knowledge, During the Middle Ages, knowledge was and religion assists in understanding the human codified into the Trivium (grammar, rhetoric, and condition, but their rigidity can also restrict logic) and the Quadrivium (arithmetic, geome- thinking and nontraditional scholarly inquiry in try, astronomy, and music), solidifying what was the human quest for knowledge (Kuhn 1970b; then conceived to be the ultimate structure of Skybreak 1984; Nencel and Pels 1991). knowledge for the leisure classesthe seven lib- Scholastic and static forms of knowledge eral arts. Not liberal in the sense of liberating were challenged after the Renaissance. Francis humans through education, the form of educa- Bacon (1606), despite his undemocratic premise tion was "bookish," reading from and reciting that social status should determine the level of memorized material from books (Butts 1955). By education available, argued that theory be tested this time the formal codification of knowledge in by experience, that social progress depended

16 upon applying knowledge to problems of dailyuncritical nationalistic education notwithstand- life (Cressy 1980). In more recent times, Merleing, conceptions of knowledge change. In one Curti (1956) documented the evolution of ten- sense traditional non-issues approaches to school- sion between scholastic intellectuals and realing have been temporary interruptions in the human issues in the United States, showing that long-term development of knowledge. Despite U.S. democracy assisted in closing that gap, evenefforts to codify and rigidify learnings, the core though tensions still remained at the middle ofpurpose of knowledge remains: to provide the twentieth century. insights into potential answers for human issues. Nationalistic pride also constructs static and Current philosophic writing raises the ques- false boundaries for knowledge, limiting exami- tion that we may be in a new period of scholasti- nation of human issues. Traditional school-level cism, emphasizing technical, mechanical, and history and civics often incorporate myths that materialistic distinctions between categories of brook no scholarly challenge or skepticism.knowing. That literature recognizes that "the Studies of nationalistic history and civics taughtlifeblood of philosophy is argument and counter- in schools show that nations manipulate theirargument," a continuing philosophic revolution own histories, creating and sustaining myths, to and challenge to old beliefs about knowledge inspire and perpetuate national chauvinism (Hamblyn 1987, 333). This debate is also about through schooling (Merriam 1934; Key 1961; social studies content as an intellectual issue. Nelson 1971, 1976). The United States is among those nations most actively perpetuating nation-Myth and Theory as Constructs alistic myths through history teaching (Piercefor Knowledge 1933; Beale 1936; Gellerman 1938; Billington Joseph Campbell (1990) examined the 1966; Nelson and Weltman 1990). History pro- process of comprehending and responding to fessor Nancy Shoemaker (1993, A48) comment- human issues, using myths from differing cul- ed, 7 wasn't sure I wanted to teach it [a course on the tures to show their transformation over time in American West] again. The myth of the West was just explaining the human condition. An American too powerful. The mythological baggage that students Navaho Indian myth follows the evolving matu- brought to the course continually surprised me. "Her rity of young people through a series of human students had completed the standard school cur- issues, none of which would be resolved by for- riculum of U.S. history with myths taught asmal study of a current single subject field. Asian, truths from the discipline rather than as humanAfrican, and other myths have similar themes issues subject to skepticism and criticism. By the human problems and knowledge development middle of the nineteenth century, the center ofas a focus for understanding and overcoming. social studies in common schools had shiftedThe Greek myth has Prometheus stealing the from dogmatic religion to nearly-as-dogmaticsecret of fire for humans to provide them the uncritical nationalism. Nationalistic interest fol-means to reason, understanding, and the civiliz- lowing the War of 1812 led to significantlying artsthe bases for knowledge. Homer's Iliad increased teaching of U.S. history and related cit- and Odyssey are examples of interpretations of izenship training. The new religion of the secular human issues. While the stories are inconsistent, schools was nationalism, a dogma that was notthey try to record old events as they provide a issues-centered. Rather, the goal was inculcating world view, a myth or interpretation of life. patrioticloyalty,not debating. FormalizedGreek, Indian, Egyptian, and other myths nationalistic history and civics were the main attempted also to explain life after death (Russell means of this instruction. 1957). Myths, mingled with observable evidence, Religious dogma is no longer a core of social attempt to explain human and superhuman life. studies education, but nationalistic influence Many myths, of course, are detrimental to remains significant. It represents traditional human progress and knowledge, keeping humans uncritical citizenship training similar to previous in the shackles of ignorance and under the inflexible codifications of knowledge. While oppression of superstition. But myths not only absolute answers make some feel secure, intellec- predate and surround our ideas of knowledge, tual challenges to this limitation of knowledge they also permeate those ideas and the categories and of pedagogy continue to arise. of knowledge we construct and use. Commonly Rigid scholastic, dogmatic religious, and defined as false stories, myths are also properly

17 defined as traditional stories intended to explain Darwinism. And Russell suggested, although phenomena or customs (which is actually the facetiously, that the flat-earth society may have preferred definition in standard English dictio- been right despite Copernicus (Russell 1928). naries). The result of scholarly work that explains the phenomena described in these traditionalIssues and the Weakness of stories is an improvement of existing knowledge. Single-Subject Approaches The topic of knowledge is itself a proper social Not only do the separate disciplines have the studies subjectanother human issue worthy ofpotential for rigid scholasticism, but no individ- study and consistent with the historic and futureual subject is adequate to deal with the complex- development of civilization. The process of argu- ity of human issues. By imposing serious limita- ment and counterargument to improve knowl- tions, and squeezing, any of the humanities or edge is used in issues-centered education in socialsocial sciences could frame an issue solely within studies. Students deserve the intellectual oppor- its own narrow borders, but that does not account tunity and academic freedom necessary to engage for the intellectual loss created by such limits in such arguments; issues-centered educationand compression. Examining only historian- offers that potential. approved documents on a human issue such as Myth can be applied, at least metaphorically, poverty or war may be exhaustive for the student, to theoretical constructs in separate disciplines.but is not exhaustive as an intellectual enterprise. Philosopher of history Peter Heehs (1994) noted It would leave out current or historian-ignored the "interpenetration" of history and myth; theyphilosophic, economic, political, sociological, are not distinct and separate. History is not truth, psychological, literary, scientific, ethnic, legal, but interpretation as a form of myth, a point alsoreligious, or other dimensions. Issues range made almost a century ago by historian Sydney beyond the arbitrary limits of traditional subjects. Fisher (1913). Time is larger than conventional history; space is The idea of myth does not denigrate scholar-larger than conventional geography; and humans ly theory, nor does it suggest that theories areare more than the sum of separate studies in soci- false. It does suggest that they are theories, notology, economics, political science, religion, law, truth, and should be subject to skepticism even aseducation, women's studies, ethnic studies, they are tentatively accepted as ways to help us toanthropology, psychology or other traditional or explain phenomena. Many earlier theories ofemerging social sciences. physical and mental phenomena have been Regarding the narrowness of social science dis- shown to be false as knowledge has become more ciplines, sociologist Robert Lynd (1939, 16) wrote: sophisticated. Presumably, this knowledge revolution will continue for as long as we can foresee. So, despite our (social scientists) protesta- A major premise of knowledge, and thus, of tions that everything is interdependent, social studies is therefore that things change. preoccupation with our specializations The Copernican Revolution, revising existing tends to put blinkers on us social scientists ideas that the earth was flat and the center of the and to make us state our problems as if they universe, occurred because of the possibility and concerned, in fact, isolated economic, or power of skepticism about existing theories political, or sociological problems. (Kuhn 1970a). Similarly, Darwin's theories replaced existing theory on the origin of living Pervasive human issues do not come neatly things in the mid-nineteenth century, over the packaged and formally organized along the lines strong objections of scholars and theologians of formal subjects. Such issues as crime, war, and whose beliefs or reputations rested on previous hunger are not simple and are not simply exam- views. Does that mean that current conceptionsined only through the lenses of historians or of Copernican and Darwinian theories are economists or other social scientists. Information irrefutable truth? No, they are just more contem- and interpretations from history are valuable in porary and sophisticated theories, acceptable to understanding and coping with contemporary mainstream scholars and supported so far by life; information and interpretations from social available evidence. There is still dispute. Some sciences, literature, philosophy, other humanities, orthodox religions oppose Darwinism and other and the sciences are also valuable in compre- peoplequestionthesocialapplication of hending and dealing with human issues. Poverty

18 28 and discrimination, for example, can be exam-Issues and Integration ined using history, political science, geography, in Social Education economics, and psychology. Sociology, anthro- Questions coming from human issues are pology, law, religion, education, literature, philos- more significant than the possible answers ophy, and the arts and sciences provide otherproduced by any single subject. Issues develop important knowledge about their causes and questions of personal and social importance to effects. The whole topic, however, is more than students and scholars, the basis of knowledge. the sum of these parts. A separatist curriculum Single disciplines provide useful approaches to that requires students to study national history, information, answers, and perspectives to con- economics, political science, sociology, psycholo-sider specific parts of the questions. For social gy, law, and geography in compartmentalizededucation, however, the focus should be on the segments as though each had no relation to thewhole of knowledge, skeptical examination of other is unlikely to provide students with suffi-ideas, and the search for knowledge. Social stud- cient opportunity to examine and understandies incorporates the broad study of society, to those human issues as holistic concerns. include human prehistory and the future as well Early twentieth-century social studies educa- as the forms and types of human knowledge. It tors recognized the need to shift from static his-explores questions such as: What isit to be tory teaching to issues. Prior to the establishmenthuman? To be social? To know? To engage in of the National Council for the Social Studies, civic life? To make decisions? To be ethical? To teachers recognized that issue study was morebe competent? These questions elicit different important than standard history (Stockton answers in different settings and different time 1919). Harold Rugg (1921) suggested that socialperiods. Wraga (1993, 202) noted it well: studies diminish the grip of professional associations of historians on the school curriculum, Because societal problems are complex and eliminate nonessential military and political they transcend conventional subject divi- details, and focus on crucial issues. sions, civic competence depends upon inte- Good teachers have long recognized serious grating knowledge from a variety of subjects. limits in standard disciplinary history instruction. ...the ability and inclination to integrate Tyler Kepner, a 1930s high school social studies and apply knowledge constitute an essential chair and the only member of the College Board civic competence. Commission on History who refused to sign its final report endorsing increased traditional histo- The intellectual rationale for issues-centered ry instruction, wrote in the first issue of Social social education involves more than a single sub- Education: ject. Biologist and ethnologist Gregory Bateson (1979, 8), criticizing the form of separatist sub- One cannot long discuss the curriculum in ject-field education found in western culture, the social studies without frankly acknowl- wrote, "Break the pattern which connects the edging the strained relations between the items of learning and you necessarily destroy proponents of history and the advocates of all quality." He noted that science is based on the other social studies. ... the fact remains presuppositions that deserve critical examination that the historians still like to assign to histo- in schools rather than teaching as truth: "Science ry the role of the city cousin who looks with probes, it does not prove" (32). In literature, disdain upon her naive country cousinthe writer Doris Lessing (1993) expressed a similar other social studies. ... it may be that a fun- concern with the pattern of connections. She damental difference in aims and purposes sees a parallel between intellectual defects result- exists in the teaching of the social subjects at ing from compartmentalized thinking and the the school and college levels. (1937, 82-83) illogical separations of categories of knowledge in schools and libraries. Political theorist Harold Social studies, then, is itself an issue, and Laski (1929, 567) hoped that: "The student exploring issues requires evidence and interpreta- learns that knowledge is, after all, a seamless web tions from a variety of conventional and uncon- and that our categories are, at bottom, merely ventional fields of study. ways of arranging conveniently the facts we have acquired." Whitehead (1929, 23) also recog-

19 29 nized that "you may not divide the seamless coat subject-matter, and methods upon those of learning." And Dewey (1897) remarked on who are only growing slowly toward maturi- the natural involvement of individuals in human ty. The gap is so great that the required sub- issues, pointing out that education develops ject-matter, the methods of learning and of from the individual's involvement in the social behaving are foreign to the existing capaci- consciousness. ties of the young ... that which is taught is Charles Beard (1929, 369) presented a simi- thought of as essentially static. It is taught as lar rationale for the centrality of human issues in a finished product, with little regard either social studies: to the ways in which it was originally built up or to changes that will surely occur in Human beings live not by election statistics the future. and battle alone, but also by industry, by homekeeping, by co-operation with their Progressive, reconstructionist, and critical fellows, by all the arts of love, joy, and admi- educators have been discontent with traditional rationas Ruskin put it. In a democracy the formalistic approaches that hide, sterilize, or schools simply cannot ignore the demands ignore social problems (Cremin 1961; Giroux of life, keep aloof from its pressing problems 1988; Stanley 1992). Although they differ signif- of choice and conduct....Those who have icantly on many issues, they express a vision of a put aside their professional pride [historians democratic society that requires the examination and social scientists] and fixed their minds of social problems as a focus of school study. The on their pupils and the world of struggle, strong intellectual and democratic premises that sacrifice, and perplexities in which pupils underlie this view are at odds with static forms of must live have come to [recognize] one knowledge which have permeated schools. object, namely, to throw light on the way of Dewey (1961, 8, 9), discussing the necessity in a life in which boys and girls must walk. democracy of relating human issues to school knowledge, identified the problem in compelling Good teachers, those transformative intellec- language: tuals whom Henry Giroux (1985) advocated, would agree. Both knowledge and teaching are There is the standing danger that the mate- complex and dynamic, more than can be encom- rial of formal instruction will be merely the passed in a single, conventional subject. Issues subject matter of the schools, isolated from offer a framework that stresses interrelation- the subject matter of life-experience. The shipsthat seamless webwithin knowledge, permanent social interests are likely to be and relies on human interest in the development lost from view. ... As formal teaching and of civilization. Issues have a historic and perva- training grow in extent, there is the danger sive role in framing, interpreting, and challenging of creating an undesirable split between the that social consciousness. experience gained in more direct associations and what is acquired in school. Issues and School Knowledge Human issues occur in the earliest human A 1993 report by editors of Science noted that societies and continue through the latest. Thattraditional mainstream paradigms in the social comment seems obvious, but the essentiality of it sciences are undergoing serious rethinking based is lost in the conventional history-based and stat-on renewed interest in human problems rather ic social studies curriculum. Dewey (1938, 18, 19) than through discipline-enhancement. Science pointed to this problem in traditional education: (1993, 1796) further reported:

Since the subject-matter as well as standards All these new questions are being raised in of proper conduct are handed down from the context of a disciplinary structure that is the past, the attitude of pupils must, upon no longer very well suited to them. ... the whole, be one of docility, receptivity, and Trouble is, traditional disciplinary bound- obedience....The traditional scheme is, in aries are nowadays being blurred and bent essence, one of imposition from above and almost out of recognition to accommodate from outside. It imposes adult standards, new torrents of new knowledge, to respond

20 30 to the demands for socially relevant research human issues dominate the lives of students and ...and to reflect the fact that the problems teachers. Thoughtful teachers and students find of greatest moment today have to be tackled the disparity between the imperative for the by multiple approaches. social study of issues and the traditional issue- free approach of schools perplexing. This point The essence of the purposes of knowledge is not new Dewey (1910) considered subject- to provide understanding of and potential solu- matter instruction "worse than useless" when it tions for human problemsis not what tradi- did not connect with problems existing in the tional social studies instruction provides. Rather, student'sexperience,andAlfredNorth traditional social studies aims to teach formal Whitehead (1929, 13) pleaded against the prolif- disciplinary information and perspectives to stu- eration in schools of "inert ideas...ideas received dents in learning settings where criticism is dis-into the mind without being utilized, or tested." couraged. For example, the curriculum proposed The idea that problems and issues should be by the National Commission on Social Studies incentral to the enterprise of education, however, the Schools (1989), a commission established bymust be reconstructed during each cycle of con- the American Historical Association with the servative school reform. The study of human and support of some leaders of the National Councilcontroversial issues that expect students to for the SocialStudies, postponed student engage in critical thinking is an early victim of engagement in social issues until after they havesuch school reforms. Traditional and progressive been subjected to about eleven years of tradition- educators disagree over the relative value and al history and geography lessons. These lessonsbest approach to discipline-based or issues-cen- appear to be a return to a codification of statictered knowledge structures. Another debate is history from the early twentieth century (Nelson over the extent to which students are capable of and Weltman 1991). Presumably, this proposal critical thought. rests upon the idea that long-term formal study Much conservativeeducational reform of traditional history and geography is necessary advocates static organization of knowledge with before one can comprehend a social issue. That an overemphasis on testable information, tech- presumption denies the complex and dynamicnocratic and deskilling limits on teaching, and nature of issues, knowledge, and human motiva- scholasticism (Apple 1970; Aronowitz and tions. It also denies the historical imperative forGiroux 1983; Presseisen 1985; Purpel 1989; human issues as the center of social education. Perrone 1991). The conformist compartmental- Issues provide a more suitable and naturalization of knowledge of today's typical schools framework for organizing social studies instruc- appears unrelated to human issues. This tradition than is provided by the conventional, social- tionalist approach has not been strikingly suc- ly constructed, and intellectually limited cate- cessful in producing critical thinking or an gories of knowledge such as history, the separate informed populace. Instead, it appears success- social sciences, or other common disciplinaryful only in separating societal interests from structures. schooling and in boring students with static details of history. Issues-Centered Education and Issues-centered education challenges the tra- Current Conservative Reforms ditional and common subject-centered form of The basic idea that human issues are the real social studies instruction in schools. Conservative focus of human interests and should be the focusschool reform assumes that basic education is of social studies schooling is not an extraordinary student learning of and testing on traditional for- position; indeed, it appears self-evident. But tra-mal structures of subjects. Issues-centered educa- ditional schools emphasize formal and steriletion assumes that issues are basic and that sub- structures of knowledge, i.e., separate subjectsjects are valuable in providing information and taught as static factual information. And tradi-ideas, but are not adequate social education in tional schools diminish the study of human issues,themselves. Issues appear messier and less con- often because issues are perceived as too fluid and trollable than neat chronological outlines of stan- too current to be academically respectable. dard nationalistic history or highly structured It is ironic that traditional schools and disci-lessons on skills and information from geography plines dominate social studies instruction, whileor other social sciences. Human issues usually

21 31 have no clear-cut and obviously true answers.times and geographic settings, these have been They would not be issues if the answer was obvi- accepted only by true believers of that time and ous. Many teachers find comfort and ease in tra- place. They interrupt the development of knowl- ditional social studies teaching of factual infor-edge. Even in highly restricted communities of mation on nationalistic history, physical geogra- mandated religious conformity, dissenters and phy, economic chart reading, or definitions ofdisbelievers exist. Leakey (1992 [with Lewin], terms in sociology or political science. That kind 23), reflecting on his years of study of the origins of teaching can be done to all classes of students of humankind, stated: "Absolute truth is like a over several years of practice in a career. The mirage; it disappears as you approach it." At any material is easily testable, and can quickly be time a very small number of absolute disciples of made into seatwork and memorization tasks. a particular ideology believe they have truth and Issues, however, are more complex, more suffer no indecision; but, in common existence dynamic, and more engaging than traditionalover time and place, human lives are entwined social studies teaching. Progressive teachers andwith personal and social issues, issues unbound students realize the sound pedagogy behind by the strictures of a particular subject. using the vitality of important issues to energize Bertrand Russell (1959, 313), summarizing instruction and stimulate interest. They also the history of western philosophy, stated: "It is intuitively or intellectually recognize that high recognized quite freely...that the sum total of quality social studies instruction must focus on what man knows is vanishingly small. What human issues. In addition to the contemporaryseems in the end more important is that one reasons for issues-centered education, there areshould pursue knowledge." That pursuit, says historic groundings for recognizing issues as cen- Russell, is "linked with freedom," and requires no tral to social studies instruction. avenue to be "closed by artificial strictures" (313). Artificial strictures include disciplinary dogma The Mandate for and boundaries that limit thinking and discour- Issues-Centered Education age skepticism. Throughout human existence and across cul- People live in diverse situations and condi- tures and regions, issues have been at the core oftions; difficult choices and perplexing problems the human quest for knowledge. Issues providevex all societies. Although each generation meets motivation, challenge ideas, inform scholars and and tries to cope with its own set of problems, students, and set criteria for judging progress infundamental human issues remain for people in civilization. They represent the cauldron within modern and postmodern times (Stanley 1992). which myth, theory, fact, value, and perspectiveThe future will not hold less complexity or fewer mix with multiple realities. Over the course ofhuman issues. That change occurs is not disput- human development, social education has been a ed. At issue is the nature of change, regress or major focus of social and intellectual life. Thatprogress, and humankind's attempts to influence education requires engagement in human issues the direction of change. and consideration and modification of social The challenge for education is to provide knowledge. appropriate means for comprehending and cop- Existing paradigms, theories, and identified ing with personal and social issues. Schools principles of the disciplines that undergird the should be locations for identifying and critically separate subjects are similar to myths; theyexamining significant human issues and for attempt to explain phenomena and they are often thoughtful consideration of potential answers stories considered plausible or valuable to the ini- and consequences. The social studies bear special tiated. For a society interested in civilizational responsibility for this examination of issues and and intellectual progress, we must require a levelresponses. This requires exploration of diverse of skepticism and criticism and a willingness toevidence and interpretations, and it requires consider thoughtful alternative views. That posi- practice in thoughtful decision making. Legiti- tion states an essential purpose of education, and mate social studies instruction necessarily incor- particularly of social educationdeveloping crit- porates human issues and knowledge develop- ical inquiry about human issues. ment as the oldest and most pervasive of human Although absolutistic answers to human educational activities. The study of human issues problems have been presented in various historic provides opportunity for the pursuit of knowl-

22 32 edge in a setting of freedom. This is the histori- Hamblyn, D. W. A History of Western Philosophy. cal imperative for the centrality of the study of New York Viking/Penguin, 1987. issues-an intellectual and democratic mandate. Heehs, P. "Myth, History, and Theory" History and Theory 33 (1994): 1-19. Johnson, H. The Teaching of History in Elementary and References Secondary Schools. New York Macmillan, 1940. Apple, M. Ideology and Curriculum. London: Routledge, Kepner, T. 'The Dilemma of the Secondary-School Social 1970. Studies Teacher." Social Education 1 (1937): 81-87. Aronowitz S., and H. Giroux. Education under Siege: Key, V. O. Public Opinion and American Democracy. Conservative, Liberal and Radical Debate over New York Knopf, 1961. Schooling. Granby, Mass.: Bergin and Garvey, 1983. Kuhn, T The Copernican Revolution. Cambridge Mass.: Bacon, F. The Advancement of Learning. Book I. 1606. Harvard University Press, 1970a. London: Macmillan, 1892. Kuhn, T The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. 2d ed. Bateson, G. Mind and Nature. New York Bantam, 1979. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970b. Beale, H. Are American Teachers Free? New York Laski, H. 'Teacher and Student." The Century Charles Scribner's Sons, 1936. Magazine 117 (March 1929): 566-77. Beard, C. "The Trend in Social Studies."Historical Leakey, R., and R. Lewin. Origins Reconsidered Outlook 20 (1929): 369-72. New York Doubleday, 1992. Billington, R.A. The Historian's Contribution to Anglo- Lessing, D. Presentation given at the Rutgers University American Misunderstanding. New York Hobbs, Colloquium, New Brunswick, New Jersey, 7 October Dorman, 1966. 1993. Bottomore, T B. Critics of Society. New York Pantheon Lum, P The Growth of Civilization in East Asia. Books, 1968. New York S. G. Phillips Books, 1969. Butts, R. E A Cultural History of Western Education. Mayer, F. A History of Educational Thought. Columbus, New York McGraw-Hill, 1955. Ohio: Merrill, 1960. Campbell, J. Transformation of Myth through Time. Merriam, C. Civic Education in the United States. New York Harper and Row, 1990. New York Charles Scribner's Sons, 1934. Cipolla. C. M. The Economic History of World Population. National Commission on Social Studies in the Schools. Baltimore, Md.: Penguin Books, 1964. Charting a Course: Social Studies for the 21st Century. Cremin, L. The Transformation of the School. Washington, DC: National Council for the Social New York Random House, 1961. Studies, 1989. Cressy, D. Literacy and the Social Order. Cambridge, Nelson, J. "Nationalistic Education and the Free Man." England: Cambridge University Press, 1980. In Humanistic Frontiers in Education, edited by R P. Curti, M. American Paradox: The Conflict of Thought and Fairfield. Englewood Cliffs, NJ.: Prentice-Hall, 1971. Action. New Brunswick, NJ,: Rutgers University Nelson, J. "Nationalistic vs. Global Education." Theory Press, 1956. and Research in Social Education 1 (1976): 33-50. Dewey, J. Democracy and Education. New York Nelson, J., and B. Weltman. "Ideologies in Civic Macmillan, 1961. Values." Paper presented at the International Society Dewey, J. "My Pedagogic Creed." In John Dewey: The for Political Psychology Annual Scientific Meeting, Early Works, 1882-1898. Vol. 5.1897. Carbondale, Washington, DC, May 1990. Ill: Southern Illinois University Press, 1972. Nelson, J. "Charting a Course Backward." Dewey, J. How We Think. Boston: Heath, 1910. Social Education 55 (1990): 412. Dewey, J. Experience and Education. 1938. West Nencel, L., and P. Pels, ed. Constructing Knowledge: Lafayette, Ind.: Kappa Delta Pi, 1963. Authority and Critiques in Social Sciences. London: Fisher, S. 'The Legendary and Myth-Making Process Sage, 1991. in Histories of the American Revolution." The Perrone, V. A Letter to Teachers. San Francisco, Calif.: History Teacher's Magazine 4, no. 3 (1913): 63-71. Jossey-Bass, 1991. Gellerman, W. The American Legion as Educator. Pierce, B. Citizens' Organizations and the Civic Training New York Teachers College Press, 1938. of Youth. New York Charles Scribner's Sons, 1933. Giroux, H. 'Teachers as Transformative Intellectuals." Presseisen, B. Unlearned Lessons. Philadelphia, Pa.: Social Education 49 (May 1985): 376-79. Falmer, 1985. Giroux, H. Schooling and the Struggle for Public Life. Purpel, D. The Moral and Spiritual Crisis in Education. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1988. Granby, Mass.: Bergin and Garvey 1989.

3 Rugg, H. "How Shall We Reconstruct the Social Studies Curriculum?" The Historical Outlook 12 (1921):184-89. Russell, B. Skeptical Essays. New York W. W. Norton, 1928. Russell, B. Understanding History. New York Philosophical Library, 1957 Russell, B. Wisdom of the West. London: Rathbone Books, 1959. Saxe, D.W. "Framing a Theory for Social Studies Foundations." Review of Educational Research 62 (1992a): 259-77. Saxe, D. W. "An Introduction to the Seminal Social Welfare and Efficiency Prototype: The Founders of 1916 Social Studies." Theory and Research in Social Education 20 (1992b):156-78. Science editors. "New Life Ahead for Social Sciences." Science 261 (September 24,1993): 1796-98. Shoemaker, N. 'Teaching the Truth about the History of the American West." The Chronicle of Higher Education 40 (October 27,1993): A48. Skybreak, A. Of Primeval Steps and Future Leaps. Chicago: Banner Press, 1984. Stanley, W. B. Curriculum for Utopia. Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 1992. Stockton, J. 'Teaching Current Events." The Historical Outlook 9 (1919): 13-15. Wesley, E. B. Teaching the Social Studies. New York Heath, 1937. Wraga, W. G. "The Interdisciplinary Imperative for Citizenship Education." Theory and Research in Social Education 21 (1993): 201-31.

24 34 RESEARCH ON ISSUES-CENTERED SOCIAL STUDIES

bo Carol Hahn

For many years social studies educators the studies reported here are focused on samples have advocated the use of issues-centeredof middle and high school students. That is not instruction on philosophic grounds, simi- to say that issues-centered teaching cannot occur lar to those put forth in the first chaptersat the elementary school level; indeed, many ele- of this handbook. But skeptics and believ- mentary teachers design interdisciplinary units ers alike have wondered whether empiricalaround issues (Angell and Avery 1992). At this evidence exists to warrant its use. This chapter time, however, there is not a cumulative research addresses the question: Is there evidence that base for that age level. issues-centered social studies yields benefits? The Additional cautions relate to the definition answer must first be qualified in that studies con- and nature of issues-centered instruction. The ducted in particular contexts in the past cannoteditors of this handbook define issues-centered prove or predict what will happen in a future set-instruction as a teaching approach that uses ting, and available research tends to be correla- social issues to emphasize reflective and often tional, not causal. That is, researchers studying controversial questions in contemporary and his- particular classrooms found that issues-centeredtoric contexts as the heart of social studies. The instruction was associated with various phenom- approach encourages students to become more ena; they did not establish cause-and-effect thoughtful about the way they view social life, relationships as one might in a laboratory. rather than seeking right answers to unproblem- Examining the available research can, however, atic questions, while it engages them in the chal- be insightful to those considering the implemen- lenges and dilemmas citizens confront. In earlier tation of issues-centered teaching because theredecades, issues-centered instruction had slightly is reason to believe that when this approach is different emphases and went by different names. used under certain conditions, students may like For example, in the 1940s and 1950s social stud- social studies, and may develop higher-order ies authors (Quillen and Hanna 1948) wrote of a thinking skills, participatory political attitudes, "problems approach" that applied John Dewey's and an awareness and concern about global orideas to the tasks of preparing young citizens. other important societal issues. But before exam- This approach was most commonly used in U.S. ining the research base for such possibilities, a history and "Problems of American Democracy" few cautions are in order. courses. Students were encouraged to select First, despite numerous calls for issues-cen- problems for investigation that interested them tered social studies instruction over the years, the and concerned society. In the 1950s and 1960s few schools that offered such programs have notHunt and Metcalf (1955, 1968) extended the reported their effectiveness. Consequently, no tradition with "reflective inquiry" into the "closed evidence exists from long-term participation. areas" of society. They proposed a systematic Nevertheless, researchers pursuing diverse linesmodel for analyzing problems that integrated of inquiry have identified a number of positivevalue, semantic, and empirical analyses. Their outcomesand some obstacleswhen studentswork was followed by two differing streams experience issues-centered social studies instruc- one that emphasized "inquiry" into intellectual tion for short periods in their schooling. All ofissues with a disciplinary focus and one that recommended a "jurisprudential" approach to ana- toric social problems, encourage students to lyzing enduring dilemmas in which core socialweigh arguments and express their opinions on values were in conflict. (Massialas 1963, Oliver value conflicts in the society, and create a class- and Shaver 1966) room atmosphere that is accepting and support- Previous chapters in this handbook have ive of diverse viewpoints. Indeed, in a study of more thoroughly explicated the distinctions Michigan high school social studies teachers, within an issues-centered tradition. This chapter only 26 out of 150 randomly selected teachers notes that researchers working from differingsaid they held discussions of social issues on perspectives, using differing methodologies and a regular basis (Massialas, Sprague, and Hurst emphases, focused on different features within 1975). Most who research "typical" social studies the approach with the result that from oneclasses conclude that classes tend to be textbook decade to the next, researchers shed light on abased, dominated by teacher talk with some stu- classroom scene from different angles. Some dent recitation, and devoid of controversial issues researchers included verbatim notes of selected(Goodlad 1984; McNeil 1986; Shaver, Davis, classroom dialogues; others described a particularand Helburn 1979). Given those general trends, set of issues-centered materials. Yet, othersit is not surprising that researchers found that assumed that a particular approach was used,many students do not like social studies and say and/or asked students if they felt comfortable itis boring and unrelated to the real world expressing their opinions on issues. In truth, the (Schug, Todd, and Berry 1984; Shaughnessy and research base for issues-centered instructionHaladyna 1985; Shaver et al. 1979). Further- relies on studies of an amorphous dynamic "inde-more, researchers found that, although social pendent variable" because no two days of issues- studies classes can be effective in increasing centered instruction were/are the same. What the knowledge about specific topics, instruction has a teachers and many of the researchers shared was negligible influence on student attitudes and a belief that students ought to be actively behaviors (Ehman 1980a; Grossman 1975/1976; engaged in discovering knowledge useful to them Langton and Jennings 1968; Litt 1963; Miller in reflecting upon issues that face citizens across 1985). Remarkably, the research reviewed in this time and social contexts. chapter stands in stark contrast to this negative Throughout this chapter are references to litany.It demonstrates that under particular three components of issues-centered teaching conditions social studies instruction can have content, pedagogy, and climate. Various research- positive effects on students. Moreover, it reveals ers focus on differing parts of that triad, and their that issues-centered social studies instruction, in findingsoverlap with different emphases. particular, holds much promise. Nevertheless, it is clear that the three separate Several researchers, for example, found that parts of that equation alone are not sufficient. students would like to experience issues discus- Combined, however, they can make a differencesions more than they do (Long and Long 1975; in achieving the goals of social studies. That is, if Remy 1972). In studying the classes of 17 students 1. study issues-centered content, 2. are Michigan teachers who said they regularly held in classes where discussions, research projects,discussions of social issues, Sugrue (cited in debates, simulations, or writing assignments Massialas et al. 1975) found that, on the whole, encourage them to consider differing views orstudents in those classes tended to like their interpretations of issues, and 3. they perceive the teacher and class.' Examining more closely the classroom climate as sufficiently supportive so differences between classes where inquiry meth- they are comfortable expressing their own views ods provided a structure for issues discussion and and considering those of others, then achieving "opining" classes where students merely aired social studies goals in the knowledge, skill, andtheir views, Massialas et al. (1975) found that attitude domains is likely. students liked inquiry teachers and classes better than opining teachers and classes. Students in the Dominant Patterns of Social Studies inquiryclassesfelttheirdiscussionshad Instruction and Student Attitudes an order and purpose and that teachers were sen- Despite many calls in the past for issues- sitive to their ideas. centered teaching, rarely do teachers promote In an Illinois study, social studies students systematic inquiry into contemporary and his- who experienced controversial issues discussions

26 36 had positive feelings toward their social studieserant of differences. She tried to present ideas courses, textbooks, and teachersin contrast tothat her students might build upon in future students without such exposure. The correlations classes or out-of-school experiences. Thus, she between reported issues discussions and students used conflictual content but not pedagogy. saying they liked social studies were substantial Conflictual pedagogy is the process whereby a .70 for junior high school students and .65 forteacher encourages students to confront conflicts senior high school students (Long and Long that either occur spontaneously in the classroom 1975). At a time when many educators and the or are teacher initiated. By frequently inviting public are concerned with making schools moredivergent student opinions, Sarah, a world stud- humane communities for young citizens, such ies teacher, used conflictual pedagogy; however, findings are important. But just what is issues-she did not employ conflictual content. Tom used centered teaching and learning? What does itconflictual pedagogy as well as content. Ken, the look like inside real classrooms? fourth teacher, used neither conflictual content nor pedagogy in his teaching of U.S. history2 Characteristics of Issues-Centered Bickmore concluded that conflictual curricu- Classes and Teachers lar content was "necessary but not sufficient" to In recent years researchers studying teachers teach for democratic citizenship. For the most and classrooms have gained insights into thepart, students who were exposed to conflicts in roles of teachers and students in classes that Ruth's world studies content but did not engage might be called issues-centered. Although not in confrontation with the issues, were passive using the term issues-centered in her study oflearners. An exception occurred when the class four teachers' social studies classes, Bickmorewas physically organized on sides of the (1991, 1993) revealed the dimensions of twoPalestinian-Israeliconflict and directedto components of issues-centered instruction express any and all opinions to each other. content and pedagogy. Central to her analysis of During that session, more students participat- the use of conflict or controversy in social studies edmore frequently and more extensively in classes were two concepts she called conflictualterms of number, length, and quality of respons- content and conflictual pedagogy. es than in any other lessons. Students gave Conflictual content includes the use of contro- detailed reasons for their opinions, and, in versial material or the stimulation of criticism byresponding to objections from the other side, including perspectives from different cultures,they clarified and elaborated their arguments. different ideologies, and divergent sources ofConflictual content was reinforced by the use of information. In Bickmore's study, Tom, a U.S. conflictual pedagogy. history teacher, organized each unit around Tom's class exemplified the many ways that central concepts or problems, and presented mul-a teacher can prepare students for participatory tiple viewpoints about those ideas. For example,citizenship by using issues-centered content and he made the westward expansion unit problem-pedagogy (Bickmore 1991). It also revealed atic by attending to Native American viewpoints. some of the difficulties that can arise. His histo- Additionally, Tom showed that historians often ry curriculum was complex and challengingfor interpret historical information differently by, for the teacher to prepare and for students to learn. example, presenting differing views on why the Not every class period focused on controversy, United States entered World War I. To present but at some time in every week and in every unit, conflictual content, Tom supplemented the text- students engaged actively in decision making or book with many examples of differing view- problem solving about historic or contemporary points, and he frequently brought in currentissues. Moreover, not every student was engaged events as analogies and perspectives to illuminate every day. Sometimes there was confusion or historical concepts. Ruth, a world studies teacher, frustration, and sometimes the gaps in participa- also approached content as problems or conflicts tion and achievement seemed to increase during the students would analyze to better understand. controversial issues discussions. Sometimes con- Central to her curriculum were differences and frontation of conflict stimulated student interest conflicts between cultures, countries, ideologies,and brought previously nonparticipating stu- and ethnic or economic groups. Her goal was for dents into the dialogue; other times it seemed to students to acquire information and become tol- have no effect.

27 37 Rossi (1995) observed in-depth study in anmaking about issues that citizens face. This stands issues-centered social studies classroom. He con- out in contrast to the studies of large numbers of cluded that in-depth issues instruction is not a teachers and classrooms, where "average" or "typi- panacea because of dilemmas it creates for the cal" teachers de-emphasize or avoid controversial teachers and the demands it places on students. material in order to maintain classroom control Other recent research on teachers, while not and cover large amounts of material (Goodlad focusing on issues-centered teaching per se, fur- 1984; McNeil 1986; Shaver et al. 1979). ther illuminates that topic. Several researchers Summary. These qualitative studies of social associated with Lee Shulman at Stanford Univer- studies teachers' beliefs and of naturally occur- sity obtained useful insights concerning the ring classroom interaction reveal a sense of what diverse ways teachers center instruction on issues. occurs in issues-centered classes. Potential bene- Gudmundsdottir (1988) found that two "expert" fits of issues-centered teaching are opportunities history teachers used conflict and controversy toto model democratic discourse in a pluralistic achieve their goals of developing students' capac- society, stimulate student interest and tolerance ity for independent and critical thought andof diverse views, and convey the conflictual reducing their indifference. One teacher, David, nature of scholarly discourse and community life. used controversies and their interpretation as con- But the question remains: What difference does necting links in his classes, emphasizing thatissues-centered instruction make to student doing history means interpreting and comparinglearning? Is there research to indicate that stu- differing perspectives on issues and events. dent knowledge, skills, and values may be affect- Additionally, he frequently drew analogies ed by such an approach? between historical controversies and current events or student realities. The other teacher, Student Outcomes and Harry, viewed himself as a conflict historian and Issues-Centered Instruction frequently presented contrasting opinions about Since the earliest debates over the form that historical events to his classes. Unlike David, social studies should take, the advocates of what Harry focused on texts, making only occasionaleducators now call issues-centered instruction references to current events and student realities. have argued that in a democracy the appropriate He used readings to supplement the students' preparation for citizenship is to give students textbook and to highlight controversies and sim- practice in exploring problematic issues facing ulations to stage conflictual situations. society. They advocated that, through such prac- Wineburg and Wilson (1988) interviewed tice, students would not only acquire the knowl- and observed expert teachers as they taught theedge they would need as adult citizens, but, more Revolutionary War period. One teacher high-importantly, they would develop the necessary lighted a controversial historic issue by having abilities to critically analyze public issues and to her students read differing primary and sec- participate in a democracy Over the years special ondary accounts in preparation for a role-played projects demonstrated that such outcomes were debate about the legitimacy of British taxation inassociated with the use of problems-or issues- the North American colonies. The teacher's goal centered practices. was for students to understand that "there were two points of view, that there was legitimacy toCritical or Higher-Order Thinking both sides" (18). She further wanted students to One of the earliest studies to measure the participate actively in conflict by taking differenteffects of issues-centered instruction was con- positions and inventing solutions to problems. ducted in the 1940s by the staff of the Stanford Mason (1990) interviewed and observedSocial Education Project (Quillen and Hanna expert world history teachers in Georgia. She, too, 1948). Teachers volunteered to teach an eleventh- found that expert teachers used historic issues, his- grade U.S. history course or a twelfth-grade torical debates, and contemporary analogies regu- Problems of Democracy course using one of three larly in their teaching. These studies are important approachesproblems, topical, or chronological. in revealing that excellent or "expert" teachersA problems approach was defined as an approach share a willingness to encourage students to that applied Dewey's method of reflective inquiry explore contentious issues, using both content and to areas of public concern that could be resolved pedagogy to give students practice in decisionby finding a solution to the problem from among

28 3 several alternatives. At the beginning and end ofwho regularly used a problem-solving approach a school year, the Stanford researchers measuredin their U.S. history class scored significantly the students' critical thinking abilities as well ashigher on two researcher-designed tests measur- their knowledge and commitment to a number ofing ability to use the problem-solving steps and social attitudes. knowledge of U.S. history than did comparison The evaluatorsconcludedthatseniors group students; they also did better on delayed exposed to a problems approach as compared to posttests than did the comparison group? matched students in classes that used a topical However, neither Massialas, who studied four approach made significant growth in the follow-world history classes, nor Cox, who studied four ing areas: critical thinking, study skills, the use ofU.S. history classes, identified statistically signif- library and research skills, and social studiesicant differences between students in reflective knowledge.3 Students in the problems group also inquiry or comparison classes on standardized made more progress toward consistency and cer- tests of critical thinking and knowledge.8 tainty in their views than did the topical group. Nevertheless, the teacher-researchers' daily anec- For the juniors the differences between the prob- dotal diaries and tape recordings of several class- lems and chronological groups were not as clear es led both Massialas and Cox to conclude that cut. Neither group significantly improved in crit- students in the inquiry group excelled over stu- ical thinking. The chronological group students dents in the comparison group in their ability to showed more growth on the tests of social stud- engage in critical or reflective thinking, despite ies knowledge, but the problems group students the test results. seemed to become more consistent and certain of One of the most extensive research projects their views on the measure of social attitudes.4 on issues-centered curriculum and student In the 1960s four researchers at Indianathinking was the evaluation of the Harvard University similarly examined the relationshipSocial Studies Project (Levin, Newmann, and between students' critical thinking abilities and Oliver 1969; Oliver and Shaver 1966). Project the use of a "reflective inquiry" approach to social students were taught to analyze controversial studies instruction. In the Indiana Experiments public policy issues using a "jurisprudential" in Inquiry (Massialas 1963), teachers of experi- approach, which relates a contemporary public mental group classes presented "springboards" issue to cases and raises ethical, legal, factual, that contained discrepant or other puzzling and definitional questions. Unlike the emphasis information and encouraged students to try to on deductive reasoning characteristic of much resolve the problematic situation through a critical thinking research, the project directors' process similar to the one used by teachers of the approach emphasized the clarification of two or problems approach in the Stanford investigation. more legitimately held points of view as they When using the inquiry approach, rather thanbear on public policy issues and emphasized asking questions for the purpose of obtaining a dialogue between teacher and students and correct answer, the teacher probed to elicitamong studentsincorporating both issues explanatory hypotheses about human behavior, content and pedagogy. Researchers examined which students then tested with evidence.5 the effects on students of using the curriculum The four studies revealed some evidence,for three years in a senior high school and for although not conclusive, that the use of anfour years in a junior high school in middle- inquiry approach couldfacilitatestudents' class Boston suburbs. The junior high materials higher-order thinking (Cousins 1963, Cox 1963,promoted an analytic approach to value issues in Elsmere 1963, Massialas 1963). In one studygeography, U.S. history, and current events. Cousins concluded that a class of eighth-grade Comparing the experimental group students to students studying U.S. history using an inquiry a comparison group on a variety of measures, approach made statistically significant meanthe evaluators concluded that the issues-cen- score gains on the Watson-Glaser Critical tered junior high students were better able to Thinking Appraisal and on a teacher-construct- analyze argumentative dialogues. Furthermore, ed test of reflective thinking. The students also the time spent in the analysis of issues did not made significant gains on a standardized test ofreduce the amount of traditional content the social studies knowledge.6In another of the stud- students learned. ies, Elsmere concluded that high school students The senior high school units in the Harvard

29 3-3 Project focused on controversies arising fromdifficult for low-ability students. That criticism enduring problem areas such as equality, morali- was challenged in a study of slow learners in ty, and responsibility Historical and fictionalBritish Columbia (Curtis and Shaver 1980). cases were used to stimulate discussion about Experimental group students examined newspa- conflicting values. The project students per- per articles and booklets on housing problems formed better than the comparison group of sim- and conducted a community survey of attitudes ilar ability on a concept application test and on atoward the local housing situation. At the con- structured dialogue analysis test called the Social clusion of the unit, experimental group students Issues Analysis Test (SIAT).9 As for acquiring demonstrated increased scores on a test of critical traditional content, the average-ability project thinking as compared to comparison group stu- students did as well on a standardized content dents. They also showed decreased levels of dog- test as comparison group students of similar abil- matism and increased levels of self esteem 11 ity on a Problems of Democracy test; however,Additionally, in responding to open-ended ques- they did less well on a U.S. history test. tions, experimental group students were more After almost a 15-year hiatus of research onlikely than comparison group students to express issues-centered curriculum and the development beliefs that citizens could make a difference in of higher-order thinking skills, researchers work- improving housing conditionsindicating an ing with the Channel One news programs increase in political efficacy. recently tested the effects of conducting struc- Summary. One of the most important yet tured public issues discussions about issues raisedmost difficult goals to achieve in social studies in some broadcasts( Johnston, Anderman, is the development of critical analytic abilities Milne, Klenk, and Harris 1994). During "You that will enable citizens to make informed deci- Decide" segments, students heard conflictingsions about public policy issues. Issues-centered views on an enduring public issue that had sur- teaching is a promising approach for the devel- faced in a current news event. Eight teachersopment of such higher-level cognitive thinking. were trained in the use of public issues discussion Successfully implementing that approach, how- strategies similar to the Harvard Project's ever, is not easy. Most projects described here jurisprudential approach. The teachers used the used a complex instructional model for the sys- strategies when their students discussed the You tematic analysis of public issues with carefully Decide segments over a three-month period. The structured instructional materials and trained comparison group was made up of students inteachers. Underlying the projects was a belief the same school enrolled in the same subject; that young people can learn to investigate con- they viewed the programs, but their teachers had troversial social issues and come to a more no particular training to lead discussions. sophisticated understanding of human behavior Students in both groups participated in a con- by considering alternative views. The next section structed dialogue session before and after the reveals why the classroom climate in which those treatment. Additionally, they completed a Public discussions and investigations occur is of para- Issues Analysis Test that was adapted from the mount importance. SLAT to assess their ability to critically analyze a public issues discussion. The experimental group Participatory Political Attitudes students scored significantly higher than the con- and Behaviors trol group students on the written measure, but A line of inquiry often cited for supporting their oral performance was not noticeably better. an issues-centered approach to social studies is Experimental group students also did better on a one derived from studies of youth political social- test of current events knowledge than did thoseization. In particular, political socialization inthe comparison group.lo Moreover, theresearchers find that students who perceive that researchers claimed that lower-ability students they are encouraged to investigate and discuss seemed to benefit the most when the structuredcontroversial issues and to express their opinions public issues discussions were combined withdevelop political attitudes that support participa- news viewing (22). tory citizenship. On the other hand, students An objection that is sometimes voiced by crit- who recall few opportunities to express their ics of issues-centered teaching is that it is fine foropinions about controversial public policy issues average and above-average students, but is toopossess less positive attitudes toward participa-

30 4 0 tion, including low levels of political interest and tive correlations between reported issues expo- political efficacythe belief that citizens can sure in an open climate and a sense of political influence government decisions. efficacy and participation and a negative correla- Research by Ehman was particularly impor- tion with cynicism.13In this study, however, there tant in identifying a connection between adoles- was virtually no relationship between open cli- cent political attitudes and a "classroom climate" mate and those variables for white students in which democratic discourse is modeled. To (Ehman 1969). In later studies of adolescents, in operationalize the concept of classroom climate, which findings were not broken down by race, Ehman developed a Classroom Climate Scale, researchers found positive correlations between which contained items to measure the extent to an open classroom climate and political efficacy which students perceived that their social studies and interest (Baughman 1975; Blankenship teachers dealt with social problems, discussed 1990; Ehman 1980b; Hahn 1991; Hahn and both sides of issues, and took neutral positions Tocci 1990; Harwood 1991). Most recently in a on issues (Ehman 1969). One item on the scalestudy Iconducted in England, Germany, also asked whether students felt free to expressDenmark, the Netherlands, and the United their opinions in their social studies classes. States, I found similar positive correlations In the first study in a series, Ehman found between an open climate and adolescents' report- that students in a Detroit high school who had ed levels of political interest and efficacy (Hahn, higher scores on the Classroom Climate Scale forthcoming). reported higher degrees of controversial issues By supplementing questionnaire data with exposure in their classes, had taken more socialclassroom observations in the Detroit class- studies classes, and had higher scores on the scale rooms, Ehman (1970) discovered clues to what measuring political efficacy than other students. teachers can do to facilitate issues-centered dis- Additionally, students in open-climate class- cussions. Defining a "normative mode" as when rooms also reported higher levels of political par- the teacher or students made value-laden state- ticipation and a sense of citizen duty and lowerments or asked value-oriented questions charac- levels of cynicism, although the magnitude of theterized by words such as should, ought, good, or relationships were "quite low indeed" with thebad, Ehman related the amount of time each highest correlation coefficient being .25 for cli-social studies teacher's class spent in the norma- mate and participation (Ehman 1969). tive mode to the political attitude change scores Within the sample Ehman (1969) comparedof students exposed to particular teachers. An African-American and European-American stu- important finding was that very few value discus- dents in open and closed classroom climates and sions occurred, which is consistent with later found that a closed climate was associated withobservational studies of social studies classes negative outcomes for both black and white stu- (McNeil 1986; Shaver et al. 1979). Nevertheless, dents. In closed climates, both groups reportedEhman did find that students who were exposed low levels of political efficacy, participation, and to the few teachers who raised value issues exper- citizen duty. Further, white students in theienced a very slight increase in political efficacy closed-climate group additionally expressedover two years, but he emphasized that the rela- relatively high levels of political cynicism.12tionship was too small to be considered mean- Clearly, the mere presence of controversial issues ingful. Unfortunately, subsequent researchers in the curriculum is not sufficient to bring abouthave not explored this question to determine positive student attitudes; when issues are pre-whether effects would be greater when more sented in a closed climate, there can be negative discussion of value issues occurs. consequences. Additionally, Ehman found that students in On the other hand, Ehman and subsequent more normative classrooms appeared to become researchers found that an open classroom climate more politically cynical, or less trusting of gov- is often associated with positive student political ernment officials, as indicated by their responses attitudes. For both the black and white Detroit to political trust items. In later studies, research- students who experienced an open climate, there ers similarly found an inverse relationship was a positive correlation between issues expo-between open climate and students' level of sure and sense of citizen duty. Additionally, for political trust (Baughman 1975; Long and Long the African-American students, there were posi- 1975; Zevin 1983). On the other hand, I did not

31 41 find in my recent cross-national study that cli- classes, as compared to students without that expe- mate and trust were negatively correlated (Hahn, rience, are more likely to develop 1. an interest in forthcoming). This may mean that if teachers the political world, 2. a sense that they and citizens and students regularly make evaluative com- like themselves can have some influence on politi- ments in issues-centered classes, high school stu- cal decisions in a democracy, and 3. a belief that dents may sometimes move away from the ideal- citizens have a duty to be actively engaged in istic trusting view of government officials that is politics. Further, they are likely to report feeling often found among young children to a moreintegrated intorather than alienated fromthe realistic and somewhat skeptical view of politi- school culture and the wider society. cians and governmental decision makers. Political socialization studies also caution a With a sample of students in nine midwest-few concerns. First, when issues are presented ern high schools, Ehman (1980b) found that stu- in a closed climate, students may acquire negative dents who recalled that a wider range of views attitudes toward political participation. Second, was explored in social studies classes, as com- when students regularly examine issues and hear pared to students who recalled only one perspec- diverse views, they may become skeptical of tive being presented, had higher levels of bothpoliticians. Although some would call that a school and society-wide political interest and healthy skepticism, others may be troubled by confidence. Also, they were more trusting ofsuch an outcome. other students and school adults, more trusting in society, and more socially integrated than their Tolerance of Dissent and Support peers. Finally, in this study as in the earlier one, for Civil Liberties students' perceived freedom to express their Closely associated with the political social- opinions during issues discussions was the ization literature on students' political attitudes strongest predictor of positive attitudinal out- and behaviors are four studies that focus on tol- comes with regard to both school and society. eration of dissent and support for civil liberties. Adding to the work on attitudes, other Philosophic rationales for issues-centered dis- researchers identified political behaviors associat- cussion emphasize that in a democracy students ed with an open classroom climate that might be should consider differing views so that they found in an issues-centered class. For example, develop skills and attitudes for evaluating com- Long and Long (1975) examined the connection peting claims in the "free marketplace of ideas." between student reports of their political behav- It is hoped that they will then come to value iors outside the class and their perceptions ofdissent, pluralism, and civil liberties that protect their social studies classroom climate. To assess diversity and democracy. student political behaviors, the researchers asked Importantly, several studies seem to confirm students how frequently they discussed politicalthe realization of that goal. For example, matters with friends and family, how frequently Grossman (1975/1976) found that for a sample they followed current events in the media, and of California high school students, the number the extent of their participation in student activ- of controversial issues courses they had taken ities, such as student government, clubs, andwas related to the students' toleration of dissent sports. An open classroom climate that was char- and their participation in dissent activities, such acterized by discussion of controversial issues as protests.15 Further, Baughman (1975) found correlated positively with responses on the polit- that students who perceived their ninth-grade ical behavior index.14 civics classes to have open, or what he called Summary. Although forthe most part "participatory" climates, showed higher levels of researchers used samples of convenience and the support for rights guaranteed by the Bill of correlations they found between climate and polit- Rights than did their peers in closed-climate, ical attitudes were quite modestusually ranginglow-participatory classes. Evaluations of several between .20 and .40the consistency of findings curriculum projects have reinforced the finding across studies is impressive. Discussions in issuesin these studies that controversial issues discus- centered social studies classes characterized by a sions in social studies classes were associated, climate of openness and acceptance of diversehowever slightly, with student support for free viewpoints and student opinions may be associated expression and tolerance of dissent. Further, with positive civic outcomes. Students in suchthose evaluations provide descriptions of both

32 42 the content and processes of some issues- weeks following the conclusion of the treatment, centered instruction. the differences persisted.16 For example, Goldenson (1978) examined the In another recent study, Broudy (1994, 8) effects of an issues-centered unit of instruction measured the effects of a civics program on about civil liberties. During a three-week cur- student attitudes supportive of civil liberties. riculum unit, students in a working-class highThe experimental program, We the People, was school near Minneapolis were exposed to a series described by researchers as one in which students of issues that involved the application of abstract were encouraged to give their opinion about con- constitutional principles to concrete situations. stitutional issues. Group research projects on topics such as search The researchers concluded that students who and seizure, freedom of religion, freedom ofwere exposed to the experimental program were expression, and due process of law were the focus more supportive than comparison group students of the unit. Students spoke with community of the rights of free speech, freedom of assembly, members, including police, lawyers, and repre- and due process for diverse groups. Furthermore, sentatives of the American Civil Liberties Union the experimental group students reported higher to hear varied and often conflicting perspectives levels of political efficacy and political interest on their topics. Twenty percent more of the stu- than did comparison group students.17 The students who participated in the experimental dents who were the most willing to extend civil issues-centered program than of the comparisonliberties to diverse groups were those who had group students reported attitude changes in participated in competitions where they had to support of civil liberties, and experimental group "explain and defend their points of view and lis- students showed an increased level of concern for ten carefully to the viewpoints of others" (27). the issues presented in the case studies. Interest- Summary. Issues-centered instruction on ingly, Goldenson speculated that the methods,civil liberties and tolerance can be effective in which encouraged students to research an issue increasing students' knowledge of the subject about which people disagreed, affected students matter as well as improving their attitudes toward more than the particular materials. dissent and the rights of all to express their ideas. Recently, the evaluators of another issues- Knowledge and attitudinal outcomes occur when centered curriculum project found similarly pos- the classroom or extracurricular activity models itive effects in terms of increasing students' scores democratic discourse in which all ideas, no mat- on a scale measuring civic tolerance, a willingness ter how controversial, can be explored. Although to extend rights toall groups (Avery, Bird, the evaluators of curriculum projects did not Johnstone, Sullivan, and Thalhammer 1992). measure classroom climate, it is possible that Tolerance for Diversity of Belief (Avery, Sullivan, because the teachers volunteered to teach curric- and others, 1993) is a four-week curriculum unit ula focusing on free expression issues and inquiry in which junior high school students explore into value conflicts, they had themselves internal- issues associated with freedom of expression and ized those principles and reflected them in their belief. The authors incorporated a variety ofteaching practices. activities into the program, including role-playing, analysis of case studies, and mock interviews. Global Knowledge and Attitudes The purpose of the project was to facilitate stu- In recent years, global education has itself dent understanding of the psychological, socio-become an issue in social studies. In another logical, and historical dimensions of intolerance review, Leming (1992) concluded that, for the and tolerance. Toward that end, students were most part, global education curricula had not confronted with concrete scenarios and asked to beeneffective.Indeed,instudieswhere decide for themselves what limits, if any, should researchers were unable to document the ways in be placed on freedom of expression in a democ- which global issues materials were implemented, ratic society. Experimental group students, as few if any differences were found between stu- compared to the control group students, signifi- dents exposed to global issues and those who cantly increased their scores on a Politicalwere not (Armstrong 1979; McAlvin 1989; Tolerance Scale over the treatment period. Most Smith 1977; Soley 1982).18 However, in those experimental group students moved from mildcases where students were encouraged to discuss intolerance to mild tolerance. Moreover, fourcontroversial global issues in an open classroom

33 43 climate, positive changes (in attitudes towardan elective course, no comparison group, and global issues) occurred. many students did not complete both the pretest In one study that yielded positive outcomes, and posttests), this line of inquiry is worth pur- Kehoe (1980) compared different approachessuing in the future. Additionally, this is one of the to teaching about the Universal Declaration offew studies related to issues-centered instruction Human Rightsa common topic in global edu- in which the researcher analyzed the data by race cation. He examined the effects of two days ofand gender. Female students perceived the class- lessons about human rights issues on eighth-es to be more open than did male students and grade students in one middle-class urban school. African-American students perceived them to be In one experimental group, the teacher ledmore open than did European-American stu- discussions of cases whereby situations in various dents. Hopefully, future studies will explore fur- countries contravened articles in the Declaration, ther the relationships among race, gender, class, such as examples of slavery in the world today. issues-centered teaching, and student outcomes. During the discussion, the teacher-researcher A second global education study that attend- asked questions to stimulate consideration of cul-ed to content, method, and climate, conducted in tural differences and universal ethical principles. eight Bay Area California high schools, was the He encouraged students to consider the consis- evaluation of part of the Stanford and the tency and underlying value premises of their Schools Study called the American Schools and positions. In the second experimental group, orthe World project (Duggan, Grossman, and "investigation" group, the students briefly dis-Thorpe 1986; Torney-Purta and Lansdale 1986). cussed in small groups their understanding of the The evaluators found that teaching strategies, articles in the Universal Declaration, then they rather than issues content, yielded differences in individually read news articles and wrote theirstudent understanding and appreciation of inter- position on contraventions of human rights prin-national material. The most effective teaching ciples. The third groupa comparison group strategies included using divergent questioning viewed a filmstrip on the United Nations. styles, giving students conflicting sources of Students in both treatment groups that exploredinformation to investigate, and encouraging tol- human rights issues in the context of large group erance for democratic dissent. Moreover, stu- discussions and individual investigation weredents reporting that they felt free to express more likely than comparison group students to opinions different from the teacher's was a sig- say that a practice condoned in a given culture nificant predictor of both global knowledge and was wrong if it contradicted the provisions of theconcern for global issues (Torney-Purta and Universal Declaration of Human Rights.19 Lansdale 1986).21 By making classroom observations and by Similarly, in a study of four Michigan high administering a classroom climate scale to stu- schools, Yocum (1989) found that global educa- dents, Blankenship (1990) determined that an tion courses were a significant predictor of issues-centered global education program used in global attitudes ifand only ifstudents per- conjunction with classroom discussion in an open ceived that their class discussed issues and that climate was associated with the development ofthey felt comfortable expressing their views. worldmindedness and an interest in global issues.Yocum separated the 618 sample students into He investigated the relationship between class- those who took a course with a global emphasis room climate and global attitudes and knowledge and those who did not. He then compared their in high school international relations and world pretest and posttest scores on a scale measuring affairs courses where students used the issues- globalmindedness. He also examined scores on centered materials, Great Decisions. Blankenship the discussion index of the Classroom Environ- reported that the program developers encouragedment scale, which contained items similar to the use of a variety of instructional methodsthose on the Classroom Climate scale used by including value analysis and decision making "toother researchers. Controlling for pretest scores, enable students to examine controversial publiche found that the courses did not have an effect policy issues." Blankenship found a positive cor-on globalmindedness, except when level of class- relation between climate and global attitudes 20 room discussionor climatewas taken into Although this particular study had importantaccount. However, Yocum cautioned, even then limitations (a self-selected sample of students inthe differences were substantively minimal; to

34 44 bring about substantial change may demandwhen in reality they are leading a recitation more intense and lengthy interventions. (Larsen and Parker 1994). During recitation the Summary. When attention to the triple vari- teacher seeks a known or correct answer. In their ables of content, pedagogy, and climate results in review of research on discourse and interaction in presenting content from multiple perspectives, social studies classes, Wilen and White (1991) using interactive pedagogical strategies, and limited their use of the term discussion to dis- maintaining an open classroom climate, then course that does not include recitation. Citing essential ingredients for effective issues-centered Gage's 1969 definition, they highlighted features instruction in global education, as well as in otherwhereby a teacher engages "two or more learners social studies content areas, appear to be present. in a cooperative examination and comparison of In particular, there is some evidence that studentsviews in order to illuminate an issue and con- may increase in their knowledge of global issues tribute to the learners' understanding" (Wilen and in attitudes of globalmindedness and con- and White 1991, 489). Wilen and White concern for global issues. When they have the cluded from their synthesis of research that in opportunity to actively engage in decision mak- true discussions, the pace slows, both student and ing about global issues, they may develop a more teacher remarks are longer than in recitations, the complex understanding of the international arena tone drops to a quieter, more intimate one, and and of global issues; they may also experience athere are pauses. The sequence of speakers reduction in stereotyping about other peoples changes from teacher-student-teacher to more and cultures. Given the recent interest in globalstudent-to-student interaction between teacher education, it is hoped that there will soon beinterventions. more research to add depth to understanding the To enhance the breadth and depth of student ways in which global issues-centered instructionparticipationinissues-centereddiscussions, can be most effective. teachers can incorporate practices supported by research on questioning. Redirecting can be use- Discussion and Questioning ful in increasing the number of students who par- in Issues-Centered Teaching ticipate in a classroom discussionan important Because the controversial nature of any issue goal if one's rationale for issues-centered teaching can be confronted or avoided by the questionsis to prepare students for dialogue in a participa- that a teacher asks and how a teacher responds to tory democracy. For example, in a discussion of an student comments and questions, research on issue, a teacher may, without first commenting on questioning patterns and discussion is important a student response, redirect a question to several to examine. The British educational philosopherstudents with such questions as, "Does anyone David Bridges (1979) argued that primary attrib-else have an idea or opinion about that?" "What utes of a discussion are that understanding anddo you think about that?" Also, teachers can use judgment of the issue under consideration aresuch nonverbal cues as eye contact to encourage developed, more than one point of view is additionalstudentstoenteradiscussion. offered, and participants are open to differingProbingthe use of either verbal or nonverbal points of view. Bridges believed that discussion is cues to encourage students to elaboratemay an essential component of democracy because it also enhance issues-centered discussions. reflects democratic values and processes includ- Another point about questioning is troubling. ing rationality, decision making, commitment to Several researchers found that students from low fairness, and respect for others' opinions, feelings, socioeconomic status homes and those of low and interests. ability are less likely than their high ability and Such discussion isparticularly appropriate high socioeconomic peers to be asked high level, to issues-centered classes, whereas the more divergent, and evaluative questionsfor which frequently found recitations will not achieve the there is not a single right answer (Wilen and goals Bridges identified. Numerous researchersWhite 1991). Such a pattern is not only unjust have identified the predominance of recitation inbut unwarranted because there is no evidence that social studies classesand unfortunately, manylow ability and low socioeconomic students are well-intended teachers believe they are leading a any less able than their peers to work effectively discussion of an issue when they ask students with issues-centered approaches. Indeed, such an questions about a reading, video, or current event approach may be particularly motivating for them

3S 45 and bring more students into discussions if teach- approach is to develop students' higher-order ers offer opportunities for all to reflect upon chal- thinking abilities in social studies, then the lenging and personally meaningful questionscharacteristics of classes and schools that are (Bickmore 1991, 1993; Curtis and Shaver 1980). successful in promoting thoughtfulness will be Finally, researchers distinguish discussions instructive. In particular, educators who want to from "bull sessions" in which opinions are mere-implement issues-centered instruction will gain ly exchanged.22 Roby (1988, 171, cited in Wilen insights from the work of Newmann (1991, 426) and White 1991) claimed that when participantsand his colleagues on social studies classrooms, merely argue about the "rightness" of their ideas departments, and schools that promote thought- rather than thoughtfully "entertain[ing] the fulness (see Theory and Research in Social Education validity of more than one idea," they are not 19, no. 4 Fall, 1991). Further, in planning evalua- engaged in a discussion. A discussion, then, often tions of their programs, they should take heed of requires a teacher to skillfully lead students to Newmann's point that "success in meeting higher evaluate one another's comments with attentionorder challenges in a specific content area to evidence, logic, and consideration of conse- demands in-depth knowledge in the area, not sim- quences and values. ply general skills and dispositions." Perhaps future Effective discussions can occur in small researchers investigating issues-centered instruc- groupsor "on-line" with computers as Torney- tion will be able to demonstrate greater effects on Purta (1990) observedas well as in whole classstudent thinking than did the early studies at sessions. Several chapters in this handbook pre- Stanford, Indiana, Michigan, and Harvard if sent varied formats for effective discussion. content-specific assessment instruments are used to measure high-level thinking and the treatment New Research Directions includes issues content, conflictual pedagogy, in Issues-Centered Instruction and a supportive classroom climate for the open, Researchers are currently pursuing several careful examination of controversial issues. additional lines of inquiry that are yielding Another area that warrants further attention insights relevant to issues-centered instruction. is one identified by Bickmore (1991) in her case For example, because issues-centered instructionstudies of four classes. She noted than in classes requires students to thoughtfully analyze com- with issues content and pedagogy as well as in plex issues without a single correct answer, recentthe other classes, the vast majority of students research on dialectical thinking, problem solving,most of the time did not speak up, initiate dis- and thoughtfulness is relevant. cussion, or participate in collective evaluation of Parker and colleagues have applied the prin- ideas. She noticed that across all classes from ciple of scaffolding to help middle and highone third to one half of the class "had learned a school students reason about public issues trick of invisibility." When students did speak in (Parker, Mueller, and Wendling 1989; Parker, class, it was often in a drill format, filling in McDaniel, and Valencia 1991). They have been short answers to a teacher's convergent ques- successful in teaching students a process oftions. Further studies are needed to determine dialectical thinking in which they interrogate awhether issues-centered classes can be created number of positions and supporting argumentsthat engage all students in the exploration of including their own, and reflect upon the cogni- social issues. Bickmore's case studies also illus- tive and affective processes they used in con- trate that diverse students in the same classroom structing their arguments and counterarguments. experience issues-centered instruction different- Thus, students develop critical thinking and ly and that even the most masterful issues-cen- metacognitive abilities that are needed to reason tered teachers face difficult challenges. Bickmore well about social, political, and economic issues. deliberately selected teachers in schools with Additionally, Voss has conducted research on mixed ethnic, economic, and ability levels so that problem solving by experts and novices whenshe could attend to differential effects of the use they tackle social, economic, and political prob-of conflict on differing students. She noted, lems. Recently, Carretero and Voss (1994) havehowever, that she could only infer from her begun to direct their work toward learning andobservations about the effects of the different teaching in social studies. 23 teaching styles on particular students. Future If one purpose for using an issues-centered researchers might shift the focus from classroom

36 46 interaction to student information processing bysocial studies instruction is useful for under- analyzing student interviews. Thus, they could standing the world around them. As readers assess the different meanings diverse students build cases for the use of issues-centered curricu- make from issues-centered instruction. lum, pedagogy, and climate in social studies Issues-centered educators, like all educators, classes, they should realize that insights gained can benefit from new research on the instruction- from research in other settings can be helpful. al implications of gender, race, ethnicity, and class.With more issues-centered schools to study in There is some indication that females and males the future, researchers can determine the long- have differing interests in and ways of thinking term effects of such programs with diverse stu- about public issues (Hahn 1996). Political social- dents in diverse settings. The benefits for stu- ization researchers have identified differing dents and society will be many, and teachers who effects of race, class, and ethnicity on attitudes use an issues-centered approach will find their toward democratic participation. Researchers work a stimulating and continuing challenge. studying culturally sensitive pedagogy (Irvine 1990; Hollins, King, and Haymen 1994) point out that by making changes in content, pedagogy, Acknowledgment and climate, educators can better help so-called Thanks to Ann Angell, Patricia Avery, minority youth perceive social studies as more Beverly Armento, Lee Ehman, Anna Ochoa, personally meaningful. Researchers studying the Ronald VanSickle, and the four anonymous outcomes and processes of issues-centered teach- reviewers who read earlier drafts of this chapter ing in the future should pay much more attention and made helpful suggestions. to variables of gender, race, class, and ethnicity than they have done in the past. Finally, with attention to the ways differentReferences students are affected by issues-centered instruc- Angell, A. V., and P. G. Avery "Examining Global tion, researchers should investigate such instruc- Issues in the Elementary Classroom." The Social tion at the elementary school level and the long- Studies 83 ( May/June 1992): 113-17. term effects of issues-centered teaching over the Armstrong, P. M. "The Effect of Global Studies school years. The ultimate question is whether Instructional Materials on Dimensions of the Global individuals and a democratic society benefit Attitudes of Middle School Students." Ph.D. diss., when youth experience an issues-centered civic Indiana University, 1979. Abstract in Dissertation education. In the end, do they become reflective, Abstracts International40 (1979): 3731A. participating adult citizens? The answer to that Avery, P. G., K. Bird, S. Johnstone, J. L. Sullivan, and question remains the yet unfulfilled challenge of K. Thalhammer. "Exploring Political Tolerance with social studies teachers, curriculum developers, Adolescents." Theory and Research in Social Education teacher educators, and researchers. 20 (1992): 386-420. Avery, P. G., Sullivan, J. L., and others. Tolerance for Conclusions Diversity Oelief:Boulder, CO: Social Science Despite the limited research evidence that is Education Consortium, 1993. available, social studies educators who make a Baughman, J. E. 'An Investigation of the Impact of Civics commitment to issues-centered instruction are on Political Attitudes of Adolescents. Ph.D., diss., likely to find that their students become more University of Maryland, 1975. Abstract in Dissertation interested in the political arena, develop a greater Abstracts International36 (1975): 3974A-75A. sense of political efficacy and confidence, and Bickmore, K "Practicing Conflict Citizenship Education become more interested in the issues that they in High School Social Studies." Ph.D. diss., Stanford have studied as well as knowledgeable about University, 1991. Abstract in Dissertation Abstracts them. Moreover, when issues content, conflictual International52 -09A (1991): 3239A. pedagogy, and an open classroom climate are Bickmore, K. "Learning Inclusion/Inclusion in combined, more students may participate in class Learning: Citizenship Education for a Pluralistic discussions, and express more reflective thinking Society." Theory and Research in Social Education 21 and in-depth understanding than they would (1993): 341-84. otherwise. Furthermore, students are likely to Blankenship, G. "Classroom Climate, Global Knowledge, enjoy social studies more and to perceiVe that Global Attitudes, Political Attitudes." Theory and

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39 49 1989. Abstract in Dissertation Abstracts International express their opinions. Those features of issues-centered 50, no. 3 (1989): 620A. instruction may have been more difficult to implement in Zevin, J. "Future Citizens: Children and Politics. a problems approach where the content was history than Teaching Political Science 10 (1983): 119-26. in a course designed to focus on social problems. 5 Subjects in three of the Indiana studies were students in the university laboratory school; those in the 1 Students who believed that students had a right to fourth study attended another high school in the state. express their opinions in class liked their class, and some The four researchers administered pretests in September felt their teacher was one of the best they ever had. and posttests in December or January; one further However, those who gave little credence to student administered a delayed posttest 12 weeks after the con- expression and who did not like to participate in class dis- clusion of the treatment. cussions were more negative in their evaluations. 6 The t-test differences between pretest and posttest 2 Examining the perspectives of teachers such as Ken scores were 5.18 (p <.01) on the Watson-Glaser test, 4.90 may help us to understand why the majority of teachers (p <.01) on the teacher-designed test, and 5.18 (p <.01) do not use an issues-centered approach. Ken wanted all on the standardized knowledge test.No comparison students to be successful, and he did not want to embar- group was used. rass slow students, so he was careful not to give students 7 The t-test differences between experimental and tasks that would be too difficult for them. For that rea- comparison groups on the posttests were 10.09 (p <.001) son, on most days Ken had students work independently on the problem-solving measure and 2.37 (p.<.05) on the reading or doing worksheets, and once a week they heard knowledge test. On the delayed posttests, the t-test dif- a speaker or viewed a film. Social studies knowledge was ferences were 11.42 (p<.001) on the problem-solving test presented as "unchanging fragments of neutral data" and 3.49 (p <.01) on the knowledge test. (Bickmore 1991, 95). 8 Differences between groups on the test of critical 3 The sample for this study consisted of 465 students thinking were t=1.40, F (1.40) for the world history class- in five schools with predominantly white populations in es and t=.37, F (1.27) for the U.S. history classes. western states. Instruments developed by the staff of the Differences between groups on the knowledge tests were Eight Year Study of Progressive Education were used to t=.77, F (1.53) for the world history classes and t=.29, F measure critical thinking and social attitudes, whereas (1.34) for the U.S. history classes. Massialas speculated standardized tests of U.S. history and contemporary that it was possible that the researchers serving as the issues information were used to measure knowledge. The teacher for both treatments, and possibly inadvertently criteria set for "significant growth" was the gain in mean using the same approach with both groups, could have score for a treatment group on the posttest over the accounted for the finding of no difference on the stan- pretest mean, which, if divided by the standard error of dardized instruments. that difference, would yield a critical ratio of three or 9 On the open-ended SLAT, the project group per- more, indicating that the difference was too great to be formed substantially higher than the comparison group due to chance (Quillen and Hanna 1948, 156). Students (experimental group mean 48.6, s. d. 13.6 compared to a in treatment groups were matched by intelligence, age, mean of 34.8 for the comparison group). reading ability, and socioeconomic background. 10 The differences between the groups were: for the 4 Interestingly, the researchers said they thought that written analysis of an issue, Beta .28, p.<.001 and on the the competence of the teacher was more important to the current events knowledge measure, Beta .21, p<.001. use of the problems approach than was the subject mat- 11 On the critical thinking test, adjusted posttest ter or the age of the students (178-79). Having rated all means for the experimental and comparison groups, teachers on a checklist of teaching behaviors, they noted respectively, were 27.12, and 22.96, Eta .03, p<.01. Means that the U. S. history teachers were not as strong in their for dogmatism were 132.67 and 148.48, Eta .09, p<.01. teaching ability as were those who taught the seniors, and Means for self-esteem were 132.67,148.48, Eta .09, p<.01. it was the authors' judgment that the problems approach 12 In the dosed-climate condition correlations for black requires superior teaching. The report of the Stanford and white students, respectively, were: for political efficacy, Research project did not include specific descriptions of-.20 and -.32; for participation -.30 and -.66; for citizen the eight classes that were studied so it is not possible to duty, -39, -52; and for political cynicism -.05, and .45. determine whether the three treatment groups varied in 13 In the open-climate condition, the correlations the controversial nature of content that was presented, in between climate and citizen duty were .13 for blacks and the number of positions or perspectives considered on an .24 for whites. Additionally, for blacks, the correlations issue, or the extent to which students were encouraged to between open climate and political efficacy, participation,

40 and cynicism, respectively, were .29, .43, and -.28. their own. McAlvin (1989) compared students exposed to 14 The correlations between open climate and politi- The Developing World program developed by staff of the cal behaviors were .60 for junior high media use and .40 World Bank to students exposed to a more traditional area for senior high discussions with friends and family; all studies approach to geography. She concluded that nei- other correlations were .10 to.31. Contrary to other stud- ther content, strategies, nor grade level significantly affect- ies, however, Long and Long found a negative correla- ed posttest attitude scores (148). The data with regard to tion between issues discussion and political efficacy (-.24 knowledge gains were inconclusive, varying depending on for junior high and -.27 for senior high school students). grade level, ability group, methods, and content used. That they did not ask whether teachers maintained a Because the researchers did not report observational data neutral position regarding issues nor whether students on how the various curricula were actually implemented, felt comfortable expressing opinions may hold the key to it is not possible to determine whether or not issues-cen- the apparently contradictory findings. tered content was taught in such a manner that students 15 The correlation between toleration of dissent and confronted issues, weighed alternatives, and expressed participation in dissent activities was .11. However, stu- their opinions in an open climate. dents' perceptions of freedom to express their views in 19 The differences between the two treatment groups class had only a negligible positive correlation with toler- and the comparison group saying that contraventions ation of dissent (.07). were wrong were t=2.20, p<.03 andt=2.59, p<.01. 16 To measure the effects of the curriculum on ninth- Students in the investigation group scored significantly grade students, the researchers administered pretests,higher on knowledge of the law than did students in posttests, and delayed posttests to experimental and com- either the discussion or control group (t=3.95, p<.01, parison groups in two rural schools with predominantly t=4.65, p<.01).Students in the discussion group were white populations and one urban school where the popu- more accepting of customs that were not contraventions lation was 44 percent people of color. The difference of the Universal Declaration than were students in the between the experimental and comparison groups' change control group (t=2.53, p<.01). scores on the Political Tolerance Scale was p=.002, effect 20 At the conclusion of a semester-long course in one size .15. On the delayed posttests, the mean tolerance southeastern metropolitan area, students completed scores of the experimental group students remained high- questionnaires measuring their global knowledge and er than their mean pretest scores (p= .000, effect size .63), global attitudes. Additionally, Blankenship analyzed but neither their dislike of their least-liked group nor their teachers' daily logs and observers' checklists. Two obser- threat perception changed significantly (p=.755, effect size vations were made in each class to assess climate and how .04). That is, although they still did not like a group and the issues-centered program was taught. The correlation believed they were dangerous, they were willing to extend between climate and attitudes, as measured by the ques- rights to the group. tionnaires, was .32. The mean score on the classroom cli- 17 The experimental group consisted of 861 students mate scale was 4.6 on a 6-point Likert scale, leading in 30 classes that used the text With Liberty and Justice for one to believe that students perceived the climate to be All, produced by the staff of the We the People project. relatively open. However, observers noted that, when Comparison group students (n=490) were in U.S. histo- they were present, most class time was spent in lecture ry or government classes taught by members of the and recitation rather than in open discussion. National Council for the Social Studies who were not 21 For knowledge: Betas .22, p<.001, .13, p<.001; and using the same text. The differences between groups for for attitudes: Betas .16, p<.01, .09, p<.01. support of free speech, assembly, and due process, respec- 22 The research conducted by Massialas and his col- tively, were t= 6.85, 5.38, and 2.56. The differences for leagues at the University of Michigan distinguished political efficacy and political interest, respectively were between opining and inquiry classes for that reason t=6.32 and t=8.51. (Massialas et al. 1975). 18 Armstrong (1979) and Smith (1977) found no 23 Other research on learning theory is applicable to effects on student attitudes, comparing students exposed issues-centered instruction as well as to other approaches to two or more units in the Global Studies Project devel- to social studies. The chapter on issues-centered eco- oped at Indiana University. Soley (1982), on the other nomics instruction by Armento, Rushing, and Cook in hand, did find that middle school students who complet- this handbook demonstrates the use of learning princi- ed six units of the Global Studies in Geography Project ples related to motivation, prior knowledge, and restruc- (also based at Indiana University) exhibited reduced levels turing of existing schema. of ethnocentrism and increased ability to recognize that others in various cultures have perspectives different from

41 51 Parf T10:Refieclive Teactil Pralegies

Introduction bq Buron C. Massialas

This section deals with teaching methodsRecent changes in the social structure of the and attendant curriculum concerns in school and the influence of the hidden curricu- reflectively analyzing social issues in the lum more or less compel teachers to deal with classroom. Each of the contributors offers issues directly and systematically. Content is thus an instructional model or a curricular para- considered to be emerging as various cultural digm which has over the years withstoodinconsistencies or social issues envelop the stu- the test of time. dents and their teachers into emotional con- In presenting their respective instructional frontations. The values school actors bring to the models, the contributors share a number of com- classroom form the springboard of a curriculum mon characteristics. First of all, they believe that which is based on experience as its core. In this the classroom should be a microsociety where context, selection of content is predicated on the democratic concepts and methodsprevail. application of five key criteriarelevance, reflec- Instruction is connected to learning in an envi-tion, action, practicality, and depth of under- ronment which emphasizes student direct partic- standing. The end result of instruction based on ipation in discussion and related activities. Social this type of curriculum is reasoned social action. issues form the focus of instruction and learning. The chapter by Rodney Allen on the Engle- These issues stem from inconsistencies in ourOchoa model exemplifies a decision-making culture, inconsistencies in which our classroom classroom procedure for resolving social prob- participants have a personal stake. All contribu- lems, contemporary or historic. Probing ques- tors emphasize the method of reflection, i. e., the tions on the part of all classroom participants method which one employs in order to subject the form the heart of the reflective process of issue at hand to critical analysis. This analysis decision makingquestions seeking definition, includes the application of such skills as defining evidence, speculation or policy recommenda- key concepts, probing the evidential base of assertions. One of the results of this reflective process tions and knowledge claims, identifying and artic- is to arrive at a reasoned solution of the initial ulating positions, clarifying values which underlie problem to be followed, to the extent possible, positions, and tracing the consequences of actingwith political action, i.e., "to exercise political on these positions, etc. Finally, the contributors influencetowardimplementingjustifiable agree that the organized disciplines of knowledge, decisions..." e. g. anthropology, history, political science, geog- The jurisprudential or public issues approach raphy, sociology, economics, psychology, play anconceptualized by Oliver and Shaver (chapter by important role in the process of examining values. Laurel Singleton and James Giese) presents The section opens with a chapter on criteria another model for classroom instruction on for selecting issue-based content. It is followedsocial issues. The model is centered on policy by chapters dealing with reflective teaching issues which are controversial, i.e., conflicting methodologies and related activities. The chapter values underlie the various positions. The goal is on content selection by Byron Massialas clearly to systematically analyze the policies and the makes the case that social issues should form the related values. A type of Socratic exchange is center of classroom learning and instruction. normally implemented in the classroom to clar-

52 ify meaning and identify authoritative sources of structing an issues-centered unit need to remem- evidence to justify participants' positions on ber is to avoid delivery of a "fragmented" lesson. public concerns. All this exchange takes place in The chapter on discussion methods by Ron a democratically organized classroom environ- Evans and Jeff Passe seeks to synthesize ideas ment. In this environment students learn to on how to apply various discussion-generating respect each other and to carefully reason out the techniques in the classroom. The authors offer controversial issues at hand. concrete examples on how classroom participants The social inquiry model conceptualized bycan engage in fruitful exchanges on social issues. Massialas and Cox (as rendered by Jo Ann Sweeney and Stuart Foster) draws from John Dewey's complete act of thought in dealing with issues or indeterminancies in one's culture. Springboards generated by all classroom participants create the problematic situationa situation which fosters the application of such inquiry processes as hypothesizing, defining, exploring, evidencing, and generalizing. Validation of hypotheses or confirmation of a solution to a problem is the end-in-view of classroom deliberations. The ultimate goal of this deliberation classroom process is, as quoted by the authors, for students "to outline steps to be taken, roads to be traveled, utilizing both analytic and creative processes and skills." The lesson on the issue of allowing a student to have a "pony tail" in school is an example of how the process of social inquiry can be implemented in the classroom. The chapter on critical pedagogy and social education by Cleo Cherryholmes further elabo- rates and makes salient the critical skills needed by individuals to understand and meet the challenges of their environment. It is argued that students need to probe deeply into assertions which make knowledge-claims, whether these are offered by teachers, a textbook author, a curriculum guideline, courses of study, or tests. By clarifying the language used in daily classroom communications and by critically analyzing the implicit values in these exchanges, students and their teachers begin to control their political and social environment rather than being controlled by it. The chapter by Joseph Onosko and Lee Swenson on designing issue-based units offers suggestions on how to gather materials and related activities so that issues can be systematically and reflectively examined in class. The lesson should begin with a good central issue, an issue which would meet such criteria as whether or not the issue is important, debatable, manageable, reasearchable, memorable and interesting. A well thought out springboard (a unit grabber) should motivate students to engage in higher order thinking. The important idea that teachers con-

43 53 CRIT RIA FOR ISSUES-CENTERED CO ENT SELECTION

bq Bqr 6. Massialas

sI have argued elsewhere (MassialasThe Individual, Social Issues, 1989), individual and social problems have and the Hidden Curriculum recently penetrated the walls of schools In 1955, Hunt and Metcalf proposed that willy-nilly. In the past, schools were chil- schools develop curricula based on a catalog of dren's sanctuaries where they were pro- "cultural inconsistencies," namely, deeply seated tected from the ills and conflicts of thebeliefs held by groups in a society that are larger society. The school presented a Pollyanna different from each other, especially in the "closed view of life, and traditional textbook-based con- areas" of subjects that are considered taboo in the tent was an effective tool in separating school classroom (sexuality, etc.). Educators thought this from real life. Teachers taught social studiesan unrealistic proposal. Today, more than forty especially world and U.S. history and geogra- years later, their proposal makes more sense than phyeither as a chronology of events or as a listever. First of all, we know that very little or no of places on a map that students committed tolearning takes place unless the individual is memory for future use. involved personally in the topic of presentation In this traditional environment, youth's dailyor discussion. It is very difficult to imagine how a pressing issuesdrugs, possession and use ofpresentation of the Hundred Years War or the weapons in schools, teenage pregnancies, trans- Napoleonic Wars, by itself, will aid students in mission of venereal diseases and other sexuallyresolving problems they bring to class that day. transmitted diseases, including AIDS, to name a Very rarely will the teacher connect a description of fewwere, and continue to be, ignored. Social the European wars with a contemporary problem. problems have now become part of school life. Another reason for focusing on social issues Yet as surveys indicate, educators are reluctant to or cultural inconsistencies is that students, teach- accept the fact that the school as a sanctuary has ers, and other school personnel are inescapably been violated. They are reluctant to proposeinvolved with them. As numerous studies have changes in the curriculum to address the burningindicated, the "hidden curriculum" significantly issues that the students bring to school from theinfluences school learning. Factors connected larger social environment. (Hahn 1991) with race, ethnicity, gender, socioeconomic sta- I believe that the systematic study of socialtus, and linguistic backgroundthe basic staples issues should be the core of the school program, of the hidden curriculumas well as classroom and selecting the content for such a curriculum is psychological milieu, make an important differ- critical. The traditional disciplines must only ence in what is learned, how it is learned, and for provide a resource for the reflective analysis ofwhat purposes. For example, students learn to be social and personal issues. Reflective emphasis on apathetic, dependent on authority, accepting of issues would give students rational and democra- the structural inequity of the American econom- tically based models to cope with the inevitable ic system, and passive in adopting second-class conflict and controversy in their lives. citizenship roles in society (Goodlad 1984; Bowles and Gintis 1976; Anyon 1988; Apple 1988; Giroux and Penna 1979; Dreeben 1968). Because passivity and dependence is forced onto

54 them, minorities are usually negatively affected soned that an act of thought begins when an by the hidden curriculum. Memory work is typi- individual experiences a felt need. He or she cally emphasized with minority students. On the then moves on to explore alternative solutions to other hand, the hidden curriculum usually sup- the difficulty, projecting and testing implications ports students of the mainstream, as they learn,and logical consequences. During the process through it, the values of leadership and indepen- of thinking, the individual draws upon relevant dence. Critical thinking is typically emphasized resources, including previous personal experi- with mainstream students. Obviously, the con-ences as well as information contained in the tent of the hidden curriculum is tantamount totraditional social sciences. In this process, "con- the content of the social issues curriculum. tent assumes an emergent character. From the The hidden curriculum reflects the social standpoint of a learner, it comes into existence as cleavages, the cultural inconsistencies, and theit is needed; it does not have a life independent social controversies of society. If students were to of its own" (Hunt and Metcalf 1955, 215). systematically study the social structure of their When educators prepare to select social issues school instead of the structure of knowledge ofcontent, they will discover a significant distinc- each subject, they would be involved directly in tion between content in the traditional disci- social issues instruction. In this sense, the schoolpline-based mode and emergent content. The does not need to fabricate individual or social content in state- or district-approved textbooks problems. The problems are part of the school'sbest represents the traditional mode. How much natural setting. These are real problems in the of this content is pertinent to solving the prob- Deweyan sense, since all students are experiencinglems that occur in students' daily lives? The rele- difficulties that must be overcome. Isn't it appro-vance of the textbook's content to students' felt priate that these problems and issues, largely stem-difficulties apparently varies, depending on the ming from the hidden curriculum, be subjected to subject. For example, sociological content might systematic study and critical analysis resulting in be more relevant than historical content. In all reasoned action? The springboards and the data ofcases, however, prepackaged material present- reflection are there, but are school people willing ed as if it were the product of scholarly research to use them as the prime content of instruction? in the field but "simplified for pedagogical purposes"does not, by itself, fulfill the individ- Selecting Issues Content ual's need to solve immediate problems. These The traditional way educators select social problems might be thought of as personal, but, as studies content for instruction in today's class- Hunt and Metcalf (1955, 220) point out, they are rooms is dysfunctional. Traditional curriculumusually results "of problem-generating features of building is based on the disciplines of knowl- the culture." For example, an unemployed person edgehistory and the various social sciences. may struggle with his or her personal finances, The content of these disciplines is, for the mostbut unemployment stems from a larger societal part, devoid of issues or problems that are ofproblem as well as regional or local employment utmost importance to individual students andand production policies. Traditional texts and their communities. other prepackaged materials rarely address these Hunt and Metcalf (1955, 214) drew a signif- personal and societal needs. icant distinction between content based on the The emergent content mode focuses on soci- scholarly disciplines of the social sciences and etal and personal problems. Because content is not reflective content: static, it emerges from the social context where individuals interact with each other. Content the content of reflectionin contrast to the comes not only from the curriculum and the text- content of history, political science, geogra- books, but from the experience of students and phy, and so onincludes every relevant teachers interacting through classroom discussion. aspect of the mental and physical environment in which a given act of thought Proposed Criteria for occurs, everything a thinker brings to bear Content Selection on a problem. I suggest five key criteria for content selection: relevance, reflection, action, practicality, and In How We Think, John Dewey (1933) rea- depth of understanding.

45 55 1 THE CRITERION OF RELEVANCE. issue to be presented and critically analyzed? Are II Educators responsible for content selection the materials that support different positions on must ask these key questions to determine rele- the issue reliable? Are the student experiences vance: How does the curriculum relate to the stu- generalizable? dents and the social context in which they find Reflective content must open and not close themselves? In other words, is the content ofdiscussion and rational thought. If it leads to daily classroom lessons,textbooks, videos, indoctrination, as was the case of some courses teacher presentations, student assignments andsuch as "Americanism versus Communism," reports, or computer-generated programs related "Problemsof AmericanDemocracy,"or to the concerns of students as they go about mak- "Citizenship," then the opportunity for critical ing decisions in their lives, in and out of school? or reflective thinking is stifled. If reflection is How does the curriculum of the classroomlimited to just some classroom participants, address an increasing number of students' con-including the teacher, then the curriculum or the cerns about safety in the schools? How does the content item should be excluded from consider- curriculum relate to the concerns of minority stu- ation altogether. The role of the teacher, of dents (especially, racial, ethnic, and linguistic course, is pivotal in this type of classroom. The minorities) who, a priori, are routinely considered teacher must foster a climate that provides for an the culprits in any order-disruption incidents? exchange of views on issues based on established How does the curriculum relate to the career rules of logic and evidence. In this environment, aspirations of young men and young women who students begin to internalize the value that ideas are forced, primarily through the hidden curricu- and positions on issues are as good as the lum, to avoid entering fields dominated by the grounds that support them when presented in opposite sex? How does the curriculum relate to open forum. (Massialas, Sprague, Hurst 1975) problems encountered by children of single- Content and methods of learning and instruc- parent families? tion are inseparable components of the process Questions on critical issues and problems ofof reflective thinking. children and youth are numerous. The answer, in most cases, is that the curriculum as it presently THE CRITERION OF ACTION. Educa- exists has very little or no relevance to the burn- tors responsible for content selection must ask ing issues of the students, issues many of which these key questions to determine action: Will the stem from larger societal issues. (Shaver 1989). inclusion of the curriculum item or springboard Such issues and problems are extensions of cur-(whether from traditional sources, the emerging rent societal issuesgun control, schooling forexperiences of students in a social context, or minorities, employment opportunities for menboth) be likely to result in some plan of action? and women, aid to dependent children, sex edu- In other words, will the critical and systematic cation in the schools, sexual harassment, etc. analysis of the curriculum items at hand produce Curriculum relevance could be achieved ifaction? Or will the ringing of the bell terminate such a criterion is applied. Traditional subject discussion and deliberation? For example, will a content would be used in class simply to provide reflective discussion of safety in the schools lead the data and the arguments that relate to theto a class proposal to the school authorities for a issue at hand. In the issues-centered environment schoolwide policy change on the matter? Will proposed here, prior experience of students this proposal lend itself to a follow-up and actu- would be part of the core material exploredal student participation on matters concerning systematically. school safety including safety on school buses? Could this also be connected with issues of safe- THE CRITERION OF REFLECTION. ty in the students' neighborhood? 1U Educators responsible for content selection While the content may lead to critical think- must ask these key questions to determine ing, it is also necessary, if social conditions are to reflection: Does the content trigger thinking? be changed in a desirable way, to lead to some Does the content engage the students in taking social action. Social action that takes place as a positions that can be explicitly grounded? Does result of reasoned deliberation is consistent with the content (including the experiences of stu- the principles of democracy that emphasize citi- dents) provide opportunities for all sides of the zen participation and involvement in all matters

46 56 of individual and public concern. Given the con- occurrences experienced by people in different flicts and cultural inconsistencies of our times, historical periods, cultures, or regions? the social-issues curriculum can no longer be For example, issues related to immigration viewed as a source for purely academic debate unavoidably concern a great number of students without consideration for student and teacherattending schools in the United States as well as involvement in the process of social change. in other parts of the world. In the United States, the recent influx of Haitians and Cubans into THE CRITERION OF PRACTICALITY. Florida brought the issue of immigration to the 11 Educators responsible for content selectionforefront and became a national concern. Both must ask these key questions to determine prac- legal and illegal immigration affect the lives of ticality: Is the emerging curriculum or program children and youth in many parts of the country. of studies usable? Given the state of affairs inMany students are either immigrants or are schools, where the traditional is emphasizeddirectly involved with children of. immigrants and bureaucratically sustained, will change, as and such issues and policies. Immigrants' hous- proposed here, be feasible? If administrators,ing, employment, education, and health, are all teachers, and parents are not ready for a drasticof vital concern to them. But other students have change, should there be some accommodation or a key interest on the topic because immigration compromise? Are there some paradigms thatdirectly affects them as well. How will the new provide students with the opportunity to focus immigrants be absorbed by the local communi- on social issues within the confines of the tradi- ty? Will there be enough jobs for them, or will tional curriculum, subject by subject? Are appro- they displace others? Where will the new immi- priate resourceshuman and materialavailablegrants live? Where will the children of the new to support the effort? immigrants go to school? How will the new Even a meticulous construction of a curricu-immigrants maintain their health? Will the new lum based on a catalogue of "cultural inconsis- immigration create additional cleavages and tencies" or social issues (Hunt and Metcalf 1955) conflicts in society? Should a policy of assimila- would not ensure, by itself, its use in the class-tion or multiculturalism be implemented? room. The teacher must feel at ease with the The relevance of the topic to the lives of stu- issues before finding appropriate ways to include dents makes it almost obligatory for its systemat- them in instruction, possibly within the contextic treatment in the social studies classroom. of traditional materials. Examples of ways toAt this point, in addition to current reports integrate social issues instruction with tradition- extracted from newspapers, magazines, radio and al subject-based content are available in the liter- television broadcasts, and reports of personal ature (Engle 1989; Hunt and Metcalf 1955; experiences and observations, teachers may sug- Massialas and Cox 1966; Oliver and Shavergest that immigration, being a persistent occur- 1966;1974). The realities of educational deci-rence worldwide, may be understood better by sion-making, as indicated by Shaver (1989), studying relevant historical events. For example, make the inclusion of this selection criterion students may research historical sources including important. The outcome of the movement totextbooks dealing with the new arrivals to the replace the traditional program with the NewUnited States during the period 1880 to 1920. Social Studies is a glaring example of failure toWhere did the immigrants come from? What consider practicality in curriculum planning were their cultural backgrounds? Were their value (Massialas 1992). systems, customs, mores, habits, and languages, in conflict or in harmony with those of the old resi- DEPTH OF UNDERSTANDING. Educa- dents of the new world? What were the conse- Ctors responsible for selection must ask thesequences of this massive immigration for the new key questions to determine depth of understand- immigrants and for the old residents? What were ing: Does the curriculum promote or hinderthe effects of the policy of assimilation on the new reflection on perennial or persistent problems ofimmigrants? Do we agree or disagree with such a humankind? Do the curriculum, and the teachers policy and on what grounds? Should the same applying it, allow the classroom participants to policy prevail today? What are some personal and connect the issue or problem at hand with social implications if the same policy prevails? relevant sources, sources that relate to similarWhat action can we personally or collectively take

47 57 to change an immigration policy which we ture. U.S. constitutional principles, especially consider to be unfair? If we have taken action, those focusing on individual freedom and human what strategies have we employed? Were these dignity, provide a methodological framework for strategies successful or unsuccessful? Explain. analyzing the public issues at hand. The Harvard As shown in the example above, it is obviousgroup's approach may be thought of as a "cur- that linking a perennial problem of humankind, riculum infusion approach" where the traditional a problem that relates to a current personal and content of the social studies, best represented societal concern, to sources in history and the by the adopted textbooks, is infused with moti- social sciences contributes to depth of under- vating springboards that raise significant value standing. The approach is also practical (meet- questions, the answers to which have important ing another criterion) because teachers unavoid- personal and societal implications. The study ably use commercial textbooks and other tech- in-depth of history or government centers nology-generated materials in the classroom. around the study of significant public issues. These materials can provide a source of informa- Another curriculum framework that system- tion to address what Engle and Ochoa (1988) atically develops a program of studies focusing on refer to as definitional and evidential questions. social issues is that of Hunt and Metcalf (1955; The point to be made, however, is that classroom 1968). These authors envisage that selection of deliberation is a necessary but not sufficient con- content in the social studies should be based on dition to bring about social change. Action should always follow reflection and debate of the 1. the problematic or controversial areas of social issue at hand. the culture (the closed areas); 2.the individual beliefs, values, and knowledge Curricular Frameworks of students; and A curricular framework that selects content 3.related data from the social sciences. carefully, reflective of the criteria recommended (1968, 288) here, is the Public Issues Series developed by the Harvard Social Studies Project (Oliver Drawing from all of these sources, a "core" and Shaver 1966; 1974). The Harvard Project'scurriculum can be formed that is "problem cen- curriculum focused on the analysis of public con- tered, and organized on the basis of a series of troversy and used inquiry-type approaches to apparent contradictions in belief in problematic probe into recurring policy issues in U.S. history. areas of the culture which we might expect to be Materials were prepared in the form of curricu- shared by most students." (Hunt and Metcalf lum units with case studies relating to a particu- 1968, 291) In 1968, the authors identified seven lar topic and period in U.S. history. For example, broad problematic areas of culture, acknowledg- a unit on the rise of organized labor (American ing that there could be more. These areas were: Education Publications [AEP] 1967) raised power and the law; economics; nationalism, questions about employer-employee relations inpatriotism, and foreign affairs; social class; reli- the context of the public interest and traces these gion and morality; race and minority-group rela- relations from the beginning of U.S. industry to tions; sex, courtship, and marriage. Each prob- the 1966 airlines strike. Basic questions include: lematic area would be organized in sequence and "How free should an employee be to conduct his would constitute blocks of time in the social business as he sees fit? How far do workers' per- studies program. Two or three of these special- sonal rights extend?" (AEP 1967, back cover) ized core areas would be studied each year. From Each case study or springboard that the booklet the practical standpoint, selection of a given presents is accompanied by a section on "Persist- problematic area of culture by the teacher should ing Questions of History." These questions askbe based on several criteria including whether or students to take a position on various manage-not the topic is too controversial or "too touchy" ment-labor issues in the context of U.S. history. for the local community and whether the teacher For example, "Is it fair to organize a slowdown ofhas competence in dealing with the subject. workers at the time the company is working on a Naturally, the authors assume that the method of major order?" (35) Thus while students bring to reflection would be applied in the classroom as the forefront their personal values, they also con- the participants deliberate in suggesting possible sider various precedents in U.S. society and cul- solutions to the cultural problems at hand.

48 58 My own position for a defensible social issueslum should have a built-in mechanism whereby curriculum framework is similar to that of Huntsuch action is encouraged and implemented. and Metcalf with two possible exceptions. Naturally, the school-related issues, which as pro- Certainly, we must attend systematically to the posed here, form the basis of the core curriculum, problematic areas of our culture delivered as aare more prone to action than larger societal core social studies curriculum. But, as I arguedissues such as the issue related to a dispropor- earlier, since the school is no longer society's tionate number of minorities being dismissed in sanctuary but society's exact replica, we must private businesses compared to members of the select the content based on the critical issues per- majority. The relative proximity of the social issue tinent to each school and its surrounding com- to all the actors involved in it, makes the school- munity. The issues-centered curriculum shouldgenerated, issues-centered curriculum a most begin with these issues since they are directly appropriate instrument promoting in-depth relevant to students' lives. Their treatment in the analysis of a personal/social issue, reflection and classroom should be expanded, however, to in- commensurate social action. depth investigations of the larger societal prob- The proposal for a school-derived, social lems. Is it a perennial problem of humankind? issues curriculum stems from the assumption that How is the problem treated in societies else- the proper role of the teacher in the classroom is where, and how was it treated in the past? What that of defensible partisanship, which Massialas were the conflicting points of view representedin and Cox (1966, 175) described: the controversy and how were they rationalized? These questions would inescapably encourage Defensible partisanship assumes that the classroom participants to look at sources from teacher inevitably makes preferential choic- history and the social sciences in addition to their es among competing ethical alternatives own experiences. How can the problem athand and creates the conditions in the classroom be resolved? What are the alternatives and what for choices based on the most rational crite- are the consequences for actions on thesealterna- ria. The teacher takes the position that tives? Against which standards should the choice methods of value analysis and discussion of alternatives be measured? It is obvious that which are consistent with our democratic these types of questions would promote students' ideals produce the most defensible conclu- reflective thinking. The critical examination of sions. Thus the teacher ispartisan for these school-based issues in a larger societal con- selecting the method of inquiry as the most text would increase students' decision-making appropriate means to adjudicate values and competence as well as enhance the student's self for taking a stand on a social issue based on concept and sense of social and political efficacy. the process of inquiry. Research in this area supports this conclusion (Hahn 1991). Such a teacher is partisan in issues selection, The second point of departure from the Huntbut this partisanship, as in the actual treatment and Metcalf curriculum model is the degree to of issues, is always open to criticism and ques- which the program of studies encourages socialtioning. Since by definition issues are student- action. As discussed in connection with the third based, the teacher is mainly responsible in pri- criterion for the selection of content, reflection oritizing and defending the sequence. If teach- on issues, by itself; may not produce involvement ers accept the defensible partisan role,they and action. For example, why do minority stu-would have to reject such traditional teacher dents have proportionately more school suspen-roles as the uncritical perpetuator of the status sions than mainstream students? Is the practice quo, the indoctrinator, the teacher asimpartial just? Is it fair? What can be done about it? Whatcoordinator, or the role of functioning under action are we taking to change this condition? conditions of ethical neutrality. Has our action been successful? These are some Given the rationale above, I have offered five of the questions that must be raised in order to key criteria for selecting content. This proposal prompt students, teachers, parents, administra-assumes that content is not static, butrather tors, and community leaders to act. Ongoing, emerges from the social context where individu- responsible social action, then, is the ultimate als interact with each other. Relevance, reflection, goal of all social issues instruction. The curricu- action, practicality, and depth of understanding

49 59 Table 1: Criteria in Selecting Issues-Centered Content

Relevance Action Does the content relate to the students and the Will the critical and systematic analysis of the social context in which they find themselves? content produce action? Is the content related to the concerns of students Practicality as they go about making decisions in their lives, Is the emerging content or program of studies both in and out of school? usable? Reflection Depth of Understanding Does the content trigger thinking? Does the content promote or hinder reflection on Does the content engage the students in taking perennial or persistent problems of humankind? positions that can be explicitly grounded?

are critical criteria in developing a defensible Giroux, H., and A. Penna. "Social Education in the issues-centered curriculum. Classroom: The Dynamics of the Hidden We are at a critical juncture in our education- Curriculum." Theory and Research in Social Education al development. There is consensus that school 7(1979): 21-42. restructuring is necessary. Will this restructuring Goodlad, J. I. A Place Called School. New York, N.Y.: entail the restructuring of the curriculum to McGraw-Hill, 1984. attend to the needs of children and youth con- Hahn, C. L. "Controversial Issues in Social Studies." fronted with an increasing number of conflicting In Handbook of Research on Social Studies Teaching and cultural alternatives? Is the profession ready to Learning, edited by J. P. Shaver, 470-80. New York, assume leadership in this regard or will it be con- N.Y.: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1991. tent to proceed on the mode of business as usual? Hunt, M. P., and L.E. Metcalf. Teaching High School Social Studies: Problems in Reflective Thinking and Social Understanding. New York, N.Y.: Harper and References Brothers, 1955. American Education Publications. The Rise of Hunt, M. P., and L.E. Metcalf. Teaching High School Organized Labor. Middletown, Conn.: American Social Studies: Problems in Reflective Thinking and Education Publications, Public Issues Series/Harvard Social Understanding. 2d. ed. New York, N.Y.: Social Studies Project, 1967. Harper and Brothers, 1968. Anyon, J. "Social Class and the Hidden Curriculum of Massialas, B. G. "The Inevitability of Issues-Centered Women." In Curriculum: An Introduction to the Field, Discourse in the Classroom." The Social Studies 80 edited by J.R. Gress, 366-89. Berkeley, Calif: (1989): 173-75. McCutchan, 1988. Massialas, B. G., and C. B. Cox. Inquiry in Social Apple, M. W. "The Culture and Commerce of the Studies. New York, N.Y.: McGraw-Hill, 1966. Textbook." In Curriculum: An Introduction to the Massialas, B. G. "The 'New Social Studies' Field, edited by J. R. Gress, 390-407. Berkeley, Calif: Retrospect and Prospect." The Social Studies 83 McCutchan, 1988. (1992): 120-24. Bowles, S., and H. Gintis. Schooling in Capitalist Massialas, B. G., N. F. Sprague, and J. B. Hurst. Social America: Educational Reform and the Contradictions of Issues through Inquiry: Coping in an Age of Crises. Economic L. New York, N.Y.: Basic Books, 1976. Englewood Cliffs, NJ.: Prentice-Hall, 1975. Dewey, J. How We Think. New York, N.Y.: D. C. Heath Oliver, D. W., and J. P. Shaver. Teaching Public Issues in and Company, 1933. the High School. 1966. Logan, Utah: Utah State Dreeben, R. On What Is Learned in School. Reading, University Press, 1974. Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1968. Shaver, J. P "Lessons from the Past: The Future of Engle, S. H. "Proposals for a Typical Issues-Centered an Issues-Centered Social Studies Curriculum." Curriculum." The Social Studies, 80 (1989): 187-91. The Social Studies 80 (1989): 192-96. Engle, S. H. and A. S. Ochoa. Education for Democratic Spener, D. "Traditional Bilingual Education and the Citizenship: Decision Making in the Social Studies. New Socialization of Immigrants ". Harvard Educational York Teachers College, Columbia University, 1988. Review 58 (1988): 133-53.

SO 60 THENGLE-OCHOA DECISION MAKING MODEL FORCITIZENSHIP EDUCATION

hgRoyeq F. Mien

SCENARIO Dear Governor I take my Pen In hand to let you know that rs. Diaz's high school United States his- we are Starving to death. It is Pretty hard to tory classis beginning to study the do without any thing to Eat hear in this agrarian movement that began after the God for saken country[.] [[W]e would of Civil War and culminated inthe had Plenty to Eat if the hail hadent cut our Populist Party, influencing national rye down and ruined our corn and 11elections in 1892 and 1896. The stu- Potatoes[.] I had the Prettiest Garden that dents elected to focus upon the movement in the you Ever seen and the hail ruined It and I Great Plains. Dividing into groups, student have nothing to look at[.] My Husband teams use different textbooks and references to went a way to find work and came home gather information on the state of the agrarian last night and told me that we would have economy on the Plains during this era. Their to Starve[.] He has bin in ten countys and texts inform them about climate and weather did not Get no work[.] It is Pretty hard for patterns (drought), overexpansion of agricultural a woman to do with out any thing to Eat production on marginal farmland spawned by when She doesent no what minute She will speculation and railroad development, decline in be confined to bed[.] If I was In Iowa I real farm income, and the resultant conse- would be all right[.] I was born there and quences for the quality of life. The students raised there[.] I havent had nothing to Eat learned that the Depression of 1893, capping a to day and It is three o clock[.] well I will decade of decline, brought wide spread econom- close rite Soon From Mrs. Susan Orcutt ic distress and bitter feelings. Between 1889 and 1894, 11,000 Kansas farm families lost their Mrs. Diaz is pleased with the students' lands through bank foreclosure; nine out of ten response to the letter. They focus upon Mrs. farms in Kansas and Nebraska changed hands, Orcutt's desperation about the loss of control many lay abandoned for a decade. Manyfarm over her life and about her family's wellbeing. families were left homeless, while the number ofThe quandaries of poor, debtor farmers on mar- tenant farmers, working others' land, doubled to ginal Western land are made vivid by Mrs. more than two million. Orcutt's words. One group tells Mrs. Diaz that Working with Mrs. Diaz, the students devel- they want to investigate Mrs. Orcutt's sense of op a bulletin board display of photocopied pic- isolation as a stranger in Kansas from Iowa. Why tures showing life on the Great Plains in the would she feel more secure in Iowa? What were 1880s and 1890s.. Adding to the pathos of this the social support networks available to her there display, one group discovers the transcript of a and by implication to others in their native letter written to Kansas Governor Lewelling on states in the 1890s? Was Robert Frost (1914) in June 29, 1894, by a farmer's wife living in "The Death of the Hired Man" right when he Mendota, Kansas (Kansas State Historical wrote that home "is the place where, when you Society, Topeka): have to go there, they have to take you in?" Mrs. Diaz knows that later, after students examine

61 Mrs. Orcutt's Kansas and Iowa, she can broaden reflection upon social conflicts are the best prepa- their reflective inquiry to ask about familial and ration for mature participation in any democracy. community obligations to "take in" their delin-Conflicts, problems, and issues are not only the quent children, their elderly, their homeless, and test of democratic government, they are the others in despair. whetstone of democratic citizenship education. A second group wants to examine Mrs.The Engle-Ochoa decision-making model Orcutt's political acumen in writing to Governor requires students to identify and carefully define Lewelling. What did she expect the governor to socio-civic problems, to use multiple sources of do in response to her plight? What did the laws information, to reflect upon value assumptions of Kansas allow? What private resources might and diverse perspectives, to lay out alternative the governor muster? Why did Mrs. Orcutt solutions or courses of action, and to make choic- write, in the 1890s, to the state governor ratheres and justify those choices with reference to than to her elected officials in the nation's capitaltheir grasp of democratic values. city? Mrs. Diaz was especially pleased with this group's interest, because she was planningPhilosophical Orientation to turn to greater questions of the obligation of The most basic value of democracy, accord- government to manage the economy and to take ing to Engle and Ochoa (1988), is respect for responsibility for the hardships and disasters the dignity of the individual. With this declara- which befall citizens, both economic and natural. tion, Engle and Ochoa begin to reveal their A third group declares its intention to focusconception of democracy in the Western liberal upon agrarian protest through political organiza- tradition, grounded in limited government, indi- tion. From their earlier studies, students inferred vidual liberty, and active participation. In this that agrarians would join together to seek relieftradition, representative government requires by influencing, or even controlling, government. a citizenry capable of knowing and doing the Students are interested in emerging politicalpublic good; the people must have the civic leadership and farmers' mastery of political par-intelligence necessary to maintain a democratic ticipation skills. Again, Mrs. Diaz is pleased with society. When individuals know and do the pub- her students' choice. As they examine this histo- lic good, they are not performing individual acts, ry, she will engage their attention in questions ofbut engaging in shared public practices. Citizens legitimate and inappropriate protest and rebel- learn and relearn public virtues and civic values lion within a democratic credo. Under what con- in social contexts by interacting in a community ditions may people protest or rebel and with with others. The learning of civic values and pat- which appropriate strategies and force? terns of curbing self-interest for a common good For this history class at Washington Parkare wrought through interactions with fellow High School, cooperative inquiry initiates three citizens who feel a common political kinship, groups' in-depth examinations of historic social or what Wilson Cary McWilliams (1973) calls problems, with contemporary analogues, where the idea of fraternity. In this tradition, citizens decisions must be made. Mrs. Diaz's students are committed to acting in ways which preserve will use personal experience and knowledge from community, local to national to global, an history, social sciences and the humanities to expanding sense of others, bound over to one's reflect upon the nature of the problems, the pol- self in a common life, where self-interest is icy options open to decision makers and thecurbed out of regard for others. The individual consequences of the option chosen and justifiedis known to exist, function, and thrive, only in a in dialogue with one another. democratic social context. Citizenship education for Engle and Ochoa hirley H. Engle and Anna S. Ochoais decidedly political education. They expect (1988) created their decision-making teachers and schools to model democratic values model to help students and their teachers and behavior in their treatment of students, in link social studies teaching and learning to the open exploration of issues, and in their orga- democratic ideals. They realize that demo- nization of students for learning. The classroom cratic societies are beset with grievousand the school should be a community where problems and disharmonies, but the systematic, learners democratically engage in the study of in-depth examination of these problems andconflict and the active rational discussion of

S2 62 problems, where persons may disagree andcentered inquiry which engages learners in debate different points of view. policy recommendations, and grants them free Schools and social studies programs are per- choice in avenues for learning. They want schools ceived as sterile, inane, and oppressive (Engle, to be launching grounds not only for learning 1977) and as failing to deal rigorously withand the development of democratic commit- current social problems (Engle, 1960, 1985).ments: they anticipate students participating in Traditional social studies curricula are no longercommunity life, including politics (Engle, 1972). relevant to helping students cope as informed and To expect action is not to determine what the active citizens in a changing society. Social educa-action should be. Their conception of citizenship tion focused upon single disciplines, rather thaneducation, which rejects conventional school social concerns, is perceived as unconscionabletextbook and curriculum impositions, does not (Engle and Longstreet, 1972). Social studies impose specific participation or actions as educa- should address the solving of social problems, and tional outcomes. not impose political bias on students or engage The origins of the Engle-Ochoa conception them in the slavish mastery of information. of citizenship education are to be found in the In another paper, Engle (1986b) suggested Deweyan notion of reflective inquiry (Dewey, that social studies educators have rejected issues- 1933; Griffin, 1992). Dewey urged educators to oriented teaching because teachers are comfort- open sensitive areas of social life to responsible able teaching as they were taught (including what examination and to educate, not by exposition, they were taught). This leaves them incompetentbut with an interactive teacher-student dialogue, to deal democratically with controversy andwherein facts, inferences, generalizations, and uncertainty Teachers and school leaders can conclusions would be questioned by students as avoid conflict by textbook teaching, remote from well as their teachers. Dewey advocated the study the life experience of learners and their parents. of real social problems reflectively so as to be Textbook publishers thrive on the expositoryinclusive of the students' concerns and experi- method, while exposition and textbooks are fixedences. Recognizing that so much of school learn- in the constellations of conventional thinkinging was disconnected from students' experience, among parents and elected officials who influ-Dewey urged the study of social problems to bet- ence curriculum (see Apple, 1993). Engle ter insure connectedness to students' experience, (1986a) observed: "Ancient beliefs hold that to help learners make connections, and to provide education means that elders instruct the young,future insights and applicationsa generative not that they work out problems together." knowledge with rich ramifications in the civic Seeing education as the process of encultura- lives of learners. tion, Engle and Ochoa (1988) argue for a political education within the social studies curriculum Some Curriculum Implications which provides socialization into the ideas ofof The Model democratic culture and a counter-socialization Given the perceived irrelevancy of the current which builds critical capacity, political skills, and a social studies curriculum and its numbing effect profound skepticism into the civic dispositions ofon teaching, Engle and Ochoa (1988) suggest two learners. Problem solving, reflective inquiry and complementary reforms. First, they would cele- critical thinking are both instructional activities brate the route taken above by Mrs. Diaz of and instructional goals in schools which take their Washington Park High School when she regular- civic education duties seriously. Henry Girouxly included the in-depth study of social problems (1988) used the concept "emancipatory rationali- with contemporary significance in her U. S. histo- ty" to capture the essence of Engle and Ochoa'sry course. In this shift, teachers would abandon intensive regard for schooling which liberatesthe expository mode to teach in a hypothetical through reflective inquiry on social problemsmode centered on questions and the quest for while building commitment to the core values answers, rather than the mastery of others' knowl- which hold democratic communities together. edge. "Questions and criticism would need to be Ever more threatening to the status quo in encouraged over ready answers," and, according schooling, Engle and Ochoa (1988) want ato Engle and Ochoa (1988) "The whole process reflective inquiry which does not simply lead to should be directed to opening minds to new pos- further inquiry. Their proposal expects an issues- sibilities rather than closing them" (p. 116). Second, the other option described by Engleeffort to cover superficially a large number of and Ochoa (1988) requires a most fundamental topics would be abandoned. transformation in how history and social sciences are taught. The discipline-focused courses would n The topics of episodes to be selected should be give way to courses which integrated the social h those with the greatest potential for encourag- sciences and focused them upon the examination ing thinking, or even controversy, about matters of social problems. Geography, for example, of fact, or about matters of historical interpreta- might be taught with economics and focusedtion of events in the past, or about alternative res- upon world environmental and developmentolutions to social problems in the present. Topics problems. Sociology and anthropology might or episodes that cannot be conceived as problem- center on understanding the problems of humanatical would be omitted from the curriculum. culture, tribalism, and conflict. Psychology might combine with law studies for an intensive mini- 7 Students should continually be asked to make course on crime and corrections across cultures. judgments about such matters as what really Most important is the emphasis upon impor- are the facts, how facts should be interpreted, tant social problems and active student learningwhat should be done about a problem or, if the which regularly rises above the roar of problems, problem is historical, what should have been alternatives, and hypotheses on specific issues, to done differently. Students should continually be address what might be called mega-queries about asked to make value judgments as to whether values and value conflicts in democratic credos. the decisions made or about to be made, past or For .example, students might reflect upon such present, are good or bad. The study of such questions as: problems needs to be open-ended, in the hypo- Under what conditions should individuals thetical mode, and without pressure for closure disobey legally constituted authority? for a correct answer. Do all citizens have a right to participation in the institutions by which they are governed? I Geography, history, and the other social science Is increased political participation by disciplines will be treated not as an end product citizens desirable? What advantages and or summary of supposed knowledge to be accept- disadvantages might come from greater ed as true and then memorized but rather as alter- participation? native sources of information to be utilized in Must liberal democratic theory be revised in resolving questions such as those suggested above. light of changing circumstances? How do we account in our theory for greater inter- Since questions of what is good and what is dependence, greater complexity, and the 4.] bad are involved in most or all of these kinds of rapid impact of national and global media questions and since models for thinking about networks? questions of good and bad are more likely to be Is the toleration of divergent views and found in the humanities than in the social sci- practices a rational, democratic policy? ences, selections from literature, art, music, reli- What are the limits of toleration? gion, philosophy, and journalism would be uti- In a democratic society human dignity is a lized alongside and on a par with selections from fundamental value and persons are respected the social sciences and history in the thoughtful as persons, but is there a concomitant oblig- study of any topic, episode, or problem. For ation that we respect or approve of a person's instance, historians have much that is important or a group's behavior or lifestyle? What are to say about the institution of slavery, but so do the connections between freedom of expres- authors like Harriet Beecher Stowe, William sion, for example, and liberty in behavior? Lloyd Garrison, and Stephen Crane.

Based upon their philosophical orientation, The curriculum should utilize relatively large Engle and Ochoa (1988, 128-129) encapsulate 0 quantities of data (muchmore than could pos- their curriculum views into seven principles: sibly be held in memory) from a variety of The curriculum should be highly selective of a sources (more than could possibly be encom- 11 relatively small number of topics or episodes, passed in a single textbook) to study in depth a each of which will be studied in great depth. The relatively small number of topics.

54 64 The firsthand experience of students and and Ochoa (1988, 88) discuss this use of cognitive teachers would be respected as one of the dissonance and its effect on initial student motiva- important sources of information bearing on anytion to explore a problem area. Mrs. Diaz's unex- question or problem. pected discovery and use of the Susan Orcutt letter (see Scenario) instantly personalized historic The Instructional Model information, giving it a face, a pathos which Like John Dewey's conception of constructive breathed life into the social problem. thought in How We Think (1933), the Engle and Ochoa (1988) process model of a problem- PHASE 2: oriented instructional encounter should not be Identify and Define One Problem conceived as a lock-step, sequential formula to be followed by teachers and students. The model is Students continue to manipulate informa- dynamic. While the phases in their model are tion, adding to the materials and ideas under dis- "numbered," Engle and Ochoa are not advocat- cussion. As an outcome of these discussions, the ing simplistic linear thinking. Study groups canstudents select and define one issue or problem redefine their problem, add alternatives for for investigation and decision making. The examination, recast value assumptions as they lis- teacher and class will decide whether the entire ten to other voices in the community, and revise class shall address a common problem or, as in their decisions when justifications turn out to be the case of Mrs. Diaz's class, groups of students less than satisfying. elect to examine different issues. Whatever the The use of the Engle-Ochoa model assumes decision, it is important that students carefully that the teacher continues to create an open andstate their problem clearly, agreeing upon the informed classroom environment where the free meanings of concepts used in that definition, and exchange of ideas is not only possible but cele-achieve consensus upon its worth as a problem brated. The only restrictions on dialogue are those for collective in-depth study. imposed by available evidence, reason, and democratic values. The model also assumes an informed teacher who has collected reasonable amounts of resources for students' continuing engagement in the study of a social problem. The teacher has been using probing questions in Phases One and Two, and continues to do so, PHASE 1: engaging students in posing definitional, eviden- Orientation to a Problem Area tial, speculative, value and policy questions. The teacher serves as a model of reflective inquiry The teacher uses questions and high-interest of thoughtfulnessgetting students to follow the springboards to engage students in reflection. example. Definition questions request the con- These materials will suggest conflicts and contro- textual meaning of the use of a concept"What versy surrounding a contemporary or historic does hate crime mean as you are using it today?" social problem. The exploratory discussion ofEvidential questions request factual support for these materials should identify the conflicts anda claim and challenge the basis for accepting a controversy, some of the values and feelings"fact" or a claim purporting to be true"How do involved by the parties to the controversy, and theyou know that his motivation was racial hatred?" emergent blockage in the cultural, social or polit- "Upon whose property was the cross burned?" ical systems which causes or sustains the problem. Speculative questions are imaginative and often The teacher's use of a springboard in Phase address predicted consequences-7f he had not One is to raise incongruitiesto create what read- screamed an ethnic slur, what might the charges be in ing teachers call the "disruption of expectation."this courtroom today?" 7f you tack on additional For example, the teacher presents evidence of the penalties for crimes involving racial, ethnic, gender current cost of health care for the poor without or religious hate, what do you think will be the effect universal health plans. Students who have been in our communities?" Value questions ask about arguing about the additional cost of nationalinherent value assumptions by discussing priori- health insurance are taken back, given pause, by ties"Which is more important to you today, pro- this unexpected, incongruent information. Engle tecting the dignity of particular groups of persons or

G preserving rights to free expression?" Policy ques- quences, students may select several alternatives dons ask about positions on issues or solutions to to function together in an action plan. This problems"Should affected interested groups use the action plan would be justified with the strongest suggested human relations policy to remove books reasons, arguments, and evidence available to the from the library which they perceive as offensive?" decision makers, while they also give reasons for rejecting other courses of action. Student deci- PHASE 4: sions are open to the same skeptical queries Identify Value Assumptions which they used on others' information and ideas. Bias, foggy evidence and polemics are to be Which are the values to be enhancedor identified and questions brought to bear. favored in deciding upon any solutions to the social problem under examination? Why favor these values over others? Students must reflect upon their own frames of reference and the values and interests inherent in their perspectives, and in This phase is implied by the Engle-Ochoa the perspectives of their sources of information model, but not overtly stated. At the culmination when they study this problem. Students shouldof their study, students should have the experi- seek out informants with differing points-of-view ence of proclaiming their findings to a significant and value orientations, in order to broaden theiraudiencethe school board, newspaper editors, own perspectives. But the main task in Phase congressional delegation, a state legislative staff Four is to initially determine the values to be usedmeeting, or a community assembly. Something to make and to justify a decision in Phase Six. should happen to engage others in responding to the students' investigations, showing that their concerns and endeavor are reflected in their broader community of citizens. These outcomes might include volunteer action or political action. Decision making involves choices among Also, students should have the time to reex- alternative courses of action and these choices are amine the process of their investigation. Which selected based upon the projected consequences skills were developed further? Which turns were of each feasible alternative available. Oftena deci- wasted? Which errors of judgment were fruitful sion on a social problem will involve an action errors, leading to insights? And, how might plan or strategy which is multifaceted and pursues students enhance their procedures on the next several complementary courses of action. In Phase occasion for problem study? Five it is necessary that students and their teacher perceive the alternatives available and then deter- Conclusion mine their feasibility and imagine the likely con- In 1894 Mrs. Susan Orcutt took her pen sequences flowing from each possibility "Can you in hand to petition her government to solvea do X, that is, do we have the resources or can weproblem she faced along with her family and get them?" "If we do X, then what will happen? neighbors. Using this letter as a remnant of How many needy will get basic health care?" Mrs. Orcutt's nineteenth century civic education, Student research and the teacher's use of "If...,Mrs. Diaz's students at Washington Park High then... ." questioning are vital to this phase and School studied the problems and the inherent the persistence in the reflective study of an issue. sociopolitical issues faced by Mrs. Orcutt in order It should not be surprising for students to go backto further their comprehension of American his- and redefine the problem during these dialogues. tory and to further their own political education. The conceptual model provided by the lifework PHASE 6: of Professors Shirley H. Engle and Anna S. Reach and Justify a Decision Ochoa served Mrs. Diaz's students well. The issues identified and examined were as engaging The students rank order their alternatives as they were profound. In Mrs. Diaz's American (with the consequences) given the values thathistory course, students could periodically they wish to enhance or favor in their decision. examine public issues in depth and connect past Given the uncertainty of predicting conse- problems with current realities. Problems and

56 66 Syntax of the Engle-Ochoa Model

PHASE 1: Students will decide upon the values which they Orientation to a Problem Area will use to decide what should be done to solve a The teacher uses questions and high-interest problem or to resolve an issue. springboards (e.g., video, newspaper clippings, art photographs, literature, and other texts) to estab- PHASE 5: Identify Alternatives and lish a backdrop and engage students in reflection. Predict Consequences Through research and discussion, students will lay PHASE 2: out the alternative policies (courses of action) and Identify and Define One Problem predict the consequences which might resolve the Students manipulate information, values and feel- issue or solve the problem under examination. ings to identify an issue or problem worthy The teacher probes students' ideas with "What of in-depth study. if..." and "If..., then..." style questions to sustain Students carefully state that problem or issue a reflective classroom climate. clearly, with agreed-upon meanings of concepts, Students and the teacher will consider alternatives and achieve consensus upon its worth as a problem suggested in light of the values established earlier. for in-depth study. Which alternatives are most consistent with our goals?

PHASE 3: Engage Students by PHASE 6: Reach and Justify a Decision the Use of Probing Questions. Students will rank their alternatives (and the pre- Teachers and students pose and search for answers dicted consequences of each). to definitional, evidential, speculative, value ques- Students will select the better alternative policies or tions, and policy questions, increasing the level of courses of action and justify them with the strongest intellectual exchange in the classroom. reasons, arguments, and evidence; students must Students draw upon print, electronic, and other give reasons for rejecting other alternatives. community resources in their quest to develop thoughtful responses to the probing questions. PHASE 7: (Implied by Engle and Wand Proclaim the Results and Reflect upon PHASE 4: Identify Value Assumptions the Process Students will reflect upon their own frames of ref- As a culmination of study, students will share their erence which shape their view of the problem and positions and justifications with others in class and its explanation and resolution. in the larger community of citizens. Students might gather other perspectives, with Teachers and students reflect upon the process of implicit values, on the issue under examination to issue-oriented studywhat it meant and how they broaden their perspectives. might enhance the reflective procedures. contexts may change, but fundamental mega- References issues endure and return in new forms and con- Apple, Michael W. Official Knowledge: Democratic Educa- texts for civic reflection and action. Mrs. Diaz tion in a Conservative Age. New York Routledge, 1993. sensed Engle and Ochoa's zest for the study of Dewey, John. How We Think. Boston: D. C. Heath, 1933. civic issues within groups, wherein students may Engle, Shirley H. "Decision-Making: The Heart of develop their group investigation skills and coop- Social Studies Instruction." Social Education 24:6 erative learning skills. The cooperative learning (October 1960), 301-304. and group dynamics research of Thelen (1954, Engle, Shirley H. "Needed: A Democratizing of the 1967), Slavin (1983), and Sharan (1990) are Schools?" Unpublished mss. ED 073020 llpp., 1972. especially appropriate to complement the Engle- Engle, Shirley H. "The Search for a More Adequate Ochoa decision making model for civic educa- Definition of Citizenship Education." Unpublished tion. It was not by chance that Mrs. Diaz's stu- mss. ED148720. 12pp., 1977. dents divided into groups and did their investiga- Engle, Shirley H. "A Social Studies Imperative." tions and deliberations cooperatively.. Social Education, 49:4 (April 1985), 264-265. Engle, Shirley H. 1986a. "Decision-Making: The Heart

S7 6-7 Theme:Hate Crime dents watch an ADL video on this topic: collection, and turn to court decisions as Area of Discussion: Hate crimes are unlawful actions to fright- well as law enforcement and legal system Attempts in democratic communities to fos- en or harm an individual because of his or her informants. Students examine Supreme Court ter civility and freedom of expression while race, religion, ethnicity, or sexual orientation. decisions in Dawson v. Delaware (1992), Texas addressing the perceived problem of hate They can range from verbal intimidation v. Johnson (1989), and R.A.V. v. St. Paul, MN crime. and harassment to damage and desecration (1992), and then, turn to Wisconsin v. Teacher Preparation:The teacher of property, to physical violence and murder. Mitchell (1993). has collected newspaper clippings, magazine The students learn that almost every state What are the situations which arise sur- articles, and court decisions on hate crime. has a hate crimes statute. Most states collect rounding hate crimes? What are the points of She has identified sources of information, hate crimes data and issue annual reports. disagreement in society and its law? What are speakers, and contact persons for student the alternatives open within the body of law inquiries. PHASE 3: Probing Questions society might create? What are possible con- Using articles from the teacher, students sequences from each alternative? Are legal PHASE 1: Orientation begin to discern types of hate crimes, motiva- system remedies adequate to the task? What The teacher provides copies of data charts tions/causes for hate crimes, and the extent of are the non-legal system alternatives and which reveal crimes against persons who are hate crime in their area. They arrange for their consequences? in various racial, ethnic, gender, religious, speakers and do telephone interviews. Through and sexual preference categories within the e-mail, students gather information and hate PHASE 6: Reach and United States. Students examine these data crime stories from other schools and regions. Justify a Decision and conduct an open discussion wherein Students develop an action plan, selecting views are shared. As the discussion proceeds, PHASE 4: alternative courses of action while rejecting the teacher provides a newspaper clipping and Identify Value Assumptions others and providing an argument to support shares a story of hate crime in their school, Students interview judges, legislators, and those decisions. without using the concept "hate crime." attorneys, to gather stories on hate crime and to discern the values in conflict. Is hate crime PHASE 7: PHASE 2: Identify and new? If so, why now? How do commitments Proclaim and Reflect Define a Problem to pluralism and diversity conflict with tradi- Students proclaim the results of their The teacher provides more clippings on tional and emerging understandings of free- deliberation with school officials and offer an current happenings and asks students to look dom of expression. Should we separate action plan for the school dealing with hate for commonalities in the data, and then to actions from motives, behavior from expres- crimes and hate crime prevention. Later, label these commonalities. The discussion at sions? How might respect for dignity of all selected students report to the local bar asso- times focuses upon one news article on cross persons chill freedom of expression in a ciation and a debate is arranged for a forth- burning or another on telephone harassment. democracy? coming school assembly. Meanwhile, study Students develop the label "hate crime" and groups meet to review their examination of discuss the meaning and parameters of this PHASE 5: Identify Alternatives hate crimes and note needed improvements problem. The teacher provides the Anti- and Predict Consequences for future social problem investigations. Defamation League definition and the stu- Students sort through their information

of Social Studies Instruction." Contemporary Matter Preparation of Teachers of History. Dubuque, Education, 58:1 (Fall 1986), 13-17. IA: Kendall-Hunt for the National Council for the Engle, Shirley H. "Late Night Thoughts about the New Social Studies, 1992. Social Studies." Social Education, 50:1 (January McWilliams, Wilson Carey. The Idea of Fraternity in 1986b), 20-22. America. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973. Engle, Shirley H., and Wilma S. Longstreet. Sharan, Shlomo, Editor. Cooperative Learning: Theory A Design for Social Education in the Open Curriculum. and Research. New York Praeger, 1990. New York Harper & Row, 1972. Slavin, Robert. Cooperative Learning. Engle, Shirley H., and Anna S. Ochoa. Education for New York Longman, 1983. Democratic Citizenship: Decision-making in the Social Thelen, Herbert. Dynamics of Groups at Work. Chicago: Studies. New York Teachers College Press, 1988. University of Chicago Press, 1954. Giroux, Henry A. Teachers as Intellectuals: Toward a Thelen, Herbert. Classroom Grouping for Teachability. Critical Pedagogy of Learning. Granby, MA: Bergin New York Wiley, 1967. and Garvey, 1989. Griffin, Alan F. A Philosophical Approach to the Subject-

S8 6S PREARING CITIZENS TO PARTICIPATE IN DEOCRATIC DISCOURSE: The Public Issues Model

IA LauI R. Singleton and James R. Giese

Introduction sides of a case, and then to synthesize facts, issues, and arguments in making the best possible At the heart of strong democracy is talk." decision. Third, the citizen must be a passionate, Benjamin Barber (1984) committed participant who is motivated to use her skills and knowledge in concert with other "Let us begin with a simple proposition: citizens to arrive at new understandings and the What democracy requires is public debate, not best possible decisions. information...We do not know what we need to know until we ask the right ques- The Legal/Ethical Values Framework tions, and we can identibithe right questions In the United States, resolution of public only by subjecting our own ideas about the issues occurs, at least in part, through discourse world to the test of public controversy." based on shared civic commitments. According Christopher Lasch (1990) to Oliver and Shaver, two of the developers of the public issues model: These statements [by Barber and Lasch] reflect beliefs at the heart of the jurispru- In dealing with problems of public conflict dential inquiry model for teaching public and controversy, the American nation has issues. This model, developed by the both inherited and developed a tradition Harvard Social Studies project during the that government and law should be the out- 1960s and 1970s, rests on the idea that growth of public debate. Important to this citizens in a democracy differ in their views and tradition is the value placed on the dignity priorities and that democratic values often con- and worth of each individual and, as a corol- flict when applied in specific cases. The resolu- lary, the value placed on reason and persua- tion of complex public issues within democratic sion in resolving disputes among people society requires citizens to negotiate their differ- with different definitions of human dignity ences through careful analysis and public discus- and the conditions that promote it. From sion. Helping students develop their abilities our point of view, a major goal of the society to take part in this conversation is thus a critical, is to develop a public awareness that these if not the foundational, aspect of social studies basic values should be respected and applied education. as standards for making public policy The public issues model posits that U.S. citi- (Oliver and Shaver 1966, pp. 81-82). zens must possess several characteristics. First, the citizen must be familiar with the values of The public issues model assumes several gen- American civic culture as embodied in the eral legal/ethical values upon which American Constitution, Bill of Rights, and Declaration ofconstitutional democracy rests. Some of these Independence. Second, the citizen must haveideals are procedural and guide the manner in skills for clarifying and resolving various kinds ofwhich democratic government operates. Proce- (e.g., political, social, and economic) issues. dural ideals include the rule of law, consent of These skills include being able to gather andthe governed, due process, equal protection of weigh evidence, to analyze the legal and ethical the law, federalism, and limited government. issues involved, to evaluate arguments on various Other ideals are more substantive and deal with

BD specificendsof legitimategovernmental officials acting in their stead, have faced issues action justice, liberty, public safety and securi- regarding when government authority should be ty, the general welfare, and the like. challenged, the issue underlying the first example These ideals of American civic culture should above. The second issue revolves around ques- help guide us in developing public policies oftions of how we define and balance public and all kinds. Often, however, controversy arises when private interests; these questions have played two (or more) general democratic values or prin- themselves out in many different arenas and time ciples are in conflict with one another. Whenperiods. The final issue centers on yet another these situations occur, the public issues model recurring question: What reasons (if any) justify assumes that the best policy stance involves a keeping new knowledge secret? rational balancing among fundamental values. How should particular events, episodes, or That is, citizens and their representatives mustissues be selected for inclusion in the curriculum? make compromises between or among conflictingThere is no single answer appropriate for all values, but these compromises should violate each classes. Two major criteria, however, should be contending value to the least extent possible. kept in mind: 1. the overall importance of the For example, Oliver and Shaver (1966) sug- issues to the society and body politic in which we gest that if we view freedom of speech as an all live and 2. the possible personal significance absolute ideala value to be protected at all coststhe stories and issues might have for ourselves and in all situationsit is virtually impossible toand the particular students we are teaching. deal with situations in which it might be desir- The availability of materials on a topic may able to limit the right to free speech when it con- also be a factor influencing the choice of specific flicts with the value of public safety. Should a cases. Among the sources that can be used are sto- sidewalk speaker be prevented from continuing ries and vignettes, research data, primary sources, a speech to a hostile crowd that is about to vio-journalistic narratives, textbook accounts, and lently remove him from his platform? Should the interpretive essays. In addition, students' experi- American Nazi Party be allowed to conduct a ences and concerns may provide possible case parade through a predominantly Jewish commu- material. nity if violent confrontations between the two Because of the complexity of the discussion groups are likely? Viewing the values of Ameri- process, the initial cases probably should be rela- can civic culture on a continuum allows us to tively simple. We would also argue that "less is consider possible policy alternatives. more" in that any single case should be treated in The publicissuesmodelfirstfocuses depth over a fairly lengthy period of time. students' attention on case studies dealing with Relatively short, one-time debates about complex limited factual situations rather than on sweeping public issues should be avoided. sets of events. While the situations are limited in scope, they are powerful because they may be Clarifying and Resolving linked conceptually to enduring dilemmas faced Public Issues through Discussion by people living at widely varying times and in The ability to discuss issues rationally and diverse places. Examples of these include: civilly does not develop without experience and Should citizens in northern states before the reflection. The public issues model provides a Civil War have defied the Fugitive Slave Law? vehicle for helping students develop not only the Who was responsible for assisting the urban ability to ask the right questions and seek rele- poor at the turn of the centuryvoluntary vant information, but to pursue their questions in organizations or government? a way that advances democratic values. Should the publication of scientific research Any given situation or case can stimulate in nuclear physics in the 1930s have been controversy and disagreement in a number of banned to prevent the information from directions. For example, consider the following being available to Nazi scientists? situation related to the issue of immigration:

Each of these issues, although grounded in a In 1988, a Hmong man living in Denver particular time period, embodies persistent value practiced his culture's traditional way of dilemmas faced by democratic societies. One can finding a wife"marriage by capture." Lee think of numerous instances in which citizens, or Fong took his teenaged bride from her

60 70 home and paid her family a $3,000 dowry. and infers a trend over several years. "The United They were married for three months. Then States will develop more restrictive immigration the girl went to the Denver police, charging policies over the next 40 years" is a prediction Fong with kidnapping, sexual assault, and involving several future events. "Koreans emi- menacing (Glade and Giese 1989). grate from their country because they do not support the actions of the Korean government" sum- This case might provoke disagreement and marizes a large number of events and includes an raise questions on several levels. The discussion explanation of why these events have occurred. of Lee Fong's case might first turn to questions The various types of claims may be based on of fact or explanation. For example, was the bride wide-ranging types of evidence. For example, the taken against her will, or did she, in fact, consentinitial claim above may be based on personal to the marriage and then later change her mind? observation or firsthand accounts. In contrast, Did Lee Fong realize that the Hmong custom ofthe third claim, which makes a prediction about "marriage by capture" violated U.S. laws and cus- future events, may be inferred from interviews toms? How widespread is this practice among with public officials, public opinion polls, and Hmong people in the United States? historians' accounts of other time periods in A second area of possible disagreement which immigration was restricted. involves the meaning of words or phrases. In the Some disagreements over factual claims occur case above, for example, opinions on whether because relevant evidence is not available. Other the legal system should be tolerant of offenses disagreements, which tend to be more difficult that result from different cultural traditionsto resolve, occur because the evidence available might hinge on what is meant by tolerant or whatis interpreted differently by different people. To behaviors are included as offenses. assess the accuracy of conflicting claims, a discus- The third area of possible dispute involvessant would need to know on what kind of evi- judgments about what should or ought to bedence the claims are based and the line of reason- donejudgments concerned with the legitimacying that each individual used in developing the and rightness or wrongness of actions and policypositions being promulgated. Such ethical or value issues might be expressed as In discussion, factual claims may be support- follows: Should immigrants give up cultural ed in a number of ways: traditions that are in conflict with customs and Appealing to "common knowledge" or laws in the United States? Should the legal sys- "common sense." "Common knowledge" tem be more lenient on offenders whose actions or "common sense" is a relatively weak source were based on cultural traditions at variance with of evidence, since it suggests no additional the dominant culture? Should immigration poli- process by which to resolve the disagreement. cy be based on similarity between American Citing personal observations. Personal culture and that of the immigrant's native land? observation is of somewhat limited use in Although the various types of issues are often the study of public issues, since few of us intertwined in discussion, distinguishing among have the opportunity to actually witness them makes clear that there are various avenues the events. For this reason, we rely heavily of inquiry available in the classroom. Further- on the reports of others, in hopes that more, recognizing the various types of issues they can provide reliable information. allows students to apply appropriate strategies Reference to an authoritative source. When in advancing discussion. referring to an authoritative source, however, we also must inquire into the quality of the author- rACT EXPLANATION ISSUES.Factual ity. Is the authority really an expert? Is there issues are disagreements about the descriptions information about the authority indicating or explanations of events. There are many kinds that he/she has a personal bias on the topic? of factual claims, some involving little generaliza- Do different authorities make contradictory tion and some involving a great deal. "The Fong claims, or do authorities support each other? family immigrated last month" is a claim about If there are differences, where do they lie? a specific event that occurred recently. "Immi- gration increased rapidly in the late 1800s and At times, factual claims can be tested by gath- early 1900s" summarizes a large amount of data ering more evidence. At other times, finding the

BEST COPYAVAILABLE information needed may be difficult if not 71E1 CAL OR VALUE ISSUES. Ethical or impossible. If students cannot take time out to Lvalue statements suggest that some object, per- gather more evidence or if the evidence needed son, or conduct is good or bad and that this qual- simply does not exist (as is the case in many polity is based on an important general principle, icy contexts), they can use one of the following such as peace and stability, security from physical strategies to continue discussion: 1. the group harm, or equal treatment before the law. Value may agree to stipulate that the discussion will conflicts are at the core of most controversies proceed on the basis of one set of facts or factual regarding public policy decisions. For example, claims, or 2. the members of the group may consider the following: agree to bypass or temporarily ignore the issue, using other arguments to make their cases. Controversial Policy Question: VALUE CONFLICTS EFINITIONAL ISSUES. Definitional issues revolve around how people use words or phras- ? Should rap or heavy metal music be es in discussion. For example, two people might censored?Freedom of speech versus morals disagree on whether a group was oppressed. One of the majority person might say oppressed means having no ? Should the federal government political freedoms, while the other person holds fund universal health care for all that oppressed means being in a degrading situa- Americans?Individual well-being and tion due to someone else's actions (e.g., without human dignity versus business autonomy and a job because of governmental policies). individual choice Some definitional disputes are only labeling ? Should the United States intervene problems. There is no disagreement on the in Rwanda?Human rights versus national nature of the thing begin labeled, but over the self-determination appropriate label. For example, in different parts of the country, flavored carbonated water may be A public policy concerning any of these issues called "tonic," "soda," or "pop." Two strategiescannot be decided upon without violating a value can move discussion along by helping reach held by some people. The challenge in discussing agreement on definitional issues that are primar- these issues is finding the policy alternatives ily labeling problems: that least violate important democratic values. Stipulation. People can agree to use a word Discussants who recognize value statements consistently in a specific way. ("Whenever can use several strategies to challenge or support we use the term responsible, we mean con- such statements: sciously causing an event to occur.") Use of a respected or venerable source. Use of an authoritative source. Discussants Value statements may be justified by show- can use a dictionary or other authoritative ing that they are supported by a source that source to find support for the particular use most people consider sacred, respected, or of a word or phrase. venerable. For example, the statement "Rap music should not be censored" might be sup- More common and more difficult to resolve ported by reference to the First Amendment are definitional disputes in which people disagree or the words of Thomas Jefferson. over the nature or quality of an action being Prediction of a valued consequence. Policy named. For example, a key question in discussing positions and value judgments are often immigration issues may be the meaning of used together to show that support of a American. One of the major problems in the particular policy will lead to a desirable process of definition is the need to arrive at end or will avoid undesirable consequences. enough precise criteriastandardsto identify Analogy. One of the most powerful techniques the term under discussion. Thus, resolving defin- for clarifying our thinking on ethical-value itional disputes involves two steps: 1. selecting issues is to suggest that an issue might be general criteria for a definition and 2. deciding resolved differently in one or more related cases. which examples fit the criteria.

62 7 2 To illustrate, consider the following conver-similar decisions made by civil rights activists in sation, in which two students are dis- the 1960s and contemporary anti-abortion pro- cussing the case of Mrs. Webster, whotesters. Furthermore, powerful analogies may operates a small rooming house in her own (and should) be drawn from the students' and the home. The city had recently expanded its teacher's own personal experiences. fair housing ordinance to forbid discrimination against homosexuals. Nevertheless, Mrs.The Discussion/Conversation Process Webster evicted Mr. Smith and Mr. Jones In the classroom, the point of discussing pub- because she believed they were gay and her reli- lic issues is to use the power of both critical and gion teaches that homosexuality is wrong. caring relationships to educate individuals and the group. In applying the public issues model, Sam: The government should not tell Mrs. the teacher becomes a facilitator, helping stu- Webster how to run her business. dents to make productive conversations with Rayna: Suppose Mrs. Webster ran a restaurant. In each other. To prepare students for such discus- order to save money, she served leftover sions, teachers must focus considerable attention food the next day. Occasionally the food on creating a climate supportive of authentic dis- spoiled and customers got sick, but since course and developing students' discussion skills. most of the customers were transient, moving through town, they never really CLASSROOM CULTURE AND DISCUSSION. complained. Do you think the govern- A major challenge in discussing controversial ment should force Mrs. Webster to abide issues is to achieve sufficient unity and harmony by certain health standards? within the group so that conversation leads to Sam: Yes, of course. productive problem solving. People with oppos- Rayna: Well,that'sgovernmentcontrol.I ing views do not have to adopt a combative or thought you were opposed to government avoidance posture in conversations. Instead, the interference with a person's business. discussion process helps them press toward Sam: Well, a restaurant isdifferent from a mutual clarification and exploration, to see dis- rooming house. It affects a person's health. cussion as a process of inquiry, and to value the Rayna: Having a place to live also affects yourwhole group for its unique ability to provide a health. If Mr. Smith and Mr. Jones cannot setting in Which this can happen. find a place to stay and have to sleep out in Significant conversation about public issues the cold, Mrs. Webster is hurting themis in some ways like a team sport. When we are maybe even more than a person who just caught up in a soccer or basketball game, the has a stomachache from old food. essence of the situation is not a separate ego Sam: But this is her own home. She shouldn't be doing something but rather a set of relationships forced to open her home to people who make among the various players. Each requires the use her feel uncomfortable or who would cause of personal disciplined techniques but also the other renters to move out (Singleton 1989). letting go that happens when a team is playing well together. An exciting conversation cannot The analogy may force discussants to makebe constructed by an individual; it requires the distinctions and qualifications that strengthenwholehearted involvement of a group. There is a and clarify their positions on important value kind of alternative pulse between the letting go conflicts. Sam can no longer say that he is always to express one's most significant and authentic against government control of business; he is feelings and ideas and the skilled personal and obviously for some government control undergroup reflection that gives direction to these certain conditions, which serves to qualify andmoments of letting go. If trust is not sufficient to strengthen his position. permit letting go, the game will never be The use of analogies also allows teachers and playedno significant conversation will happen. students to make connections across time andLikewise, if no disciplined critique of the con- place. For example, the decision faced by Ameri- versation occurs, the quality of the discussion can colonists when they chose to defy the estab-may hardly merit participation. lished authority of the British government in To achieve a discussion that can truly educate order to protest unjust laws may be compared toindividualsandthegroup,allmembers

63 1'1 J0 of the group must be involved, and all must hear are soon thrown into the discussion. One of the and understand, as best they can, the feelingsfirst challenges of disciplined discussion is to and ideas of members of the group. In classroomsort out how many different things are being discussions, student talk is most often channeled said about different issues or topics. Another through the teacher, but it is important for theimmediate need is to identify points of agree- teacher to encourage students to talk directly toment and disagreement. These steps allow the and try to understand each other. In addition, participants to focus on a limited number of the teacher is encouraged to model certain atti- issues and pursue them systematically. tudes toward the discussion of public issues To state issues clearly, it is useful to translate careful listening, respect, and the willingness to the main positions, or opinions that people have, change one's mind. into questions. Stating the issue in question form focuses the discussion on a specific topic ISCUSSION SKILLS. To take part in productive that requires reasoning and justification. discussions of public issues, students need a Sometimes it is necessary to stop and sum- variety of skills, many of which require breakingmarize the nature of the issue over which you are unproductive habits they employ in casual con-disagreeing. One advantage of this skill is that it versation; that is, they must learn techniques ofprovides focus and direction for the discussion. disciplined discussion. Among these techniquesA second major advantage of stating issues are 1. sensitivity to what others are saying, explicitly is that it tends to broaden the discus- 2. stating the issue over which discussants dis- sion and show how a number of similar situa- agree, 3. setting an agenda and pursuing it with tions can be related, compared, and contrasted. some degree of continuity, 4. making explicit the changes or transitions in the conversation, Setting an Agenda. An agenda is a list of issues 5. dealing with potential roadblocks, and that a group agrees to consider in the course of 6. reflecting on the discussion process. a discussion. When a group begins discussing a complicated situation, different people see differ- 1 Sensitivity. Conversations often seem to go ent issues. Each usually talks about the issue he or II around in circles because the participants don'tshe thinks is most important and is insensitive to seem to be talking about the same issue, eventhe issues that others see. One way of dealing though they are on the same general topic or prob- with this problem is to list all the issues that seem lem. They do not respond to one another's state- important. The discussants then decide which ments. When this happens, people are not beingissues they wish to discuss and in what order. sensitive to one another. Being sensitive usually Having made this decision, members of the involves making a conscious effort to connect the group can remind one another of what points are speakers with the issues being expressed. Some tips relevant and what points are not. If someone that can be helpful to students include the following: jumps to the third issue when the group is still Put yourself in the other person's place to entangled in the first, he or she can be reminded understand what that person is saying and that this contribution is not relevant at this point. how he or she feels. Pursuing issues with continuity is important. Show understanding and acceptance through Changing issues too quickly tends to disrupt such nonverbal behaviors as gestures, eye attempts to clarify or resolve basic disagree- contact, posture, and facial expression. ments. The systematic pursuit of an issue means When a person has finished speaking, try sticking with it long enough to deal with its restating the person's most important problems thoroughly. thought or feeling. If there seems to be confusion about the Making Clear Transitions. There are points issue under discussion, clarify by summariz- 'Tin discussion where it is useful to leave one ing the statements of several of the people issue and move on to another. An argument who have spoken. between two discussants may become so dead- locked that no agreement is likely. They may Stating the Issue. Discussion often begins by then agree to disagree and to take up another hconcentrating on one aspect of a situation. In issue related to the general topic. Another mem- a complicated situation, many different opinions ber of a group may see that there is a prior issue

64 that must be settled before the issue under dis- began, then the discussion has been productive. cussion can productively be explored. When someone chooses to change the issue Final Thoughts under consideration, he or she should make this Open-ended issues that involve emotion- known with an explicit transitional statement, laden value commitments present both a risk and explaining why a change of issue at that pointa challenge to teacher and students. The risk lies would move the discussion forward. When mak- in a person's sense of frustration when confronting a transition, it may be helpful to summarize ed with ambiguity, the lack of clear answers, or the differences between the two discussants the difficulty of arriving at logical justifications before moving on to the next issue. for "gut-level" feelings. The challenge lies in achieving the sense of satisfaction and intellectu- j Potential Roadblocks. For discussion to beal accomplishment that a productive discussion productive, students also need to recognize of such an issue generates. The teacher's goal roadblocks and develop strategies for dealing should not be to have students master tidy bits of with them. Such roadblocks may include failureinformation, but to have students understand the to listen and pursue issues systematically, monop- complexity of a problem and be able to make olizing the conversation, proof by repetition, per-their positions reflect that complexity. Consensus sonal attack, and worry about winning the argu- may not be reached, and doubts may remain, but ment. Two potentially difficult roadblocks result this is a more authentic outcome than leaving when participants have little or no interest instudents submerged in isolated, decontextual- the controversial situation and therefore feelized, and meaningless bits of information. unmotivated to participate in the conversation or, conversely, have such deep interests and convic- References tions that it is difficult for them to be reasonable Barber, Benjamin. Strong Democracy: Participatory Politics about the topic. These two problems speak to the fora New Age. Berkeley, CA: University of California necessity to select issues carefully. Press, 1984. Glade, Mary Elizabeth, and James R. Giese. Immigra- Reflecting on the Disucssion. Involving stu- tion: Pluralism and National Identity, The Public dents in reflecting on the quality of the discus- Issues Series. Boulder, CO: Social Science Education sion may be.one of the most direct paths to pro- Consortium, 1989. ductive discussion. During a discussion, a group Lasch, Christopher. 'Journalism, Publicity, and the Lost Art can pause and ask "What's happening now?" The of Argument" Gannett Center Journal(Spring 1990). general questions below can be used to determine Newmann, Fred M. Clarifying Public Controversy: An if the discussion is moving along productively or Approach to Teaching Social Studies. Boston: Little, "going in circles": Brown, 1970. What issues have been discussed? Oliver, Donald W., and James P Shaver. Teaching Public What positions were taken, and by whom? Issues in the High School. Boston: Houghton Mifflin; Was agreement reached on any issue? Which ones? reprinted by Logan, UT: Utah State University What things helped move the discussion Press, 1966. along? Public Issues Series (Boulder, CO: Social Science What things bogged the discussion down Education Consortium, 1988-1993). or made it unproductive? Singleton, Laurel. The Civil War: Teacher's Guide, Public What things should be discussed next? Why? Issues Series. Boulder, CO: Social Science Education Consortium, 1989. While the answers to these kinds of questions will help students reflect on and improve theirAcknowledgement discussion skills, they are not the ultimate deter- The authors are deeply indebted to Donald W. minant of whether a discussion has been produc- Oliver and Fred M. Newmann, who have provided lead- tive. In order to better measure the quality of ership in the SSEC's work republishing the Public Issues discussion, we would advocate the following Series, which they originally conceived and developed at benchmark When positions are more complex Harvard. For more information on the approach (in the sense of including distinctions, qualifica- described in this chapter, we would refer you to Oliver tions, stipulations, etc.) than when the discussion and Shaver (1966) and Newmann (1970). TEANINO CONTROVERSIAL ISSUES THRUGH MASSIALAS AND COX INQUIRY tin Jon Cutler Mellen and Stuart Foster

n 1966 Massialas and Coxl explained to social values. Massialas and Cox described this period studies teachers the process of inquiry andof rapid change in which youth felt "a loss of reflective thinking as a methodology for identity" amidst a tide of "disruptive racial, reli- addressing some of modern society's most gious, ethnic, social prestige, and other cleav- critical questions. They asserted that, because ages." They believed schools had a responsibility it was not possible to define a distinguishable, to engage students in the study of these crises. homogeneous, andstablemodern culture Educators should seek to "prepare citizens who in the United States, the conventional role ofare capable of dealing with this crisis in rational education as a means of preparing children for and creative ways" (21). citizenship within a dominant culture should be Massialas and Cox's proposition is as relevant in question. Because of the rapid pace of change, for today's social studies instruction as it was in the pluralistic nature of society, and the complex- the 1960s. Although issues such as the Cold War ities of the modern era, it was no longer the role and Vietnam no longer dominate society, many of education to transmit the values of a single of the other social "crises" have persisted. Argu- dominant culture. Rather, because of existing ably, racial conflict, crime and delinquency, the tensions, Massialas and Cox (1966, 3) saw mod- breakdown of the family, inner-city tensions, and ern society as a "culture in crisis." They declaredglobal inequalities describe today's society much that education, through critical inquiry, should as they did the United States in 1966. The belief ultimately perform the function of harmonizing that schools must deal critically and actively with society's divergent elements and controversies. Bysocial issues is still pertinent. confronting the major conflicts and tensions within society, Massialas and Cox envisionedThe Function of Social Studies schools as agents for change and classroomsTeaching as environments in which students solved the The position of social studies in the curriculum problems of the modern era, ultimately improv- is central to the inquiry-based approach. Social ing society The authors recommended that studies, according to Massialas and Cox, should schools accept their role as the "'progressive not ask students to absorb a static culture, but reconstruction' of the culture. There the school is rather to engage in examining the society's chang- deliberately critical and creative in its selectioning norms and values. "The social studies curricu- and examination of the values of the society" lum should be comprised of a series of encounters (22). Based on this assertion, the goal of educa- with ideas about mankind" that stimulate the tion, therefore, would be "the reflective examina- learner to "discover new knowledge of and new tion of values and issues of current import" (12). solutions to social problems" (24). Social studies The U.S. social fabric during the 1960s should, therefore, be directed toward certain goals: included the ideological struggles of the cold war, 1. It should furnish the forum for the analysis social conflicts over racial equality, the cata- and evaluation of normative propositions strophic effects of the Vietnam War, and cultural or value judgments about man and society. fragmentation evidenced by student radicalism 2.It should operate within the requisites and a chasm between traditional and emergent of inquiry that relate the development of

76 hypotheses and ideas about social relation- explore hypotheses by examining the validity ships to supporting evidence. and reliability of the evidence supporting 3. The end results of inquiry should be the them. Clarifying and validating evidence are production of a body of tested principles of paramount importance to the inquiry's and generalizations about human relations outcome. and societies. The social studies classroom should afford the student the avenue for Massialas and Cox were careful to point out the creative venture. (24) that "facts" are not sacrosanct and absolute but human judgments about reality In the reflective The pervasive notion that the social studies classroom, students should deliberate upon and classroom is a theater for examining controversialcontinually question such judgments. They must issues is central to the process of inquiry. According appreciate that nowhere in the social studies does to Massialas and Cox, "controversial issues have an objective, verifiable reality exist, and that as social, emotional and cognitive dimensions" (52). citizens, it is not possible to make factual deci- Such issues provide a framework for rich and sions simply based on objective analyses of data. meaningful thought and discussion, and by wrest- Rather, they may make decisions only after con- ling with the problems of modern society through siderable reflection and as a result of judgments a scheme of investigation, the outcomes can be grounded in the best available evidence. "conducive to the achievement of our prime goal, The teacher's role in an inquiry-based class- the decision making citizen" (54). Consequently, room is significant. For Massialas and Cox, the the teacher has to make a conscious decision to teacher is not an authority figure directing the examine values in a systematic manner. "Once this class toward predetermined conclusions but a decision is made, the classroom becomes the forum "manager or co-ordinator of inquiry" (62). The of inquiry into social values" (174). teacher participates in the process of inquiry and injects his or her views in a sensitive and democ- Characteristics of the Inquiry ratic way, thereby validating his or her own posi- Classroom tion. The authors termed this activity defensible To critically examine social issues, Massialas partisanship. and Cox asserted that students would engage in The student's role in the process of inquiry is the "constant agony" of reflection and reflective central. For successful inquiry the student must thinking, defined as "a process of identifying be actively involved, taking the position of partic- problems of fact and value, assessing them in view ipant and discoverer. The process directs the stu- of the assumptions in which they are grounded, dent toward making effective choices regarding and subjecting them to proof in terms of certain crucial social issues. Massialas and Cox asserted, criteria" (90). By evaluating the process in the "It is important that young people know how to classroom and by drawing on several studies ofdiscriminate critically among choices and to reflective thinking, Massialas and Cox concluded avoid unreflective acceptance of `rime- honored that the process of inquiry and reflection pro- prescriptions" (155). gressed through identifiable phases. The authors Ultimately, Massialas and Cox argued that, by explained, however, that the social studies class- following certain phases of investigation, stu- room must take on three main characteristics dents would arrive at dependable generalizations. before inquiry can begin: Generalizations are not solutions nor final 1. The classroom should engender "an open answers, but choices that represent "the most climate for discussion." All comments and tenable solution to the problem based on all points of view are valued, and all ideas merit available evidence" (119). Generalizations, there- critical examination. fore, must always be tentative and considered an 2. In the reflective classroom, hypotheses approximation of reality. Thus, the process of dis- become the focus of discussion. The under- covering these generalizations is as meaningful as standing of a certain issue should be elicited the outcome. Massialas and Cox continually through the continual evaluation of hypothe- returned to this essential goal: ses through discussion and negotiation. 3. "The functional application of facts to It should be remembered that the purpose support hypotheses." The class should of the social studies enterprise is not only

67 7 7 Co The Social Studies Inquiry Model There are six proposed phases in the Socialhypotheses as search models are developed and Studies Inquiry Model. These phases, extended, and multiple hypotheses may exist simulta- Massialas and Cox argued, are central to neously. The students critically examine, evaluate, the effective analysis of controversial issues and reevaluate the meanings, implications, and logic and form the basis of exemplary teaching of each hypothesis. Because the nature of the explo- materials. Often the phases are interrelated and ration is diverse and chaotic, the inquiry process may overlap, not always following a sequential order. often lack formal coherence. The "chaos," however, Even though the phases, described below, out- has a purpose because students are actively engaging line how the process of inquiry may operate, the in inquiry and exploration. teacher must keep in mind the fluid and dynam- Evidencing Phase ic nature of inquiry. In this phase, the inquirers gather evidence and data to support or reject each hypothesis as defined. Orientation Phase Insufficient data may limit the inquiry at this phase, The teacher essentially presents to students a per- or suggest that further investigation is unwarranted. plexing or controversial issue over which there is gen- The evidencing process may also reveal opinions, uine conflict. The aim is to engage students in inquiry belief systems, or philosophical issues. As a conse- and help them define and clarify a given problem. quence, students must deal with issues that involve Hypothesis Phase more than tangible facts, e.g., feelings, values, atti- The students and teacher develop one or more tudes, and standards. hypotheses for the purposes of investigating and Generalization Phase exploring the problem. The teacher focuses discus- In this final phase, students express the solution to sion on the hypotheses, guiding students in formulat- the problem, but, according to Massialas and Cox, the ing ideas about the nature of the problem and its pos- generalization phase "is never taken to represent a sible resolution. final truth. Its tentative nature is recognized" (119). Definition Phase Consequently, although the group may have carefully The students clarify the meaning of the terms of followed the inquiry phases and arrived at "a solution," each hypothesis to facilitate effective communication. this can never be any more than the best possible Clarity of meaning is essential for a class to achieve a statement under the circumstances. Other hypotheses focused discussion. The teacher must keep the "defi- and "solutions" may also be acceptable. In addition, nition" principle in place throughout all phases of the students should appreciate that there is no obligation model. to arrive at a definitive conclusion because the process Exploration Phase of inquirynot the generalizations reachedis the During the exploration phase, dimensions of the essence of the Social Studies Inquiry Model.

to identify dependable generalizations, but specific examples and the sample lesson plan to be able to outline steps to be taken, described belowand in many other instances roads to be traveled, utilizing both analytic the Social Studies Inquiry Model may be used and creative processes and skills. All these effectively in the social studies classroom. are indispensable elements and constitute inseparable components of the new social Discipline-Specific Issues studies. (138) World and U.S. history is an area of .study with numerous examples of human conflict and issues of personal and national freedom. Issues Applying the Inquiry Model such as the rights of indigenous peoples are man- in the Social Studies Curriculum ifest throughout the world and have historical In the social studies, students regularly and contemporary significance. For example, the encounter topics in which the lives of individual claims of Palestinians, Native Americans, the people are affected by the decisions of others.Irish, or the peoples of the former Yugoslavia Human experience necessitates conflict, contro-all have deep roots in historical experience and versy, consensus, and cooperation. For discipline- are relevant to our understanding today's world.

68 78 In addressing such issues, students will gain valu- school board, will draft a set of rules govern- able insights into how past experience shapes the ing aspects of personal appearance for a school modern world and how today's global tensions in a small semirural community that is gener- and problems are difficult to resolve. ally conservative and traditional in outlook, In world geography, students might explore composed of citizens who are strong support- issues such as the population explosion and ers of the local schools. whether national governments have the right to 3.Guide the groups in formulating a code of control population growth. Because environmen- appearance appropriate for a school in such an tal issues are central to the subject, students can area. The code may be in the form of a gener- be encouraged to weigh a society's need for fac- al statement, or it may be a specific, itemized tories, houses, roads, and tourists against the list of what is acceptable and what is not. desire to preserve the natural environment. Students may wish to draw up a more specif- In economics, students might analyze the ic code first, then formulate a more general role of national government in the management policy statement later. of a country's economy and evaluate, for exam- 4.Facilitate each group in sharing its code with ple, the efficacy of increased taxation and the class in a general discussion. Ask each increased government interference in business. group to write down the key elements of their Students might also inquire into the costs and code on an overhead transparency to help benefits of schooling, health insurance, and focus discussion. defense, all in an effort to appreciate the eco- 5. Encourage other class members to comment nomic forces shaping their lives. upon and critique each proposed dress code. In civics and U.S. government, students Encourage students to defend their adopted might wrestle with issues such as freedom of positions. For example, if groups suggest differ- speech, abortion, smoking in public places, and ent codes for girls and boys, or different codes gun control in order to understand the nature of for different ages, or that the school should society, institutional power, and human freedom. have no dress code, then students should By confronting important social questions, stu- discuss the consequences of such decisions. dents learn to appreciate that many issues are not 6.Ask each group to meet again to discuss the easily resolved. feedback and refine its code. When the students are satisfied that they have arrived at the The "Pony Tall" Lesson best code for their school, the teacher should This sample lesson deals with a student's free- distribute the newspaper article describing an dom and a Texas school board's institutional actual Texas school dress code. power. The lesson walks through the phases in 7.After the students have read the article, the Social Studies Inquiry Model. Ask each group to discuss the issue and iden- Orientation Phase. In the first phase stu- tify the key problem the school board in the dents learn about a perplexing or controversial district must address. Each group should write issue, which centers around the conflict over hair a short statement that explains what the prob- length between an eight-year-old boy (supported lem is. For example, "The school board's prob- by his parents) and a local Texas school board. lem is a lawsuit by the student's parents on the The students, in adopting the role of the school basis of sex discrimination. The parents argue board, will address and resolve the issue, if possi- that the length-of-hair rule applies to boys ble. However, before students learn any specifics, only and is, therefore, discriminatory" the teacher asks the class to establish a dress/ 8.State that each group represents members of appearance code for an elementary school in the Texas school board. They must confront Texas. Students should have no prior knowledge the issue and contemplate the problem. of the actual problems faced by the particular Texas school board. Hypothesis Phase. This phase of the Social The teacher implements the lesson using the Studies Inquiry Model asks students to form a following guidelines: hypothesis about the dress code issue. In this 1. Divide the class into groups of approximatelycontext students are concerned with analyzing five students each. and reflecting on: What is a desirable code of 2.Inform the class that each group, acting as apersonal appearance in school? How will the

69 79 The situation described in the given example concerns Toungate v. Bastrop independent School District, 842 S.W. 2d 823 (Texas App.1992) School's policy makes boy with ponytail a loner By Christy Hoppe Dallas Morning News

BASTROP, Texas For six weeks, Zach But, with all the logic of his age, he argues for Toungate has jumped off the bus in the scattered his ponytail. morning light and said goodbye to his elemen- "I just want it. I like the way my hair looks." tary school classmates. September Toungate said she has listened to He heads, alone, to his dreary 10- by 13-foot arguments from the Mina Elementary School classroom, its windows covered with butcher principal and school board members, but "they paper, and sits in one of the six chairs. He eats didn't give me any reasonable answer, other than there because he's not allowed in the lunchroom. that they want all little boys to look exactly alike." During recess he goes to the blacktop, but Appearance, she said, is for the parents to plays by himself, bouncing a basketball his moth- decide. Her son's hair is well-groomed, and he er gave him. He cannot attend the art and choir has the right to wear it as he likes. classes he liked. "I'm not going to make him cut his hair," said What separates 8-year-old Zachariah from the mother, who at 29 is too young to have been his classmates is a wispy 7 inches of hair. part of the rebellious 1960s. Zach has a ponytail. Not much of one, With both children in school, she is studying because the thin strand falls from the base of his to be a nurse. hairline. Otherwise, he wears a burr. "I'm trying real hard to raise my children to But the tail is enough to violate a Bastrop not judge someone by appearance, not by skin Independent School District dress code adopted color, not by sex, not by hair length, not by any- this year that prohibits a boy's hair from touch- thing but what's inside of them," she said. ing his shirt collar. Bastrop School Superintendent Paul Fleming September and Stanley Toungate have admits that the ponytail flapnow at six weeks refused to force their son to cut the tail that he and with no end in sighthas "gone a lot further loves. The school board has refused to make an than it should have gone." exception to the rule and since Oct. 5 has rele- He has rejected compromises offered by the gated Zach to an "alternative education setting," family of pinning up the offending tail, tucking it reserved primarily for disciplinary problems. under a shirt collar or allowing Zach to wear a wig. The battle of wills is now being fought in Fleming said there is only one solution, and court while Zach sits alone each day, taught by a it is easy: Cut the tail. procession of substitute teachers. "It would be a simple matter to cut the child's In his isolation, Zach is learning mostly hair and fight the rule," he said. "If the board about principle and how much it can cost, even a were to change its mind or the court were to rule third-grader. we could not set hair-length rules, then the kid He says he misses his schoolmates, the choir could grow it back." class he barely got to attend and his regular The Toungates have sued the school district teacher. He also has awakened at night, moaning for discrimination, alleging that the hair-length and scared. rules are gender-based and unfairly apply solely "I've had bad nightmares," Zach said at home to boys. in Bastrop, 30 miles east of Austin. "I dreamed I Fleming said the courts long have upheld the was in that room and I couldn't get out and it kept right of school boards to establish and enforce getting smaller and it crushed me. It was bad." dress codes.

Reprinted by permission of the Dallas Morning News.

70 SO BEST COPY AVAILABLE establishment of such a code affect the school1 3. Summarize the position of each group on board's dilemma? the blackboard, and lead a discussion on the Hypotheses may be rich and varied, and such differences between groups. One group may diversity should be encouraged. Some students decide that the boy should be allowed in may hypothesize about the amount of control school because he does not violate their any organization should have over individuals, dress code, whereas another group would while others may hypothesize that a clearly not allow the boy into the school because he defined code is essential to the smooth function- does. Encourage discussion also about the ing of any organization. criteria used in making their final decision.

Definition Phase. A pervasive feature of Evidencing Phase. The purpose of the evi- the Social Studies Inquiry Model is the need to dencing phase is to allow students to test their define words and expressions. Through this les- hypotheses through the use of available evidence son, such terms as"sensible," "appropriate," and resources. This may require students to use "offensive," "liberal," "conservative," and "objec- newspapers and magazines as a resource and to tionable" may be expressed and must be defined. research in libraries, places of work, and areas of Students should be aware that terminology may special interest. They may use legal precedents, be misleading, confusing, or vary in meaning state regulations, the opinions of public figures, depending on the context. Such considerations and codes of practice, which are examples that are central in the discussion of controversial issues form part of a culture and its norms and will help where language often is value-laden. For example, students understand a wider decision framework. what is considered "shocking" to one individual Students must engage actively in the process of may be considered "liberal" by another, and what social inquiry and not learn exclusively from is considered "suitable attire" differs from individ- materials provided by the teacher. ual to individual. 1 4. Encourage students to find evidence that 9. Seek definitions from each group based on will help them more clearly evaluate the the language of each dress code. Clarify the problem. In this instance, students would be meaning of each. Reach consensus for under- expected to locate and examine their own standing. school dress/appearance code; to investigate other workplace codes; to identify state reg- Exploration Phase. During this phase the ulations; to discuss such issues with peers, students develop and extend the drafted codes. parents, and other community members; to The aim of exploration is to "locate internal research the issue by investigating any schol- inconsistencies, develop a coherent theory, and arly research on the issue (e.g., studies on extend the search toward needed evidence" (332). the relationship of appearance and dress to A part of such critical reflection is challenging student achievement); or to uncover previ- and reevaluating the original statements and ous examples of such controversies and con- positions. The teacher should emphasize that sider how they were resolved in court cases modifying, reconsidering, or possibly abandoning and rulings. earlier positions is a sign of careful analysis and 1 5. Allocate discussion time for students to critical thinking. share and discuss their evidence both in their 1 0. Ask each group to reexamine its draft and, original group and with the class as a whole. where appropriate, alter its code in the light of classroom discussion. The group should Generalization Phase. The final phase of the spend time considering how the boy's situa- Social Studies Inquiry Model requires the stu- tion relates to the proposed code. Each dents to try to resolve the problem. If they were group should discuss the issue and how each the school board, what would they do? What group member would react if they werewould be the implications of such actions? How actually on the school board. does their position relate to their hypotheses 1 1. Guide each group in preparing a statementregarding, for example, the nature of institution- describing how they would resolve the issue. al power? The students should realize that this 1 2. Encourage each group to share its decision controversial issue is difficult to resolve and that with the class as a whole. a resolution may not be possible.

71 C) Dress Code

The actual dress code at the time the ponytail controversy began. Students are expected to come to school well-groomed and appropriately dressed every day. Hair will be clean and properly combed, and clothing will be neat and clean. Boys' hair must meet the following guidelines: The rear length must be no longer than to the bottom of a regular shirt collar. On the sides, the bottom of the earlobe must be visible. In the front, the length cannot be longer than the top of the eyebrows. Afro style is limited to a maximum of 3 inches in length. Special rules about dress include: 1.All students may wear shorts. 2. T-Shirts with writings or drawings on them are not to be vulgar or in poor taste. Fish net shirts and tank tops are not acceptable. 3. Shirts must be hemmed and cover the shoulders and stomach. 4. Boys are not allowed to wear earrings or studs. S. Thongs are unacceptable footwear. 6. Headgear will not be permitted inside buildings (i.e., hats, caps, etc.) during the regular school day. Parents can help the children participate in the physical education program by dressing them appropriately. The P.E. teacher recommends tennis shoesboots and sandals are not safe. Girls may wear pants or shorts under dresses. The teacher further recommends pullover tops and pants so children can move freely on the floor without the discomfort of buttons and zippers. When purchasing school clothes, please keep in mind these guidelines.

1 6.Encourage the students. to arrive at a best members of the group contribute less than possible outcome based on their hypotheses, the others? If so, why was this? codes of appearance, deliberations, and the Did your group change its mind or reexam- evidence supporting or rejecting their posi- ine its position at any phase? Why did this tions. Their final proposal should not be occur? Did any particular individual or described as a "conclusion" but a "general- argument change your point of view? ization," which is tentative in nature and Did any particular evidence strongly influ- may be changed in light of new evidence, ence you? Which evidence? Why? further reflection and continued inquiry 1 7.Require each student, if you wish, to pre- The Inquiry Process. Central to this inquiry pare a final class paper that outlines themodel, and even more important than the final process his or her group used to arrive at the outcome, is the process the students utilized. As final "generalization." a consequence, the teacher must spend time dis- 1 8.Distribute copies of Document 1 and cussing, analyzing and evaluating the process of Document 2, which are the 1990 and 1993- inquiry as it evolves. 94 codes of appearance in the actual Texas 1 9.Conduct a final discussion that focuses on court case, Toungate v. Bastrop Independent the whole issue of dress codes and student School District. Ask students to compare the rights. Revolve it around questions such as: two codes and comment upon their differences. Pose to students whether the new What rights do students have at school? code will likely prevent future controversies What authority do schools have over students? over dress and appearance from arising. The How important do you think appearance is teacher may ask through the process: in society? Do you think that "giving in" to parents In drawing up your code of personal appear- would be better than causing a great deal ance, did you all agree? Over which issues of tension and controversy? was there disagreement? What happened Are there some principles that should be when you disagreed? upheld by institutions? Did any one individual dominate the group? What are the most important principles Why do you think this was? Did some and rules that should govern student

72 82 Student Grooming and Dress Code

1993-94 codes as set out in the Parent/Student Handbook. Generally, a strong relationship exists between a student's appearance and his or her conduct. Good grooming and appropriate dress are encouraged and expected of the students enrolled in the district. A student's grooming, dress, and conduct not only relate to the student, but reflect on the student's family, school, and community. The following shall apply: Administrative Guidelines or grooming that in the principal's judge- up will not be permitted. 1.The principal will be the authority in ment may reasonably be expected to 17. Cut-offs, biker shorts, and wind shorts, all decisions regarding the grooming cause disruption of or interference with or warm-ups are not to be worn to and dress code. Any provision not cov- normal school operations. school. (Warm-ups that resemble slacks ered in the code, or any interpretation 3. See-through attire will not be permitted. are permitted.) of the code, or any exception to the code 4.The midriff must be covered in a normal 18.Walking shorts are permitted, and must will be the administration's responsibility. standing, sitting, or moving position. be to the bottom of the fingertips when 2.Upon recommendations from the princi- 5. Clothes are to be worn only as originally standing straight and arms are held pal, the Superintendent has the authority designed by the manufacturer. down. to add to the dress code prohibition 6.Appropriate undergarments must be of any identifying marks, hairstyles, worn but not visible. Specific Guidelines clothing, etc. associated with gangs 7.Shoes must be worn. for Boys' Grooming or gang activities. 8.Metal or hard taps on shoes will not be 1.Faces must be completely clean shaven 3.The grooming and dress code applies permitted. (no beards or mustaches of any style). to all students enrolled in the Bastrop 9.Sunglasses may not be worn inside 2.Hair must be neat and clean. The rear Independent School District while at the building unless prescribed by a doctor length must be no longer than to the school, or while participating in a school for inside use. bottom of a regular shirt collar. On the sponsored or school-related activity. 10. Jewelry that in the principal's judge- sides, the bottom of the earlobe must 4.Compliance with the grooming and dress ment would interfere with instruction be visible. In the front, the length cannot code will be checked each day. or disrupt the regular educational be longer than the top of the eyebrows. program will not be permitted. Afro style is limited to a maximum of General 11. Headbands, neckbands, legbands, 3 inches in length. 1.Cleanliness will be expected at all times. or armbands will not be permitted. 3.Wearing of earrings or studs is not 2.Students shall come to school looking 12.Hats and caps may not be worn inside allowed. clean and neat and wearing clothing the building. and exhibiting grooming that will not be 13.Visible tattoos that, in the principal's Specific Guidelines a health or safety hazard to the student judgment would interfere with instruc- for Girls' Grooming or others. The district prohibits pictures, tion or disrupt the regular educational 1.Split skirts for girls may be worn if they emblems, or writings on clothing that program, will not be permitted. meet the dress requirements for length. are lewd, offensive, vulgar, or obscene, or 14.Shirts and blouses must be kept proper- 2.Girls' skirt lengths must be no shorter that advertise or depict tobacco products, ly zipped or buttoned, and no low-neck than 3 inches above the knee. alcoholic beverages, drugs or any other or low-back garments will be permitted. 3.Dresses with spaghetti straps or exposed substance prohibited under policy 15. Tank tops will not be worn. backs are not permitted. FNCF(L) and prohibits any clothing 16.Clothes that have holes or that are cut

behavior in schools? tions, totalitarianism, and individual freedom. Should parents have more power in deciding After following the Social Studies Inquiry the nature of their child's education? model and reflecting on the outcomes and Should children of different sexes be treated processes involved, the student will have actively differently in school? Why? Why not? participated in the intellectual process of critical What, if any, human rights do you think inquiry, and the classroom will have in effect are denied to students in schools? become a laboratory for actively reflecting and Such a discussion provides an important resolving social issues. entry point into fundamental political, social, philosophical, and historical issues centered on subjects such as civil disobedience, the need for Reference control for organizational efficiency, the nature of Wassialas, Byron G., and C. Benjamin Cox.Inquiry in authority, human rights, the stability of institu- Social Studies. New York McGraw-Hill Books, Inc., 1966.

73 Orientation at a position on the issue Establish groups A representative from each group shares the Groups decide on a code for student appearance group's position with the class in school Discuss and evaluate the groups' positions in Present codes for class discussion class discussion Formulate or modify codes in groups after discussion Evidencing Introduce newspaper article Students seek evidence on the issue Identify the problems posed by the social issue Students share the evidence they accumulate in covered in the newspaper article group and class discussion Groups become the school board and address the problem Generalizations Form generalizations Hypothesis Discuss generalizations in group discussion Students create hypotheses in groups Groups justify their decisions to the class (with decisions being grounded in the best evidence Exploration available) Students relate their codes and hypotheses to Assess the process of inquiry the problem faced by the school board Discuss the entire problem in relation to wider Discuss the problem in groups in order to arrive social issues

74 84 CRITICAL PEDAGOGY AND SOCIAL EDUCATION

bq Cleo .Cherrqholmes

CONSENSUS AND CONFLICT forms always poses a threat to whatever civil peace and stability we are fortunate enough to Critical pedagogy is a vague and ambiguous have. By demarcating consensus from conflict, term. It gained currency in England in thewe are encouraged to emphasize the consensual late 1960s in reference to teaching prac- and agreeable aspects of social order, thereby tices related to the "new sociology of edu- turning our attention away from its darker side. cation." Beginning in the 1970s and Our collective fears of social distrust, civil unrest, extending to the present in the United and the potential for societal disintegration, this States, critical pedagogy has referred, more oranswer goes, is so threatening that it is tempting less, to the teaching complement of curriculum simply to ignore them. theory's"reconceptualist" movement (Pinar A consensus-conflict distinction, however, is 1975). This movement has never been unified artificial and quickly deconstructs. Social consen- and continues to defy easy description. In thesus always presumes and cannot exist without United States it is historically related to suchsocial conflict. Social consensus, whenever we "reconstructionist" educators of the pre-World find it, exists because previous conflicts have been War II period as John Dewey and Charles Rugg. resolved or put aside, at least for the time being. It also exhibits influences from various westernBut, unless we happen to be living in a utopia European intellectual developments that range at the end of history, we are likely, I believe, to from phenomenology to critical theory to post- experience renewed social disagreements and structural and postmodern thought. Recently, conflicts that, in turn, will be superseded by social critical pedagogy in the United States has incor- agreements. The link between this argument and porated ideas from literary criticism and theory, critical pedagogy is that the latter assumes that various strands of feminist thought and practice, 1.criticismis important and integral to a and pragmatism. Even though critical pedagogyresponsible study of society and to a healthy has been written about from time to time by,social order, and 2. criticism itself raises the among others, Henry Giroux (1983), Kennethspecter of social unrest and conflict that brings Kickbusch (1985), Nancy Lesko (1988), Walterrelated fears and anxieties from the background Parker (1986), Thomas Popkewitz (1980),into the foreground. Bill Stanley (1992), Tony Whitson (1991), and Critical pedagogy is complex and marked by the author (Cherryholmes 1991), it has nevernumerous disagreements and contradictions. been a major theme in social education. In this chapter I have chosen to highlight only Why should this be the case? Why should a few of its themesthose that draw from lin- social educators show little interest in these guistic philosophy, critical theory, and pragma- approaches to thinking about society and its tism. My central focus is on criticism because problems? Here is one answer. When they thinksocial education, as we know it, has always about society, many social educators, along with assumed the importance of social criticism even social scientists and historians, implicitly, if notthough social educators historically have given it explicitly, distinguish between social consensus little attention. and social conflict. Social conflict in its various

nr Language, Speech, and Criticism deconstruct the fact-value distinction that has Language and speech are almost never dis- been an article of faith for decades among social cussed, analyzed, or criticizedand are rarely educators. Here is the argument: mentionedas a part of social education. This is 1. Statements are actions. surprising because our social life, our knowledge 2. Actions cannot be taken without reference of it, and our teaching about it cannot exist with- to criteria, standards, or values. out language and speech. Social educators use 3. Therefore, values always precede speech. language to describe, explain, cajole, or praise, but neither language nor speech are subjects of study. Whenever one makes a statement, it is because It is important to distinguish between language one believes it is worth making; it is worth making and speech in developing this line of argument. more than another statement; it is the kind of Language is constituted by words and the rules statement one is entitled to make; and so on. by which they are put together. A seemingly infi- Factual statements, because they are state- nite number of things can be spoken or written. ments, are also actions that are products of value Speech, however, refers to what is spoken andjudgments. Factual statements, such as "for com- written. Social education makes up only a tinyparable work women tend to be paid less than fraction of what can be said. A critical social edu- men," or "for the last twenty years, an increasing cator is interested, among other things, in this percentage of children have been living below the question: Why do we choose to say the things we poverty line," embody value judgments. do and not something else? One assumption about language that seems Teachers and students can expose and criti- to animate social education is that language is a 11 cally inquire into the values, beliefs, ideolo- value-neutral medium that educators necessarilygies, and points of view represented in the use but is not itself profitable to study. This is factual claims of their textbooks, curriculum sometimes called a descriptivist view of language guidelines, tests, and courses of study. because it conceptualizes language in a descrip- Social studies textbooks often purport to pro- tive way to make statements that are true or falsevide simply a "factual" account of, say, U.S. histo- or meaningless. In this view language is passive ry, world geographic regions, or world history. it can be used to say things but not do things.Textbooks describe and sometimes attempt to This view of language, which has had and retains explain political developments, military victories widespread intuitive appeal, has been discredited, and losses, and cultural differences, for example. however, for forty years. Why it is flawed pro- Because values always precede speech, social vides some insight into the reasons many criticalstudies textbooks may be factually correct but educators are trying to reconceptualize importantthey are not value-free. Textbooks result from aspects of curriculum and teaching. choices about who and what to include, who and J. L. Austin (1968) in How To Do Things with what to exclude, what to praise, what to con- Words pointed out that many statements are nei- demn, and so on. Notwithstanding the fact that ther true nor false nor meaningless. Statements they are the products of many decisions, text- like "I bet you that Bill Clinton will be reelected books usually present themselves (are presented president in 1996" are actions. They are not sim- by publishers and authors) as providing a "natur- ply true or false, and certainly they are not mean- al" account of their subject"this is just the way ingless. This line of investigation leads to thethings are," "this is just the way things hap- conclusion that all statements are actions. Here is pened." But historical events can be described, as the reasoning. The word statement is structurally can any event or object, in an indefinitely large ambiguous. A statement means, in one sense, number of ways. Each description and each text- "what is stated"; this is speech as description. Abook presents a point of viewone among many. statement means, in another sense, "the act of stat-When reading textbooks, social educators should ing"; this is speech as action. Every statement is an occasionally think of themselves and their stu- action, and some statements can be true or false. dents as social critics instead of simply viewing What, one is entitled to ask, does this have totextbooks as authoritative sources of information. do with social education? One implication is that Critical educators would like to see social educa- values always precede speech, and a second is thattion come into the intellectual latter half of the values always precede facts. The effect is totwentieth century by discarding the outdated

16 descriptivist view of language and the fact-value ing criticism and understanding. distinction. Power and Criticism Clarity and Criticism It would be an excessively narrow and ideal- To say the obvious, communication is as istic view of criticism if it were to be restricted to important to social education as language. It also the observation that facts are not value-free. is often overlooked. Whether communicationWhere do our values come from? The values and takes the form of textbooks, classroom interac- preferences of teachers and students come from tions, computer exercises or simulations, or oth- somewhere; they do not appear out of nowhere. erwise, it is easily taken for granted. But clarityThe knots of power in which all of us find our- and cooperation are important both for the effec- selves are the source of many of our values and tive communication of ideas and information and preferences. By power I mean asymmetrical for their criticism. H. P. Grice, a noted British social,political, and material relationships analytic philosopher, believes that much of our among people that lead some to be rewarded and communication is a cooperative effort with a others to be deprived. These inequalities, in turn, common purpose. His observations about effec- are based on differences among people in pos- tive communication, which he summarizes in sessions or characteristics, and power is deter- what is called Grice's Cooperative Principle, are mined by the relationships that emanate from usefulinthinkingcriticallyaboutsocial these differences. In this way power becomes education. Grice's (1975, 48-52) Cooperative embedded and crystallized in social institutions Principle has four parts: and cultural habits because such inequalities 1. Quantity (provide as much information as often are perpetuated from one generation to the needed and no more); next (Cherryholmes 1988). 2.Quality (avoid saying something that you Social education is one social institution and believe is false or for which you have no collection of habits that can either contribute to evidence; these inequalities and our beliefs about them or 3.Relation (make it relevant); and can expose them to open deliberation and criti- 4.Manner (be orderly, brief, clear, and avoid cism. Because social education purports to edu- ambiguity and obscurity). cate about what we know and understand about society, it necessarily includes education in the As odd as it might seem, perhaps one of the virtues that support existing power structures. most productive uses of criticism occurs in theThese virtues and power arrangements make our context of cooperation. An important effect ofsociety what it is. Critical educators believe that cooperation in communication isto produceit is important to open up this aspect of social clarity. At its simplest, clarity in communication education and make it an explicit part of the cur- will lead to agreement or disagreement, either of riculum instead of letting it remain hidden. which lays the basis for future intellectual development and understanding. Grice's principle is OD Teachers and students can critically useful in avoiding disagreements brought about 111111.mquffe into the exercise and effects of by foggy, fuzzy, ambiguous, or obscure communi- power in society as well as how power operates cation that might otherwise pose as criticism. to constitute social studies education (text- 111 Teachers should promote clarity in class-books, curriculum guides, tests, scopes and 1111. room interactions in order to enhance criti-sequences, etc.). cal insights or, at least, indicate when clarity is One effect of discussing and criticizing the not desirable. effects and exercise of power in social studies Sometimes, to be sure, we desire to be playful, education is to promote social self-understand- obscure, and poetic in what we say in order to ing. Here is the line of reasoning. For an individ- explore ideas and their consequences. But as we ual to be socialized into a societyto be a mem- wend our way through the mazes of our thoughtsber of society as it wereshe must first learn and and arguments, it is useful to distinguish betweenthen explicitly accept its social norms and values. disagreements that arise from our inability toBut we are rarely remindedor rarely choose to express ourselves clearly and disagreements about remind ourselvesthat our society is the out- ideas themselves. Clarity is important in advanc- come of a series of choices in addition to hap-

77 8 penstance. Our societies give the appearance of 4. The speaker and hearer agree on the values and being "natural"that this is just the way they norms of what is said. (Habermas 1979, 65) are and could not be otherwise. But things could be otherwise. For example, freedom of expression The first and second criteria, for the most and congregation, which are in the First Amend- part, are minimum requirements if social educa- ment, could have been excluded from the Bill oftion is to occur at all. If classroom communica- Rights. Had this happened, our current conceptions are not understandable or if someone's tions of political protest, legitimate scope of the sincerity isquestioned, normal interaction is mass media, and definitions of pornography, for interrupted. These interruptions, Habermas con- example, would likely be different. By criticallytends, can be rectified by further communication. inquiring into the exercise and effects of powerIf words are used that are new or complicated, that structure society, teachers and students can one offers explanations and elaborations until an understand more fully who they are as members acceptable level of understanding is achieved. If of society, how things got that way, and become one's sincerity is doubted, the problem is solved increasingly aware of the existence of alternatives. likewise; communication continues until the Values precede facts, and power precedes speech. question of intention is resolved.

Criticism and the Classroom If Teachers and students can monitor and Social educators are sometimes seduced into 0 criticize their classroom interactions in believing that their classroom is not part of those terms of the biases, values, prejudices, and aspects of society that are proper subject matter points of view, including those expressing the for their curriculum. The temptation is to believe perspectives of class, gender, ethnicity, age, etc. that what they should be studying is "outside" When the third and fourth criteria for normal and not "inside" the classroom. This is based, interaction become problematictruthfulness however, on a false distinction between those and normative agreementit becomes much "subjects" who study society and the "objects" ofmoredifficulttobring aboutresolution. their study. This is one form of the subject- Habermas's arguments along these lines, howev- object distinction that characterizes much of er, suggest what social educators can try in their modern thinking about the nature of the socialclassrooms. He has yet to deal with normative sciences; it would be surprising if it were notdisagreement in detail, but in the case of truth- shared by many social educators. That people fulness, he proposes that we should proceed to widely believe and act upon a distinction what he calls critical discourse. He acknowledges between subject and object perpetuates an ideol- that speech is shaped and formed by values, ogy of control. The problem with the distinction power, ideology, ignorance, and bias. Given this, is that it is not possible to draw a firm and clear how does one move the communication to agree- distinction between what is "inside" and what is ing about what is truthful and not distorted or "outside" the classroom. Teachers and students biased? What is required is an ideal speech situ- are products of the same historical and social ation. He poses: If we could describe a speech sit- trends and processes that mark the larger social uation (classroom interaction) that is not distort- world. Classrooms are distinguished by differ- ed, what would it look like? Here is his answer: ences in authority, expertise, gender, ethnicity, 1. The discourse should be non-dominated and age, and abilityas is the larger world. symmetrical where every participant, teacher Jurgen Habermas, an important contempo- and students, is accorded equal status and rary German philosopher and critic, has outlined power. a theory of communicative competence that sug- 2. Each participant may make any comment, gests a number of avenues that social educators challenge any statement, question any can take if they should choose to investigate how theoretical or ethical orientation. they and their students interact. He argues that3. All interests must be represented. normal communicative interaction proceeds 4. The discourse cannot be allowed to turn into smoothly as long as four criteria are satisfied. a contest. Voting, debating, and other strategic 1. What is said is understandable. behaviors and outcomes are prohibited. 2. The speaker is sincere. 5. The goal is to follow the best argument until 3. What is said is truthful. consensus is achieved. (Habermas 1979)

78 Critical discourse is demanding. Social edu- into the context of its application. cators should attempt critical discourse only on 2.Pragmatists think holistically. They try irregular and, perhaps, rather rare occasions. But to avoid fragmenting tasks, routines, and critical discourse is well suited for teaching social responses because to do so is to ignore some issues because the latter invite the controversy consequences and, as a result, may become and disagreement for which critical discourse is less pragmatic. designed. On those occasions when the norms of3.Pragmatists do not make sharp distinctions critical discourse are invoked, the power and between fact and value or theory and prac- interests of the society and classroom become tice. This is because the consequences of quickly illuminated. any set of factual statements have evaluative implications and each value position leads Pragmatism, Aesthetics, and Criticism to some facts instead of to others. Americanpragmatists,beginning with 4.Pragmatists are fallibilists. They assume that Charles Sanders Peirce and William James at the whatever they think they know and believe turn of the century and continuing through John could be in error. They expect that whatever Dewey and into the present to Richard Rorty, strategies they pursue will at some time be Donald Davidson, and Cornel West, have found wanting. brought criticism into the public arena in a num- 5. Pragmatists believe in democracy. ber of creative ways. Here is Peirce's 1905 version This is related to the earlier discussion of of the pragmatic maxim: Habermas's critical discourse. If some people and their critical perspectives are excluded The method prescribed in the [pragmatic] from our conversations, then we are more maxim is to trace out in the imagination the likely to overlook possibly some conse- conceivable practical consequencesthat quences that may turn out to be important is, the consequences for deliberate, self-con- in achieving our purposes. trolled conductof the affirmation or 6.Pragmatists are guided by the aesthetics of denial of the concept; and the assertion of ordinary experience. The consequences they the maxim is that herein lies the whole of seek are pleasurable, joyful, satisfying, pro- the purport of the word, the entire concept. ductive, beautiful, ethical, efficacious, and (Thayer 1984, 493) fit together. 7.Therefore, criticism from a pragmatic per- Many implications of Peirce's maxim for crit- spective is a continuing conversation and icism in social education are quite straightfor- experiment, a discourse on the consequences ward. For example, if one is interested in deter- of thinking, if you will, about what is beauti- mining the meaning of a policy proposal or court ful, what our ideas mean, what democracy decision or administrative ruling or an interpre- means, and how we wish to live our lives. tation of an historical event, one proceeds by estimating its consequences. By focusing on the The pragmatists address, I believe, the ques- practical consequences of an idea or proposal, tion that animates social education as well as crit- pragmatists contend, many needless disagree- ical pedagogy: Why do we do what we do? Their ments can be avoided. answer: In order to lead beautiful, satisfying, productive, and pleasurable lives. It is remarkable Teachers and students should pragmatically how far removed most of the time we are from appraise the meaning of social phenomenapragmatism and its aesthetic impulses. Evidence and the aesthetics of ordinary experience, con- for this last observation is provided by the fact sidering what kind of society they wish to live that we rarely pose questions of aesthetic conse- in and what kind of lives they wish to live. quence either to ourselves or to others. Perhaps If criticism is pursued pragmatically, a numberpragmatism, aesthetics, and the criticism they of implications follow. Here is an abbreviated list: require are too demanding to be seriously includ- 1. Pragmatists do not make sharp distinctions ed in social education. If that is the case, all of us, between the text of a concept or idea and its I believe, will be the lesser for it. context. In order to understand what an idea means, pragmatically speaking, is to put it

79 BO References Austin, J. L. How To Do Things with Words. New York Oxford University Press, 1968. Cherryholmes, Cleo H. Power and Criticism: Poststructural Investigations in Education. New York Teachers College Press, 1988. Cherryholmes, Cleo H. "Critical Research and Social Studies Education." In Handbook of Research on Social Studies Teaching and Learning. edited by James Shaver, 41-55. New York Macmillan Publishing Co., 1991. Giroux, Henry. (1983). Theory and Resistance in Education: A Pedagogy for the Opposition. Boston, MA: Bergin and Garvey, Publishers, Inc. Grice. H. P. "Logic and Conversation." In Vol. 3. of Syntax and Semantics, edited by Peter Cole and Jerry Morgan, 41-58. New York Academic Press, 1975. Habermas, Jurgen. Communication and the Evolution of Society. Boston: Beacon Press, 1979. James, William. Pragmatism. 1907. Indianapolis, Ind.: Hackett Publishing Co., 1981. Kickbusch, Kenneth. "Ideological Innocence and Dialogue: A Critical Perspective on Discourse in the Social Studies," Theory and Research in Social Education 13, no. 3 (1985): 45-56. Lesko, Nancy. Symbolizing Society: Stories, Rights and Structure in a Catholic High School. London: Falmer Press, 1988. Parker, Walter. "Justice, Social Studies and the Subjectivity/Structure Problem," in Theory and Research in Social Education 14, no. 4 (1986): 277-295. Pinar, William. Curriculum Theorizing: The Reconceptualists. Berkeley, Calif: McCutchan Publishing, Co., 1975. Popkewitz, Thomas. "Global Education as a Slogan System," in Curriculum Inquiry 10, no. 3 (1980): 303-316. Stanley, William. Curriculum for Utopia: Social Reconstructionism and Critical Pedagogy in the Postmodern Era. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1992. Whitson, Tony. Constitution and Curriculum. London: Falmer Press, 1991.

HO 90 DIS USSION METHODS IN AN SSUES-CENTERED CURRICULUM

bq Jef Passe and Ronald W. Evans

Classroom discussion is an essential element In other words, it can negate the very curricular of an issues-centered curriculum. Wilen goals it was designed to strengthen. and White (1991) define discussion as "an educative and structured group conversa- Teacher Impartiality tion between teacher and students about A longstanding belief by many educators is subject matter at the higher cognitive that teachers must maintain strict neutrality in all levels." Discussion provides opportunities for stu- controversial discussions. In an issues-centered dents to reach several educational goals, including curriculum, which is built upon controversy, the a depth of knowledge, rationality, commitmentteacher's role would be considerably restricted to fairness, development of critical thinking skills,if implemented in such an environment. Kelly a strengthening of oral expression and listening (1986) takes issue with this approach, citing sev- comprehension, development of insight into theeral impediments, the most practical of which is values of oneself and others, and practice inthe difficulty inherent in maintaining a neutral the democratic process (Bridges 1979). Without posture. Can teachers conduct a discussion on an discussion, an issues-centered curriculum is issue that is near and dear to their hearts, such as unlikely to progress past a cursory review of the abortion rights, racial discrimination, or teacher topic and with shallow reflection. salaries, without tipping off their feelings Classroom discourse has long been present inthrough body language, voice inflection, or schools, but not always in a manner that pro-words? Most adults would agree that they could motes the goals of an issues-centered curriculum not do so. Besides, why would they want to? (Wilen and White 1991). Teachers who choose One popular reason for maintaining neutrali- to emphasize the study of issues must considerty is the threat of indoctrination of the students the following factors: by the teachers. Teacher influence over student Teacher impartiality opinions, however, may be overrated. Research Creating an atmosphere conducive on the development of political socialization has to discussion yet to show convincing evidence that schools, Choice of topics negatively or positively, affect students' attitudes Background knowledge toward political issues (Nelson 1991). The role of The role of the teacher the family, however, is certainly a powerful one, Teacher questioning especially in the early years (Sunal 1991); the Discussion management influence of mass media (Splaine 1991), peers Discussion format (Cusick 1991), and the church must also be con- Concluding the discussion sidered. Without more definitive research findings, it must be concluded that political socializa- If handled properly, classroom discussion cantion is a complex process with multiple factors. be instrumental in student growth and, ultimate- One teacher among the dozens that children ly, in the development of democratic citizens.encounter throughout their lives is unlikely to Poor implementation, however, can promote indoctrinate children to a significant degree. cynicism, intolerance, shallowness, and docility. Of greater concern than undue influence by

91 teachers is the development of democratic mod- an impartial climate while students practice the els. Kelly (1986) argues that students need to system. Teachers should usually serve as discus- learn how to present an argument in a responsi- sion leaders because they can also interject ques- ble manner, and that teachers can demonstrate tions, provide background knowledge, and serve how to do so with integrity. Addressing the con- other pedagogical functions in addition to being cern that students' opinions will be unfairly moderator. At certain points, however, allowing swayed by teacher power, Kelly urges teachers to students to serve as moderators aids development exercise impartiality rather than neutrality. Being of their own leadership skills and allows the neutral is refusing to take a side, which adds teacher to take on other roles. nothing to a debate and often frustrates students A third rule, which is more difficult to who are willing to risk sharing their own opin- enforce, is the prohibition of eye rolling, groans, ions. Impartiality, on the other hand, has teachers and other disrespectful behavior. For many stu- sharing their opinions but also encouraging dis- dents, those gestures appear to be ingrained in senting opinions and discouraging parroting.their personalities, but teachers must outlaw Teachers exercising impartiality appear to have them anyway. The best strategy for achieving this the best chance of developing students' skills inmay be a simple appeal to the students' sense classroom discourse, which is a goal that is ofof fair play, with a discussion of the negative greater import than having students agree with consequences on individuals' self-esteem, class- the teacher. The key is remaining true to the room climate, and the quality of the discussion. goals of the curriculum. If teachers can state this rule firmly and enforce it by banishing violators from the discussion, Creating an Atmosphere students will be more willing to appreciate the Conducive to Discussion rule and abide by it. Ultimately, the sense of com- One aspect of impartiality is creating a class- fort that results from a positive classroom climate room climate in which all student opinions will reinforce students' observance of the rules. receive respect. If students believe that their opinions will subject them to ridicule, emotionalChoice of Topics outbursts, or discrimination, they will refuse to Successful discussions seldom arise sponta- participate. To avoid the specter of a discussion in neously. They are more likely to be the result of which no opinions are expressedone of theteacher planning. Choosing the right topic for great teacher nightmaresground rules must be discussion is a primary responsibility for teachers set and enforced. While many of these guidelines in an issues-centered curriculum. Presumably, appear to be mere common sense or basic class-any discussion will be based on topics for which room management, they are often ignored, pro- the students have already indicated an interest. moting student dissatisfaction with classroom Even so, there are other considerations that will discussion. insure maximum discourse. The primary rule for any group discussion is Discussions must be based on an issue that that only one person speaks at a time; basic eti- students seek to explore. Without some sort of quette insures that the speaker's opinions will be intellectual curiosity, the discussion will never heard by everyone, thus avoiding the inefficiencyevolve. Piaget's concept of disequilibration may of debaters repeating one another's points or be helpful for teachers who wish to choose effec- criticizing arguments that were never expressed. tive discussion starters. When people are con- It also precludes the possibility of students inter- fronted with a situation that does not match their rupting one another when a disagreeable state- expectations, they become intent on resolving the ment is made. While calling on raised hands may discrepancyor, equalizing the disequilibration. limit the spontaneity of a conversation, it is the In a discussion, disequilibrationisrelieved standard for any large meeting. through the exchange of views. A second key rule is that discussion be mod- It is not difficult to achieve disequilibration in erated. When students engage in one-to-one an issues-centered curriculum because there are debates without moderation, they quickly digress so many issues that are difficult to resolve: Why into shouting matches with little intellectualdo peoplebe they criminals, assassins, philan- quality. A system of rules, such as Robert's Rulesthropists, political leaders, or teachersbehave of Order, while cumbersome, can help maintain the way they do? What should be done to solve

82 92 the problem of pollution or war, hunger, home-learning about conditions in the nineteenth cen- lessness, or poor school lunches? What will be tury. If teachers are disappointed with the quality the effect of a new health care policy or deficit of student discourse, they would be wise to exam- reduction or in-school suspension? ine how prepared their students are to discuss One key to successful discussion is contro-topics at high levels. While much learning can versy. When students disagree, they may be take place during a discussion, sometimes direct exposed to viewpoints that they never have heard, instruction is necessary beforehand. resulting in further disequilibration. Dialogue between disagreeing parties promotes the self-The Role of the Teacher reflection and analysis that is part of the critical The greatest stress on the teacher in an thinking model (Beyer 1985). This goal can also issues-centered curriculum is promoting an hon- be achieved without controversy, such as when est and fair discussion of the issues. The literature students agree on something but for different on classroom discourse identifies several possible reasons. In planning discussion topics, teachers teacher roles, including moderator, mediator, should anticipate the range of responses students proponent, and devil's advocate, some of which will offer, to insure that sufficient disequilibration may be played simultaneously. Most teachers takes place. take on several roles during the same discussion Certain topics lend themselves to us as what (Roby 1988). Roby (1988) calls "perennial puzzlers." These are Teachers must monitor themselves to deter- the questions that have appeared in scholarly dis-mine the best role to play at certain times. cussions since the earliest days of academia.Without careful self-reflection, teachers may Some are open-ended, focused on defining jus- neglect a role that could be helpful in achieving a tice, truth, or the nature of humankind; others are goal, or worse, may subvert it. As a case in point, more dialectic, such as the nature versus nurturesuppose a student makes a remark that provokes debate. Value conflicts, such as those studied bya strong reaction from several perspectives, such Kohlberg (1984) and Gilligan (1982), almostas blaming the poor for their poverty. When stu- always make good perennial puzzlers: Is stealing dents are eagerly waving their hands to react to permissible to save a life? Is it ever okay to lie? the comment, the teacher may be tempted to Schuncke and Krogh (1983) have developed a strictly serve as a moderator, passively insuring series of decision stories that create value con- that each student is called upon in turn. In a best- flicts that are particularly vexing for children in case scenario, the teacher would have already the lower elementary grades. prepared the students for the expected flood of Most topics in an issues-centered curriculum opinions, by attempting to identify the range of lend themselves to value discussions because they viewpoints. These perspectives could then be involve decisions. Any decision requires a consid- reviewed at the conclusion of the debate. The key eration of conflicting values. Schools, for exam-for the teacher is anticipating the course of the ple, are constantly choosing between rules that discussion by noticing cues. promote efficiency but possibly violate freedom. Another temptation may be to raise the level Communities must sometimes choose between of tension by egging on students. While adding property rights and equality. Individuals must liveliness to the discussion, this strategy could be decide whether to sacrifice short-term benefitsharmful because it may promote an unhealthy for long-term goals. Teachers can promote high- environment for rational discussion. Teachers level discussions if they look for the value con-who are vigilant at monitoring the situation will flicts inherent in issues. promote the goals of the lesson and avoid letting themselves or the students be drawn into a debate Background Knowledge that challenges the opinion but also poisons the Before students can operate at a high level atmosphere. concerning a particular issue, they need background knowledge (Passe 1988). Children cannotTeacher Questioning offer solutions for the problems in the Middle During a discussion, the teacher's strategy of East without an overview of the history, geogra-questioning can be effective in promoting curric- phy, politics, and culture of that region. They can- ular goals. Two key determinants of an effective not delve into the beliefs of slaveholders withoutissues-centered discussion are ownership of the

83 93 answer and leadership of the discussion. If the the room, placing considerable power in the teacher has the answer and the leadership, the hands of the teacher. This results in a type of classroom discourse is more like a quiz show, inquisition, instead of a free-flowing exchange of with no real discussion taking place. If the ideas between students. The atmosphere for gen- teacher has neither the leadership nor the answer, uine conversation becomes perverted when the discourse is more of a free-for-all, with only a teachers talk too much. Besides, the ultimate goal slight chance of achieving depth and focus (Robyis student empowerment that will lead to person- 1988). Ideally, the teacher should maintain dis- al and societal benefits. Those who can listen to cussion leadership with no one person owning one another without the constant intervention of the answer. That permits the teacher to guide a moderator may be begt suited to the demands students toward higher-level thinking. of both the interpersonal and political arenas. During the course of discussion, questions This is not to argue that teachers should should be geared toward higher-level thinking. never interject comments. To skirt the line An open-ended questionsuch as What shouldbetween a discussion and a free-for-all, teachers be done about?avoids either/or choices and should look for opportunities to raise the level of encourages creative problem solving. Affective discourse. At certain points, a probing question questions, such as those addressing the values or the contrasting of student utterances can move behind a decision or the feelings of individuals or the discussion in a positive direction (Klinzing groupswhich can only be inferred and are, and Klinzing-Eurich 1988). Probing questions, therefore, not owned by anyonepromote self- which encourage students to clarify or expand on reflection and insight into the belief systems oftheir ideas, have been correlated with general stu- others (Taba 1967). dent achievement (Brophy and Good 1986). "Wait time" (Rowe 1978) isessential in Such questions are particularly valuable in an promoting the kind of thoughtful, meaningfulissues-centered discussion. Unclear statements discourse that characterizes a strong discussion. are common in public discourse, especially Increasing the length of pauses after a question is among those with little experience at it, such as asked and before the teacher responds to thechildren. A probing question can avoid misun- answer has been shown to significantly increasederstanding and promote communication. student achievement. In an issues-centered One type of probing question that is often discussion, the need for thoughtfulness is para- overlooked is the kind that asks for evidence to mount. Poorly thought-out comments distractsupport a particular point. Teachers can help stu- students from the central issues and often provoke dents strengthen their arguments by asking for animosity. Thoughtfulness is also crucial in maxi- supporting data (Russell 1988). Of course, stu- mizing the degree of participation, as hesitantdents can eventually learn to ask for such evi- students have additional time to prepare theirdence themselves, thus removing the teacher comments. from the role of arbiter. Either way, the result of this strategy should be higher-level arguments. Discussion Management Teacher comments can serve other purposes Because questions are so efficient duringbesides higher-level thought. At times, a humor- recitation, teachers sometimes overuse them inous comment may be needed to reduce tension. discussion (Dillon 1983). A teacher who asks aA lengthy or convoluted discussion may require question usually has the answer, so students tend periodic summaries. Certainly, if the teacher to avoid the creative thought, critical thinking, orbecomes aware of the need for additional back- careful listening to classmates that discussionground information, an interjection is essential entails. A discussion may develop the more nat- (Passe 1984). In general, however, less teacher talk ural tone of a conversation if teachers use wait and more student talk is the goal (Flanders 1970). time or statements instead of questions in response to student comments. Discussion Format Klinzing and Klinzing-Eurich (1988) recom- Many teachers find it helpful to employ a mend that teachers not always respond to studentvariety of formats for structuring different por- answers and instead let other students react.tions of a discussion. In this section we will Providing a response to every student commentdescribe formats that we believe teachers will tends to move the discussion back to the front offind helpful in conducting discussions in both

94 small- and large-group settings. Each person has the opportunity to speak, only Small-group discussion may take a variety ofwhen he or she has the stick. The guidelines are forms, including groupwork and cooperative to talk honestly, be brief (one minute), and speak learning. Small-group discussion may be used for from the heart. brief periods. Dyads or triads, for example, can be Quaker. Studentssitina largecircle. formed to get students talking for a few minutes Individual students may stand and move into the prior to a full-group discussion or other activity. center of the circleone person at a timewhen Groupwork can be employed for portions of a moved to speak. Individuals may speak until they class period, fifteen to forty minutes or more, have completed all they want to say. Other than depending on the question being discussed and the individual speaking, students sit in silence the time necessary for completion. Cooperative throughout the activity; no questions or com- learning groups can continue over the course of a ments are allowed. Objects related to the topic unit, a semester, or even longer. may be used as props for student commentary; Like any discussion, groupwork will be morefor example, on gender issues a Barbie doll or a effective if a few simple guidelines are followed. baseball could be used. As Cohen (1986) writes, small-group discussion Fishbowl. Students work in small groups works best when groups are limited to four or five discussing an issue or problem and send a repre- members, students are placed in heterogeneous sentative from their group to sit inside the fish- groups (based on gender, ethnicity, and academic bowlan inner circle of concentric circles. skills), students are held accountable for the workStudent representatives inside the fishbowl dis- of the group and for their individual contribu- cuss the issue or problem and attempt to reach tions, and students have an interesting decisiona consensus. Students outside the fishbowl may to make or problem to resolve. communicate with their representatives by pass- Large-group discussion can include a varietying notes (Grambs and Carr 1991). of formats and activities ranging from panel Panel Discussion. A small group of students, discussions and debates to mock trials and simu- seated in front of the class, hold a discussion on a lations. Large-group discussion formats vary topic, issue, or problem. Discussion is led by a depending on whether roles are assigned, on moderator, usually the teacher. What will emerge whether the full class participates at all times, andis an informal conversation that is not as formal- on the type of structure guiding the discussion. ly structured as a debate. The discussion can focus on various kinds of Debate. Two teams of students debate a reso- problematic questions related to issues of the past,lution, pro versus con, in front of a class audience. present, or future. Several styles of formatsThe teams are given time to prepare arguments Socratic, council, and Quakerallow for full par- and counter-arguments. An opening statement ticipation of all class members during the entirefrom a member of the pro team is followed by a activity, but also provide strict guidelines forrebuttal statement from the con team, and then participation. In every format, the structured dis-each member of the team is allowed a statement cussion of the full group is followed by commentin turn, followed by rebuttal from the opposition. and question. Following open debate and questions from the floor, team members may be asked to drop or Format Styles reverse their roles. Socratic. Students sit in a horseshoe pattern Role Playing Debate. Thisisdebate (if feasible), with the teacher at the opening of the enhanced with specific biographical or situation- horseshoe or moving about inside. The teacher al roles. A debate on a zoning ruling, for exam- directs questions about a thought-provoking ple, might include an industrialist, a labor leader, selection of text (not a textbook) to individual and an unemployed worker. students, asking them to explain the meaning Role Playing for Social Values. A small of a particular passage, define the issue posed, take group of students prepares for and acts out a skit a stand on the author's viewpoint, react to the portraying a difficult, value-laden issue. Following opinion of another student, or provide evidence to the first enactment, the class discusses alternative support a contention, etc. (Adler 1984). choices, and members of the class are asked to act Council. Students sit in one large circle. Aout their choices and the consequences they think talking stick is passed from student to student. will follow (Shaftel and Shaftel 1967). Variations on Format Styles

There are many other variations on these Allow students time to prepare for the activity formats, including the town meeting, con- by studying their roles, ask questions, etc. gressional debate, presidential cabinet dis- If only a select number of students is involved cussion, and personal decision making. in an activity, appoint "understudies" for key Teachers should keep in mind the follow- roles in case of absence. ing aspects of conducting large-group discussion Write brief role descriptions for students, activities, especially when conducting one of the building in argument and evidence. A preferred more complex ones: option, when feasible, is to have students research their roles or positions. Set a context for the activity, providing sufficient Ask students to think like the people in the roles background for the students so that they know they will play, and to argue from that viewpoint. the key facts and are clear about the key issue Serve as moderator for the activity. After the and its importance. class has gained experience with the exercise, Make sure the central question or resolution is appoint a student as moderator. simple, direct, and clear. The positions to be After the activity, have a debriefing and connect assumed by participants (pro, con, various roles, the issue studied and the method to future etc.) must also be clearly specified. lessons: What have we learned about this topic? Clarify procedures for students in advance and What do we believe now? Why? What have set behavior guidelines. we learned about participating in this type of discussion activity?

Mock Trial. Students assume the roles of ner that maximizes learning. judge (or a panel of judges), lawyers, witnesses, If a discussion involves a variety of opinions, bailiff, jury, etc. After being given role descrip- students need an opportunity to tie the different tions, students conduct a mock trial and juryviewpoints together. Most children are not adept deliberation. at looking at the gestalt of the discussion, and are Simulation. This is an activity in which stu- more likely to focus on particular arguments dents re-create an environment simulating someor incidents. Teachers can help students look social situation of the past or present. This activi- for common or disparate themes by asking them ty involves individual and group decision making. to analyze the discussion. Students can also be asked to create a summary of what was said. Concluding the Discussion It is essential that students perform this func- Most public forums use discussion as ation, rather than the teacher. Students need to method of resolving differences. Political leaders practice the skill and will not do so if the teacher are expected to vote on a course of action and does it for them. Of course, younger children will implement it. Most classroom discussions do not need help in this process, but teachers should still have that expectation. The major emphasis ofavoid putting words into their mouths. Often, schools, and of the issues-centered curriculum inwhen students are asked to analyze or summa- particular, is on process. Therefore, there is no rize, their perceptions are quite different from the harm in students merely agreeing to disagree, but teacher's. This is a perfect opportunity for forma- this is often overlooked. Many classroom discus- tive evaluation. sions end when the bell rings. That usually signi- Summaries and analyses do not have to take fies an enthusiastic class session in which so place in full-class sessions. All too often, it is the many hands were raised and so many ideas brightest or most verbal students who offer sum- abounded that teachers and students lost track ofmaries and analysis while the rest of the class does the time. Having a discussion end because time not attempt to do so. Arranging students in pairs runs out will happen occasionally, but it should or small groups will allow the same processes to be the exception rather than the rule. Teacherstake place, but with more participation. Having have a responsibility to end discussions in a man- students write a summary or analysis in their 96 86 notebooks maximizes the level of participation Cusick, P. A. "Student Groups and School Structure." and also improves the quality of the students' In Handbook of Research on Social Studies Teaching and notes. After all, most students do not take notes Learning, edited by J. P. Shaver. New York during discussions unless the teacher reminds Macmillan, 1991. them to do so at certain points (although the Dillon, J. T. Teaching and the Art of Questioning. knowledge that comes from the discussions may Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa, 1983. be even more valuable than notes based on direct Flanders, N. E. Analyzing Teaching Behavior. Reading, instruction). Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1970. Journal writing is an excellent strategy for Gilligan, C. In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and processing a discussion. This time for contempla- Women's Development. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard tion of the different viewpoints and reflection University Press, 1982. upon the student's own role in the discussion Gilstrap, R. L. 'Writing for the Social Studies." may make for a better understanding of the topic In Handbook of Research on Social Studies Teaching and and of the self. A major body of research has Learning, edited by J. P. Shaver. New York identified student writing as a powerful learning Macmillan, 1991. tool (Gilstrap 1991). Grambs, Jean D., and John C. Carr. Modern Methods in In addition to summarizing, analyzing, and Secondary Education. Fort Worth: Holt, Rinehart and processing discussions, students may also focus Winston, 1991. on subsequent courses of action. Should the dis- Kelly, T E. "Discussing Controversial Issues: Four cussion be continued? Should some sort of reso- Perspectives on the Teacher's Role." Theory and lution be proposed? Is social or political action Research in Social Education,14 (1986):113-38. viable? In other words, what do students want to Klinzing, H. G. and G. Klinzing-Eurich. "Questions, do about the issue that has been discussed? This Responses, and Reactions." In Questioning and question, of course, may lead to an entirely new Discussion: A Multidisciplinary Study, edited by discussion, but it is a worthy one because it J. T. Dillon. Norwood, N. J.: Ablex, 1988. emphasizes that discussion does not have to be Kohlberg. L. Essays on Moral Development, Vol. 2, just for discussion's sake. The Psychology of Moral Development. New York All of these approaches to concluding a dis- Harper and Row, 1984. cussion require time. When there are insufficient Nelson, J. L. "Communities, Local to National, as minutes during a class period to end a discussion Influence on Social Studies Education." In Handbook properly, plans should be made to do so at the of Research on Social Studies Teaching and Learning, beginning of the next sessionotherwise, stu- edited by J. P. Shaver. New York Macmillan, 1991. dents may not grasp the key ideas of the discus- Passe, J. "Developing Current Events Awareness in sion, see their implications, or evaluate the expe- Children." Social Education 52 (1988): 531-33. rience. Teachers who are aware of the time will be ---. "Phil Donahue: An Excellent Model for Leading a more likely to manage the discussion to promote Discussion." Journal of Teacher Education 35 (1984): maximum learning. 43-8. Roby, T W. "Models of Discussion". In Questioning and Discussion: A Multidisciplinary Study, edited by References J. T. Dillon. Norwood, N. J.: Ablex, 1988. Adler, Mortimer. The Paideia Program: An Educational Rowe, M. B. Teaching Science as Continuous Inquiry. Syllabus. New York Macmillan, 1984. 2nd edition. New York McGraw-Hill, 1978. Beyer, B. K. "Critical Thinking: What Is It?" Russell, T L. "Questions and Arguments." In Social Education 49 (1985): 270-76. Questioning and Discussion: A Multidisciplinary Study, Bridges, David. Education, Democracy, and Discussion. edited by J. T Dillon. Norwood, N. J.: Ablex, 1988. Windsor, England: National Foundation for Schuncke, G. M, and S. L. Krogh. Helping Children Educational Research, 1979. Choose. Glenview,Ill.: Scott-Foresman, 1983. Brophy, J. E., and T L. Good. "Teacher Behavior and Shaftel, Fannie R., and George Shaftel. Role Playingfor Student Achievement." In Handbook of Research on Social Values: Decision Making in the Social Studies. Teaching, 3rd edition, edited by M. C. Wittrock. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice Hall, 1967. New York Macmillan, 1986. Splaine, J. E. 'The Mass Media as an Influence on Cohen, Elizabeth. Designing Groupwork. New York Social Studies." In Handbook of Research on Social Teachers College Press, 1986. Studies Teaching and Learning, edited by J. P. Shaver.

87 97 BEST COPYAVAILABLE New York: Macmillan, 1991. Sung, C. S. "The Influence of the Home on Social Studies." In Handbook of Research on Social Studies Teaching and Learning, edited by J. P. Shaver. New York: Macmillan, 1991. Taba, H. Teacher's Handbook for Elementary Social Studies. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1967. Wilen, W. W. and J. J. White. "Interaction and Discourse in Social Studies Classrooms." In Handbook of Research on Social Studies Teaching and Learning, edited by J. P. Shaver. New York Macmillan, 1991.

88 S8 DESININE ISSUE-BASED UNIT PLANS

bJose J. Onosho

Leewenson

I. INTRODUCTION and/or topics. This often leads to fragmented teaching and learning, broad and superficial con- ow to" discussions of planning too tent coverage, and lower-order cognitive tasks. pp often focus on the daily lesson ratherUnits designed around a central issue, however, 11than on the unit's overall design, provide a distinct shape or "backbone" that link whether it be among social studies daily lessons into a cohesive whole.4 A central teachers in schools or in practitionerissue also ensures that students will be faced with journals and even in some instruction- an intellectual challenge, for without a challeng- al methods books. The unit becomes nothing ing task there is little motivation or need to think. more than the sum total of daily lessons address- In addition, the exploration of an issue serves ing various facets of a topic, event or period ofto check content coverage, thereby reducing the time. When this orientation to planning is com- likelihood of fragmented, superficial treatment bined with a bloated curriculum and didacticof subject matter. A reduction in coverage is instruction, is it any surprise that student learn-necessary if students are to develop dispositions ing is fragmentedl, superficial2, and passive3? and skills associated with higher-order thinking While we readily acknowledge that numerous(Newmann, 1988; Onosko, 1991; Wiggins, other barriers in and out of school contribute to 1989). Finally, teachers become facilitators of this kind of student learning (Gross, 1989; student inquiry and knowledge construction Onosko & Newmann, 1994; Shaver, Davis &(rather than dispensers of ready made under- Helburn, 1979), we believe that ill-conceived standings) when units possess a central issue. unit design plays an important role. Consider the potential for fragmentation and In this chapter we provide a 5-part frame-superficial understanding in a unit designed work for issue-based unit planning that enablesaround the topic, The Revolutionary Period. daily lessons to become more than the sum ofAs stated, the topic provides very little direction their parts, and that promotes active, cohesive, for teachers and students. All social, political, in-depth student learning. The five main features religious, geographic, and economic aspects of of the framework are: the period are appropriate for study. (History 1. a central unit issue textbooks usually reflect this encompassing 2. an introductory "grabber" approach.) When a unit lacks focus, too often the 3. lessons that link to the central issue teacher's content selection is diverse, lengthy and 4.richly detailed source material; and, fragmented. Worse yet, no selection at all occurs 5.one or more culminating projects. as the teacher indiscriminately attempts to cover A sample unit plan is also provided to illus- everything. Bewildered students during and after trate this design model. such an experience typically ask: "How does everything fit together?", "I'm confusedwhat II. A Central Unit Issue does this have to do with what we did the other Rationale day?", or, "It seems that all we do is memorize all Too many social studies units are designedthese events from the past." Even many teachers around a list of facts, names, concepts, eventshave difficulty explaining how their daily lessons

9 link together into a coherent whole. Students are Britishsoldiers implicated in the Boston reduced to consumers of fragmented bits ofMassacre? Was France justified in providing aid information and ideas rather than challenged toto the colonists during the Revolution? Could become productive thinkers and problem solvers. the War have been won without the military Compare the above topical approach to an leadership of George Washington? How should issue-based approach framed around the follow- Loyalists have been treated during the war? and, ing question, "Were the Colonists Justified inWas it in the best interest of Native Americans Revolting from England?" Knowing they mustto fight on either side during the War? While work throughout the unit to answer this chal- each of the above issues can provide an opportu- lenging question, students are engaged from the nity for serious inquiry, the sheer number and start.5 Students must learn about the contentious diversity of issues precludes its occurance relations between England and the colonies, unless, of course, a semester is devoted to the assume the perspectives of both sides, considerAmerican Revolution! The result is fragmented the legitimacy of civil disobedience in this and and superficial treatment of complex issues. possibly other contexts, and then decide whetherTypically it is coverage pressure that compels they could support the actions of the revolution- teachers toward overinclusion during unit aries. The central issue enables the teacher anddesign.? Structuring a unit around a central issue students to identify (and therefore narrow) what can check this tendency and ensure directed, content is needed for study (i.e., British and sustained, and challenging inquiry. American actions that generated tension and the Table 1 on the next page offers examples of underlying rationales for these actions), and how topics can be transformed into central issues. provides a purposeful and challenging reason for studying the period (i.e., to take a position on Creating A Good Central Issue the central issue).6 Issues in the social studies can be classified in Not only is it more difficult to control content a variety of ways. Some issues are grounded in when units are structured around a topic ratherthe past (e.g., What alternative, if any, would you than an issue, there is a greater chance that con- recommend to Jackson's "Indian" removal poli- troversy will be minimized or avoided altogether. cy?), others involve the present (e.g., How should For example, the Vietnam War could be taught nuclear waste be disposed?), while others project as a matter-of-fact, "and-then-this-happened" into the future (e.g., What would happen if abor- serialization of events, or students could be askedtions were outlawed?). Many issues can be classi- to summarize the views of the Johnson Admini- fiedasdisciplinaryasthey emerge from stration, Ho Chi Minh and the Vietcong, the or are linked to scholarly work in particular student war protesters, WWII veterans, etc., disciplines (e.g., from economicsIs raising the without having students themselves think aboutprime lending rate the best way to control infla- their own views or consider the validity of thetion? or from anthropologyWere neanderthals perspectives they have summarized. However, absorbed into the Cro-Magnon population when an issue structures a unit of study (e.g., Was or killed off?). Other issues are interdisciplinary U.S. Intervention in Vietnam Justified?), contro- and require the appropriation of information and versy assumes a prominent place in classroom ideas from two or more fields of study; for exam- activities. In short, social studies topics become ple, Should all-girl math classes be created to opportunities for inquiry only when specific improve girls' math achievement? (education, unresolved issues are raised. law, psychology, sociology, political science). Finally, a central unit issue helps teachers Policy issues (e.g., Should the U.S. accept gays in control the urge to address too many issues dur- the military? Should Town X build a new pool?) ing a unit of studyparticularly ancillary or tan- and perennialissues (e.g., When does public gential issues. For example, instead of focusingsafety override the rights of the individual? analysis on whether or not colonists were justi- When is civil disobedience justified?) have also fied in revolting from England, some teachers been identified and recommended for study. might add the following marginally related Issues can also be classified as primarily factual issues: What enabled the colonial militia to (e.g., Would an embargo have Iraq to withdraw defeat the better equipped and trained British from Kuwait?), definitional (e.g., What is a U.S. forces? Should John Adams have defended thevital interest?), ethical (e.g., To what extent

90 100 TRADITIONAL UNIT ISSUE-BASED UNIT The Women's Movement Has the Women's Movement of the last three decades helped or hurt American society? Exploration in the New World Are the New World explorers to be praised or condemned for their efforts? The First Amendment and Free Speech'-When, if ever, should free speech be limited?

Immigration Immigration: Who should get in and Why?

Global Pollution What should the U.S. do about global pollution?

The Legislative Branch Does Congress have too much power?

The Cradles of Civilization -s-What makes a culture a "Civilization"? should the state help the unemployed?), legal 2. Is the Issue Important? Defining what is an (e.g., Were Bakke's constitutional rights to equal "important" issue is beyond the scope of this protection violated?), or aesthetic (e.g., What chapter, however, the Handbook's introductory makes a work of art a masterpiece?). Presumably, chapter attempts to address this difficult matter. social studies teachers will explore many of the In light of the immense size and contentious above types of issues with their students.8 nature of the social studies field it is unlikely that Four criteria to keep in mind when creatingconsensus will ever be reached on what counts as an issue are suggested below. an important issue. We defer to the judgement of social studies teachers in the selection of 1. Is it Controversial? Because issues are debat- issues for study, acknowledging that (a) reasonable (by definition), this criterion may seem quite able people will disagree on what counts as an unnecessary. However, it is sometimes unclear ifimportant issue, and that (b) even if consensus a question selected for study constitutes an issue. could be reached, the set of agreed upon issues Assess whether or not multiple perspectives exist; would probably exceed what could be thought- that is, can reasonable arguments be constructed fully explored. Nonetheless, we encourage teach- which reflect opposing viewpoints on the ques- ers to consider the following questions when tion. If opposing perspectives cannot be identi- identifying issues for study: fied,isitduetoaninherentlack of Is it an issue that has been debated in the past controversy in the question or the teacher's (or and continues to be debated? In other words, is it a students') lack of current understanding? As an persistent, enduring issue? Examples include the example, the question, "Did the New Deal End following: What resources should be publicly the Great Depression?" is not an issue because owned and how should their use be regulated? most historians agree that VVVVII was the deci- When is the state justified in limiting the free sive catalyst of economic recovery. A much more expression of its citizens? debatable question (and therefore issue) is the Is it a matter of public concern that requires civic following: "Was the New Deal a failed socialjudgement or decision making? For example, civic experiment?" Here students must weigh the ben- judgement and action are necessary when disagree- efits and costs of a variety of federal programs, ment arises over the placement of a new town consider philosophical issues regarding the dump, a state roadway initiative, a Congressional appropriate size and role of government, and so bill, and so on. on. Checking the "debatableness" of a question Do scholars in a discipline or across disciplines (or proposition) in the early planning stages oftend to agree that the issue is important?Issues that a unitwill reward teachers and students with capture the attention of most scholars in or across more lively, engaging discourse later on. disciplines are probably worthy candidates for study. As an example, consider the following:

91 101 Will continued depletion of the ozone layer leadEffort?"than the factual question, "What primar- to catastrophic global warming? or, To whatily led Americans to either support or protest the extent does television violence contribute to vio- War?" Both queries contain issues; however, the lence in society? latter is a factual issue focusing on the reasons for Is an understanding of the issue likely to promote American support or opposition to the war, students' development? A wide range of issues have whereas the former requires both an understand- the potential to help students become more ing of these reasons and an ethical judgement of mature and socially responsible. Issues that might the appropriateness of U.S. involvement. serve this purpose include: What responsibilities do you have to yourself and society? For the most4. Can the Issue be Researched Effectively? part, is peer pressure a good or bad thing? Are Even the most important and interesting issues some moral beliefs better than others or are they are rendered useless if resource materials cannot all just opinions? be acquired or are written at a level inappropri- ateforstudents.Successful issueanalysis 3. Is the Issue Interesting? If the number ofrequires materials that reflect the perspectives important social studies issues exceeds what can and underlying rationales of the competing be thoughtfully explored with students, then"camps", not just the viewpoint of one side or select a subset of important issues that students a very select few. These materials help trigger are also likely to find interestingand that thestudent interest and must promote student teacher already finds interesting (especially since expertise. Presumably, important facts and ideas teacher enthusiasm can significantly influencerelated to the issue will be revealed and contest- student learning). Having identified an issue ofed areas explored. These materials might include importance and interest, further enhance stu- lively readings, such as eye-witness accounts and dent interest (and motivation) by constructing aother primary source materials, or images and provocative phrasing. Compare, for example, the pictures that provide a "visual text" for students. following two questions involving similar analy- Some "digging" by the teacher prior to actual ses: "What Caused the American Revolution?" and study can help determine if sufficient materials 'Did the Founding Fathers Revolt Because ofare available. Note that most textbooks fail as Greed?" Student interest is more likely to be resources for issues analysis because they typical- perked by the irreverent suggestion that greedly contain inadequate detail, are rarely framed motivated the founding fathers compared to a around issues, and do not present competing rather bland and all too common query aboutperspectives when they do addressissues causation. (Kahane, 1984; Loewen, 1995). Interest can also be enhanced by phrasing the issue in a memorable way. Take, for example, III. An Introductory "Grabber" the following issue on homelessness stated as a An introductory grabber is an activity at the proposition which is provocative but not memo- very beginning of a unit that draws students into rable: "There are actually very few economic,the material and introduces the unit's central political, social, or religious efforts that our gov- issue. The grabber might involve a film clip, pri- ernment can attempt to help solve the problem ofmary document, short story, slide show, set of homelessness in the United States today." More data, song and lyrics, brainstorming session with memorable ways to state this issue include the students, simulation, poem, quote, political car- following: "Government's efforts to help the homeless toon, writing activity, field trip, or guest speaker. are futile.; "What policies do you recommend to help Whether brief (10 minutes) or long (1 or 2 class the homeless ?; or, 'How would you combat homeless- sessions) and whatever the format, an effective ness if you were the President?" grabber triggers student interest in and reveals Finally, consider weaving an ethical dimen- the teacher's enthusiasm for the upcoming unit. sion into central issues as students cannot resist Introductory grabbers may include a brief look invitations to make assessments of right v. wrong, at some of the perspectives or positions one good v. bad, proper v. improper, and so on. For might adopt on the central issue. Students example, most students would prefer to grapplethemselves may be asked to take a preliminary with the ethically-charged question, "Would you stand orally or in writing, knowing, of course, have supported or protested the Vietnam Warthat it is preliminary and that viewpoints are

92 102 subject to change as the investigation details per- the unit" review sessions rather than at the spectives and reveals new information. beginning when the crucial task of engaging The opening lessons of a unit are most criti- minds must take place. The assumption behind cal for unit success. Failing to capture studentthe need for a grabber is that poor student per- interest and imagination may result in studentsformance in social studies is due primarily to "checking out" or remaining marginally engaged some combination of student disinterest and low for the remainder of the unit. Too many motivation, not deficiencies in students' cognitive teachers expend their greatest effort at the capacities, abilities, or prior knowledge (Dweck, end of a unit during "mop up", "salvage 1986; Keating, 1994).

A Classroom "Grabber"

For a variety of innovative and effective unit's central issue: Was the Industrial Revolution practical ideas on how to increase student Good for the United States? Drawing upon informa- engagement throughout a unit of study, see tion culled from the slides and prior knowledge, stu- Bower, Lobdell & Swenson's (1994), dents brainstorm possible "pro" and "con" responses. History Alive. An example of a unit grabber End class by informing students they will eventually is provided below: be asked to take a position on the issue. Briefly summarize for students some of the interesting primary Begin class by showing students 6-10 slides depict- and secondary source materials they will study during life during the Industrial Era. Some slides con- ing the unit to help them in their analysis (e.g., diary vey a very positive image of the era (e.g., robust, accounts of life during the period, film excerpts). clean, engaged workers forging steel, or ships and Ask students to think about the kinds of additional trains busily hauling cargo), while others reflect information they will need to better inform their appalling working and living conditions (e.g., chil- decision making (e.g., infant mortality rates, average dren standing at an assembly line, crowded tene- worker salaries, and other quality of life indicators ments). Following an analysis of each slide, pose the before and during the Industrial Revolution).

IV. Connecting Lessons devotedtoFreud'stheorythatdreams to the Unit's Central Issue represent repressed ideas and experiences that the Structuring a unit around an issue increases ego attempts to keep submerged in the uncon- the likelihood but does not guarantee that indi- scious. Next, students might spend two or more vidual lessons will add up to more than the sum days exploring Jung's view that dreams are sym- of their parts. To assume a purpose beyond theirbolic expressions (not repressions) that provide own internal coherence, lessons need to be important opportunities for self-discovery, indi- sequenced in ways that advance students' under- viduation, and wholeness. Other perspectives standing of and ability to answer the centralmight include Adler's view that dreams provide issue. There is no one correct way to sequence insight into impending decisions (rather than lessons to achieve this purpose, primarily becausereflect unresolved conflicts from the past), or there is no one correct way to think about an Crick's dismissal of dreams as a series of mean- issue. However, we provide a few general curricu- ingless images resulting from REM and other lum and instructional suggestions on how to con-brain processing activities. Following exposure to nect lessons to the central unit issue. a handful of theorists, students would begin to formulate their own position on the nature and Curriculum Suggestions purpose of dreams. Identify competing arguments and perspec- A second way to link lessons is to identify tives advanced by opposing sides to an issue. key concepts, events, persons, and other terms These perspectives can serve to guide the designthat students need to effectively address the of daily lessons. For example, students in a psy- central issue. These key elements then serve to chology class might address the question, "Why structure daily lessons. They should not be taught do we dream?" Two or more lessons could be as ends in themselves, but rather explored in the

93 103 context of students' growing understanding of students explain how today's activity con- the issue. For example, in a unit exploring the tributed to their growing knowledge of question, "Were the Colonists Justified in the central issue. Revolting from England?", students must con- Briefly explain to students (or have them sider a series of British and American actions and determine) the next day's activity and how reactions(e.g.,SugarAct,StampAct, it will relate to the central issue. Townshend Acts, Boston Tea Party Boston Scaffold reading and other homework assign- Massacre) and also come to understand impor- ments by explaining how the activity con- tant concepts (e.g., virtual v. direct representa- tributes to the mission of answering the tion, social contract, civil disobedience) in order central issue. to answer the central issue. A third approach that is probably leastV. Richly Detailed Source Material familiar to teachers but may be the most What is richly detailed source material? One important is to identify the various sub-ques- way to describe these materials is in relation to tions and sub-issues that need to be analyzed the dominant social studies resourcethe text- in order to effectively address the central issue. book! Textbooks typically exhibit a paucity of As noted earlier, Newmann & Oliver (1970) detail and are rarely framed around questions have provided a very helpful conceptual model or issues. The presentation of material often that distinguishes between five types of issues; lacks coherence or meaningful organization policy, ethical, definitional, factual, and legal. For within and across chapters. Textbooks tend to example, to address the policy issue of whether make claims and offer conclusions with little or not State X should adopt the death penalty, a empirical or logical support and, therefore, are of number of related sub-issues emerge: Will the little help in promoting students' critical think- death penalty reduce a state's homocide rate? ing (Kahane, 1984). Concepts are presented but (factual issue); When, if ever, is a state justified go undefined, or concepts are defined but examin taking a human life? (ethical issue); By what ples are not given. The writing is typically banal legal means can an execution be stayed? (legal and devoid of controversy (Fitzgerald, 1979; issue); and, What is the difference between 1stTyson-Bernstein, 1988), and on rare occasions and 2nd degree murder? (definitionaUlegal). when issues are mentioned, competing perspec- Regardless of the method used to coherently tives are not summarized. Too often the cumula- link lessons, the teacher (and eventually the stu- tive effect is fragmented and superficial learning dents) must identify and understand the com- by disengaged students. peting perspectives, important sub-questions, Richly detailed source material ("rich detail"), and key concepts and terms related to the central on the other hand, triggers student interest and issue if honest, authentic inquiry is to occur. The promotes students' subject matter expertise. teacher must also ensure that students are Students learn about competing viewpoints and exposed to "best case" presentations of the vari- their underlying rationales. Important facts are ous perspectives, though the order in which theystated and contested factual claims explored. are explored can vary. Concepts receive elaboration, including the presentation of examples, counterexamples, and Instructional Suggestions analogies. Rich detail also facilitates students' Prominently display the central issue some- empathic entry into issues that might otherwise where in the room for easy and frequent have remained personally remote and overly reference. intellectual. Rich detail includes lively readings, * Remind students of the overall unit goalat such as eye-witness accounts and other primary the beginning of each lesson (i.e., to answer source materials, or images and pictures that the unit's central question). provide a "visual text." In short, rich detail helps Explain to students or have them explain how students become and remain interested in explor- today's lesson relates to the central unit issue ing and developing a perspective on the unit's (whether it be the exploration of a sub-issue, central issue. particular perspective on the issue, or key Examples of rich detail from the sample unit event, concept, or person). on cults (see Appendix A) and from other illus- At the end of a lesson show students or have trative issues mentioned in this chapter, include:

94 104 videotape of Federal agents storming the the central unit issue must be addressed. Many Branch Davidian compound; students are very insecure about their ideas. movie excerpt of the Jonestown Massacre; Culminating projects, due to their public nature, an excerpt on the meaning of dreams from provide students access to the ideas of others and Jung's (1964) Man and His Symbols and, serve to confirm the validity (or at least reason- statistics on homicide rates before and after ableness) of their own thinkingboth when the implementation of capital punishment. working collaboratively in a team and when observing the presentations of other individuals VI. Culminating Projects and groups. Culminating projects ensure active student Three culminating activities can be found in learning and greatly increase the likelihood ofthe sample unit on cults in Appendix A (see students gaining both in-depth and cohesive Lessons 10-12). First, students address the cen- understanding of an issue. These activities give tral unit issue in a roundtable discussion. The dis- students opportunities to share the fruits of theircussion is scored by the teacher to encourage labor; that is, to explain or share their under-all students to participate and to enhance the standing of and perspective on the central issue.quality of dialogue (see Chapter 31 by D. Harris They are not traditional pen and paper tests,for details on scored discussions). Second, stu- though one format could be a well-crafted essaydents are to create a one-half hour videotaped or or position paper that is shared with others.live, in-class "special report" that addresses the Culminating projects often encourage groupcentral issue. For instance, students might interaction and creativity, and appeal to multiple include in their presentation actual or mock learning styles. Examples include a speech, skit orinterviews with current or former members of play, a radio broadcast, "live" or videotaped tele- cults to discover how these cult and ex-cult mem- vision newscast, a whole class or small group bers answer the central issue. Students might debate, poster display, newspaper publication,discuss with legal experts the ramifications of metaphorical representation of an idea, person orkidnapping and deprogramming or attempting event, or a small group presentation. Regardless to limit cult members' right to free speech. Third, of format, culminating projects ask students to students are to write a position paper articulating share their own perspectives on the unit's central their position on the central issue. Outstanding question, not the teacher's or some other author- papers will be read in class. All papers will be ity's perspective (though at some point the made available for peers to read. teacher may want to share his/her perspective). Units may contain more than one culminatingVII. Final Thoughts activity. For example, a class might spend a day or To further increase curriculum integration, two discussing or formally debating the proposi- issue-based unit design can be applied at the tion, "Hate speech should be regulated" A daycourse level. Course-level issues to consider or two later student small groups might presentthroughout a year's study of U.S. history might poster board representations of the kinds ofinclude: Is the Historical Record of the U.S. One of hate speech and expression, if any, they believeProgress or Simply Change? Does Our History should be regulated. Just ibl the Claim that the U.S. Was and Still is a Culminating projects are motivating as stu- "Land of Opportunity?" or,Overall, Does the dents realize the end result is not just a writtenHistory of the U.S. Make You Proud to be an test privately graded and returned by the teacher, American? In a world cultures course students but rather an opportunity to demonstrate their might continually return to the question, Are the understanding and intellectual prowess to peers. World's Cultures Essentially Similar or Different? These activities are also motivating because stu- In a Civics/Government class students might dents prefer working on collaborative projectscontinuallyrevisit thequestion, What with their peers (Goodlad, 1984). To capitalize Responsibilities, If Any, Do You Have as a Citizen on their motivating power, we recommend that in a Democracy? World history students might be students are introduced to project options and asked to construct a year-end culminating project requirements at the beginning of a unit. that addresses the following question: What Culminating projects are a powerful means to Lessons from History Can Help Us Create a Better develop students' thinking, and not only because World Today?

95 105 Unit Issue: "What, if anything, should we do about cults?" Lesson 1: DAY ONE Lesson 2: DAY TWO lowing: Do either of these organizations INTRODUCTORY GRABBER FOCUS SUB-QUESTION: have similarities with the Jonestown group Students watch a videotape (5 minutes) What exactly is a cult? or the Branch Davidians? Does either orga- of the Branch Davidian compound in Waco, As a class they read a newspaper article nization reflect your working definition of a Texas turn into a fiery inferno when raided by describing the history of the Jonestown cult cult? For homework students are given an Federal agents, and watch excerpts of a and its leader, Jim Jones. Then in their 4-5 article by an expert on cults who attempts to made-for-T.V. movie on the Jonestown person teams, students attempt to construct a identify essential features of cults. Students Massacre (10 minutes). Students then share working definition of cults based upon yes- are asked to determine if their working defi- their understanding of the events leading up terday's work and today's reading. The class nition of cults should be modified in light of to the two disasters. The teacher provides reconvenes, each group reports the funda- this article. supporting information. Next, the teacher mental characteristics or attributes of cults poses the following questions for student they have identified, and the whole class then Lesson 4: DAY FIVE response: Might the Jonestown Massacre develops a working definition of cults. At the FOCUS SUB - QUESTION: have been avoided? Could the Branch end of the lesson students are given two arti- Does our definition of a cult match that Davidian firestorm have been avoided? Both cles to read and a writing task for homework of the expert? questions are addressed. Indirectly, students (see Lesson 3 for details). In a whole class discussion students have already begun to consider the unit's cen- summarize the expert's definition and com- tral question: What, if anything, should we Lesson 3: DAYS THREE & FOUR pare it to their working definition. Students do about cults? Students are introduced to FOCUS SUB - QUESTION: then determine if they want to modify their the central question. The class agrees that Are the two organizations we read working definition. (The definition that more needs to be known about cultstheir about last night cults? emerges typically includes the following beliefs, activities, etc. The class then brain- Students come to class prepared to state characteristics: charismatic leader, physical storms a list of images and ideas about cults whether or not they think the two organiza- and psychological isolation, apocalyptic drawn from their personal knowledge. tions (the Mormons and the Nazi Party) vision of the future, controllers of the new INTRODUCE CULMINATING ACTIVITIES they read about for homework are cults. The order following the apocalypse, manipula- Near the end of class students are purpose of the lesson is to further develop a tion and mind control, and so on). For informed that a round table scored discussion working definition of cults and to show stu- homework they read about two more organi- of the central issue will occur at the end of dents that one must think of cults on a more zations (a drug rehab center called Marathon the unit and that 4-5 person teams will pro- or less" continuum rather than in discrete House and a notorious cult of the late duce half-hour video-taped "special reports" "yes or no" terms. The teacher leads a whole 1970's/early 80's called Synanon) and decide or in-class presentations that explain what class discussion in which students share their whether or not they are cults. they believe should be done about cults. analyses. Teacher questions include the fol-

We hope the above framework for designing Problems Approach." The Social Studies issue-based social studies units contributes to (September/October, 1989): 185-186. your teaching success with students. Though the Jung, C. Man and his Symbols. New York Dell, 1964. intellectual and time demands this framework Kahane, H. Logic and Contemporary Rhetoric. Belmont, places on teachers and students exceed those of CA: Wadsworth, 1984. traditional textbook-driven units of study, the Keating, D. "Critical Periods for Critical Thinking: The rewards for everyone make it all worthwhile. Adolescent in School." In Schooling & Society, edited by F. Miller. Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1994. Loewen, J.W. Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your References American History Textbook Got Wrong. New York Bower, B., Lobdell, J. & Swenson, L. History Alive. The New Press. 1995 San Francisco: Addison-Wesley, 1994. Newmann F. "Can Depth Replace Coverage in the Dweck, C. "Motivational processes affecting learning." High School Curriculum?" Phi Delta Kappan 68, American Psychologist 41, no.10 (1986): 1040-1048. no.5 (1988): 345-348. Fitzgerald, F. America Revised NY: Vintage Books, 1979. Newmann, F. & Oliver, D. Clarifying Public Controversy. Goodlad, J. A Place Called School: Prospects for the Future. Boston: Little, Brown, & Co., 1970. New York McGraw-Hill, 1984. Onosko, J. "Comparing Teachers' Thinking about Gross, R. "Reasons for the Limited Acceptance of the Promoting Students' Thinking." Theory and Research

96 106 Appendix A: continued

Lesson 5: DAYS SIX & SEVEN limit a cult's right to free speech and expres- Teams meet to formulate an agreed upon FOCUS SUB - QUESTION: sion; (c) identify in advance the kind of per- response to the central issue in preparation Does our working definition help us son likely to join a cult and intervene before for the scored discussion activity on Day 14. identify cults? it happens; (d) shut down the cult (using Over two days students discuss whether physical means if necessary); or, Lesson 10: DAY FOURTEEN or not the two organizations described in the (e) nothing. Questions that are typically pur- CULMINATING ACTIVITY: homework readings are cults and whether or sued with respect to the above five approach- Students engage in a roundtable discussion not their working definition helped them es are:Is it legal to kidnap a cult member? of the central unit issue: What, if anything, in their assessments. Through discussion Does deprogramming work? Is it a good idea should we do about cults? The teacher will students discover that their definition has to curb the speech of some members of soci- score the discussion (see Harris, Chapter 31). discriminating power and that they now pos- ety? Is it constitutional to do so? Are there sess a clear enough understanding of cults effective ways to identify personality types Lesson 11: DAYS FIFTEEN & SIXtEEN to return to the central issue. likely to join cults? Should the government CULMINATING ACTIVITY: step in and shut them down, including the Videotaped "special reports" are shown or Lesson 6: DAY EIGHT use of force if necessary? Why is doing noth- live presentations are given by each team that FOCUS SUB-QUESTION: ing the best course of action? reveals their response to the central issue. If What can be done to stop cults? time remains, students individually begin to In today's whole class teacher-directed Lesson 8: DAYS ELEVEN & TWELVE organize and write a position paper that discussion, students brainstorm and discuss FOCUS SUB - QUESTION: addresses the central unit issue. possible actions to stop cults, regardless of How does our research inform our per- whether or not they personally think such spectives? Lesson 12: DAY SEVENTEEN actions should be used. A variety of ideas are For two days in large and small group for- CULMINATING ACTIVITY: generated. Typically, at least five kinds of mats the class discusses and continues to Students are given one class period to interventions are suggested (see Lesson 7 for research the questions listed in Lesson 7 outline and begin to write their position details). above. Students share important information paper. The essay is due in two days. Students and ideas and take notes. For homework, will be given an opportunity to rewrite their Lesson 7: DAYS NINE & TEN students continue to review their research essay. Outstanding essays will be read aloud LIBRARY RESEARCH: materials in preparation for tomorrow's team next week in class and all essays will be dis- Students search for information and meetings. played for classmates to read. arguments to determine whether or not the following approaches to stop cults should be Lesson 9: DAY THIRTEEN advocated: (a) kidnap and deprogram; (b) PREPARING FOR THE SCORED DISCUSSION:

in Social Education, 17 no.3 (1989), 174-195. Onosko, J. "Barriers to the Promotion of Higher-Order 1 Fragmented learning refers to the unsystematic, Thinking." Theory and Research in Social Education unorganized way in which students are exposed to infor- 19, no.4 (1991): 341-366 mation and ideas. Fragmented learning is revealed when Onosko, J. & Newmann, F. "Creating More Thoughtful students are unable to connect information and ideas Learning Environments in Secondary Classrooms within and across lessons and units, even though these and Schools." In Advanced Educational Psychology: connections may be readily apparent to the teacher. Creating Effective Schools and Powerful Thinkers, Various facts, ideas, events, generalizations and so on may edited by J. Mangieri & C. Collins Block. be acquired, but these learnings seem to occupy separate, New York Harcourt Brace & Jovanovich, 1994. isolated compartments in students' minds. Teachers can Shaver, J., Davis, 0., &Helbum, S. 'The Status of Social check for content fragmentation in their own units in the Studies Education: Impressions from Three NSF following ways. List 10-15 facts, events, ideas, and/or Studies." Social Education 43 (February, 1979): 150-153. people that were addressed in class over the past week or Tyson-Bernstein, H.A Conspiracy of Good Intentions: that appeared on a recent exam. Ask students if these America's Textbook Fiasco. Washington, D.C.: Council items can be connected in some meaningful way. for Basic Education, 1988. Similarly, ask students to generate 10-15 facts, events, Wiggins, G. (1989). "The Futility of Trying to Teach ideas, and/or people from a recent unit and then have Everything of Importance." Educational Leadership, them create an outline or diagram that connects these 47 (1989), 44-48. items in a meaningful way.

97 107 2 Superficial learning refers to students' limited expo- colonists' contentious relations with Native Americans), sure to most everything they study in social studies. additional issue-based units, brief or long, could follow or Rarely are students asked or allowed to explore material precede the present unit. An alternative approach is to in-depth. This situation prevents students from acquiring embed these tangential topics (maybe a day or two of rich, complex, nuanced, and personally constructed lessons) into the current unit of study. This, of course, has understanding of ideas, events, and issues, and ensures a fragmenting effect on student thinking and learning. that lower- rather than higher-order thinking dominates 7 The source of this coverage pressure is often teach- their cognitive activity. Note that superficial learning is ers' substantial subject matter knowledge which leads to different from fragmented learning, though the two bar- over-inclusion of topics and issues. This has led one out- riers often occur together. One can imagine students standing social studies teacher to observe: "The more a gaining a cohesive (non-fragmented) understanding of teacher knows, the more important it is that the teacher the events and underlying causes that led to United have an effective pedagogy to hold the information in States entry into World War I, yet their understanding is restraint" (Onosko, 1989). A central unit issue serves to superficial as they cannot explain any event or cause in keep teachers' knowledge in check. more than a few sentences. Conversely, one can imagine 8 Systems or methods of classifying issues overlap; students gaining in-depth (non-superficial) understand- that is, many issues can be labelled as more than one type. ing of various New Deal programs, yet their understand- Consider, for example, a few of the issues just mentioned: ing is fragmented as they cannot make connections How should nudear waste be disposed? (present, policy); between the various programs or see the relationship What would happen if abortions were outlawed? (future, between these programs and the underlying philosophy factual); Were neanderthals absorbed into the Cro- of the New Deal. Magnon population or killed off? (past, factual, discipli- 3 Passive learning refers to students receiving the nary). See Newmann &Oliver (1970) for a more detailed textbook's and/or teacher's repackaged declarative state- discussion of the types of issues one might encounter ments about knowledge constructed by experts and otherwhen exploring issues of public controversy authorities. Didactic teaching and other transmission forms of instruction shove students from the playing field to the sidelines, reducing their participation in knowledge construction to that of an inactive, disengaged spectator. Instead of developing the intellectual abilities (and dispositions) needed to construct knowledge, student-specta- tors simply comprehend and recall the performances (or constructions) of others. 4 A fundamental assumption of this model is that students are capable of analyzing an issue at the same time they are developing knowledge of it. Stated another way, students need not spend days or weeks on content acquisition before they are allowed to wrestle with an issue. A related assumption is that students are less able to learn and remember information and ideas without the organizing and motivating power of an issue (or some other question or problem). 5 Issue-based curriculum design need not be exclusively teacher driven. Central issues can be identified by the teacher, students, or botheither before the analysis begins or during the early stages of study. A potential problem with this approach is that teachers may have little time to determine if resource materials are available to adequately address the issue selected by students. On the other hand, with greater ownership of the curriculum, students are more likely to experience the activity as authentic and intrinsically valuable. 6 If there is a desire or need to study other aspects of the period (e.g., various religious issues of the time, the

98 108 Pali Trree:.01tral Diversh,

Introduction On Jesus Garcia

This section of the Handbook, dealing with tion between multiculturalism and multicultural issues-centered education and cultural education in"Multicultural Issuesinthe diversity, focuses on the relevancy of issues- Classroom: Race, Class, and Gender." She argues centered education for exploring the con- for support of Banks' definition of multicultural cept of cultural diversity and the status ofeducation: "to restructure curricula and educa- minorities and other marginalized groupstional institutions so that students from diverse in social studies instruction. The selected authors social-class, racial and ethnic groupsas well as promote a definition of social studies that is com- both gender groupswill experience equal edu- mitted to helping young children develop the cational opportunities." She contends that in ability to make informed and reasoned decisions many social studies classrooms, teachers fall short for the public good as citizens of a culturallyof seriously addressing this goal because "the diverse, democratic society in an interdependent dominant theories or paradigms that shape the world. They view issues-centered education as an way information, curriculum, and pedagogy are approach to the teaching of social studies that presented in schools prohibits this type of inte- addresses many of the criticisms teachers, stu- gration (race, class and gender) of thought." dents, parents, and representatives of pressure However, her experiences in teacher education groups have directed at social studies education. lead her to believe that students are interested in The authors are: Sharon L. Pugh, a facultysocial studies issues and problems and enjoy member in the School of Education and examining them from multiple perspectives. She Director of the Learning Skills Center at concludes by offering teachers ways of inserting Indiana University, who specializes in issuesrace, class, and gender into the social studies related to language and literacy; Gloria Ladson- curriculum and re-constructing instruction into Billings, who writes in the area of curriculum an issues-centered approach. and social studies and minority education and is Hernandez and Metzger focus on language- a member of the Department of Curriculum and minority students to argue for issues-centered Instruction at the University of Wisconsin- education. The authors begin by briefly describ- Madison; Hilda Hernandez, who researches and ing the fears and concerns language minority teaches in the areas of bilingual education and students bring to the classroom and argue that language acquisition; and Devon Metzger, who "teaching for democracy" brings about the shar- focuses on issues relating to social studies and ing of power, giving teachers the opportunity to teacher education. Professors Hernandez and provide students with "voice" when making cur- Metzger are faculty members in the Department ricular decisions. Issues-centered education in of Education at California State University, classrooms with language-minority students Chico. Jesus Garcia is Director of Social Studies provides teachers the opportunity to focus on stu- Education at the University of Illinoisat dent strengths while addressing their academic, Urbana-Champaign, and is involved in teacherpersonal, and social needs. Hernandez and education. Jesus teaches courses in social studies Metzger believe that issues-centered education and multicultural education. allows teachers to develop social studies programs Ladson-Billings begins by drawing a distinc- that address the issues and problems that are rel-

109 evant and important to students while introducing them to main ideas in social studies. The authors believe that issues-centered education is a valuable approach with language-minority students because of the interaction of ethnicity, social class, religion, education, and language. And as the authors conclude, "it involves students in social action projects that bridge home, school and community, and promote language and critical literacy development." Certainly the new paradigm the authors are suggesting is issues- centered social studies. In"ChallengesandRealities:Issues- Centered Education in Multicultural Environ- ments," Pugh and Garcia describe the status of social studies in public education and the conservative forces influencing education The authors, employing a definition of multicultural education with a global perspective, argue for a curriculum that includes student perspectives and addresses conceptual learning in the social studies. They conclude by lobbying for an issues-centered social studies in which instruction is based on dialogical reasoning.

100 1 1© MUL(CULTURAL ISSUES IN THE CLASSROOM: RAC CLASS, AND GENDER

till Glo'a Ladson-Billings

INTRODUCTION groupsas well as both gender groupswill experience equal educational opportunities" ver the past few years there has been a (Banks 1993a, 102). Many scholars have worked growing controversy over the issues ofon creating conceptual and theoretical schema, as multiculturalism and multicultural educa-well as a consensus, from which to discuss the tion. Scholars and activists from a variety goals, meanings, and scope of this emergent field of perspectives have argued the relative (see for example, Banks 1989; Gay 1992; Gibson 0merits or shortcomings of these issues 1976; Sleeter and Grant 1987). The scholarly lit- (Asante 1991; Banks 1993a; Graff 1992; Leoerature, although widely varied, does provide 1990; Schlesinger 1991). This chapter addresses some common themes about what is meant by the specific issues of race, class, and gender, what multicultural education. For the purpose of this is happening in classrooms around these issues, chapter, I use Banks' definition when referring to and what possibilities exist for improving class- multicultural education. room experiences involving them. Although volumes can be (and have been) The terms "multiculturalism" and "multicul- written about the issues of race, class, and gender, tural education" have become commonplace inthis chapter will focus on selected aspects of that U. S. society, but their meanings are not stan- literature that are either directly related to or have dardized. For the purpose of this chapter, I usesome bearing on schooling and classrooms. It the term "multiculturalism" to refer to the polit- will conclude with a survey of strategies for con- ical and/or ideological position that groups thatsidering these issues in classrooms, and provide are diverse in race, ethnicity, gender, linguistics, examples of these strategies at work in various ability, or sexual orientation can co-exist, appre- schools and school-related organizations. ciate, understand, respect, and learn from each other. This does not necessarily imply formalConsidering Race in the Classroom educational structures. For example, it is impos- Issues of race are avoided in U. S. classrooms sible to turn on a television in the United Statesfor the same reasons that they are avoided in without seeing a variety of representations ofeveryday life. We have not found ways to talk people (no matter how stereotyped or distorted), about them without feelings of rancor and guilt. particularly in commercial advertising. This Lee (1993) informs us that "[Questions of race inclusion of "differences" is not the direct result have been included in all US population censuses of multicultural education, but rather of the since the first one in 1790" (86). But Omi and political and social changes demanded by various Winant (1993a) argue, "[T]heories of raceof its groups of people. It reflects the society's increas-meaning, its transformations, the significance of ing multiculturalism. racial eventshave never been a top priority in The term "multicultural education," accord- social science" (9). They argue also that popular ing to Banks, is "an educational reform move- notions of race as either an ideological construct ment whose major goal is to restructure curricula or as an objective condition both have shortcom- and educational institutions so that students ings (Omi and Winant 1993b). Thinking of race from diverse social-class, racial, and ethnic strictly as an ideological concept denies the reality

111 BEST COPYAVAILABLE of a racialized society and its impact on people in black and white children is striking. Irvine (1990) their everyday lives. On the other hand, thinking cites statistics from the Children's Defense Fund, of race solely as an objective condition denies the the College Board, and the Carnegie Quarterly problematic issues of racial categorization. How that demonstrate this sharp contrast. For example, do we determine who fits into which racial cate- compared to white children, black children are gories? To which race do the offspring of racially two to four times as likely to different parents belong? die before adulthood because of inadequate So complex is the notion of race (and its use prenatal or postnatal health care condi- in U. S. society) that even when it fails to "make tions, abuse, or murder; sense" we continue to employ it. According to live in a single-parent household because Nobel laureate Toni Morrison (1992), of parental death, separation, divorce, or no marriage; Race has become metaphoricala way of live in foster care or custody of a child referring to and disguising forces, events, welfare agency; classes and expressions of social decay and be poor, and live in substandard housing with economic division far more threatening to an unemployed teenage mother. (xiii-xvi) the body politic than biological "race" ever was.Expensivelykept,economically The contrast continues at school: unsound, a spurious and useless political Black students, particularly black male asset in election campaigns, racism is as students, are three times as likely to be healthy todayasitwas duringthe in a class for the educable mentally retarded Enlightenment. It seems to have a utility far as are white students, but only one-half as beyond economy, beyond the sequestering likely to be in a class for the gifted or of classes from one another, and has talented. assumed a metaphorical life so completely Black students are more likely than white embedded in daily discourse that it is per- students to be enrolled in general and voca- haps more necessary and more on display tional tracks and take fewer academically than ever before. (63) rigorous courses. Blacks continue to score significantly lower Studies of the role and impact of race in edu- than whites on the Scholastic Aptitude Test cation have a long history. In the 1950s Clark (SAT). (Ibid.) and Clark's (1940) study of doll color preference High school drop-out rates for urban blacks was used as legal evidence to combat segregated are close to 50 percent. schooling in the United States. In a comprehensive review of the literature on racial and What opportunities for studying race as a ethnic attitudes, Banks (1993b) documents that critical issue exist in our schools? Unfortunately, children are aware of their race and ethnicity attypical course offerings and textbooks avoid an early age and "can be helped to develop more substantive discussions of race and ethnicity In positive racial attitudes if realistic images of eth- general, race is confined to discussions of slavery nic and racial groups are included in teachingand/or the civil rights movement. These curricu- materials in a consistent, natural, and integrated lum patterns hold even though students are fashion" (241). However, Banks (1993c, 24) also surrounded by racial and ethnic realities in their suggests that "curriculum changes linked withcommunities, the media, and their schools. issues related to race evoke primordial feelings Rather than rely on bland textbook descriptions, and reflect the racial crisis in American society." teachers can seize upon these pervasive racial Scholars and social commentators such as Cornelmessages to engage students in serious consider- West (1992) and Studs Terkel (1991), respective- ations of race. ly, have argued that (public) talk about race con- Teachers serious about confronting issues of tinues to confound Americans. race and racism can begin by having students No matter what position one takes on the examine the racial dynamics in their own school. salience of race in U.S. society, there is no denying Students can participate in action research to its import vis-a-vis social, political, economic, andlearn about race and racism. They may choose educational inequality. The comparison between some of the following topics: How many stu-

102 112 dents of various races and ethnicities attend aThe Failure to Include Class particular school? Why? How many students of in the Classroom color are enrolled in honors and advanced place- Sociologist William Julius Wilson argued in ment classes and in vocational and general class- The Declining Significance of Race (1978) that es? How many students of color have been sus- class, and not race, was the determining factor in pended or expelled? How many students of color the deplorable life circumstances of inner-city are in special education classes? What is the Chicago residents. Lauded by conservatives and drop-out rate for students of color? What is the a leery liberal constituency, Wilson's thesis places participation of students of color in extra-curric-us in the somewhat untenable position of ular activities, such as student government, band, acknowledging class in a society that has long orchestra, or sports? A systematic examination ofdiscounted it or denied its existence. this kind of demographic information should Despite the very real presence of class strati- provoke questions about the school's role in fication, the United States has been a nation that reproducing inequality. Each time students prides itself in muting its class distinctions. Thus, uncover a pattern of participation (or enroll- the folk wisdom has insisted that individual striv- ment), they should be encouraged to ask, "Why?" ings and hard work in our "meritocratic" society In addition to an examination of the school's afford people the opportunity to transcend class demographic information, students should belines and barriers. Students in U. S. classrooms encouraged to look at perceived and actual acts ofstudy rigid caste distinctions in India and in racism, prejudice, and discrimination. Oncefeudal Europe. However, the lens of class strati- again, surveys can be employed to capture stu- fication rarely, if ever, turns on our society. As a dents' perceptions and documentation of dis- culture, we talk about class in an almost meta- crimination. Grant (1984) has shown that black physical way. Election-year sloganeering plays on girls, for instance, are on the margins of both thepopular fears about a "shrinking middle class" teacher's "sphere of influence" and that ofbecause of the almost total identification with the numerous peer groups. To examine the accuracymiddle class by our citizens. of Grant's assertion, students could interview Our failure to teach effectively about class is groups of students to determine dating and peer-tied to our lack of understanding about how class group patterns or student-teacher relations. operates in our society and a fear that substantive Students need accurate information aboutdiscussions about class are "un-American." The issues of race and racism both in their local envi- fear that class discussions border on the un- ronment and throughout the larger society. The American is linked to our understanding of class way to get that information is through a combi- as a central unit of analysis for Marxist theorists. nation of primary and secondary sources. Thus,Thus, talking about class is seen as a way of while conducting their own research, students emphasizing social divisions and challenging cul- should be reading the first-person accounts oftural unity. Consider, for example, that during the people of color throughout history. Readings byinfamous 1992 Los Angeles riots (or rebellion) James Baldwin, Richard Wright, Toni Morrison, after the acquittal of police officers in the Rodney Alice Walker, Maxine Hong Kingston, Carlos King beating case, several media commentators Bulosan, Mary Crow Dog, and others can pro- noted that the destruction of South Central vide students with opportunities to understand Los Angeles was partially "class warfare," as evi- how others see the world, as well as help them denced by the participation of Latinos, African question their own assumptions. In addition to Americans, and whites. However, soon after the reading, students need the chance to view films fires of Los Angeles died down, this class warfare and videos from other than the dominant per-was converted to a "race war." spectives. Films such as El Norte, Daughters of the Our failure to acknowledge class does not Dust, Dim Sum, and The Lemon Grove Incident diminish its impact upon our lives. Wilson (1978) demonstrate that realities are socially and cultur- reports that the "long-term poor"those who are ally constructed and that students must work to poor for eight or more yearsconstitute 60 per- understand multiple perspectives. cent of those in poverty at any one time. This group, often referred to as the "underclass" is composed of, according to Gorder (1988) a substantial number of female-headed

103 113 households (83 percent) room economy that replicated their surrounding people who are employed but unable low-income community. Sylvester developed a to make it on their salaries (43 percent) system of "paying" his students for their class- children under the age of five (60 percent) room jobs, one of which was cleaning the gerbil families with an average of two children cage. After one weekend, the students discovered parents whose average age is twenty-nine (68) that the gerbil cage was missing. Sylvester, who One of the places that class issues manifesthad moved the cage to another classroom, themselves isin the unequal distribution ofexplained that the gerbil cleaning jobone of income. According to the U.S. Bureau of thethe "highest paying" in the classhad moved to Census (1988), the top 20 percent of the popula- the "suburbs." The students had to figure out tion earned 43.7 percent of the total income, how they could continue to do that job or replace while the bottom 20 percent earned 4.6 percent it with a comparable job. Sylvester's reason for of the total income. The 5 percent of the popula-moving the gerbil cage was to simulate the fact tion who received the highest income earned 17 that 60,000 jobs had left the city within the pre- percent of the total income. These huge income ceding few years. disparities serve to exacerbate issues of inequality In my ethnographic research with successful and class tensions. teachers of African American students (Ladson- Class issues also manifest themselves in Billings 1994) one of the teachers had a keen schools and classrooms. Teacher expectations interest in helping to rekindle the "work ethic" (Winfield 1986), curriculum and instructionalamong her class of African American sixth decisions, assessment, and organizational poli- graders. Because of the lure of easy money cies are regularly informed by class. Indeed, through the illegal drug trade, students seemed much has been written about the school perfor- increasingly alienated from the prospect of work- mance of poor children (under the rubric of a ing in traditional school-age job opportunities "cultural deficit," or being "culturally deprived," such as those offered by fast food restaurants, or "culturally disadvantaged"), but scholarly newspaper delivery, and employment as store issues of class largely have been absent from clerks. The teacher called upon working-class K-12 classrooms. peoplethe school custodian, a bus driver, and Research and intellectual paradigms of theblue collar parentsto come into the classroom past that suggested that the poor were responsi- to explain their work and to offer 2-3 day "intern- ble for their own low school performance contin- ships" to her students. By understanding the ue to hold sway in the minds of educators. Annature of work, its ability to support individual example of this framework is Bloom et al. (1965), dignity and self-worth, the students would be able who argued that: to make more intelligent decisions about their lives. The teacher purposely shied away from tra- ... the roots of[poor children's] problem may ditional middle-class African American "role in large part be traced to their experiences in models"doctors,lawyers,and bankers homes which do not transmit the cultural because of the "social distance" they represented. patterns necessary for the types of learning Another place that we see the pernicious characteristic of the larger society (4). effect of social class is in school tracking practices. Jeannie Oakes (1985) argues that the combina- What can teachers do to critically engage stu-tion of race and class is a determining factor in dents in issues of class? At a basic level, a seriouswhich students end up in which academic tracks. study of the labor movement will provide stu- Working-class students of color are more likely to dents with an opportunity to examine how thebe placed in the lowest, non-college preparatory working class was formed in a nation that boast-tracks. Even when schools have attempted to ed an egalitarian philosophy and disdain for royal desegregate on the basis of race, Lomotey and hierarchy. Studies of economic trends in various Staley (1990) found that so called "magnet communities may help students to understand schools," designed to draw diverse groups of stu- fluctuations in the homeless population, crime dents to a school through special course and pro- statistics, and job opportunities. gram offerings, often re-segregated students once Teacher Paul Sylvester (1994) reported that they were assigned to courses and programs. The his third graders were capable of creating a class- "double mantle" of race and class positions stu-

104 114 dents as eligible only for the lower tracks, where minority. Despite effortsat gender equity, they may receive less instruction and less interac- women continue to earn less money than men, tion with the teacher, and reproduce the expected are over-represented among the poor, are con- low performances (Rist 1970). fronted with a glass ceiling in jobs, and are more Even when "uncoupled" from race (and gen- likely the victims of sexual and domestic abuse der), class still can have a powerful effect on(Gollnick and Chinn 1990; Joseph and Lewis school performance and life chances. Weiss 1981). School is one of the places where this (1993) points out that: gender inequity is reinforced. According to Myra and David Sadker, "sit- Until recently, the white male working ting in the same classroom, reading the same class was relatively privileged in the econo- textbook, listening to the same teacher, boys and my in relation to African American men girls receive very different educations" (Golden and women, and white women. While cer- 1994, 57). In a synthesis of research on girls and tainly not privileged in comparison with schooling, the American Association of Univer- middle-class white men, many working- sity Women reports that "[girls and boys] enter class men have been enabled by labor union school roughly equal in measured ability. Twelve struggles to command good steady jobs years later, [however], girls have fallen behind with benefits. (238) their male classmates in key areas such as higher- level mathematics and measures of self-esteem" This separation of working-class members (AAUW 1992, 1). Consequently, in subjects such along a racial divide was explored by W.E.B. as mathematics and science, girls score substan- DuBois (1977/1935), who asserted that thetially lower than boys on standardized tests and problem was not that the white working class wasfind themselves discouraged from pursuing high- manipulated into racism, but that it came to er levels of math and science. think of itself and its interests as white: Sadker and Sadker (1986) found that "male students are given more time to talk in class- They were given public deference... because rooms" (512) even though teachers often are they were white. They were admitted freely, unaware that they are directing more of their with all classes of white people to public attention toward boys. Teachers may, in fact, have functions [and] public parks... The police neither the resources nor the reward structure for were drawn from their ranks and the courts, changing inequitable school and classroom dependent on their votes, treated them with dynamics. Although many teachers are women, leniency...Their votes selected public offi- they "are actors and agents in complex social sites cials and while this had small effect upon the where social forces powerfully shape the limits of economic situation, it had great effect upon what is possible" (Weiler 1988, 148). their personal treatment.(700-701) However, there are things that teachers can do in classrooms to make students more aware of Thus, issues of class and race are sometimes gender inequities and work toward change. Since conflated and other times at odds. Because stu- social studies classes generally are not sex segre- dents of color are also among the working class gated, teachers have an opportunity to observe they may find themselves in a struggle againststudent interactions between the genders. They white working-class students, over racial and eth- can also become more aware of participation nic issues rather than class issues. Teachers must structures along gender lines. Which students help students uncouple these issues and see themvolunteer answers in class and which do not? as both separate and shared, depending uponHow often are women and women's issues the circumstances and historical moments. subject of study? What is the classroom/school climate like for girls? Are females, their bodily Gender and Schooling functions, or their body parts the object of A third issue of multicultural education is ridicule? Are females subjected to unwanted sex- that of gender. Called the "intimately oppressed"ual comments and advances? Do all students by historian Howard Zinn (1980), women repre-understand what constitutes sexual harassment? sent a numerical majority in the society while Do all students understand that sexual harass- continuing to be a sociopolitical and economic ment is illegal?

.12_1 1'7ei Sadker and Sadker's (1991) comprehensivein U.S. History, but they will not study why look at gender in elementary and secondary edu- women's voices are silent or muted throughout cation indicates that although there has been a much of history. "significant body of research on gender equity in Students may also experience the interpre- education" (314) over the past twenty years, "its tivist paradigm. Here students would have the influence on teacher preparation and educational chance to examine cultures within their own con- reform remains marginal" (314). Thus, other dis-texts. Thus, some ethnic studies (e.g. Native ciplines and popular culture become the majorAmerican studies, African American history) or carriers of research and scholarship about gender, cultural studies courses (e.g. Far East studies) while teachers and teacher education remain rel- attempt to have students explore cultures from an atively insulated from knowledge about the dam- emic, or insider perspective. However, students' aging effects of gender inequity. own limited understandings of their own culture and the way it affects their way of thinking and Organizing Social Studies being in the world may force them to make Classrooms to Deal with Race, invidious comparisons between the cultures they Class, and Gender are studying and themselves. Consequently, stu- Despite knowing demographic information dents may come to see other cultures as "weird," that points to the racial,class, and gender "exotic," or "strange." inequities in our society, teachers often are over- A far less likely scholarly paradigm for prec- whelmed at the thought of integrating these ollegiate students is a critical one. Here, point of issues into an already demanding curriculum. view or perspective, as well as the issue of whose Even at the college level, this kind of integration interests are being served, become essential has been difficult (Rothenberg 1988). I suggestaspects of scholarship. One of the best examples that one of the reasons for the difficulty of teach- of this paradigm at work is that of Central Park ing in this way is "paradigmatic," i.e. the domi- East Secondary School (CPESS)(Wood 1992). nant theories or paradigms that shape the way CPESS serves low income and minority students information, curriculum, and pedagogy are pre-in grades 7-12 and helps them to develop into sented in schools prohibits this type of integra- high-achieving, articulate, critical students by tion of thought. Much of schooling (as well as encouraging some very specific "habits of mind" educational research) is shaped by a rationalist-that require students to be able to respond to the positivist paradigm. Students are encouraged tofollowing questions in every area they study accept "objective," linear, simplistic thinking in (ibid.): which only the observable and measurable repre- How do we know what we know? sents the truth. What's the evidence? Teachers who want to encourage multicultur- What's the viewpoint? al aspects of social studies within this paradigm How else may it be considered? often are limited to superficial representations What difference does it make? (Ibid., 48-49) of material culture. Thus, a multicultural, ethnic, or international festival where students "study" a In a CPESS course that seventh and eighth specific culture, dress in "native" costumes, eatgraders take entitled, "Contemporary Political "ethnic" foods, and perform "cultural" dances, Issues with an Emphasis on United States becomes the totality of their experience. Or stu- History," the students use the following essential dents engage in an essentialized study of "groups" questions to drive their inquiry: by inserting them in the existing curriculum; for 1. What is political power? example, in U.S. History students study a 2. Who has it? chronological, military, political history that adds 3. How did they get it? different"others"intothemasterscript 4. How does power change hands? (Schwartz 1992). Students might study various 5. What gives laws their power? Indian tribes, bands, and federations as they6. How do people respond to being deprived study the "westward expansion" but they would of power? (Ibid., 180) not engage in a debate that challenges east-to- west perceptions of American development. Or, Both sets of questions illustrate a very differ- they might learn of the role of particular women ent orientation toward learning and suggest that

r. 6 this school and its teachers want to help students tent complaints students have about school is its challenge the rationalist-positivist paradigm with lack of relevance to their everyday lives. Teachers its Eurocentric, masculinist perspective. Unfor- can ask students to generate a list of how they tunately, most teachers do not have the luxury of think their racial, class, and gender identity either a school design and administration that supports help or hinder their lives. What privileges or dis- the kind of thinking that is encouraged, indeed advantages do they believe they experience as a required, at Central Park East. However, there result of their racial, class, or gender categories? are things that teachers can do to interrupt students' narrow perceptions of knowledge ground-AStudy the multiple effects of race, class, and ed in social issues. Tgender through biography and fiction. The Here are some suggestions for ways that complexity of race, class, and gender forces schol- teachers might rethink the way that they teach ars and teachers to attempt to isolate them for about issues of race, class, and gender: analytical and pedagogical purposes. However, by studying biographies and/or fiction students Have students grapple with the complexity ofcan begin to understand how these multiple 1the construct of race. Although much of oursocial categories affect individuals and groups. language and discourse is racially coded, students Biographies of women such as Fannie Lou rarely examine race as a social construct with Hamer, Ida B. Wells, Maxine Hong Kingston, powerful social, political, and economic conse- Mary Crow Dog and Sojourner Truth are all quences. Perhaps in conjunction with a biology good sources for studying the intersections of teacher or geneticist, teachers can expose stu- race, class, and gender. Literature by writers such dents to the scientific constructions of race. Here as Toni Morrison, Richard Wright, Leslie students can identify examples of how raceMarmon Silko, Louise Erdrich, Gabriel Garcia frames social issuese.g., crime, welfare, schoolMarquez and Sandra Cisneros provide exquisite desegregation, the judicial system. contexts for understanding how culture can be revealed through literature. Have students juxtapose race and ethnicity. 9lb Challenge students to consider what they see E Work deliberatelyto unlearn racism, as the difference between race and ethnicity? z.-11 sexism, and classism. Most Americans vehe- Why isit that some groups in the U.S. are mently deny that they are racist, sexist, or elitist referred to in racial terms while others are seen in (classist). Yet, the ways that inequity is institu- terms of ethnicity? How do students identifytionalized and ingrained in our everyday lives themselves? means that we have to work proactively toward unlearning it. Work done by McIntosh (1990) Have students observe and discussdemonstrates that many taken for granted d how race, class, and gender affect them experiences that people enjoy daily are not on a personal level. One of the persis-shared by others because of their race, class,

perhaps the most difficult task that to implement the conceptual understandings of teachers face is that of turning theorymulticultural education is through exemplar. into practice. While scholars may do a Below is a less than comprehensive list of teach- good job of explicating the theoreticaling and learning examples of different forms and conceptual rubrics under which of multicultural education in action. change can occur, they may fall short of helping teachers put theory into practice. Indeed, it may CENTRAL PARK EAST SECONDARY SCHOOL not be the job of theorists to implement pro- (New York City). As described above, CPESS is an grams, but teachers do need assistance in trans- outstanding example of Banks' (1993c) notion of lating theoretical notions into practical everyday "knowledge construction." Here students are chal- teaching/learning experiences. lenged to critically examine what they learn and raise One of the ways that teachers can be helped questions about its value. continued

107 117 HARRIET TUBMAN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL (Newark, NJ) In the heart of Newark, Harriet ror Ethel students, all of the southern Appalachian region is their class. Tubman Elementary School is a model of an empow- room. The premise of Foxfire is that students are on a mission to col- ering school culture (Banks 1993c). Here the adminis- lect, record, and preserve the history and heritage of their area. To do this trator, teachers, parents, community members, and stu- students seek out what are known as "community contacts, senior mem,. dents all take responsibility for student learning and bets of the community who are willing to share their skills, insights, and achievement. In them, students have as models of wisdom with students. (Wood 1992, 62) teaching excellence people of various races and back- While Foxfire was not created as a representative of multicultural grounds. By implementing an "informal curriculum," education, it exemplifies some of its best elementscontent integration, the janitor, crossing guard, and other community mem- knowledge construction, and equity pedagogy (Banks 19930, Its focus on bers have the opportunity to act as "teachers" of such class and cultural issues makes it unique among educational prOgtarYit. varied subjects as cooking, bowling, and basketball. MARTIN LUTHER KING AND MALCOLM X RE-THINKING SCHOOLS, (Milwaukee, WI) ACADEMY (Milwaukee, WI) Milwaukee has institut- Beyond classrooms, there exist institutions and orga- ed two experimental schoolsone elementary, one nizations designed to help teachers as professionals middleto test out "African-centered" education. reconsider the ways in which teachers and teaching Despite the attempt to "demonize" African-centered can work toward social justice and equity. One such approaches to education (see for example, Schlesinger, institution is Re-thinking Schools, a organization of 1990, Ravitch, 1990) teachers in urban centers thatcommitted teachers who publish a newspaper (also serve segregated school populations are finding that entitled, Re-thinking Schools) designed to critically this new approach to education may begin to raise the examine schooling and the professional lives of achievement level of students while simultaneously teachers. raising their social consciousness. At this time, however, it is too early to determine the merit of these mong the issues addressed in Re-thinking Schools are racism,; (and similar) programs. Rsexism, sexual harassment, homophobia, and ablism as well as contern-i LA ESCUELA FRATNEY (Milwaukee, WI). Along porary issues of national standards, Goals 2000, choice of schools, andli with its African-centered program, Milwaukee has school funding, The newspaper has become a forum for teachers interest-1: also developed one of the most successful bilingual ed in social justice and inequity by providing editorial and backgrouridll programs in the nation. As a two-way bilingual articles, examples of teacher-written lessons and activities, and stuctent school, i.e., both English and Spanish speaking stu- work. The existence of this teacher-led publication is a testimony to theii dents will become bilingual, Fratney School has ability and willingness of teachers to think deeply and carefully about he* attempted to develop a "multicultural, gender equal" issues of race, class, and gender (among other issues) can be included ini; program. In its first year, Fratney School was orga- school curricula. nized around six themes: Roots in the School and the Community, the Native American Experience, SOUTHERN POVERTY LAW CENTER (Atlanta, the African American Experience, the Hispanic GA). Although organized as a non-profit organiza- Experience, the Asian American/Pacific American tion to fight racism via legal channels, the SPLC also Experience, and We Are a Multicultural Nation. has an educational arm that produces the journal THE FOXFIRE EXPERIENCE (Rabun Gap, GA). Teaching Tolerance. By combining biographical Students in Rabun Gap, GA have published the profiles, lesson suggestions, and student work, the quarterly Foxfire for the past 25 years. Their work journal provides teachers with a handy reference for came as a result of having the opportunity to develop including issues of race and racism in the class. curricula rooted in their own lives and experiences. By interviewing community elders, students are able to understand how working-class and poor people contribute to the vitality of the community culture:

108 118 and/or gender. Students need to understand that "Multicultural Education for Young their own privileges are connected to disadvan- Children: Racial and Ethnic Attitudes and their tages suffered by others. Modification." In Handbook of Research on the Education ofYoung Children, edited by B. Spodek. New York: Macmillan, 1993b. Concluding Thoughts .(1993c). "Multicultural Education: There are multiple strategies for confronting Development, Dimensions, and Challenges." Phi race, class, and gender in the classroom. This Delta Kappan, 75 (1993c): 22-28. does not imply, however, that these are the only Bloom, B. S., A. Davis and R. Hess. Compensatory Educ- issues that fall under the rubric of multicultural ation for Cultural Deprivation. New York Holt, 1965. education. Issues of language, ability, and sexual Clark, K. B. and Clark, M. P. "Skin Color as a Factor in orientation also enter into the multicultural Racial Identification and Preference in Negro debate. Even in the consideration of race, class, Children." The Journal of Negro Education 19 (1940): and gender, there exist additional complexities of 341-58. intragroup variability and overlapping categories DuBois, W. E. B. Black Reconstruction in the United States, (e.g. race/class versus race/gender). 1860-1880. New York [1935] 1977. Race, class, and gender affect students' Gay, G. (1992). 'The State of Multicultural Education schooling experiences despite our reluctance to in the United States." In Education in Plural Societies: deal forthrightly with them in the classroom. As International Perspectives, edited by K. Adam- social studies educators, issues of race, class, and Moodley,. Calgary, Alberta, Canada: Detselig, 1992. gender are an integral part of our subject area. Gibson, M. A. "Approaches to Multicultural Education History, civics, economics, sociology, anthropolo- in the United States: Some Concepts and gy, psychology, and geography all have links to Assumptions." 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"Black Females' Place' in Desegregated Class- developcriticalperspectives towardsocial rooms." Sociology of Education 57 (1984): 98-111. inequities and injustice. Irvine, J. Black Students and School Failure. Westport CT Greenwood Press, 1990. Joseph, G. and L. Lewis. Common Differences: Conflicts References in Black and White Feminist Perspectives. Boston: American Association of University Women. How South End Press, 1981. Schools. Shortchange Girls: A Study of Major Findings on Ladson-Billings, G. The Dreamkeepers: Successful Teachers Girls and Education. Washington, DC: AAUW for African American Students. San Francisco: Jossey Educational Foundation and National Education Bass, 1994. Association, 1992. Lee, S. "Racial Classifications in the US Census: 1890- Asante, M. K. "The Afrocentric Idea in Education." 1990." Ethnic and Racial Studies 16 (1993): 75-94. Journal of Negro Education, 60 (1991): 170-80. Leo, J. "A Fringe History of the World." US News and Banks, J. A. (1989). "Multicultural Education: World Report (November 12, 1990): 25-26. Characteristics and Goals." In Multicultural Lomotey, K. and J. Staley. 'The Education of African Education: Issues and Perspectives, edited by J. A. Banks Americans in the Buffalo Public Schools: An and C.M. Banks. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1989. Exploratory Study." Paper presented at the Annual . An Introduction to Multicultural Meeting of the American Educational Research Education. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1993a. Association, Boston, MA, April 1990. McIntosh, P 'White Privilege: Unpacking the Invisible Race: Blacks and Changing American Institutions. Knapsack" Independent School (Winter 1990): 31-36. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978. Morrison, T Playing in the Dark Whiteness and the Winfield, L. 'Teacher Beliefs Toward At-Risk Students Literary Imagination. Cambridge, MA: Harvard in Inner-Urban Schools." The Urban Review, 18 University Press, 1992. (1986): 253-67. Oakes, J. Keeping Track. How Schools Structure Inequality. Wood, G.H. Schools That Work. New York Dutton, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985. 1992. Omi, M. and H. Winant, H. Racial Formation in the Zinn, H. A People's History of the United States United States. New York Routledge, 1993a. New York Harper and Row, 1980. . "On the Theoretical Concept of Race." In Race, Identity and Representation in Education, edited by C. McCarthy and W.Crichlow. New York Roudedge, 1993b. Ravitch, D. "Multiculturalism: E Pluribus Plures." The American Scholar (Summer 1990): 337-54. Rist, R. "Student Social Class and Teacher Expectations: The Self-fulfilling Prophecy in Ghetto Education." Harvard Educational Review (1970): 40, 411-51. Rothenberg, P "Integrating the Study of Race, Gender, and Class: Some Preliminary Observations." Feminist Teacher 3 (1988): 37-42. Sadker, M. and D. Sadker. "Sexism in the Classroom: From Grade School to Graduate School." Phi Delta Kappan 67 (1986): 512-15.

.'The Issue of Gender in Elementary and Secondary Education." In Review of Research in Education 17 (1991): 269-334. Schlesinger, A. The Disuniting of America. Knoxville, TN: Whittle Direct Books, 1991. Schwartz, E. "Emancipatory Narratives: Rewriting the Master Script in the School Curriculum." The Journal of Negro Education, 61 (1988): 341-55. Sleeter, C. E. and Grant, C.A. "An Analysis of Multicultural Education in the United States." Harvard Educational Review: 57 (1987): 421-44. Sylvester, P. S. "Elementary School Curricula and Urban Transformation." Harvard Educational Review 64 (1994): 309-31. Terkel, S. Race: How Blacks and Whites Think and Feel About the American Obsession. New York The New Press, 1991. United States Bureau of the Census. Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1988. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1988. Weiler, K. Women Teaching for Change: Gender, Class, and Power. New York Bergin and Garvey, 1988. Weiss, L. "White Male Working-Class Youth: An Exploration of Relative Privilege and Loss." In Beyond Silenced Voices: Class, Race, and Gender in United States Schools, edited by L. Weiss and M. Fine. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1993. West, C. Race Matters. New York Basic Books, 1992. Wilson, William Julius. The Declining Signcance of

110 120 ISSUES-CENTERED EDUCATION FOR 13 LAN UAGE-MINORITY STUDENTS bq HillHernindez and Devon Metzger

n some form or another, issues-centered edu- become adept at integrating issues-centered cation has always been a part of social studies. education into the curriculum. Whenever social studies teachers, either by Essential to the success of issues-centered design or through informal chats with stu- education is determining how teachers view students, become involved in discussions thatdents and to what extent students are involved in relate to students' lives, they are involving stu- their own learning. Teachers who are attracted to dents in issues-centered education. Teachers who issues-centered education tend to view students adopt issues-centered education generally give as practicing young citizenscapable and active- equal weight to process and content when ly involved citizens who make decisions and addressing the specific needs and interests of the value judgments directed toward improving their students. Issues-centered education places stu- lives and those of others. Issues-centered class- dent issues, concerns, and topics of interest at the rooms are characterized by authentic student center of the curriculum. participation in the teaching/learning process. Connecting the curriculum to the student isStudents experience democratic environments of utmost importance, equal only to using both rather than just reading or talking about democ- the experience of the learner and the learning racy. In its simplest form, democracy involves the process as tools for student empowerment. sharing of power among groups of people in Teachers who embrace issues-centered education order to establish a rule of order and authority are as concerned with the social and political(Gutmann 1987). As Metzger and Marker context of what is learned, as with the learning(1992, 72-73) stated: process itself. Although what the authors propose is directed toward assisting teachers in meeting If, in teaching for democracy, we do not the needs of language-minority students, it provide for the sharing of power between should not go unnoticed that these instructional teachers and students, we run the risk of practices are beneficial to all students. leaving the rule of order and authority solely Initially, some teachers may be concerned that to the teacher. To do so makes students issues-centered education is not compatible with, voiceless, and to make students voiceless is to or is "an addition to" the various mandated state make students powerless. Without sharing or district curriculum frameworks. However, power in the classroom with students, it is issues are embedded within all frameworks. impossible, no matter what we say or do, to While some frameworks specifically call for con- teach for democracy. temporary or controversial issues to be included in the mandated curriculum (e.g., California Sharing power isespecially criticalfor Department of Education [1987]), all designatedlanguage-minority students who are English- content naturally includes unresolved and/orlanguage learnerschildren and young adults value-laden issues that have both a historicalwhose primary language is not English. Many context and relevance to contemporary events. are native-born, members of nondominant Teachers who accept the usefulness and impor- ethnolinguistic groups; others are immigrants tance of issues-centered education quickly and refugees. Describing the demographic meta-

121 morphosis taking place in many of our schools, Focus on the Learner Richard-Amato and Snow (1992, 1) observed Social studies teachers often ask, "What that "as our society becomes more and more plu-should I teach?" and "How should I teach?" The ralistic, so do our classrooms." This, they argued,response is the same to both questions. Begin by presents a multitude of challenges to content- listening to and involving your language-minori- area teachers. One of the most critical is empow- ty students. When appropriate and with students' erment. As Cummins (1989, 57) asserted: permission, place them on center stage with their peers. Placing language-minority students on For real change to occur, educational inter- center stage means using or creating learning ventions must be oriented toward empow- activities that encourage and invite language- ermenttoward allowing children to feel a minority students to openly share their experi- sense of efficacy and control over what they ence and voice their views. On center stage are committed to doing in the classroom language-minority students have an opportunity and in their lives outside the school. to explore their cultural identity, engage in more In other words, real change must challenge cooperative interaction with others, enhance the power structure ... that disables minor- their self-esteem, and accept greater responsibili- ity children. ty for their own learning. An issues-centered approach incorporates Herein lies social studies educators' challenge students' experiences in ways that promote and the critical opportunity to make a commit- exploration of cultural identities: it "is automati- ment to all young citizens living and learning cally 'culture-fair' in that all students are actively in a pluralistic, democratic, and multiculturalinvolved in expressing, sharing, and amplifying society. For students in general and language-theirexperienceswithintheclassroom" minority students in particular, an issues-centered (Cummins 1989, 65). Ahlquist (1990, 56) rec- approach to social studies education has the ommended that teachers "ask students what they potential to involve students in selecting content,think are the most important issues and concerns making decisions about the process of learning,in life and how they might be addressed." Banks and determining potential courses of action. The (1993, 8) reminded us, however, that while it is teacher is an integral part of the learning commu-very important to use the personal and cultural nity, facilitating access to knowledge, providing a knowledge of students, "an important goal of classroom and learning structure, offering guid- education is to free students from their cultural ance, asking questions, and serving as a contentand ethnic boundaries and enable them to cross and process resource. Through questioning and cultural borders freely." probing, the teacher plays an active role in defin- The ultimate purpose is to have language- ing social issues, avoiding the problem of trivialminority students take ownership of the learning and superficial content selection (Barr, Barth, process. The teacher's primary role is to help stu- and Shermis 1977; Stanley and Whitson 1992). dents empower themselves: "Teachers do not Social studies educators who elect to develop empower or disempower anyone, nor do schools. an issues-centered classroom have the opportu- They merely create the conditions under which nity to play an important role in the empower- people can empower themselves, or not" (Ruiz ment of all students. Unquestionably, social1991, 223). Listening to students' perspectives studies teachers can and do make a positive and experiences is critical to teachers' willingness difference. However, to make an even greaterto be involved in the learning process. Freire difference, particularly in the lives of language- (1985) refers to the student ownership process as minority students, the challenge is to adopt a dialogical education. Students create new knowl- new paradigm that encourages exploration ofedge by voicing, sharing, and reflecting on life learner-centered social issues, involves students experiences: "As a teacher I help students locate in social action projects that bridge home, their experiences socially; I involve students in school, and community, and promotes language probing the social factors that make and limit and critical literacy development. The authors who they are and I try to help them reflect on believe that to benefit most from issues-centered who they could be" (Bigelow 1990, 437). instruction, teachers must focus on the learner as Ultimately, the critical thinking skills that stu- well as the content. dents develop will transform society, as students

112 2 2 learn "to grab hold of real life problems and con- share that confidence in them (Price 1992, struct solutions to them" (Ahlquist 1990, 54). 211-12). When inviting language-minority students to take charge of their own learning, it is equally Self-esteem is perhaps the key to the success important to develop a positive classroom com- of language-minority students in the issues- munity. Cooperation is favored over competition. centered classroom. With a positive identity, the Rather than fostering alienation by making chil- language-minority student will become willingly dren work independently and in competition and genuinely involved in the learning process. with one another, "schools should establish a Cortes (1990, 14) spoke directly to those `society of intimates'a collective identity andwho teach language-minority students when he collective responsibility" (Kornfeld 1993, 77). wrote of his vision for multiculturation"the Kagan's (1995) research on cooperative learningmutual acculturation of people, cultures and and minority students strongly endorsed theinstitutions." The vision is a quest to build a importance of cooperative learning: nation of the contributions of one and all, based on the positive commonalities that unite us, Minority students may lack motivation respecting, maintaining, and nourishing the con- to learn, but only when they are placed structive uniqueness that marks our diversity. To in traditional, competitive/individualistic this end, he called for several kinds of accultura- classroom structures. As demonstrated so tion, among these acculturation that empowers clearly by the [research], in a relatively short and sensitizes. Acculturation that empowers time what appears to be a long-term minor- helps all students to: ity student deficiency in basic language skills can be overcome by transforming the develop socially unifying knowledge, under- social organization of the classroom. Thus, standing, beliefs, values and loyalties... the gap in achievement between majority [and] effective English, advanced knowl- and minority students is best not attributed edge and empowering skills that will provide to personal deficiencies of minority stu- them with a reasonable chance of taking dents, but rather to the relatively exclusive advantage of opportunities for reaching the reliance in public schools on competitive fabled American dream. (Cortes 1990, 14) and individualistic classroom structures (Kagan 1995, 246-247). Acculturation that sensitizes will help all Americans: Developing self-esteem is also an important component of issues-centered education because to develop better intercultural understand- it is so closely related to student achievement. It ing and become more dedicated to living isespecially critical for academically under- with concern and sensitivity in a multieth- achieving students from minority groups. While nic society where racial, ethnic and cultural some critics question self-esteem as a useful and differences co-exist with national and worthy goal (Kohn 1994, 272-283), self-esteem human commonalties (14). is inextricably related to the overarching goal of learning about one's own culture and its societal Multiculturation is for all students. context: Focus on Content We may argue that instilling self-esteem is Let's imagine an issues-centered classroom no business of the schools, but we are that maximizes the academic, personal, and social deluding ourselves if we think there isn't a development of all students. What would it look link between self-esteem and achievement. like? What would be the salient features, those ...If students have confidence in their abil- most critical for language-minority students? ity, then success or failure in school and in Several dimensions would certainly stand out. life is largely a function of effort. Whether For example, the classroom would be a place to children achieve is contingent on whether explore learner-centered social issues, foster con- they possess self-esteem and confidence in nections between home, school, and community, their abilityand on whether their teachers and provide opportunities for social action.

113 123 It would also be a learning environment that pro- feel it is also their home. Without a connec- motes language and literacy development as well tion to where you come from, without your as critical thinking. The outcome of what stu- family and your past, you are just lost. dents do would empower them as learners. This 10th grade Mexican girl, section will help social studies educators better immigrated at age 14 understand how to approach and teach social issues to language-minority students by examin- Perspective is a critical element in teaching ing each of these dimensions in greater detail. social issues in any classroom. It affects how teachers present and students respond to social Explore Learner-Centered Social Issues issues. Because of the divergent cultural and Given the immediacy of certain concerns inlinguistic backgrounds that language-minority the lives of language-minority students (e.g., students bring to the classroom, teachers should family, language, culture, school climate), some anticipate that their own perspectives on some social issues will be more relevant than others.issues in relation to gender, religion, social This is why it is imperative that instruction beclass, ethnic group, or nationality, for instance, learner-centered. Meaningful themes should bewill differ from that of their students. Due to the drawn from the experiences and concerns of the interaction of ethnicity, social class, religion, and students themselves. These will vary from one education, students from language-minority context to another. Once identified, the themes groups, for example, may have alternative, i.e., can serve as the basis for school-wide and localnonmainstream U.S., views on women's issues. community action projects. Definitions of role, family, interpersonal relation- Themes are everywhere, and students' voices ships, expectations, and aspirations may also vary. offer an essential guide in making decisions Adopting frames of reference different from about selecting social issues. Just listening tothose traditionally used in the social studies is what immigrant students have to say about their critical. For example, geocultural and global experiences in Crossing the Schoolhouse Borderperspectives are educationally and conceptually (Olsen 1988, 35, 30) will suggest possibilities. valid alternatives to ethnocentric points of Note how issues such as immigration, discrimi-view that distort views of U.S. society and the nation, and ethnic identity emerge: rest of the world (Hernandez 1989). Cortes (1976, 1981; Cortes and Fleming 1986b) has The Americans tell us to go back to our own repeatedly made the point that established eth- country. I say we don't have a country to go nic-language groups have traditionally been back to. I wish I was born here and nobody ignored, described as obstacles to progress, or would fight me and beat me up. They don't characterized as problems in society. He has long understand. I want to tell them if they had recommended use of a multidirectional frame of tried to cross the river and were afraid of reference that is geoculturalsubsuming the being caught and killed and lost their sisters, cultures and experiences of the nation as a whole they might feel like me, they might look like by recognizing "the northwesterly flow of civi- me, and they, too, might find themselves in a lization from Africa to America, the northerly new country. flow of Hispanic and Mexican civilization into 10th grade Cambodian boy, what is today the U.S. Southwest, and the east- immigrated at age 12 erly flow of civilization and cultures from Asia" (Cortes 1981, 15). This, he argued, enables edu- I'm glad to be American. I think you can be a cators to deal with multiple group perspectives lot more open here and we have a lot of fun. (e.g., ethnic, racial, cultural, gender, religious) as But I don't think it's right that some kids try integral elements in teaching the American so hard to not be Latin. They won't speak experience. Spanish, and some of them don't even know Along similar lines, Cortes also advocated a how anymore. To me that is sad. My children multifaceted global perspective for presenting will be born here, and they will be fully information on areas outside the United States. American, but I want them to know our lan- Failure to adopt such a framework encourages guage. I want them to be able to speak to my students to "view the world with knowledge grandmother, and to go back to Mexico and drawn almost entirely from Western and middle-

114 124 class traditions. But the majority of Earth's peo- Educators who see their role as adding a ple are not white; although they may be influ- second language and cultural affiliation to enced by the West, their cultures are neither students' repertoire are likely to empower Western nor dominated by a middle class." students more than those who see their role It is inevitable that issues-centered instruc- as replacing or subtracting students' prima- tion will not be limited by national boundaries. ry language and culture in the process of If students are to attain an accurate understand- assimilating them to the dominant culture. ing of people in other countries in the process, then outsider perspectives will not suffice. This acceptance can best be achieved by Students must be taught about different cultures creating opportunities for incorporating the pri- and societies in ways that recognize and value mary language into classroom activities. From an perspectives from within. Geocultural and glob- academic, linguistic and affective standpoint, al perspectives provide the divergent interpreta- this is sound practice conducive to the study of tions of reality that will help students appreciate social issues. the insight captured in the words of Ortega y Diaz, Moll, and Mehan (1986) illustrated one Gasset: "The sole false perspective is that which strategy that effectively integrates the study of claims to be the only one there is." social issues within the classroom and community with the development of literacy and thinking Promote Language Development skills in both languages. This strategy was imple- In the issues-centered classroom envisioned mented successfully in an English-as-a-second- here, language and literacy development would language classroom at a secondary school in be a priority. Aronowitz and Giroux (1985) wrote which there was no support provided for literacy that "if students are to be empowered by schooldevelopment in the primary language. In direct- experiences, one of the key elements of theiring students through their examination of cam- education must be that they acquire mastery ofpus and community attitudes toward language, language as well as the capacity to think concep- the teacher used surveys and questionnaires as a tually and critically (p. 158 in original Aronowitz technique for soliciting people's opinions toward and Giroux)" (Sleeter and Grant, 1988, p. 190).English and their primary language. To promote To achieve academically, language-minority stu- literacy development, information collected from dents must attain high levels of academic lan- the Spanish-speaking community was reported guage proficiency, and issues-centered instruc- using essays written in English. tion provides an ideal forum for enhancing English-language and literacy skills. Moreover, On the first day, the teacher framed the given the nature of issues-centered activities, assignment by requiring that all of the students ask there are also ample opportunities for incorpora- these three questions (Diaz et al. 1986, 214): tion of the primary language. Research by Edelsky and Hudelson (1980) 1. What language do you speak best? reviewed by Fillmore and Valadez (1986) indi- 2. What language do you read and write best? cated that encouraging students to use their pri- 3. Do any members of your family who mary language in school is not enough to ensure live with you speak another language that they will actually do so. In a setting such as besides English? a school, speakers of languages other than the Two ether qvestions were made dominant language in the community often find optional: it difficult or awkward to use their native lan- Would you be willing to take classes to guage to talk with each other. Even when sec- become bilingual? ond-language learners interact with classmates What career do you. foresee in your future in who are bilingual, the speakers will almost invari- which you would benefit by being bilingual? ably shift into English. Social studies teachers working with second- For the survey, each student was required to language learnerseven teachers who are notinterview other peopletwo adults not working bilingualmust convey the message to studentson campus, two adults who work on campus, three that the primary language is accepted and valued. students whose first language is English, and three Cummins (1989, 60) hypothesized that: students whose first language is not English.

11 s

6*, 14 0 BEST COPY AVAILABLE As homework, students developed that thinks that speaking another lenguage three additional questions related to the issue ain't important. finally, I ask a teacher that they were exploring, which were discussed the What career was he interested in that next day, generating ten additional questions would require a second language and he for possible use in the student questionnaires said no common and he told this I don't (Diaz et al. 1986, 215): know What laugage I'm interestes that would require a 2nd lenguage because I 1. Would you prefer to live around bilingual don't know it and I ask two Students this people in a bilingual community? question what career are yo interested in 2.Are your closest friends bilingual? that would require a 2nd lenguage and 50 3.Would you like to go to the university? Do percentsaid Fransh 10 percentsaid you know that the best university requires Germen 10 percent said Italian and 20 per- four years of second-language training? cent said no coman as you can see I was 4.Which language do you like the best of the having fun. (Diaz et al. 1986, 217). ones you don't speak? 5.What language do you speak with your friends? Why? Student B: 6.How many teachers do you have that speak I found that people in our community feel some Spanish? good about belingualism for several good 7.Do you think you would like to return to reasons. They think it it very important live where you learned your first language? because they can communicate with other 8.Which language does your closest friend people. The people I ask are 60 percent speak with you? students, 40 percent adults, 70 percent are 9.Do you think speaking another language is Spanish speakers, 20 percent were English important? speakers, 70 percent can write and read 10.Is it comparatively hard for you to learn English, 20 percent can write and read another language? Spanish well. Most of the people told me that in there house can speak English and The teacher guided the process from the Spanish. The people I ask the questions, initial interviewing through essay writing answers me very polite and they said the and reporting. In writing their essays, stu- questions were very interesting. Some per- dents followed a model structure of formu- son said that these project was very good for la paragraphs. The following are two me and interesting for him. When he said unedited student essays: that I feel very good about the work I was doing. The most interesting thing that Student A: I found wat that the people like the project. The people in my cummunity think that Most of the people said that they were being bilingual is very important for several willing to take classes to become totally good reasons. Firts, I felt very proud doing belingual because it could help them right the Survey. the people in our communinty now and in the future. The students I ask feel very proud at them self that they speak said that they have only friends that speak Spanish and Eanglish because they can talk only Spanish and English not othey lan- with there friends in any of those two guage. They adults I ask said that been lenguages. Secondly, the people I ask Some belingualisvery important for them were bilingual students and adults 60 per- because they can communicate with more cent were bilingual people and 40 percent people and they can have more opportuni- weren't bilingual people. Also, I ask a tis for some jobs that othey people do I fee teacher and a student if they would be will- very good about the way people answer me. ing to work as a bilingual person and they (Diaz et al. 1986, 217-18) said no and than I ask a Student this qies- tion Do you think Speaking Another By assigning this task, teachers can draw lenguage is important and he said no that upon skills that students have developed in amazed me because I never herd one person their first language and use them in support of

116 126 academic goals in the second language. In doingroom community validate their feelings and so, instruction is also responsive to community experiences. She also contended that "true learn- dynamics. In working within this particular coming occurs only when the information received is munity, the researchers found that writing, analyzed in light of one's own experiences and schooling, and social issues were complex, emotions" (Ada, 1988, 104). related phenomena. Establishing connections At the next level, the critical phase, students between the community and classroom were crit- are involved in the critical analysis of issues and ical to student success. Diaz et al. (1986) empha- problems. Questions now focus on making infer- sized that this activity is also consistent with ences and formulating generalizations based on Vygotsky's (1978) notion of creating zones ofwhat they have read: Is it fair? Is it right? Does it proximal development, as students move from benefit everyone alike? Are there any alternatives to teacher guidance to self direction, from social to this situation? What would the consequences of each individual experience. alternative be? Would people of different cultures (classes, genders) have acted differently? How? Promote Critical Literacy Development Why?" (Ada, 1988; Ada and Zubizarreta, 1989, and Social Action 13). According to Ada and Zubizarreta (1989), It is not enough, however, to develop lan- these questions serve to enhance critical thinking guage and literacy skills. If students are to be skills and promote the realization that situations empowered by what they learn, pedagogy mustoften present alternative courses of action. In take them one step further. McLeod (1986, 37)turn, students become more cognizant of their articulated this view: ability to influence their own reality. Finally, students enter the creative phase in Being literate... meanshaving the power to which ideas become actions. Students confront use languagewriting and reading, speak- issues and explore alternatives for resolving the ing and listeningfor our own purposes, as problems identified. They engage in activities that well as those that the institutions of our can make a difference in their lives. For example, society require of us. The classroom process- teachers might ask: What can you do to ... ? How es by which that power is achieved include would you change (improve, alter, transform) ... ? the first exercise of that power. What are you going to do when ... ? How would you prevent ?" (Ada and Zubizarreta 1989, 13). Ada (1986) could have had social studies edu- Cummins (1989) gave the example of stu- cators in mind when she drew on Freire's work to dents engaged in research on environmental pol- develop her "model" for critical literacy. It is a lution problems. After investigating newspapers, powerful tool for all social issues classrooms. As periodicals and other sources of information, the described by Cummins (1989), her approach students would critically analyze causes, propose integrates critical thinking skills with curriculum solutions, and pursue a course of action. They content that involves reading. The first of Ada's might then make other students aware of the (1988) four phases in this creative reading problems. For example, students can pursue process is the descriptive phase. At the outset, chil- issues in a class or school newsletter, circulate a dren are asked to deal with information frompetition around their school or neighborhood, or a written text. To check for understanding, the contact people involved in local, state, or nation- teacher poses: 'Where, when, how, did it hap- al government. Cummins (1989, 74-75) com- pen? Who did it? Why?" (Ada 1988, 104). pared this process with the one developed by After the student has provided input, theTaba (1965). While similar in many ways, one process moves into the personal interpretative important difference exists between the two phase. The teacher invites the students to relate processes: what they have read to their own feelings and experiences: Have you ever seen (felt, thought, As pointed out by Wallerstein (1983, 17), experienced) something similar? How does this however, Freire and Taba differ primarily in information make you feel? How would you react the final step of the process where Taba asks in these circumstances? (Ada 1988; Ada and for summations and applications to other Zubizarreta). Ada emphasized that children's situations whereas Freire (and Ada) calls for self-esteem is enhanced as members of the class- action to promote alternatives to current

117 127 problematic or negative situations. for exhibition in the state capitol.

For educators working from an interactive/Foster Student Empowerment experiential pedagogical orientation, critical In the final analysis, issues-centered instruc- thinking is more than a skill to be transmittedtion should empower all students. As Cummins (Cummins 1989, 75): (1989, 63) observed: "Instruction that empowers ...will aim to liberate students from dependence Critical/creative thinking is manifested on instruction in the sense of encouraging them through active use of oral and written lan- to become active generators of their own knowl- guage for collaborative exploration of issues edge." This is particularly critical for language- and resolution of the real problems that minority students. form the curriculum. In other words, the Educators have developed a vision of the type primary focus is on process rather than of instruction that empowers language-minority transmission of content. students. As described by Cummins (1989, 64), this interactive/experiential model is predicated Combining critical literacy development andupon strategies consistent with basic principles of social action offers teachers and students excitinglanguage acquisition and literacy development possibilities. In one second-grade, bilingual class-that promote reciprocal inter-action between room (Hernandez 1992), for example, issues teachers and students. Among the strategies that related to animal rights took on an internationalcharacterize instruction that empowers lan- perspective. Concern regarding the care andguage-minority students, Cummins included treatment of pets in the children's neighborhood the following: generated interest in reading Ferdinand the Bull. Discoursegenuine oral and written dis- The children asked: "Why did bullfighting per- course between teacher and students; sist? Does everyone in Spain like bullfighting?" Teacher rolegreater emphasis on teachers They wanted answers, and ideas became actions. in the role of guides and facilitators rather The children wrote letters to the mayor of Tossa, than as imparters of knowledge and con- a small village in Spain that was the first to ban trollers of learning; bullfighting. The children used real and imagi- Contextcreation of a collaborative learning nary images to describe what the bulls might do context in which peers are encouraged to if they were no longer doomed to enter the bull- interact; ring. The mayor of Tossa wrote back, appreciative Languagegreater emphasis on the use of of their interest in a movement that he regards as language that is meaningful and less empha- inevitable. He also forwarded their names to the sis on correctness of form; spokesperson for the local animal defense league, Integrationstrong integration of language who has continued the correspondence, keeping development and subject matter content; the students informed of activities throughout Thinking skillsemphasis on the develop- the European community. ment of higher-level cognitive skills; and When children in Hernandez's classroom Motivationfocus on engaging students in explored smoking and its related health issues, tasks that foster intrinsic motivation. they traced the history of smoking around the world. The more the children learned, the more Adhering to the tenets of the model, teachers they wanted to do something. The childrencan help students to "assume greater control over decided to create antismoking posters. When setting their own learning goals and to collabo- they realized that children in other parts of therate actively with each other in achieving these world made similar posters, the pupils organizedgoals" (Cummins 1989, 64). a poster exchange. They sent their posters to Spain in exchange for posters drawn by third, A Time for Change in Social fourth and fifth graders in Barcelona. PostersStudies Education were in three languages: Catalan, English, and What role do social studies educators play in Spanish. In both countries the posters were dis- this very serious debate about culture, diversity, played in classrooms. One group of children alsoand power? How do social studies educators decided to send posters carrying their message define and, hence, teach the goal of democratic

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"Need for a Geo-Cultural Perspective in reality in social studies content and materials the Bicentennial." Educational Leadership 33, no. 4 (especially when these distortions sanction racial (1976): 290-92. and ethnic stereotypes). Cortes, C.E. (1981) "Dealing with the Density of Are social studies educators open to the chal- Diversity: Groupness and Individuality in the lenge? In her NCSS presidential address, California History/Social Science Framework." Charlotte C. Anderson (1993, 160) spoke to this Social Studies Review, 21(1), 12-18. need for change: Cortes, C.E. "E Pluribus Unum: Out of Many One." In Vol. 1 of California Perspectives: An Anthology fivm We must discard familiar and therefore the Immigrant Students Project, 13-16. San Francisco: comfortable images of reality and embrace California Tomorrow, 1990. unfamiliar and disorienting ones. These Cortes, C.E., and D. B. Fleming. "Global Education new images, although they may be threat- and Textbooks." Social Education 50 (1986a, no. 5): ening and disconcerting to those of us firm- 340-44. ly rooted in the mid-twentieth century, Cortes, C.E., and D. B. Fleming. "Changing Global are nonetheless congruent with emerging Perspectives in Textbooks." Social Education 50 realities of the world our children will expe- (1986b, no. 5): 376-84. rience. If what I say is true, we social stud- Cummins, J. Empowering Minority Students. ies educators face a task that may shake the Sacramento : California Association for Bilingual very foundation on which most of us have Education, 1989. built our personal and professional lives. Diaz, S., L. C. Moll, and H. Mehan. "Sociocultural Resources in Instruction: A Context-Specific Approach." In Beyond Language: Social and Cultural References Factors in Schooling Minority Students. Los Angeles: Ada, A. F. "Creative Education for Bilingual Teachers." Evaluation, Dissemination and Assessment Center, Harvard Educational Review 56 (1986, no. 4): 386-94. School of Education, California State University, Ada, A. F. (1988). "Creative Reading: A Relevant Los Angeles, 1986. Methodology for Language Minority Children." Edelsky, C., and Hudelson, S. (1980). "Acquiring a In L. M. Malave (Ed.) NABS '87. Theory, Research, Second Language When You're Not the Underdog." and Application: Selected Papers. Buffalo: State In R. Scarcella and S. Krashen (Eds.), Research in University of New York. Second Language Acquisition. Rowley, MA: Newbury Ada, A. F., and R Zubizarreta. Language Arts through House. Children's Literature. Emeryville, Calif: Children's Fillmore, L. W., and C. Valadez. "Teaching Bilingual Learners." In Handbook of Research on Teaching, 3rd ed., edited by M. C. Wittrock, 648-85. New York Issues-Centered Education for Macmillan, 1986. Language-Minority Students Freire, P. The Politics of Education. Granby, Mass.: Bergin and Garvey, 1985. Outline Garcia, J., and S. L. Pugh. "Multicultural Education in I. Focus on the Learner Teacher Preparation Programs: A Political or an II. Focus on Content Educational Concept?" Phi Delta Kappan 74, no. 3 A.Explore Learner-Centered Social Issues (1992): 214-19. B.Promote Language Development Gutmann, A. Democratic Education. Princeton, N. J. : C. Promote Critical Literacy Development Princeton University Press, 1987. and Social Action Hernandez, F. "California History and Its Multicultural III. Foster Student Empowerment Heritage for Elementary School Instruction." Paper IV. A Time for Change in Social Studies presented at the annual conference of the California Education Historical Society, September 1992. Hernandez, H. Multicultural Education: A Teacher's Guide to Content and Process. Columbus, Ohio: Sleeter, C.E., and C. A. Grant. Making Choices for Merrill Publishing, 1989. Multicultural Education. Columbus, Ohio: Merrill Kagan, S. (1995). "Cooperative Learning and Publishing, 1988. Sociocultural Factors in Schooling" (pp. 231-298). Smith, G.R., and G. Otero. Teaching about Cultural In Beyond Language: Social and Cultural Factors in Awareness. Denver, Colo.: University of Denver, Schooling Language Minority Students. Los Angeles: Center for Teaching International Relations, 1982. Evaluation, Dissemination and Assessment Center, Stanley, W. B., and J. A. Whitson. "Citizenship as School of Education, California State University, Practical Competence: A Response to the New Los Angeles. Reform Movement in Social Studies Education." Kohn, A. "The Truth About Self-Esteem." Phi Delta The International Journal of Social Education 7, no. 2 Kappan 76, no. 4 (1994): 272-283. (1992): 57-66. Kornfeld, J. H. "Teaching for Democracy in the Social Taba, H. (1965). "The Teaching of Thinking." Studies Classroom." Theory and Research in Social Elementary English, 42,534-542. Education 21, no. 1 (1993): 75-83. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in Society: The Development McLeod, A. "Critical Literacy: Taking Control of Our of Higher Psychological Process. Cambridge, MA: Own Lives." Language Arts 63, no. 1(1986): 37-50. Harvard University Press. Metzger, D. J., and P. M. Marker. "Teaching for Wallerstein, N. (1983). "The Teaching Approach of Democracy: An Agenda for Social Studies Teacher Paulo Freire." In J. W. 011er, Jr., and P. A. Richard- Education in the Twenty-First Century." The Amato (Eds.) Methods That Work: A Smorgasbord of International Journal of Social Education 7, no. 2 Ideas for Language Teachers. Rowley, MA: Newbury (1992): 67-75. House. NCSS Ad Hoc Committee on Social Studies Curriculum Guidelines, "Revision of the NCSS Social Studies Guidelines," National Council for the Social Studies, 1979. Olsen, L. Crossing the Schoolhouse Border. A California Tomorrow Policy Research Report. San Francisco: California Tomorrow, 1988. Price, H. B. "Multiculturalism: Myths and Realities." Phi Delta Kappan 74, no. 3 (1992): 208-13. Richard-Amato, P. A., and M. A. Snow, ed. The Multicultural Classroom: Readings for Content-Area Teachers. White Plains, N.Y.; Longman, 1992. Ruiz, R. "Empowerment of Language-Minority Students." In Empowerment through Multicultural Education, edited by C. E. Sleeter, 217-27. Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 1991.

120 13 Q

BEST COPYAVAILABLE ISS ES-CENTERED EDUCATION IN MU 'CULTURAL ENVIRONMENTS

bq Sh n L. Pugh and Jesus Garcia

andates that focus on what and how knowledge along with the thinking and language much students should learn in socialtools necessary to enter into an adult lifetime of studies typically ignore how they learn. negotiation and problem solving. It is not Most educators would agree that thereenough to teach them about their past, vital as is nothing inherently wrong with enrich- this dimension is; they must develop depth per- ing history and geography learning ception by relating the past to their present and (Bradley Commission 1985; Gagnon 1989;future. Acknowledging that both tradition and National Commission on Social Studies in thechange should be examined together, we pro- Schools 1989) and insisting on a high standard ofmote in this chapter a model of issues-centered student knowledge in these areas (Beatty, 1994,social studies education that meets the needs of Rothman 1990). Yet increasing the content of students preparing for citizenship in the twenty- the social studies curriculum is not likely to first century. improve students' dismal attitudes toward the subject. Indeed, student voices are strikinglyIssues-Centered absent from the ongoing discussion of how social Social Studies Education studies can become a vital force in their educa- Issues-centered social studies education, as tion and lives. the phrase implies, focuses on matters of actual The irony of this situation is that voice is concern to society. It also recognizes and, indeed, the essence of democratic participation, so that makes pedagogical use of the complexity of issues learning to exercise this voice in thoughtful in a democratic system. In addition to relating and effective ways would seem to be a primary history and geography knowledge to contempo- objective of education for citizenship. Students, rary issues, this approach incorporates the key moreover, are not just individuals but also mem- elements of 1. multiculturalism in a global con- bers of communities, the many communities text,2.multiple perspectives, and3.strong- that reflect the cultural diversity of the Unitedsense (dialogical) critical reasoning. Thus, stu- States. This diversity is nowhere as apparent asdents are not only exposed to information but in public schools, especially those in metropoli- develop experience in processes that employ such tan areas but also those in suburbs, once consid- information in problem-solving situations. ered white enclaves. Cultural diversity is espe- Our information-age culture presents the cially dramatic in communities in Californiarationale for this kind of curriculum. Satellite and Texas, where, within the predictable future, television, on-line electronic mail and news ser- non-Caucasian populations will constitute the vices, fax machines, high-tech library networks, majority. From Anchorage to Miami, culturaland sophisticated computer software have diversity is nearly everyone's reality. changed the nature of basic literacy. The educa- Social studies education models that neglect tional challenge for students in the late 1990s is to address the complexities of the teaching- not only to acquire and retain a given body of learning process legitimately raise concerns. knowledge but also to master the tools for using Today, surrounded by an information explosion knowledge. of largely alarming news, students need basic Such acquisition of information and the

131 mastery of obtaining information blends easilytion generated by our affluent lifestyles is damag- into the context of problem solving. Our stu- ing the ozone that protects these regions. Poverty dents, who have known only this information and overpopulation in developing countries call culture, will sense the relevance of such an for moral and economic responsibilities in rich approach to social studies learning, and whatcountries, who, in turn, become recipients of many now experience as a dreary and routine increased numbers of immigrants and refugees. subject may become the most vital and stimulat- Indeed, the "international global village," ing in their school experience. In the following prophesied by Marshall McLuhan (1968) and discussion, we explore the possibilities of issues- documented twenty-five years later (Iyer 1993) is centered social studies education in terms of its defined by an international youth culture driven three key elements by an international economy. Despite youth's notorious ignorance of geography, an interna- Global Multiculturalism tional outlook is as natural to young people as We have previously defined multiculturalism playing with computers. We must now accept with a global perspective as: that an individual without a computer or international awareness is deprived of knowledge neces- a layered concept that includes not only the sary for successful functioning in today's world. experiences of particular individuals and The metaphor that might best describe today's groups but also their shared interests and global perspective is the holograph, which pre- relationships, which in turn are embedded sents all dimensions simultaneously to create an in the interconnectedness of all peoples of image-in-the-round, vastly different from the the world. In its full complexity, then, mul- sequential presentation of "expanding horizons," ticulturalism implies the cultivation of a the popular social studies curriculum model that global view of human affairs. Paradoxically, "begins with the immediate environment perhaps, this expanded view of multicultur- family, home, school, neighborhood and commu- alism places primary emphasis on the indi- nityand moves outward to state, regional, vidual and on the importance of individual national,andinternationalenvironments" decisions regarding all issues concerning the (Michaelis 1992, 14). In an issues-centered welfare of humankind. (Garcia and Pugh approach, instruction emphasizes the students' 1992, 218) belonging simultaneously to all levels of the social environment. Issues may be immediate, but their Although politicians and the general public implications are far-reaching. Diversity itself is may not agree on a definition of "the new worldsuch an issue. In both school and community, order" or on what is the U.S. role as the world's issues arise naturally concerning the degree and solitary superpower, the momentous changes ofnature of diversity, and the analysis of these issues the late eighties and early nineties have made uswill link the school and local environment to the acutely aware that today's pace goes at roller- state, national, and global environment. coaster speed when compared to earlier times. Many school and societal issues are available To cite just two eventsthe dismantling of the for critical examination within an issues-centered real wall in Berlin and the symbolic wall of approach. For example, the school issue of track- apartheid in South Africawe have witnessed ing would open to the larger issue of how school breathtaking liberation along with the conse- differentiates students and treats them accord- quent confusion that often follows the toppling ingly, often appearing to follow class and race of an oppressive structure. The electronic net- lines, and with particular implications for newly work that keeps all nations of the world in touch arrived Americans. When students look at how with and under the scrutiny of all others is agroup membership can affect one's treatment metaphor for the actual interconnectedness ofand experience in school, they consider attitudes the whole human race. toward societies defined as more distant than Environmental concerns make global think- others as well as the role of wealth in both power ing an urgent necessity. The destruction of rain and opportunity. Another school issue is segrega- forests in South America and Southeast Asia, for tion, integration, and separatism, recently paro- example, affects medical research and evendied in a Doonesbury series featuring a liberal breathing in the United States, just as the pollu-college president facing the opposition of the

122 132 "Multiracial, Bi-Gender Student Alliance" over ing and learning. Especially in the humani- the issue of social desegregation on a college ties and the social sciences, we are beginning campus (he wants it, they don't). The entire his- to realize that understanding and the ability tory of our nation can be contextualized in that to appreciate things from more than one per- issue, with particular emphasis on events before, spective may be as important as is factual during, and after the Civil War. Studying this knowledge, among the goals of education. major dimension of our own cultural history One result of this changing perception is the helps students consider racial and ethnic conflicts Committee's assertion that the social studies and reforms in other parts of the world and such should be concerned, not so much with international movements as the rise of the "skin- "whose culture" (vii) and "whose history" are head" culture and the globalization of virtually all to be taught and learned, as with the develop- aspects of African American popular culture. ment of intellectual competence in learners, with Other issues that can be explored simultane- intellectual competence viewed as having as one ously from school to planet include environ- of its major components the capacity to view the mental issues from school recycling to the Earth world and understand it from multiple perspec- Summit, residential patterns from neighbor- tives. Thus the report takes the position that hoods to international immigration trends, and a few fundamental concepts should be the employment patterns from the local factory to focus of teaching and learning in the social NAFTA. Virtually any major issue leads to the studies, with applications, contexts, and necessity of taking a global and multicultural examples drawn from multiple cultural perspective in order to begin to address the sources, differing perspectives, and diverse rightsand perhaps to some extent the wel- groups. Multicultural knowledge in this concep- fareof all groups on a planet that is shrinking tion of the social studies becomes a vehicle and in more ways than one. not the goal. Multicultural content and experience become instruments by which we enable Multiple Perspectives students to develop their intelligence and to The New York State Social Studies Review function as human and humane persons (519). and Development Committee (1991) identified four pillars of social studies instruction: shared Schlesinger, it should be noted, expressed values for nation-building, appreciation of cul- strong misgivings with the emphasis of the report tural diversity, inclusiveness of all cultures, and, on pluralism and the value of different cultures as the culminating point, the development of rea- and heritages instead of participation in a com- soning from multiple perspectives. Committee mon culture. In addition, he criticized the report members, such as Edmund Gordon of Yale for diminishing the importance of European University, Nathan Glazer of the Harvard School civilization, which he asserted was the "unique" of Education, Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., of the City source of American institutions and values. University of New York, Asa Hilliard III ofHe also took issue with what he called the "politi- Georgia State University, and Francis Roberts of cization" of the curriculum, citing such state- New York's Cold Spring Harbor Schools, identi- ments as "students must be taught social criti- fied seven basic concepts to guide social studies cism," that "[they should] see themselves as active curriculum reform: democratic ideals, diversity, makers and changers of culture and society," and economic and social justice, globalism, ecological "that [they should prepare to] bring about change balance, ethics and values, and individual partici- in their communities, the nation, and the world." pation in society. These educators' concern withThe publication of both the majority report and developing the capacity to view issues and reason the dissenting opinion in the New York State from multiple perspectives is explained in the fol-Social Studies Review and Development Com- lowing passage (italics ours): mittee report is an excellent illustration of what is fundamental to discussion in a democratic Not only the world, but also our nation and societydialogical/dialectical reasoning. the peoples who inhabit it, are changing. The nature of our knowledge and the criteria for Dialogical Reasoning being judged an educated person are chang- Richard Paul (1985) defines "strong-sense" ing, as are our conceptions of effective teach- critical thinking as dialectical; that is, integrating

123 133 different viewpoints. He characterizes such sub- problem solving and the development of knowl- jects as history, psychology, sociology, anthro- edge in all fields. A hypothesis is the foundation pology, and economics as based on debate and of an argument, a premise, and a claim. The evi- controversy rather than on unanimously agreed-dence that supports or negates the hypothesis upon premises, a view that can probably berepresents the next part of the argument, and extended to the sciences and mathematicsandthe outcome is the conclusion one reaches on certainly to the humanities. An extended excerptthe basis of the evidence. This basic structure of from his explanation of "dialectical reasoning" isreasoning is used in any writing that takes a appropriate to explain the concept here: point of view that might be challenged or compared to another point of view, whether it is an Generate a question within them [the fields essay, an editorial, a speech, a scholarly article, mentioned above], and you typically gener- or a legal document. The Declaration of ate a field of possible conflicting lines of rea- Independence is a prime example of an argu- soning and answers. Raise questions about ment. It begins with an issue, which is the ques- their application to everyday life problems, tion of whether a nation is justified in separat- and the debate often intensifies. The issues ing from an unjust government, takes a position, are properly understood as dialectical, as which is an affirmative answer to that question, calling for dialogical reasoning, for thinking and then lists all the evidence to support that critically and reciprocally within opposing action. The outcome is the independent nation points of view. This ability to move up and we are today. This analysis has been encapsulat- back between contradictory lines of reasoned in a heuristic we call IPSO (Issues, Position, ing, using each to critically cross-examine Support, Outcome), developed for a course on the other, is not characteristic of the techni- critical reasoning for new college students, a cal mind. Technical knowledge is typically course necessitated by students' general lack of developed by restriction to one frame of ref- experience with critical reading and thinking in erence, to one standpoint. Knowledge high school. The IPSO tool for argument analy- arrived at dialectically, in contrast, is like the sis is outlined in the Table on the next page. verdict, with supporting reasoning, of a jury. There are at least two points of view to The term "obligated" in the issue statement entertain. It is not, as problem-solving theo- is not explained or qualified, so that one rists tend to characterize all problems, a might ask in what ways obligation is movement from an initial state through a intendedlegal, moral, military, etc. Both series of transformations (or operations) to a arguments in their given form are cast as final (answering) state (156). opinions. The arguments may seem simplistic for a graduating senior, yet they are typical In class, particularly in small groups, studentsof the work of many students at the end of their should discuss and debate, practicing the artshigh school career, demonstrating their lack of of thoughtful listening and clear expression. Theexperience with both argument and analysis. ultimate purpose of exploring different view- Begun much earlier, IPSO could launch students points is to reach the best possible understandinginto critical reading and comparison of view- of an issue in order to take action. As the major points throughout high school, preparing them tool of social science inquiry, dialogical reasoning both for college and for adult decision making. is also the basis for developing strong critical IPSO does not cover all aspects of argumenta- thinking skills. tion, so teachers may wish to supplement with It is here, in its emphasis on critical thinking discussion of what makes a topic an issue, what and problem solving, that the issues-centered premises lie behind the formulation of an issue, approach stands out from other models thatand what assumptions underlie any part of an may claim to address "issues" as topics or con- argument. Such refinement of critical reading and tent. The issues-centered approach fuses process thinking skills builds on IPSO's basic structure. and content, so that they are always mutually Because the process of dialogical reasoning reinforcing. Critical thinking entails the ability actively involves students in developing their own to comprehend and evaluate arguments. Anpositions and attending to the perspectives and argument is a basic form of reasoning utilized in arguments of others, they experience a dynamic

124 .1 3 4 IPSO: A Guide for Analyzing Argument Structures IlPSO, a heuristic and not a technical model, Issue:What is the argument's problem or uses ordinary language to identify basic ele- question? ments of most arguments. The structure Position:What is the major position (the- represents a commonsense way of present- sis) asserted in this argument? ing and supporting a thesis on an issue. Support:What evidence, reasoning, or other Students can use it in both reading and writ- persuasive means support the position? ing, and it is especially useful for comparing Outcome:What is likely to happen if the arguments, as illustrated in the following pre- argument is accepted? sentation of opposing viewpoints by a high school senior in a 1993 college skills course:

ISSUE: Is the United States obligated to intervene in Bosnia?

Position I: Position II: No, the United States does not have a Yes, the United States does have a responsibility to intervene. responsibility to intervene. Support: Support: 1. We have nothing to do with their 1. United Nations treaty is being violated. problems. 2.United Nations troops are being attacked. 2.We have our own economic and political 3.We should help Bosnia as we have helped problems. other countries. 3.Conflicts with other nations might ensue. 4.Thousands of innocent people are being 4.Thousands of American troops could be killed. killed. Outcome:The war would stop and we Outcome:Bosnia and the rest of the world would have a more peaceful world. would learn to stand on their own feet.

relationship with social studies content. Theyimportant part of socialstudieslearning. acquire content in context, leading to a meaningSecondly, an issues-centered approach must orientation (Ramsden 1988), and the habit offocus on offering students strategies for organiz- constructive knowing (Baxter-Magolda 1992). Ining knowledge; these strategies do not necessari- other words, they expect information to be com-ly conflict (as it is sometimes argued) with "core plex, never entirely complete, subject to critical knowledge" approaches that advocate significant evaluation, and, above all, useful in forming views similarityofcurriculumcontentamong and making decisions. In short, school-acquiredAmerican schools. Finally, it is important that information now becomes as relevant and neces- the assessment of student achievement be consis- sary as information acquired in other important tent with issues-centered education. settings. With repeated experiences with challenging peer interactions, students come to Case Studies expect more and more of themselves and others. The essence of the issues-centered approach is its problematizing function. As the "I" in The Issues-Centered Classroom IPSO suggests, information is related to the real The issues-centered classroom has a number and controversial questions of civic life. Histori- of key elements. One of these is the use of appro- cal as well as contemporary topics can be cast in priate classroom methods. Among the most use- problemformats.Oliver, Newmann, and ful means of teaching issues in the classroom are Singleton (1992), for example, suggest revisiting simulations and case studies. These and otherthe turning points in U.S. history by reconsider- methods should be employed in a way that keeps ing the momentous questions of these times: sight of the powerful general concepts that are an Should the United States have declared its inde-

1251 35 BEST COPY AULAVil pendence? What measures should have been op into cases can be based on overall social or taken, and by whom, to assist the urbanpoor at historical importance, significance to a particu- the turn of the twentieth century? Should the lar community or group, or both (Oliver et al United States have entered the Second World 1992). Students can also compose their own War sooner than it did? case studies by identifying issues or questions, Involving students in the complexities and researching different perspectives on such ques- ambiguities surrounding historical issues helps tions, and creating scenarios that illustrate the them understand that history evolves as a seriesconflicts of interest involved and the basis for of negotiations, decisions, and consequences.dialogical reasoning and negotiations that Cases and simulations drive this point home.emerges. By composing their own cases and For example, by projecting themselves into theresponding to one another's, students experi- position of an ordinary citizen in Indiana justence the actual identification and definition of prior to the Civil War, they can pursue the ques- salient issues, reinforcing the often neglected tion of whether they would have supported or aspect of problem solvingproblem finding. rejected the Fugitive Slave Law, the Under- One pitfall to be avoided in the case ground Railroad, or the mobilization of northern approach, or the issues-centered approach in troops against the southern states for secedinggeneral, is losing sight of the general concepts from the union. Because these are not yes/no and broad perspectives that are an important part issues, students must understand the position of of social studies learning. Cases and issues are not Indiana as a "border" state in which certain kinds ends in themselves. The teacher should regularly of pre-Civil War activity and dilemmas were assess both teacher-generated and student-gen- prominent. A case set in this locale and time erated cases for their relevance to the conceptual could present the different viewpoints of citizens content of the curriculum. Roth (1994) warns in a primarily rural state and in a nation not yet a against thematic approaches that dilute the pow- century old. Playing out the implications of such erful concepts of any subject or discipline, argu- a case will help students understand the histori- ing that "we best develop our students' under- cal implications of this episode in our nation'sstanding of the world and its connectedness by story more deeply and more memorably than giving them access to a variety of powerful lenses other forms of presentation, whether textbook through which to view it." (48) descriptions, a time line, or a video drama of the phenomenon. The difference is in the emphasis. The Core Knowledge Question Students' attention is focused on concrete situa- Another consideration important to an argu- tions rather than sweeping events, providing the ment for an issues-centered approach is whether foundation for building the conceptual under- it subverts the idea of core knowledge in the standing of history and human affairs that is social studies, and, if so, whether that is a prob- the point of social studies learning. lem. Perhaps the place to begin is with the ques- Cases may combine real and imagined com- tion of whether there is a conflict. According to ponents, such as presenting fictional characters in Hirsch (1993), foremost proponent of the core authentic history or contemporary situations. knowledge philosophy, about 50 percent of the Oliver et al (1992) identify four kinds of issuescurriculum in any subject area should comprise that can provide the basis for cases: 1. generalcontent that is common among all American issues, such as whether the government should schools at that grade level. Such a provision, he require the use of basic protective devices likeargues, would bring national standards into seat belts for automobile passengers or crash hel- focus and ensure comparability of education mets for motorcyclists; 2. ethical/moral issues, across all regions and communities. In response such as the right of individual choice versus the to critics who disapprove of the content empha- greater good for all; 3. definitional issues, such as sis of the concept of core knowledge, he con- what should be included in the category of "basic tends that a coherent approach to specific content protective devices," for example, air bags; andenhances students' critical thinking and higher- 4. fact-explanation issues, such as the research order thinking skills. [emphasis his]" (144). One supporting or refuting the effectiveness of usingline of reasoning with which Hirsch supports protective devices. this position is that thoughtful selection and The selection of issues or incidents to devel- sequencing of content facilitates the constructive

126 X36 process of building new knowledge upon the skills, to solve problems, and to continue learning foundation of existing knowledge. on the job or in lifelong education. Such compe- Apart from whether we agree with the core tency standards place emphasis on an integrated knowledge concept or Hirsch's claims for it, it isrange of abilities that cannot be developed our position that it is not necessarily incompati-through passive learning of content but require ble with an issues-centered approach. Frazeethe engagement of students in that content in (1993), who has worked with a number of "Coreways wholly compatible with an issues-centered Knowledge" schools, refutes the belief that theapproach. For example, describing Oregon's theory leads to mechanical accumulation ofProficiency-Based Admissions Standards information. Rather, teachers who are successful- System, McKenna (1994, 5) points out that in ly implementing it "organize content into the- order to gain admission to public colleges, high matic units of their choosing; they can also selectschool graduates will have to demonstrate strategies and resources conducive to in-depth proficiency in "reading, writing, oral expression, learning. Assessment of progress can be accom- critical/analytical thinking, problem solving, plished through student writing, bulletin boards, technology as a learning tool, systems/integrative projects, performances, portfolios, and muchthinking, teamwork and quality work," assessed more" (149). An issues-centered approach doesin the context of the content areas. If, as indicat- not imply either the inclusion or the exclusion of ed on many fronts, Oregon's approach to stan- any specific content, but rather a set of strategies dards is indicative of the nation as a whole, for organizing content and the experiences that issues-centered teaching in the social studies may students have with it. be the only way to prepare students adequately for assessment. Assessment in the Issues-centered Curriculum Issues-centered Teacher Like the core knowledge issue, assessmentPreparation and standards may be viewed as compromised by One aspect of criticism against public an issues-centered approach, but again we con- education during the past decade has been dis- tend such a view is basically misconceived. satisfaction with teacher education itself, most During the past decade of school reforms and frequently on grounds of inadequate content since the publication ofA Nation at Risk (1993), preparation and an insufficient grounding in McKenna (1994) points out that crossnational sound learning theory and teaching strategies. assessments still show that American studentsTeachers are accused of teaching as they were are achieving far below the levels of students taught, an accusation that frequently implies from other countries with national standards.authoritarian delivery of content to passive In response to the frustration experienced bylearners, the infamous "lecture format" of uni- educators, employers, and the public at large, the versity teaching. government enacted Goals 2000 legislation Another problem is the insufficiency of prepa- (1991), which created a National Education andration for teaching in multicultural schools (Pugh Standards Improvement Council to develop con- and Garcia, 1994). Currently, most teacher educa- tent-based standards and assessments and a tion programs provide some exposure to multicul- National Skills Standards Board to develop occu- tural education, more isolated than pervasive. pational standards. Federal dollars for education Instruction may focus on similarities or "common are tied to states' voluntary compliance with theseculture," particularly as a legacy of the eighties standards. when "common culture" was used as a rationale The negative specter of national assessment,for dismantling civil rights gains. At the same taking the form of reductionist discrete testingtime, students in teacher education programs for particular facts and microskills, fortunatelyoften have sporadic exposure to critical reading has been countered by reforms in the assessment and critical thinking. Collaborative and coopera- field itself. Despite the challenges of achievingtive learning strategies, now popular in many high levels of reliability, educators and policy areas of education, are likely to be part of the pro- makers now favor portfolios and other forms ofgram, though not necessarily well integrated. qualitative assessment that highlight students' In order to successfully manage an issues- abilities to apply higher order literacy and math centered approach, teachers must themselves

'37 experience learning in such an environment. Global Multiculturalism Hence, we recommend that an issues-centered Multicultural contexts for issues provide realis- approach be implemented in the teacher educa- tic dimensionality and emphasize experiences and tion curriculum itself in both content and meth- contributions of different groups. A global perspec- ods courses. Prospective teachers should be tive supports wide-ranging discussion of issues at involved in both responding to and constructing several levels. cases centering on educational problems and issues, along with practicing dialogical/dialectical Multiple Perspectives reasoning and negotiation of solutions in plural- An appreciation of complexity is required for istic contexts. Teacher education students should strong-sense critical thinking, which, in turn, pro- experiencecollaborativeandcooperative vides reasoning operations and attitudes for consid- approaches to learning with such a framework of ering issues and events fairly from multiple per- issues-centered education and critical thinking. spectives. In social studies, such training should orient prospective teachers to actively participate in the governance of their professional and social envi- Dialogical Reasoning ronments. Ideally, we would train not just for Reasoning within alternative frameworks sup- teaching but for educational leadership, with ports the suspension of egocentric and ethnocen- implications for social leadership, as well. tric thinking. Dialogical reasoning provides a com- An important dimension of active teacher bined social and cognitive framework for examin- preparation is an emphasis on a global concept of ing presuppositions, stereotypes, and prejudices as multiculturalism throughout the teacher educa- well as for considering complex issues from multi- tion curriculum. As Cottrol (1990, 28) noted, the ple perspectives. real challenge is teaching Problem-Based Assessment the very complicated story of American his- Assessment based on productive reasoning and tory to studentscomplicated because it literacy competencies will reinforce values placed includes so much that is terrible and so on higher order thinking, problem solving, and new much that is remarkable. It is a history of learning abilities in society and the workplace contradiction and dilemmas....In judging today. In this way, an issues-centered approach to a particular multicultural education effort, assessment, with its effect on the curriculum, helps we should ask whether it tells the story of address the quandaries of educational standards and how American culture was shaped and excellence in the United States. transformed by a multicultural population. And we should ask whether it helps our pot"a metaphor challenged by many others, students come to grips with the contradic- including "salad bowl," "mosaic," and "bouill- tions at the core of our history. abaisse." It is, in sum, an issues-centered culture, which is the bottom-line support for implement- For as long as our nation retains its particular ing an issues-centered approach in the social democratic ideals, which honor the uniqueness of studies and incorporating this approach in the the individual, the rights of all groups, and the preparation of social studies (and all) teachers. principle of diversity within unity, tensions between pluralism and the common culture willKey Elements and Outcomes provide our basic dynamic. As a people, we will Key elementsof issues-centeredsocial assert and defend particular interests within a studies education include global multicultural- framework of argument, negotiation, and com- ism, multiple perspectives on complex issues, dia- promise. In this configuration, "common" culture logical/dialectical reasoning, and problem-based is not the same as "mainstream" culture. The lat- assessment. Working in mutual reinforcement, ter may be identified primarily with the majori- these elements will support the development of tywhite, middle class populationbut the a complex and expandable information base common culture is not the property of any single along with the cognitive abilities and critical group. It will ever be in a state of evolution, a skills for complex problem solving. Participating process that prevents its becoming a "meltingin an issues-centered curriculum will empower

128 138 students for participation in vital social processes. Zaitchik, William Roberts, and Holly Zaitchik. Perhaps most importantly, it will lay the founda- Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994. tion for students to develop the moral imagi- Oliver, Donald W., Fred M. Newmann, and Laurel R. nation and vision to work toward a just and Singleton. 'Teaching Public Issues in the Secondary equitable world society. School Classroom." The Social Studies 83 (May/June 1992): 100-103. Paul, Richard. "Dialectical Reasoning." In Developing References Minds: A Resource Book for Teaching Thinking, edited America 2000: An Education Strategy. Washington, DC: by Arthur L. Costa. Alexandria, Va.: Association for U.S. Department of Education, 1991. Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1985. Baxter-Magolda, Marcia. Knowing and Reasoning in Pugh, Sharon L., and Jesus Garcia. "Multicultural College: Gender Related Patterns in Students' Intellectual Education: Who Will Teach the Teachers?" Development. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1992. Unpublished paper. Indiana University at Beatty, Alexandra S., et al. NAEP 1994 U.S. History Bloomington, 1994. Report Card. Findings from the National Assessment of Ramsden, Paul. Improving Learning: New Perspectives. Educational Progress. Washington, DC: U.S. New York Nichols Publishing Co., 1988. Department of Education, 1996. Roth, Kathleen. "Second Thoughts about Bradley Commission on History in Schools. Building a Interdisciplinary Studies." American Educator History Curriculum: Guidelines for Teaching History in 18(Spring 1994): 44-48. Schools. Washington, DC: Educational Excellence Rothman, Robert. "History and Civics Tests Reveal Network, 1988. Knowledge Gaps." Education Week 9 (April 11, Cottrol, Robert. "America The Multicultural."American 1990): 5+. Educator 14(Winter 1990): 18-21. Gagnon, Paul, ed. Historical Literacy: The Case for History in American Education. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1989. Garcia, Jesus, and Sharon L. Pugh. "Multicultural Education in Teacher Education Programs: A Political or Educational Concept?" Phi Delta Kappan 74(November 1992): 214-19. Iyer, Pico. "The Global Village Finally Arrives." Time 142(Fall 1993): 86-87. McKenna, Barbara. "What Is This Thing Called Standards, and Why Should We Care?" On Campus 13(1994): 4-5+. McLuhan, Marshall and Quentin Fiore. War and Peace in the Global Village. New York McGraw-Hill, 1968. Michaelis, John U. Social Studies for Children: A Guide to Basic Instruction. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1992. A Nation at Risk The Imperative for Educational Reform. Washington, DC: National Commission on Excellence in Education, U.S. Department of Education, 1983. National Commission on Social Studies in the Schools. Charting a Course: Social Studies for the 21st Century. Washington, DC: National Commission on Social Studies in the Schools, 1989. New York State Social Studies Review and Development Committee. One Nation, Many Peoples: A Declaration of Cultural Interdependence. Albany, N.Y.: New York State Education Department, 1991. Reprinted in Face to Face: Readings on Confrontation and Accommodation in America, edited by Joseph

129 139 Parl For: llosloricalI ph

Introduction bu David Warren Saxe

THE USES OF HISTORY: and critique. The old and new histories high- INTRODUCTION TO lighted the salient events of the past (albeit from ISSUES- CENTERED HISTORY different perspectives). Moreover, the old and new histories could be revised in light of new evi- When social studies was in its infancy, a dence or powerful analysis of earlier works. new history was proclaimed by James In sum, the old and new histories, while different Harvey Robinson and Charles Beard. in focus, at least were not incompatible in school This new history added social and eco- settings. nomic perspectives to the old history of In contrast, the new, new history disregards kings, battles, and great events. As a salient (major) events that are described as clas- result, it broadened the curricular depth of what sist, racist, and largely Eurocentric in vision and teachers could offer students. practice. The real stories of history are seen as The new history was also well suited to social being about common people left out of the dis- studies as a means to cultivate an active, compe- course. It is the history of the oppressed that tent citizenship. Robinson, serving on the semi-merits attention. The old and new histories are nal 1916 Committee on the Social Studies, was dead and irrelevant. clearly influential in forging strong ties between When the old history and the new history are social studies and the new history The report ofjuxtaposed with the new, new history, it is clear the Committee on Social Studies, as part ofa that something has to give. The study of larger reorganization of secondary schools, sig- Columbus cannot be simply an examination of naled a formal introduction of social studies (andhistorical records and notation of turning points with it the new history) for school administra- in history. For the new, new history, Columbus is tors, textbook companies, and teachers. all about racism, vile colonialism, white hegemo- While the new history thrived within social ny, and genocide. There is no weighing of evi- studies, the old history supported by the Ameri- dence required, no sifting through conflicting can Historical Association did not die. Today ahistorical data on Mezzo-American Indian life, new, new history has moved into universities, or critique of the pronouncement of Columbian public schools, and textbooks. This new, new his- guilt. The old and new history of social studies tory of the dispossessed, marginalized, and have no place here. oppressed presented a story unlike the old history It is this author's view that issues-centered or the new history. It is a history of victimization, teaching is vital for all. Moreover, that issues-cen- deconstruction, and politics. It was the cultivation tered social studies goes beyond efforts to politi- and popularization of this new, new history that cize social studies. Issues-centered teaching is spawned and now supports multiculturalism, the essentially liberal (in the classical sense of opening new orthodoxy of education. the mind) and democratic (in the grass roots While the old history and new history were sense of the willingness to explore any problem, different, the commonalities between the two controversial or not). In the chapters that follow were strong. Both the old and new relied upon are three interpretations of issues-centered histo- methodologies, evidence, and thorough research ry for your consideration. Patrick Ferguson provides a detailed examination of issue use within any history context. Richard Gross explores the use of issues in world history. Ron Evans attends to critical approaches to history, and I offer a challenge of how issues-centered themes can be applied in American history courses. As this introduction was prepared, the Eno la Gay controversy at the Smithsonian Institution came to a uneasy resolution. The exhibit of the airplane that carried the Atomic Bomb to Hiroshima to commemorate the 50th anniver- sary of the end of World War II and the dawn of the atomic age would not contain a revisionist (new, new history) account on the dropping of the bomb. A great public outcry had taken place against casting American leaders and soldiers as aggressors and Japanese as victims. Another example of new, new history and cultural relativism in support of multiculturalism was the publishing of the National History Standards. After an outcry at the application of new, new history thinking to American and world history, the standards needed to be revised. Such examples point to the need for issues-centered studies. The exploration of how we should think about World War II or what sort of history is most appropriate for our children invites differences of opinion. It is precisely at such times that issues study is most relevant and appropriate. Hopefully, after reading through these chapters, you will agree that teachers and students can bring life to past events. Issues-centered teaching can provide opportunities for sharpening students' skills in dealing with historical events, and making sense of their present life.

131 MING ISSUES-CENTERED HISTORY

Ferguson

This chapter addresses teachers in search of take action to resolve the problem .1 innovative ways to advance their students' comprehension of contemporary issues Selecting and Defining the Issue through the investigative study of history Cultivating student interest is a critical first (Fisher 1970; Griffin 1942; Kennedy step. Research demonstrates that success in ana- 1993). It is assumed that the teacher is in logical thinking is optimized when students are agreement with Forrest McDonald's belief that motivated to inquire into the problem at hand expertise in history is not judged by how many (Armour-Thomas and Allen 1990; Holyoak facts, dates, and events one can recall, but whether 1984). If the issue is to be defined by the stu- one can demonstrate skill in classifying, probing, dents, they can peruse television reports, newspa- and formulating solutions (McDonald 1994). pers, and library resources to identify an issue of In this chapter, a strategy for teaching issues- interest. Sometimes, an issue emerges during the centered history is introduced and illustrated by discussion of a historical event. For example, a examples of its application in world and U.S. discussion of Hammurabi's Code, with its harsh history courses. This is followed by a discussion penalties for criminal misconduct, held at the of recommended activities and resources. The time of the news of the switching punishment of chapter then closes with suggestions for shifting an American teenager for defacing property in from traditional to issues-centered history. Singapore, might evince interest in the relationship between the incidence of criminal behavior A Strategy for Teaching and the enforcement of laws entailing stern Issues-Centered History penalties. If intrinsic interest in the issue is not The strategy suggested here for teaching apparent, the teacher will have to devise an activ- issues-centered history is based on a model ofity or approach to elicit motivation. analogical reasoning, involving students in the comparison of past and present events. It fuses a Once interest has been cultivated, stu- general problem-solving paradigmdefining and dents are assigned to teams of three clarifying a problem, exploring possible strategies, or four to draft a one-page statement implementing the strategies, and evaluating the of the issue in response to the follow- outcomeswith the modes of inquiry distinctive ing questions: to the study of historydocumentary analysis, logical inquiry, and literary critique. The resultant ? What is the controversy in question? strategy calls for students to select and define a ? Who are the contending parties in social issue of contemporary significance, identify the controversy? historically analogous circumstances, use primary ? What are the specific points of contention? and secondary sources to investigate these occur- ? What social values are in conflict? rences, list their findings in the form of general- ? What makes this dispute a matter of public izations, compare and contrast the historical importance? findings with the issue in the contemporary set- ? What are the key problems that require ting, propose historically tenable solutions, and solution?

142 BEST COPY AVAILABLE After completion of the teams' statements, Students should next be instructed to com- the teacher conducts a discussion for the purposeplete a teacher-provided form for each source of of synthesizing them into a class-defined state- information they decide to use. The form calls ment of the issue. for a summary of the information obtained and information about its significance, accuracy, con- identifying Relevant Historical sistency, evidence of bias, emotionality, values Occurrences and beliefs, unstated assumptions, reasoning, Working again in their teams, students con-and evidenced-based conclusions (National sult their textbook and other references to gener-Archives 1989). Teams should meet regularly ate a list of ten to twenty analogous historicalwith the teacher to discuss their progress and circumstances. The events chosen need not pre- receive advice on additional sources and avenues cisely mirror the circumstances of the modern of investigation. issue, but students should be cautioned that the more widely disparate the historical circum-Formulating Findings and Conclusions stances, the greater the risk that they will formu- This phase of the exercise involves three late false analogies (Fisher 1970). The teams' lists steps. First, with the four cautionary rules in are then pooled and narrowed to a short list ofmind, each team produces a list of findings for perhaps five to seven events, depending on thetheir historical circumstance. Second, using the size of the class. The students are then instructed original statement of the issue formulated by the to do in-depth studies of the events. An optional class, the team generates a list of statements com- approach would be for each team to select its own paring and contrasting their historical findings short list and assign one event to each teamwith the issue in the contemporary setting. These member for investigation. statements should be carefully monitored for their evidentiary basis, logical consistency, and Defining the Research Procedure; soundness of analogical thought (Fisher 1970). Locating and Analyzing Sources Third, the teams present their findings and com- Let us assume that each team is responsibleparative statements to the class. The class then for researching a single event. Teams are informedexamines the accumulated evidence to decide that their goal will be twofold: first, to arrive at awhether any "lessons from history" can be list of five to ten findings for their historical cir- applied to the issue in the contemporary setting. cumstance; second, to produce a list of five to ten statements comparing various aspects of the issueProposing Solutions and Taking Action then and now Teams are instructed that whenev- In this last step, students make projections er feasible, they are to write their findings in theabout future developments and theorize about form of social-science-type generalizations.2possible solutions. When feasible, they take The teacher should provide examples. action on their proposed solutions. Four cautionary rules need to be introduced and posted to guide team investigations: The Strategy in Action 1. The issues explored in historical context are to be viewed in the light of the standards, Selecting and Defining the Issue values, and attitudes of their time rather The conflict that has persisted over history than those of the present. concerning the appropriate balance between gov- 2. Issues and events are the product of multiple ernmental authority and personal liberty will be causations, not simple, one-to-one, cause- used to illustrate the strategy here. The events and-effect relationships. following the collapse of the Soviet Union serve 3. The record of past issues is necessarily as the immediate catalyst for interest in this issue. fragmented, selective, and biased. Creating Interest in the Issue. To generate 4. History is more likely to suggest possible interest in the issue, the teacher begins by asking rather than probable solutions to contempo- students to consider the following question: rary issues (Muessig and Rogers 1965). When is a government justified in regulating the Each team is instructed to draw a time line freedom of its citizens? A list of governmental for its investigation, including a list of the tasks functions could be listed on the chalkboard under assigned to each team member. the heading "The government is justified in":

133 14 collecting taxes, issuing licenses, requiring school of perestroika" and "glasnost" reforms under prayer, compelling military service, enforcing Gorbachev. The entire class discusses each team's school attendance, regulating the production oflist and narrows them down to six items. Each food and drugs, establishing curfews for young team is then assigned one of the six historical cir- people, regulating radio and television airways, cumstances for further investigation. As the and appropriating property to build roads andexample here, we will choose the exercise of highways. After discussing the legitimacy ofauthority under Peter the Great. these governmental functions, the focus shifts to the current problem of defining the authority ofDefining the Research Procedure/ the newly emergent government in Russia. ToLocating and Analyzing Sources heighten interest, the students are asked to con- The team first turns to the textbook and finds sider the implications of this issue for young peo- a brief and laudatory account of Peter the Great's ple in Russia as they conduct their investigation success in improving scientific, cultural, military, into the problem. and economic conditions in Russia. They infer Defining the Issue in its Present Context.that an authoritative approach to government Students begin their inquiry by collecting infor- may be justified when there is a strong need to mation on events that have transpired in Russia advance the economic and political status of a since the breakup of the Soviet Union. The "backward" nation. The teacher has them note teacher provides selected articles from recentthat this same argument is used by those who news sources and excerpts from some of the excel- support strong authoritative governments in lent recently published materials on this issue. developing nations in Africa, Asia, and Latin These include short articles from The Breakup ofAmerica, and, of course, in present-day Russia. the Soviet Union (Greenhaven 1994) and the End Turning to other sources, students find of the Soviet Union (Southern Center for somewhat contrasting pictures to the one in their International Studies 1994). From these sources, textbook. They learn that in his zeal to modern- teams compose statements describing the dispute ize Russia, Peter heavily taxed an already impov- in question, identify the contending parties, listerished citizenry, forbade citizens to garb them- the main points of disagreement, delineate the selves in western dress, and repressed the tradi- values that appear to be in conflict, indicate whytional religion of the people. Indeed, the great the controversy in Russia is a matter of national majority of Russians continued to exist in and international importance, and list key prob- extreme poverty and ignorance during and fol- lems that must be resolved. Students might be lowing Peter's reign (Oliva 1969; Massie 1980; asked to explain why they think a Russian citizenSummer 1962). This new information appears to would make this statement: "The Russian people support the views of those who caution against want order and a strong state; democracy is a lux- theestablishmentof overlyauthoritative ury Russia cannot yet afford" (Watson 1995). approaches to government in contemporary Identifying Relevant Historical Occur- Russia. Specific comparisons are also noted, for rences. Using their textbook, historical encyclo- example, between Peter's ruthless use of the mil- pedias, books on Russian history, and Hedrickitary to quickly quell rebellious factions and the Smith's The New Russians (1990), the teams com- use of military force by the current government pile a list of between ten and twenty relevant cir-in the Chechnyan crisis. If feasible, team mem- cumstances in Russian history that are in somebers extend their investigation to surrounding way related to the theme of government authori- libraries, search for material using computers and ty and personal liberty. The lists might include the other media sources, and interview historians breakdown of the czar's power during the "time ofwho are specialists in Russian history. troubles," the use of governmental authority to enact reforms by Peter and Catherine the Great, Formulating Findings and Conclusions the Decembrist Revolt, Alexander II's freeing The team concludes that Peter's absolutist of the serfs and plan to establish local forms ofapproach greatly facilitated the modernization of self-government, the anarchists' revolt, uprisings a backward nation, but at the expense of the against the monarchical authority of Alexanderquality of life of the Russian people. The team III, the 1917 revolution, the declaration of thealso constructs statements comparing and con- 1936 "Stalin Constitution," and the introduction trasting the actions of government in coping with

134 144 political, economic, and social conditions in Next, student teams develop their lists of rel- Peter's time with those of the present Russianevant historical eventsthe Whiskey Rebellion, government. After each team has reported its the passage and enforcement of the Alien and conclusions to the class, the teacher reintroduces Sedition Acts, the refusal of President Jackson to the original issue to synthesize the teams' results. enforce the Supreme Court decision against the The overall general conclusion of the class might state of Georgia regarding the usurpation of be that the beneficial or detrimental effects of the Cherokee land, Calhoun's doctrine of nullifica- actions of authoritative governments are largely tion maintaining that a state can interpose its determined by two factors: the conditions of thesovereignty between its citizens and the central times, and the personalities, beliefs, and percep- government, the Civil War, the Pullman strike, tions of those who are in control. and Roosevelt's exercise of authority under the New Deal. From this point forward, the instruc- Proposing Solutions and Taking Action tional procedure, with appropriate adaptations, To conclude the experience, the teacher haswould replicate that in the Russian example. the students read "How Should the U.S. Respond tothe Break-Up of theSoviet Union?" The Role of the Teacher (Greenhaven 1994) and debate the role to be Ideally, the teacher's role is primarily that of taken by the United States. They decide to com- facilitatorposing issuesfor consideration, municate their views to their congressperson, prompting team investigations, suggesting and write a letter to the editor of the local newspaper, providing sources of information, interposing and correspond with students at a Russian school questions, and encouraging and challenging stu- about the issue. The teacher urges students todents to support their findings with logic and reexamine their conclusions regarding the legiti- evidence. A growing body of evidence, however, mate exercise of governmental authority as con- reveals that teachers view such idealized charac- temporary and historical events dictate duringterizations as either impractical or much too the course of the year. drastic a departure from their usual style of teaching (Nelson and Drake 1994; White 1994). Using the Strategy in Moreover, the wisdom of practice research sug- American history gests that effective history teaching may occur in The debate over the legitimate role of gov-both highly structured and relatively unstruc- ernment may be seen as the key to understandingtured classrooms (Wineburg and Wilson 1988). the evolution and current function of the The strategy here is meant to be adaptable. American political system. The approach in an Using a more structured approach, the teacher American history course would closely follow the might open the lesson with the governmental world history illustration. Following the interest- functions motivational exercise, show a short generating exercise on the legitimate functions video describing the crisis in governmental of government, the teacher could introduce stu- authority in present-day Russia, model the appli- dents to the present controversy over the consti- cation of the four cautionary rules through a tutionality of the motor voter law, which requires comparison of the contemporary issue with one the states, at considerable expense, to provide or two historical examples, engage the students voter registration information and materials at in a guided exercise in which the students prac- offices where drivers' licenses are issued. The tice applying the four-rule template to one or two governors of several states are challenging the additional historical circumstances, and conclude legitimate authority of the federal government to the lesson with a discussion of the implications. enforce this measure. After reading to the class The entire practice lesson could be conducted the limited powers clause of the Tenth Amend- within a single class period. The issue under dis- ment, the teacher could ask whether the federal cussion would be revisited as it became germane governmentisexceedingitsconstitutional at subsequent points in the course. authority and infringing on the right of their It is important to recognize that there are state to allocate its resources pursuant to its ownlimitations to the structured approach. First, priorities. The class could then compose a state- research suggests that students' interest, efficacy, ment of the issue using the guideline questions as and understanding of controversial issues are in the world history example. decreased when the classroom environment is

135 1 4 5 closed and overly directive (Harwood 1990). involving a question of elemental political, social, Second, engaging students in the process of ana- economic, or technological change is likely to be logical thinking necessarily entails higher-orderappropriate. These tests are bi-directionalthat thinking in which the instructional procedures is, if an issue were to emerge within the context cannot be specified to the same degree as in of a particular historical event, the concepts, val- "lower-order" learning tasks (Rosenshine 1993). ues, and change tests would help determine The example in the previous paragraph is consis-whether the issue has contemporary relevance. tent with Rosenshine's adaptation of direct All of this may suggest that issues are to be instruction to the mastery of higher-order cogni- viewed primarily from a global or national frame tive strategies in which the teacher models the of reference. This is not necessarily the case. To appropriate cognitive strategies and then engages accentuate interest and relevance, issues may also students in practicing the strategies with newbe approached from a local perspective. A pro- material. To help students bridge the gap posal to construct a nuclear power plant in the between their current abilities and the goal ofcommunity, a proposed change in land use ordi- getting them to think independently, the teacher nances, complaints over the enforcement of air might assume a structured modeling posture atand water pollution regulations, a movement to the beginning of the course and gradually move restrict access to certain materials in the local toward a more facilitative approach as the course library, or a debate over adding a school holiday progresses. for Martin Luther King Jr.'s birthday are all Other factors that affect how open or struc- examples of possible springboards into local his- tured the approach should be are the teacher'story. Once students have examined the historical intentions regarding how far the students are toand contemporary aspects of the problem in its proceed along the continuum from rudimentarycommunity setting, discussion can be extended to awareness to in-depth insight on any particularthe issue in its larger national or international issue, the age and ability levels of the students context. (see note 1), the availability of materials and resources, and concern for student achievementAn Area Studies Approach on standardized or advanced placement tests. Examining issues one at a time provides focus and facilitates manageability, but it also Selecting Issues limits the students' opportunity to see the com- While virtually any issue, of contemporary plex interrelationships among issues. One way to significance may be profitably examined from aprovide a more integrative approach is through historical perspective, a two-pronged test mayan area studies approach. Africa will be used as help to ascertain its suitability: 1. What central an example. concepts in history are embodied in the issue? To set the stage and create interest, students 2.Is the issue the extension of some historicallymight read and discuss Christopher Hitchen's persistent debate over fundamental values? (1994) portrayal of contemporary Africa in his Our example of defining the legitimacy oftravelogue "African Gothic." Hitchens writes of governmental authority meets thistest.It witnessing the sober gatherings of Kenyan intel- involves students in the study of key concepts:lectuals, the stark contrasts between the good- absolutism, despotism, revolution, dictatorship, will and sanity in newborn nations such as autocracy, the divine right of kings, democracy, Eritrea and the degraded regimes of Mobutu's representative government, and anarchism. It Zaire and Banda's Malawi, the struggles in the also involves debate concerning fundamental val- emerging democratic states, widespread envi- ues: justice, liberty, tyranny, and civic responsibil- ronmental deterioration, the rampant spread of ity Examples of other issues that meet the two- HIV, extensive poverty, and bloody tribal rival- pronged test are those identified by the historianries. Students might then be assigned roles as Paul Kennedy (1993): population growth, man'shistorians in the twenty-first century charged use of the environment, human rights, food pro-with the task of ver sovereignty bet portrayal of duction, conflict among nations, the role of the the African continent in the year 1994. nation-state, industrial growth, economic devel- Consulting world almanacs, learning materi- opment, and science and technology. Another als available from the Africa Outreach Program key to selecting issues is that virtually any debate(Brown 1994), and other sources, students might

136 146 work in teams to find answers to questions.history as a problem-solving endeavorthat is, An example would be: of the twenty mostthose that engage students in thinking and impoverished nations in the world, how many are behaving in the manner of historiansare readi- in Africa? Eighteen. What has happened to per ly adaptable to issues-centered history. It is not capita GNP growth in Africa since 1980? It has within the purview of this chapter to delineate steadily declined to about 2 percent a year. Whatthese methods. Nevertheless, several methods has happened to Africa's share of the world'sparticularly useful for issues-centered teaching trade since 1970? It has declined to less thanwill be discussed: documentary analysis, biogra- 2 percent. What proportion of the world's people phies and case studies, argumentation-based who have been diagnosed with HIV reside in activities, and team investigation methods. Africa? Two-thirds. What is the economic status of the nations in the sub-Saharan area? TheDocumentary analysis national debt level is currently 110 percent of Teaching with Documents (National Archives total GNP. A statement comparing their findings 1989) is an inexpensive and practical guide to on political, economic, and social conditions and involving students in the analysis of issues-relat- the extent to which they support or refute the ed primary sources. The archive also publishes accuracy of Hitchens' report would be given byinexpensive teaching units containing letters, the teams. diary accounts, charts, photographs, political car- Students might then be assigned to "era" toons, and other primary source materials with teams: early civilizations; the introduction ofan issues orientation. One example isthe Christianity and Islam; the west, central, and Holocaust unit that involves students in a docu- southern kingdoms; and the beginnings ofmentary analysis of the "revisionist" historians' European control, colonial rule, and the move- contention that no conclusive evidence exists that ment toward independence. Using sources on the Holocaust ever occurred. Other units cover African history (Masrui 1986; Davidson 1991), the right to vote, the Bill of Rights, presidential team members would inquire into the standards impeachment, the framing of the Constitution, of living, literacy, food supply, ethnic conflict, propaganda, and women in history. A catalogue systems of political governance, war, and living of these materials as well as information on conditions for their period. As in the Russian courses and workshops for teachers locating and example, teams would formulate the historical using archival materials in the classroom is avail- findings and comparison statements for their era able from the National Archives (1- 800 -24- and then combine them into generalizations 8861). Other accessible sources of issues-relevant about the African continent. Returning to their documents are the "Jackdaws" kits advertised in original statement of the issues, the class would Social Education, CD-ROM compilations of then discuss future developments, reflect on the documents for world and American history, and possible roles of the United States and various issues-based documentary histories, such as the international organizations, propose solutions, Great Issues volumes edited by Richard and and take action toward the amelioration of these Beatrice Hofstadter (1982). problems. Students can get a first-hand feel for issues As an alternative to the era approach, student through the analysis of historical and contempo- teams might be assigned to investigate groups ofrary speeches such as Alfred Beveridge's "March Africannationsaccordingtoa common of the Flag" defending the expansive policies of attribute: current political or economic status or the United States at the turn of the century, perhaps by geographical location. Historical Martin Luther King Jr.'s inspirational "I Have a findings and comparison statements would beDream," or the most recent State of the Union made for these groupings. The activity could cul- presidential address (Ferguson 1972). minate with a mock meeting of the Organization of African Unity, the West African EconomicBiographies and Case Studies Community, or the United Nations, convened to Students may also view issues through the address the issues. eyes of people who had to make critical personal decisions in previous times. Examples might Teaching Methods and Resources include Truman's agonizing dilemma over Any of the plethora of methods on teaching whether to use the atomic bomb to end World

137

4 War II, Gandhi's decision to pursue a life ofcenturies that culminates in an analysis of the nonviolent protest, or Dietrich Bonhoffer'sproblems that American Indians face today; predicament over whether to join in the conspir- "Pacific Rim," a simulation of the Ku, political, acy to kill Hitler. Brook Kroeger's recently pub-and social issues faced by Asian emigrants and lished biography of Nellie Bly (Kroeger 1994) immigrants over the past several decades; provides an excellent illustration for taking a bio- "Statehood," where students trace the develop- graphical approach. The acknowledged progeni- ment of their own state's history and use this tor of full-scale investigative journalism and with knowledge as the foundation for understanding an impressive list of other accomplishments, Bly the state's current problems; and "Explosion," devoted herself to alleviating suffering in her which calls on students to analyze the history and time, most notably taking on the plight of unwed future of the world population problem. indigent mothers and their offspring. Students Other methods involve the use of fiction might compare Bly's original employment of(Nadeau 1994), posters and broadsides (Allen investigative journalism with the tactics used by1994), modeling historical essay and document- investigative reporters today. Students might find based questions from the Advanced Placement it interesting to inquire into the issues that were examinations (Alpern 1976), oral history (which the subject of Bly's inquiries earlier in this centu- is particularly useful for the historical study of ry. Turning a critical eye toward the field of his- local issues) (Sitton, Mehaffey, and Davis 1983), tory itself, students could respond to Kroeger'snewspapers (Wesley and McLendon 1949), and concern that despite Bly's acknowledged role political cartoons (Singer 1994). as one of the most notable figures of her time, Several journals are good sources of articles no historian had had sufficient interest in heron teaching issues-centered history. The History life to conduct a documented investigation of it Teacher,theOrganizationofAmerican prior to hers. Historians'MagazineofHistory,Social Collections of American history case studies, Education, and The Social Studies have all pub- such as those published by Gardner (1976), arelished articles useful for teaching issues-related available in most libraries. A particularly useful history. For example, articles on teaching about source of historical case studies on persistent reli- nuclear development (Holi and Convis 1991), gious, political, social, and economic issues is the the Vietnam conflict (Shaughnessy 1991), and Public Issues Series available through the Social labor history (DeChenne 1993) have appeared Science Education Consortium (Oliver and in The History Teacher. Social Education has Newmann 1991). recently published articles on teaching the history of science (Hvolbeck 1993) and a special Argumentative Methods edition about teaching the history of women in Of course, any method involving students in wartime (Haas 1994). a debate over two or more sides of an issue is tai- lor-made for issues-centered history. These Team Investigation Methods include mock trials, debates, point-counterpoint The issues strategy introduced in this chapter reenactments, mock legislative and organization- recommends the use of student investigation al meetings, and historical reenactments of teams. Three cooperative learning techniques are events such as the First Constitutional Conven- particularly useful for this purpose: group inves- tion or the Congress of Vienna. An excellent tigation, jigsaw, and structured controversy. example is provided in Wineburg and Wilson's Group Investigation. Thelen's group inves- 1988 analysis of a classroom in which studentstigation model as refined by Sharan and Hertz- are engaged in research and debate concerningLazarowitz (1980) is the teaming model used as the legitimate authority of the British govern- the basis for the issues strategy in this chapter. ment to tax the American colonists. Students are grouped into teams and begin by identifying an issue of common interest. The Other Techniques and Sources team plans its historical investigation and assigns Simulations are useful for issues-centered his- specific responsibilities to each member. The tory. Examples of these are "Mahopa," a simula- group meets to synthesize its findings and pro- tion of the history, culture, and problems faced duce a report stating its conclusions and recom- by North American Indians over the last fourmendations for action. Although the method

130 148 may be adapted to provide more structure for thetive. To culminate the activity, the four group students, Sharan (1990) believes that the main members synthesize the best evidence and rea- advantage of this technique lies in its open-end-soning from both sides to reach a consensus about edness and freedom of inquiry. the issue in its contemporary setting. Other sug- Jigsaw. In this more structured method, stu- gestions for cooperative learning methods having dents work in teams of three to six members to application to issues-centered history appear in accomplish a group-assigned task (Aronson the recently published handbook on cooperative 1978). Ferguson (1988) provides an example oflearning for social studies teachers (Stahl 1994). its application involving conflict between tradi- tionalists and modernists during the era of seep- Two Caveats ing social and economic change in late-nine- Involving students in issues-centered history teenth-century Japan. The lesson opens with the can be a rewarding experience. Two caveats must, teacher introducing the issue and defining the however, be mentioned. One relates to the incli- terms "traditionalist" and "modernist." The class nation toward reductionist thinking. Develop- is arranged into teams of four, and each team mental research indicates that young people tend member is given a different biographical sketchto hold idealistic world views that prompt them of four nineteenth-century Japanese citizens rep- to view issues from a black-and-white perspec- resenting diverse views on the modernization oftive. The teacher can counteract this inclination Meiji Japan: two espouse traditionalist views andby cautioning students to resist the tendency to two advocate modernization. The teams are told reduce the number of positions to two and then their goal is to resolve the conflicting viewpoints choose one side or the other. This is particularly and compose a consensus essay on the pros and important when using the argumentation-based cons of westernization. Students then move out methods of mock trials, debates, and point-coun- of their jigsaw teams to form four expert groups,terpoint activities. The tendency toward black- one for each personality. The objective for eachand-white thinking can also be curtailed through group is to define the viewpoint of their person-constant reminders that issues are the product of age and decide how they will advocate that view- multiple causations and that issues must be exam- point once back in their jigsaw groups. The jig-ined in the light of the particular standards, saw groups are then reconvened, viewpoints are values, and attitudes of their time (Muessig and exchanged and debated, and the group produces Rogers 1965). its consensus essay. The exercise culminates with The second pitfall is the danger that students a discussion of the issue as it exists in contempo- may acquire an overly pessimistic view of the rary Japan and in other settings where tradition-future. Continual exposure to critical issues that alist and modernist views are in conflict. The jig-have eluded resolution in the pastthe popula- saw method is useful whenever the teacher wants tion explosion, deterioration of the natural students to work independently on differentenvironment, poverty, illiteracy, human rights aspects of an issue or on different historicalviolations, the world agricultural crisis, the events and then synthesize their findings nuclear threat, the decline of the family struc- (Aronson 1978, Ferguson 1983; 1988). ture, and expanding conflict among nations Structured Controversy. Constructive (or can unintentionally have a demoralizing effect structured) controversy (Johnson and Johnson on students. Promoting awareness of the various 1979, 1985, 1988) is another useful method.groups and organizations that are actively work- Students are assigned to groups of four, eaching to resolve these problems and encouraging composed of two two-person advocacy teams. students to take some immediate action on the One advocacy team is assigned a position on anissue can help balance the seriousness of these issueperhaps the conservative view on the legit- issues with a sense of hope for the future. imate role of governmentwhile the other team In closing, teachers need not view the is assigned the opposing liberal view. Both teams prospect of infusing the study of issues into their work on constructing a presentation using theirhistory courses as daunting. One can begin by historical findings to support their assigned posi- gradually infusing issues into daily lessons and tions. The teams present their positions to each then expanding the approach as interest and other, rebut the opposing viewpoint, and then experience dictate. The main requirement is sim- switch sides to argue from the opposing perspec- ply that the teacher hold some affinity for the

139 149 notion that learning history ought to be a prob- M. Ballard. London: Temple Smith, 1970. lem-solving endeavor and that its main purpose Hitchens, C. "African Gothic." Vanity Fair 57 (1994): is to advance students' insight into contemporary 92-117. issues. Hofstadter, R., and B. Hofstadter, eds. Great Issues in American History. 3 Volumes. New York Vintage Books, 1982. References Holi, J. and S. Convis. 'Teaching Nuclear History" Allen, R. "Posters as Historical Documents: A Resource History Teacher 24 (1991): 175-190. for Teaching Twentieth-Century History" Social Holyoak, K. J. "Analogical Thinking and Human Studies 85 (1994): 52-61. Intelligence." In Advances in the Psychology of Human Alpem, M. "Develop Your Own Tests in World Intelligence, edited by R. J. Sternberg. Hillsdale, NJ.: History." Social Education 40 (1976): 517-523. Erlbaum, 1984. Armour-Thomas, E., and B. A. Allen. "Componential Hunt, M. P., and L. E. Metcalf. Teaching High School Analysis of Analogical-Reasoning Performance of Social Studies: Problems in Reflective Thinking and Social High and Low Achievers." Psychology in the Schools Understanding New York Harper and Row, 1968. 27 (1990): 269-275. Hvolbeck, R. H. 'Teaching the History of Science." Aronson, E. The Jigsaw Classroom. Beverly Hills, Calif Social Education 57 (1993): 384-387. Sage Publications, 1978. Johnson, D. W., and R. Johnson. "Conflict in the Brophy, J., B. Van Sledright and N. Breding. "What Do Classroom: Controversy and Learning." Review of Entering Fifth-Graders Know About History?" Educational Research 49 (1979): 51-61. Journal of Social Studies Research 16/17 (1993): 2-16. -. "Classroom Conflict: Controversy Versus Debate in Brown, B. B. "Africa: Myth and Reality." Learning Groups." American Educational Research Social Education 58 (1994): 374-375. Journal 22 (1985): 237-256. Davidson, B. DiscoveringAfrica's Past. New York -. "Critical Thinking through Structured Controversy" Macmillan, 1991. Educational Leadership 45 (1988): 58-65. Ferguson, P. "A Technique for Evaluating a Public Karras, R. W. 'Teaching History Through Speech." Social Education 36 (1972): 289-292. Argumentation." History Teacher 26 (1993): 419-438. -. "Aronson's Jigsaw: A Research Method and Teaching Kennedy, P. Preparing for the Twenty-first Century. Technique." Social Studies Teacher 4 (1983): 5. New York Random House, 1993. -. "Modernization in Meiji Japan: A Jigsaw Lesson." Kroeger, B. Nellie Bly: Daredevil, Reporter, Feminist. Social Education 52 (1988): 392-393. New York Random House, 1994. -, and L. C. Smith. 'Treatment of the Sexes in Leinhart, G. 'Weaving Instructional Explanations in Instructional Materials." In Teaching about Women in History" British Journal of Educational Psychology 63 the Social Studies, edited by Jean D. Grambs. (1993): 46-74. Washington, D.C.: National Council for the Social Lemer, G. Teaching Women's History. Washington D.C.: Studies, 1976. American Historical Association, 1981. Fisher, D. H. Historian's Fallacies: Toward a Logic of Lewis, J. "When We Generalize and Compare, Can Historical Thought. New York Harper and Row, 1970. We Always Rely on the Absence of Evidence: A Gardner, W. Selected Case Studies in American History. Sociologist Looks at Historical Methodology." Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1976. History Teacher 24 (1991): 455-469. Greene, S. 'The Problems of Learning to Think Like a Masrui, A. A. The Africans: A Triple Heritage. Historian: Writing History in the Culture of the Boston: Little, Brown, 1986. Classroom." Educational Psychologist 29 (1994): 89-96. Massie, R. K. Peter the Great: His Life and World New Greenhaven Press. The Breakup of the Soviet Union, York Ballentine Books, 1980. San Diego, Calif.: Greenhaven Press, 1994. McDonald, F. Interview on "Booknotes," C-SPAN Griffin, A. F. A Philosophical Approach to the Subject- Network, October 23, 1994. Matter Preparation of Teachers of History. Ph.D. Diss., Muessig, R. H. and V. R. Rogers. "Suggested Methods The Ohio State University, 1942. for Teachers." In The Nature and Study of History, Haas, M. E., ed. "Homefront to Front Lines: Women edited by H. Commager. New York Merrill in Wartime." Special section in Social Education 58 Publishing, 1965. (1994): 65-103. Nadeau, F. "Fiction as a Springboard into U.S. History Hallam, R. N. "Piaget and Thinking in History" In Projects." Social Studies 85 (1994): 17-25. New Movements in the Teaching of Hstory edited by National Archives. Teaching with Documents. Washington,

140 150 D.C.: National Archives Publications, 1989. the Teaching of History." Phi Delta Kappan 70 Nelson, L. R. and R. D. Drake. "Secondary Teachers' (1988): 50-58. Reactions to the New Social Studies." Theory and Research in Social Education 22 (1994): 44-73. Oliva, L. J. Russia in the Era of Peter the Great. 1 Students must be capable of comprehending the Englewood Cliffs, NJ.: Prentice-Hall, 1969. investigative nature of history. In light of this condi- Oliver, D., and F. Newmann. Public Issues Series. tion the strategy is not likely to be effective with stu- Boulder, Colo.: Social Science Education dents below the fifth grade (Brophy, Van Sledright, & Consortium, 1991. Breding 1993; Greene 1994; Hallam 1970; Spoehr Rosenshine, B. "Is Direct Instruction Different from and Spoehr 1994; Swartz 1994). Expert Scaffolding?" Paper presented at the Annual 2 Chapter 5 "Teaching Generalizations" and Meeting of the American Educational Research Chapter 6"Teaching HistoryReflectively"in Association, Atlanta, Georgia, April 1993. Lawrence Metcalf s book Teaching High School Social Sharan, S. "Cooperative Learning: A Perspective on Studies (Metcalf 1968), are highly recommended read- Research and Practice." In Cooperative Learning: ing for the teacher who is seriously considering an Theory and Research, edited by S. Sharan. New York issues-centeredapproachtohistory.Alsosee Praeger, 1990. Leinhart's (1994) article on weaving generalizations and R. A. Hertz-Lazarowitz. "Group Investigation into the teaching of history. Method of Cooperative Learning in the Classroom." In Cooperation in Education, edited by S. Sharan et. al. Provo, Utah: Brigham Young University Press, 1980. Shaughnessy, C. 'The Vietnam Conflict. America's Best Discussed War." History Teacher 24 (1991): 135-147. Singer, A. 'The Impact of Industrialization on American Society: Alternative Assessments." Social Education 58 (1994): 171-172. Sitton, T, G. L. Mehaffey and 0. L. Davis. Oral History: A Guide for Teachers. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1983. Smith, H. The New Russians. New York Random House, 1990. Spoehr, K. T & Spoehr, L. W. "Learning to Think Historically." Educational Psychologist29 (1994): 71-78. Stahl, R. J. Cooperative Learning in Social Studies: A Handbook for Teachers. New York Addison-Wesley, 1994. Summer, B. H. Peter the Great and the Emergence of Russia. New York Collier Books, 1962. Swartz, A. 'What Does a Historian Do: Middle School Students Present Their Views." Social Studies 85 (1994): 114-116. Watson, R. "Yeltsin Rules." Newsweek, January 23, 1995, pp. 32-34. Wesley, F. W., and J. C. McLendon. "Organizing World History around Current World Affairs." In Improving the Teaching of World History, edited by Edith West. Washington, D.C.: National Council for the Social Studies, 1949. White, R. M. "An Alternative Approach to Teaching History." OAH Magazine of History 8 (1994): 58-60. Wilson, J. C. "History: Signpost or Lamppost?" Social Education 57 (1994): 122-126. Wineburg, S., and S. Wilson. "Models of Wisdom in

141 /51 USIG ISSUES IN THE TEACHING OF AMRICAN HISTORY

lin II Warren Saxe

IFor the past one hundred years American editions of the history textbooks or other historyl has been a subject to which near- accounts (see Center for Civic Education 1994; ly all citizens who have attended public Engle and Ochoa 1986; National Center for schools have been exposed in some form. History in the Schools 1994; and National American history is remembered by older Council for the Social Studies 1994). These aids citizens as the course with thick and heavy include not merely what should be taught, but textbooks, extended lectures, and countless work- also pre-planned units, written objectives, tar- sheets. American history is also the course thatgeted lesson plans, lists of suggested activities, declared to these young citizens that the past ofteaching strategies, testing materials, supple- the United States, which happened a long time mental maps, charts, workbooks and more. ago, had little to do with them. For better orWhile I have reservations about teacher-proof worse, American history has been the centerpiece materials for liberal democratic schooling as well of social studies education for nearly eighty years. as so-called national history standards, I do Moreover, the public perception of American invite readers to investigate, assess, explore, and history is sometimes linked regrettably to boring experiment with the use of such aids as neces- teaching. Despite this, most citizens agree that sary. This chapter, however, has a different focus: American history isessential to citizenship the conscious and deliberate introduction and education, and that our children should knowuse of issues into American history courses. something about how the nation was formed, While all teachers should exercise discretion including the issues, themes, great men, great and common sense in the use of issues in schools, women, great stories, and the great reasons foryoung children, for the most part, are not at the the United States. stage where they are capable of rational, liberal It would seem natural for a teaching hand- scholarship. It is not so much that the under- book that includes a chapter on U. S. history to twelve set are not mature enough, it is more a detail lesson plans, highlight films, good books, matter that these young citizens have not yet and other handy ideas, but there are no tricks or acquired the necessary dispositions, skills, and gimmicks here, no clever anecdotes or vignettes, knowledge needed for issues study. Nonetheless, no 101 ways to do American history. I offer no all teachers at all levels should help prepare chil- advice on how one can do justice to hundreds ofdren to work with issues, and they should teach years of history in 180 days or less. While I enter about and provide practice for liberal democratic neither into the discussion of what 5,000 dates, dispositions, skills, and knowledge (see Saxe events, or personalities should be taught, nor of1994). Although teachers can find any number of "whose history" should garner our attention, issues in current newspaper articles to apply in I make a single assumption in this chapterthat class, teachers and students can also find issues teachers already know what to teach regarding throughout history. Issues can be found in the American history and how to teach it, and, inlives and actions of people present and past. the absence of such knowledge and skills, Students can also identify issues in definitions, novices can turn to the teaching helps that are policies, perceived problems, textbook readings, commonly available in such places as teachers' films, and other media. The number of issues for

I 52 class study is limitless. processes, and structures that specifically inhibit The introduction of issues into American his- tyranny. This is not to say that tyranny cannot tory courses does not necessarily change stan- rear its ugly head in liberal democratic nations. dard, traditional offerings; the content certainlyHowever, it is to say that liberal democratic citi- can remain essentially the same if the teacher sozens can use or create mechanisms to reduce the chooses. Additionally, the methods of lecture- intrusions of tyranny: citizens can simply and recitation-worksheets also can remain intact. painlessly vote the rascals out! If citizens are not What is different about the conscious and delib-happy with or not accepting of something, the erate introduction of issues is that importanceballotnot bulletscan effectively be used to is attached to learning American history forredirect national laws, policies, and programs the purpose of liberal democratic citizenship. through the election of representatives they think The terms liberal and democratic require defini- are more in touch with the will of the majority tion here. Liberal underscores the notion of open- (of voters)? mindednessthat through liberal scholarship What is confusing to many in the mid-1990s students become more interested in building ais that people such as the Republican leader warranted point of view rather than simplyNewt Gingrich may be conservative politically, expressing what is on their minds or thinking but his take on American values is clearly liberal that all positions should be viewed in culturallydemocratic. On the other hand, people such as relative terms. To be liberal in a scholarly sense is President Bill Clinton may be liberal politically, to adapt the notion of suspending judgment, ofbut his principles, much like Gingrich's, are also thoroughly investigating subjects, of making rooted in liberal democracy. Although they stand claims that are supported by verified evidence, ofon opposite sides politically, each seemingly using reason and logic, and, then, proposing ten- agrees that the people are entitled to vote, that tative conclusions (for it is necessary to acknowl- the majority rules, and that laws must be edge that positions or findings are not necessari- obeyedall of which are democratic characteris- ly final or absolute). Liberal in a scholarly sense is tics. Also, both Gingrich and Clinton presum- not necessarily the equivalent of being liberal in ably agree that arguments must be supported, the political sense found in many Democraticheld to scrutiny, and subjected to criticismall of Party policies (e.g. believing that government iswhich are liberal characteristics. The point is that the best solution for social problems)? for the United States to work, citizens need to "Democratic" means the acceptance of major- accept, as a fundamental principle, that liberal ity rule, of the people having a voice in the pub- democratic characteristics are necessary ingredi- lic affairs of their country, and of the idea that ents for competent American citizenship. citizens vote for and against such things as can- Given the acceptance of liberal democracy, in didates, issues, and policies. Moreover, being this chapter I seek to illustrate that American democratic also means that citizens willinglyhistory taught in the context of liberal democra- acknowledge and abide by the laws, institutions, tic tenets is a vital dimension in the education of and systems created by our democracy. For citi- young citizens. In part, issues study is one way to zens, being democratic also means taking respon- accomplish the goal of educating young citizens sibility for knowing and adhering to the princi- whose developing views and politics may reflect ples upon which such founding documents as the such contrasts as Newt Gingrich and Bill Declaration of Independence, the FederalistClinton or Clarence Thomas and Lath Guinier Papers, the U. S. Constitution, and the Bill ofor Rush Limbaugh and Larry King or William J. Rights are based. Bennett and Sheldon Hackneyor even citizens The full sense of American citizenship iswhose views are reflective of Walter Williams revealed in the juxtaposition of liberal and demo-and Stanley Fish or Diane Ravitch and Leonard cratic, where we find the open-mindedness ofJefferiesor Christina Sommers and Betty liberalism necessary for a vibrant democracy.Friedan or Pat Robertson and Carl Sagan. As Scholarly liberalism is what prevents democracysuch controversial books as The Bell Curve, by from becoming a tyranny. The opened, unfet- Richard J. Herrnstein and Charles Murray tered conditions of scholarly liberalism erect bar- (1994), The Lucifer Principle, by Howard Bloom riers to the formation of despotic rule through (1995), and Race and Culture, by Thomas Sowell the establishment of the necessary language,(1994) demonstrate, we need to understand

143 153 more, not less, about human commonalties andstraightforward assessments of essay, multiple- differences. Regardless of one's politics, agendas, choice, fill-in-the-blank, and matching are com- or personal views, the point is that American his- monplace. These observations are not meant as tory teachers contribute to the essential com- a criticism of such teaching; these statements are monality of American citizenship by acceptingmerely an acknowledgment that didactic, chrono- the notion that every American citizen should logically based American history is a fact of life in come to know and practice the founding princi- many quarters. ples of liberal democracy. This commonality is Given these norms, as you contemplate the the glue the supports the freedom and hope ofstandard American history course, you might also all Americans. gauge the impact of infusing issues-centered ideas While issues can be employed in any course, at into your teaching. The good news is that issues any time, when issues are introduced in American study is ideally suited to the furtherance of liber- history courses, two preconditions must be al democracy. However, issues-centered teaching addressed. First, if knowledge of American histo- has a number of nagging considerations that must ry is a necessary condition for competent citizen- be met head on. First, issues-centered teaching is ship, it follows that students must come to some labor-intensive, and the techniques used often fundamental understanding of the history of thetake considerably more time to plan, prepare, exe- United States (see Hirsch 1996). Second, ifcute, and assess. Second, issues-centered teaching American history is acknowledged as critical foris less precise than didactic teaching; you cannot competent citizenship, then students must come rely on particular results, nor can you often mea- to some fundamental understanding of the nature sure the results you do get. Third, issues-centered of history. This fundamental notion of the nature activities have a tendency to get students "off of history is called historical perspective. Thus, we track"that is, whether because of the loose can separate citizenship education overall into nature of issues-centered teaching or because three discrete but intersecting elements: the study issues-centered teaching is a change from the rou- and acquisition of historical perspective; the study tine, students may have fun with it and question and understanding of American history; and, why you do not do such teaching more often, or, given the historical antecedents of liberal democ- conversely, why you are doing it at all. Fourth, racy, the introduction, study, and practice of com- issues-centered lessons do not, as a rule, cover petent citizenship. Clearly, citizens can display much ground. A single issue, such as the treat- a semblance of competent citizenship without ment of prisoners of war at Andersonville and historical perspective or without knowledge ofElmira or a dissection of Lincoln's Emancipation American history, and/or without even practicing Proclamation, might take several days, whereas or experiencing citizenship education in schools. a competent history-centered teacher could But to paraphrase Jefferson, ignorant citizens cover the American Civil War from the events do not, nor ever will, make a great free nation. leading up to Fort Sumter, to Gettysburg, or to The challenge, to sustain our liberal democraticAppomattox Court House in seven days or less. heritage over time, is for teachers to educateFinally, what might be the most problematic young citizens for civic competence. aspect of issues-centered teaching in American history courses is that issues raised may detract from students' gaining a practical sense of histor- nuke other chapters of the Handbookical perspectivenamely, an understanding of the where issues-centered models are suggest- nature of chronology, the concepts of time, the ed, I assume the prime audience to be his- past, continuity, and change (Saxe 1994). tory teachers who deal with American his- Like it or not, no educational plan for acquir- tory in chronological or topical fashion, ining historical perspective has been able to Via either broad, sweeping strokes or in greatimprove upon the age-old methods of intense depth. I assume the tenets of this chapter may be historical readings and investigations, informa- useful in classes where textbooks, worksheets, and tive and interesting lectures, and carefully lectures are standard, where facts and generaliza- designed and assessed writing assignments. I do tions are key, and where precision and knowing not mean to suggest that history study should are expected. In addition, I assume this chapter'sabandon traditional, time-tested methods for ideas will be used in classes where simple and teaching historical perspective. I do, however,

144 154 argue that, for the development of competent eighth, and eleventh grades. Conditions at these citizens, the knowledge of historical perspective grade levels dictate that superficial treatments and/or the learning of discrete facts fromwill persist. To do anything that requires depth, American history are not enough. The problemsomething of breadth must be sacrificed, rather is that there is nothing to suggest that the acqui- than continue to cram huge amounts of content sition of historical perspective alonethough into curricular spaces of about 180 days or less. necessary for understanding history itselfis Despite new models to deliver social studies, we connected to the development of citizenship. find that American history curricula, regardless Moreover, there is nothing to suggest that the of orientation, are already filled to the brim, and acquisition of facts about American history new curricular possibilities continue to press for alone, which may lead to historical perspective, space. From notable current events, to revisions is connected to the development of citizenship. of older views, to suggestions from untested and Finally, there is nothing to suggest that the prac- unproven multicultural perspectives, to state- tice of citizenship skills without historical con- mandated programs, American history teachers text is directly connected to the development ofare under a virtual curricular siege. Whether competent American citizenship. such changes are warranted, the influx of new The key to competent citizenship education programs, materials, and models has caused is that all three elements above must be present: some teachers to close their curricular borders. first, students need to acquire historical perspec- Many teachers already believe that they are tive in order to make better sense of history; teaching as much as they can and literally cannot second, citizens need a strong understanding ofadd anything more to their curricula. Where, for American history in order to make sense of the example, are teachers going to place new mater- rights and responsibilities of citizenship; and, ial on the fall of the Soviet-bloc nations and its third, developing citizens need to practice the implications for American foreign policy? What skills associated with liberal democratic citizen- will be cut? What needs to be revised? Clearly, ship. Therefore, it is not the teaching of any one from the history-centered perspective, if you are of these activities alonethe acquisition of his- going to do anything different, including issues- torical perspective, the learning of American centered teaching, something in the curriculum history, or the development of citizenship has to be pushed out, rearranged, or condensed. skillsbut the deliberate teaching of all three The question is what? that offers the greatest opportunity for compe- Consensus might be reached that issues- tent, liberal democratic citizenship. centered teaching affords good opportunities for As for potential reservations about issues-cen- students to explore and digest American history tered teachingthat is, where time, results, andAlso, it might be agreed that depth-of-field staying on track are important factors for teach- knowledge is something that we would like our ersit is useful to remember that history-cen- students not only to appreciate, but hopefully to tered teachers face similar considerations in deal- obtain. The issue of depth versus breadth often ing with the question of coverage, i.e., scope and places teachers and their curricular efforts in sequence. Herein lies a dilemma. On one hand, it conflict. If a teacher can proceed with the is important that students have in-depth exposure assumption that, despite course constraints often to American history, but is depth of knowledge as dictating a broad approach, he or she should important as gaining some sense of the majorbe working toward improving a student's depth events and people found in the past of our nation, of knowledge, then the teacher becomes better albeit through a quick survey? If only a week or so able to include issues-centered ideas within his- of time is available, is it better that students grasp tory-centered programs. at least a superficial knowledge of life during the To many history-centered advocates, histo- aftermath of World War I, and on through the ryparticularly American historyis the lens start of the Great Depression, than to take the through which all social studies subject areas can week and explore all the ins and outs of the Tea- be viewed. In the sense of acquiring knowledge Pot Dome scandal? Maybe yes, maybe no. and skills, history serves as the umbrella course Answers to questions of depth versus breadth in which elements of geography, sociology, will remain in those schools that cast American anthropology, economics, political science, and history in one-year courses, typically in the fifth, philosophy can be studied. From the perspective

145 155 of promoting citizenship education, or the acqui- issues are raised from a text, a story, a lecture, a sition of civic competence, American historyfilm, or other presentation by the student when includes blending aspects from social studies sub-something does not quite seem right. Gone with ject areas for the purpose of activating a student'sthe Wind has been hailed as one of the greatest full participation in civic affairs. In either casefilms ever made, and I am not prepared to and I am sensitive to the fact that many teacherscritically challenge that. It has been argued, do not distinguish between academic and civichowever, that the film did not accurately depict competencies for American historyissues-cen- southern life, particularly that of slaves. If some- tered education can become an effective tool in. one says Big Sam (the former slave who came to advancing acquisitions of discipline-centered Miss Scarlett's rescue following the war) is a fic- knowledge and skills as well as civically compe- tional stereotype, an issue is raised. If someone tent dispositions. Arguably, the richest and mostquestions Rhett Butler's role in the Civil War, an easily accessible context for issues-centered studyissue is raised. If someone questions Sherman's can be found in American history and its con- march on Atlanta, another issue is raised. nection to the present lives of students. If someonesays,duringalesson on Three general patterns have emerged for American presidents, "Why haven't any females exploring issues in American history. They are been elected president?" an issue is raised. If useful singularly or in any combination: someone questions J. P. Morgan's financial inter- Issues are raised with students: Teachers tell ests in England prior to America's entry into the students that something is an issue. World War I (he supported going to war to pro- Issues emerge from lectures, presentations, tect England) an issue is raised. If someone looks readings, discussions, projects, or activities: at the Warren Commission Report and begins to Students identify an issue. ask questions about the actions of the FBI, an Issues are used to relate past to present or issue is being raised. In this, our second context, present to past: An issue is raised by either once an issue is raised, the student, class, and teachers or students. teacher can explore and examine it in the hopes of seeking greater understanding, if not resolu- In the first context, because teachers are bet- tion, of the initial interest or inquiry. ter read and possess greater experience in the As you have read elsewhere in this book, study and teaching of American history, they willalthough Iunderstand the importance of be able to identify any number of issues that are chronology and of moving forward, using issues- appropriate for introduction, study, and discus-centered techniques does involve slowing the sion. Predetermined teacher-selected issues offer curriculum in order to help students compre- teachers several advantages: they can plan the les- hend the importance of an event. In slowing the son in advance of instruction, select readings,pace, students will hopefully gain the time nec- prepare stimulating questions, anticipate differ- essary to grasp the connective nature between ent opinions, and develop and consider appropri-various and often isolated events or bits of histo- ate alternatives. In addition, teachers can gear ry and themselves. John Dewey described expe- discussion for particular groups of students, con- rience as having two parts: an active, doing part sider a variety of approaches to teaching the les- and a passive, undergoing part.4 In the doing son, outline key terms and phrases, and prepare part, students have or are given an experience assessment and evaluation instruments. about which they actively explore information, One thing to keep in mind about issues-cen-ask questions, and formulate ideas. In the under- tered education is that topics are not issues. For going part that follows, students make a connec- example, for a lesson on the coming of the Civil tion between the experience and themselves. War, topics such as state's rights versus federal This undergoing is reflective; it is the instructive rights, slavery, King Cotton, Manifest Destiny,part of learning. The undergoing highlights the the abolitionist movement, Bleeding Kansas,changes a student makes or has as a result of and sectionalism may be loaded with issues, butthe active doing. In addition to being the essen- in and of themselves they are simply topics. The tial learning part of the experience, undergoing issue part of the topic or history occurs when ais also the part that makes the learning mean- question is raised, some doubt is suggested, or ingful for the student. As Dewey put it, "doing" something contradictory is noticed. In short, is "trying" things out to see what they mean, and

146 156 "undergoing" is "instruction."5 The teacher presents an issue: doing or having In learning history, simply reading or hearing an experience. about selected topics in American history is not Students recognize the issue imbedded in a enough. Teachers must do what they can to help lesson: signaling a transition to undergoing. students understand what it is they are reading or Students successfully explain the issue: under- hearing about. Our interest is not merely to do going or demonstrating learning. things in a clinical senseto help students Students test their new learning against or in become better reciters of facts or readers or different contexts, under different or similar spellers or even writersbut to help students conditions: confirming or challenging the become more thoughtful and reflective about the new learning. lesson at hand. To succeed in this goal, providing students with experiences is only half the task. In using issues-study as a model, teachers are We cannot simply assume that students learn not bound to approach issues in a linear fashion. merely by having an experiencelearn by doing. In presenting a lesson, teachers do not need to Teachers must also consider the next step stu- begin with an issue. Students may identify issues dents makeundergoing an experience. By at any time. However, teachers need to become undergoing an experience, the student takes stock aware of a student's recognition of an issue. For of what the experience meant to him or her. For example, if a teacher presents a lecture on the example, in what ways were students changed as a dropping of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and result of learning how history was rewritten for Nagasaki, students might raise the issue of how the Smithsonian's Enola Gay Exhibit in 1995? President Truman came to that seemingly inhu- What was the lesson's point? What were themane decision: If we (Allied forces) were win- important features of this issue? If a student can ning the war, why did we need to kill tens of create in his or her own mind the relationship ofthousands of innocent people? Where is the jus- this lesson to other lessonsthat is, build bridges tice in this decision? The teacher may answer to other ideaswe may conclude that learning that the decision was based upon strictly military, has occurred. It may also be said that we have suc- not humanitarian conditions, replying that the ceeded in our teaching if our students can come toUnited States needed to end the war as quickly as the point of not only explaining the lesson (andpossible, and the atomic bomb increased the not repeating or parroting the readings or lecture) probability of Japan's immediate surrender. but of truly demonstrating their learning to usIn this case, if the teacher's intention had been and themselves by identifying the issues embed- to lead the students to "discover" this issue, the ded in the lesson. teacher's strategy would be the equivalent of By accepting the responsibility to facilitate as presenting the issue. On the other hand, while many experiences as possible, to guide students as presenting the lesson, if the teacher had not they undergo experiences, or to make sense ofintended to point to the issue of military objec- issues discovered or used, a teacher is acknowl-tives versus humanitarian actions in time of war, edging that learning will occur. In addition, when the student's ability to raise the issue signals a students begin to identify issues found in read- high level of maturity and understanding of ings, lectures, discussions, or other activities,extracting issues from content. In either case, either orally or in writing, it may be argued that once the issue is brought onto the floor, it is open a student is making the critical transition towardto debate and discussion (if the teacher permits). undergoing the experience. That is, when stu- At this point, the teacher has at least two dents begin recognizing issues on their own, they decisions to make: proceed with the next lesson are signaling the beginning of understanding his- on the development of the Marshall Plan and the tory. In the context of the third use of issues, Nuremberg Trials, or take a step back to deal teachers can select experiences in which particu- with the atomic bomb issue. If the teacher has lar issues are used to confirm the success of a les- anticipated a discussion on issues related to the son taught and, perhaps more importantly, dropping of the first atomic bombs, then the next demonstrate the student's own understanding offew days should have already been marked out the lesson. for discussion and activities. However, if students Given our discussion thus far, we might now raised the issue independently, then the teacher identify four treatments of issues in the classroom: needs to decide whether it is worth the time to

147 157 explore the issue. In proceeding with the student- spective; the teaching and learning of discrete generated atomic issue, lessons and follow-ups facts of American history, and practical experi- need to be prepared for the next few days. ence with liberal democratic principles grounded However, if the teacher decides to press aheadin historical contexts. with the Marshall Plan, it is with the knowledge In schools, the movement of issues-centered that some students have recognized a criticalAmerican history into the curricula will require a issue that the instructor has decided is not worth certain integrity and scholarship for both teach- class time to pursue. ers and students. At this point, we arrive at the Whatever decision you make, your actionscrucial test of issues-centered teaching: Is the carry important implications for student learn- teacher willing to set aside preconceived views for ing. Through your accumulated teaching experi- the sake of hearing out and sifting through dif- ence or through good guessing, it is an advantage fering perspectives and conflicting data? The if you can anticipate what issues will emerge in issue of being eager to air other views and stand- class and prepare lessons accordingly. Failinging ready to modify your position in light of predicted student participation, you can proceed compelling evidence is central to issues-centered by highlighting the target issue yourself and teaching. Issues-centered teaching is not preach- remain hopeful that students will be able to find ing, nor is it persuading. Issues-centered teaching collateral issues embedded in the lesson. You can is about getting as close as humanly possible to then select other confirming issues that willunvarnished truth or, at the least, to being able to prove student learningwhere students willrecognize the inconsistency or incongruent show that they have connected the lesson to prior nature of a position. In addition, issues-centered learning, as well as demonstrated the potential to teaching helps students recognize the difference connect the lesson to future lessons. However, ifbetween opinion and fact and between bias and you ignore, and continue to ignore, students who objectivity. raise issuespreferring to present only your To proceed with any presentation of issues, issueseventuallystudentsmaybecome we must come to grips with the reality that detached from the lesson and, unfortunately, fur- issues, by nature, involve values and emotions. ther removed from history study. At best, stu-As such, values and emotions must often be sus- dents may glean a few scattered thoughts frompended in order to make sense of the small the lesson that may or may not be applied in the pieces of the past that are recoverable. More future, and, at worst, students will leave the les- directly, to teach issues-centered American his- son with little in hand or head, perhaps onlytory, teachers must often suspend not only values remembering that history is boring, of little and emotions, but also political views, personal value, and thus, has nothing to do with them. convictions, and religious beliefs for the sake of In this argument for highlighting issues inseeking truth. Underlying the suspension of val- American history, we have now come full circle. ues, emotions, and other convictions are morals. In brief review, issues are a central component ofAs individuals, our sense of morality directs our history study. Issues help to frame content intopersonal values, convictions, and beliefs, and is meaningful elements that can be used by stu-manifest in our behaviorswhat we determine dents to construct learning. In addition to usingas right or wrong. When society seeks to apply issues to help teachers and students relate to con- laws that engage our moral sensibilities, we ask tent, issues can be employed as springboards to (among other questions), On whose authority is other experiences and learning. Notwithstandingthis action taken? How does this benefit society the positive aspects of issues, as mentioned earli- as a whole? and What evidence does the state er, the use of issues takes time, often has unevenhave to support the action? results, takes turns off the traditional curricular As teachers, intellectual leaders of the class, road, and, finally, is prone to slow the curricular we must be prepared to examine claims of indi- train. Despite these potential drawbacks, issuesviduals as well as states (collective groups of offer any number of opportunities for students to individuals). As teachers of history, we need to become engaged in their own learning. Finally,examine the thoughts and actions of past indi- the most important aspect of issues-centeredviduals or states to root out explanations and education in American history is its connectionunderstandings. This action often requires the to the teaching and learning of historical per- suspension of moralistic judgment in the interest

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15 of disinterested scholarship. Other than as an Madison, we find the foundations for issues- attention-getter or pedagogical device used tocentered teaching in principle. First, Locke lev- focus students on a particular topic, issues-cen- eled the absolute nature of the divine rights of tered teachers should not begin the study ofkings and, thus, raised the prospect of free something like Columbus and the Age of (protected) speech for citizens. Jefferson actual- Exploration with the claim that Columbus was aized the validity of a people's revolution against murderer. Adults may have acquired this ques- a tyranny of a few on the basis of securing life, tionable view, but young citizens have not had liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.6 Finally, the chance to fully study the historical signifi- Madison, master architect of the U. S. Consti- cance of Columbus. As it is against standard tution, explained the difference between a nar- practice for the judge to hang the accused before rowly defined Lockean material and earthly view trial, teachers should allow students to hear the of property, and Jefferson's broadly defined historical facts prior to passing judgment. property rights that highlighted a citizen's right This attitude of inquiry and skepticism to opinion, religious conviction and other per- strikes at the core of both issues-centeredness sonally held beliefs. and the establishment of historical perspective It is these latter property rightsto access, the central features of which highlight a willing- examine, hold, and proclaim ideasthat give ness to raise and/or attend to issues openly, to form to issues-centered education and make pos- explore the many sides of each issue, to seek out sible the formal study of ideas and issues. data, to make judgments from data, and to hold Certainly during the revolution, as now, things up our judgments, supporting data, and methodswere not socially, politically, or economically of critical examination. As an issues-centered perfect. On issues of race and gender, for exam- teacher you must look for problems, inconsisten- ple, there was much to be desired in eighteenth- cies, and contradictions in your own interpreta- century life when judged by late-twentieth- tions and values, as well as those interpretations century standards. While taking issue with and values found in others. You must alsoinconsistencies noted in the pastraised by become sensitive to uncomfortable feelings, that values of our time versus values that predominat- a certain statement or piece of information sim- ed in the eighteenth-centuryteachers should ply does not seem right. You need to keep look- be careful to teach about history within the con- ing under whatever stones there are to keep your text of the period. Despite differing interpreta- judgments tentative until you have gatheredtions of the past, the period of the American sufficient data to support your suppositions. Revolution did plant the seeds of human free- As with your own conduct as a teacher, you must dom, not only in the United States, but for many also seek to instill these goals in your students. other nations as well. Within time, as the effects As outlined by John Stuart Mill (1982), pre- of the American experience unfolded, the sons sumed facts are inherently problematic when not and daughters of former slaves, Polish peasants, open to full critique and subject to the produc-Japanese workers, Irish farmers, Chinese labor- tion of supporting data. ersas well as hosts of other ethnic, political, It is worth mentioning, even briefly, that the and religious groupswould become beneficia- roots of issues-centered education are found in ries of American democracy. the Enlightenment and, for American history in Of course there are serious challenges to particular, in the founding of the United States. liberal democracy. Aside from the very real nat- More than two centuries have passed since theural challenges of living out liberal democratic cornerstones of our nation were laid by theprinciples, two human phenomena simultane- founders,framers, and common citizens. ously undermine the successful establishment Colonial America of 1776 was not a homoge- and maintenance of liberal democracy. First, it neous monocultural society. The American must be recognized that multigroup societies that Revolution and subsequent new nationhood attempt to actualize liberal democratic principles was, of course, an experiment that united people are inherently unstable. Second, liberal democ- of very real differencesin ethnicity, region, racy is not genetically inherited. Together, the occupation, income, religion, political convic- notion of multiple-group perspectives and the tion, property, status, and any number of person- challenge of (re)inventing liberal democracy with ally held beliefs. From Locke to Jefferson to each generation (child-by-child) not only create

149 159 conditions that pull communities into any num- Bloom, Howard. The Lucifer Principle. New York ber of directions, but also pose a direct threat by Atlantic Monthly Press, 1995. undermining liberal democratic institutions, val- Center for Civic Education. National Standards for ues, and actions. Our successes have often been Civics and Government. Calabasas, Calif Center for limited, for just when we think we have created Civic Education, 1994. and brought forth something special from Dewey, John. "Democracy and Education, [1916]." our differences, a new generation challenges our In The Middle Works of John Dewey, 1899-1924, compromises. Few can deny the struggles, fail- edited by JoAnn Boydston. Carbondale, Ill.: ures, mistakes, injustices, and tragedies that are Southern Illinois Press, 1980. salient features of humanity Yet, when the prin- Engle, Shirley, and Anna Ochoa. Education for ciples of liberal democratic living are applied Democracy. New York Teachers College Press, 1986. where life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness Fonte, John. "Ill Liberalism", National Review, February are constitutionally guaranteedwe become 1995, 48-54. enabled to transcend human frailties to reveal Herrnstein, Richard J. and Charles Murray. The Bell the delicate beauty of democracy. Curve. New York Free Press, 1994. Hirsch, Jr. E. D. The Schools We Need New York Conclusion Doubleday, 1996. In a very real sense, teachers are stewards in Mill, John Stuart. On Liberty. New York Penguin the search for truth. By using issues study as a Books, 1982 (originally published in 1859). tool to reveal truths that either confirm or alter National Center for History in the Schools. National positions (or call into account the need for more Standards History for Grades K-4, National Standards study), we need to be careful not to apply or dic- for United States History, and National Standards for tate for students unwarranted, predetermined World History. Los Angeles: National Center for pedagogical decisions, or perspectives, about the History in the Schools, 1994. past. By taking responsibility as the intellectual National Council for the Social Studies. Curriculum leader of a liberal democratic classroom, the Standards for Social Studies: Expectations of Excellence. teacher should work to direct student attention Washington, D. C.: The National Council for the toward issues and problems that facilitate mean- Social Studies, 1994. ingful reflective study and appropriate action. Saxe, David Warren. Social Studies for Elementary The purpose of the teacher's work is not so much Teachers. Boston: Allyn-Bacon, 1994. to impart answers that students should know, but Sowell, Thomas. Race and Culture. New York to assist students in taking responsibility for their Basic Books, 1994. own deliberations, decision making, and actions. Weaver, Richard M. Ideas Have Consequences. Finally, to achieve the goal of facilitating compe- Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1948. tent citizenship, American history teachers should guide students toward acquiring the necessary historical knowledge, to demonstrate the 1 "U.S. history" is often confused with the term necessary liberal democratic dispositions, and, "American history". American history is the history of more importantly, to practice the necessary skills the whole of the Americas. The history of the United of liberal democratic citizenship? States is meant to focus on the history of the United While this chapter makes a case for issues- States since 1776. Although U. S. history often centered history teaching, the next move is yours. includes historical antecedents to the founding of By considering this chapter and others found inJamestown in 1607including European and pre- this Handbook against your own experiences and Columbian formsto 1776, most states require the knowledge, you have already taken the first teaching of U. S. history, not the teaching of a com- reflective step toward engaging issues-centered prehensive history of the North, South, and Central American history. If you are willing to experi- Americas. For this chapter (for reasons of style), I will ment with the ideas contained in this chapter, theadopt the less cumbersome and more inclusive next step is to bring issues study to your students. "American history"; however, readers should be alert to distinguish between the two terms. References 2 Few books have captured the essence of liberal Bloom, Allan. The Closing of the American Mind education better than Richard Weaver's classic, Ideas New York Simon and Schuster, 1987. Have Consequences (1948). For a more contemporary

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160 view of Weaver's thesis, consult Bloom's Closing of the American Mind (1987). 3 John Fonte presents a first-rate discussion of the differences between liberal democracy and what he calls "cultural democracy." Fonte argues that cultural democracyof which multiculturalism and cultural relativity are a partis potentially a greater threat to the United States than was the Soviet Union. See National Review (1995, 48-54). 4 Deweyan thought raises a number of issues in and of itself. First, arguing in pragmatic terms, Dewey makes a case that ideas are made true through experience. That is, we take an idea and give it a sense of trueness by testing it in reality. By nature, ideas, then, are not absolute or above or outside of the experience of individuals. While the "absolute" ideas of things like justice, freedom, and beauty can be made real through experience, they are not true independent of our actions. This shift from absolutes to relative thinking has created conflict in education. The suggestion here of using Dewey's doing and undergoing theory for experience is not necessarily an endorsement of pragmatic theory. Rather, the suggestion indicates that issues can be made known through doing and undergoing. The fact that an issue is or is not absolute or does or does not have absolute properties is not necessarily promoted here. 5 Ibid., 139. 6 The idea that principles of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness exist and stand applicable to every citizen raises the notion of absolutes (discussed in note 4). As issues-centered teaching is applied, we thus acknowledge an acceptance of absolutes in the form of democratic principles. But we also (paradoxically) highlight the existence of relative facts or unproved truths. It is argued here that, through issues study, ideas are made true by experiencedoing and undergoing. However, some ideas appear to us as steady and absolute, and thus require no formal testing, although it is satisfying to be reminded that these absolutes (democratic principles) survive the test of time. 7 In the most important educational book of the 1990s, Hirsch (1996) argues the case for core knowledge, skills, and dispositions. Issues-centered teaching follows from this premise. There is no genuine issues- centered teaching without a strong content base. Ignorance of issue background information or acknowledged skills or necessary scholarly dispositions renders issues-centered discussions mere bull sessions where, at best, unwarranted opinions rule or, at worse, where teachers use the power of pedagogy and a captive audience to preach social activism or some personal pet interest. This isn't issues-centered teaching.

161 ACITICAL APPROACH TO TEACHING UNIED STATES HISTORY

bo Ho Id W. Evans

believe that the central purpose of social in history courses, and especially U. S. History studies instruction in schools is to inspire (the most common course required by law) that critical reflection on society, and by so doing, these approaches will have the best chance of to contribute to the improvement and even-being applied. We have substantial evidence to tual transformation of society toward a vision illustrate the general lack of reflection in histo- of a more just society, a society that is "worry and social studies courses (Shaver, Davis and thy, lovely, and harmonious" (Dewey, 1899). Helburn, 1979; Goodlad, 1984). An important Thus, in teaching United States History, I commonality among these reports is the finding believe that our central aim should be to inspire that a central underlying goal of courses in U. S. critical reflection on our past, present and future. History is to transmit selected factual knowl- This aim might best be accomplished by empha- edge and positive feelings about our society and sizing critical perspectives, by exploring crucial the American way of life. issues, and by including alternative views and While the casual reader might assume that knowledge that are traditionally omitted from my aim would be just the opposite, to inspire courses in United States History, and from the negative feelings about our society, that would be social studies curriculum as a whole. This is a an unfair characterization, and a misunderstand- biased perspective. I believe that the stories of ing of a critical approach. Instead, we should common people in their struggle to improve develop in our students an appreciation of the their lot should receive more time and in-depth complexity of our society and the world, and an attention than the stories of the elite, business- understanding of the critical issues that have, men and politicians, who have held dominant and that continue to determine the shape of our positions in the American power structure. This lives. We should aim to inspire deep dreams of does not mean that the "heroes" still getting justice and fair play, dreams of a truly democrat- most of the space in our history books would be ic society, utopian dreams tempered by the real- left out. It means that our emphasis would shift ity of the fray, by the ambiguity of the issues and to asking critical questions, analyzing assump- the ironies of life. tions, and devoting a good deal of our time to Unfortunately, much of what iscurrently studying the ways of empowerment, the waystaught as U. S. History in schools does little to that oppressed people challenged the society in further this goal. In some classrooms, history is which they were living and generated social trivialized into a game in which students answer progress. Thus, the approach I am suggesting is quiz and test questions for points, with little built on the American dream of equity and understanding of the significance or conse- hopefulness. quences of history for people's lives, even their With the recent revival of history in schools, own. In such classrooms, history instruction may the dominance of history in the social studies is be counterproductive, or even dangerous for reaching a new high (Gagnon, 1989). Thus, for democracy. In others, it becomes an occasionally the time being, if critical and issues oriented interesting story, imparted by teachers, textbooks approaches to social studies instruction are to and supplementary materials. In some, a few rare find a place in the social studies curriculum, it is classrooms, history becomes a source of reflection

1G2 on the choices we have made in the past and thethis may seem a reasonable and thoughtful alter- decisions we will make in the future. This is thenative because it can be readily applied within a kind of teaching this volume seeks to advance. traditional chronological course structure. How might teachers best approach the aim A third approach would be to develop topical of developing in students an understanding ofunits in which major critical issues are studied in crucial issues, facilitating critical reflection on depth, breaking the broad chronological organi- society, and inspiring deep dreams of justice?zational scheme. Because I favor this approach, I believe that this goal might best be accom- especially for high school courses, I will frame plished throughacritical,issues-centered later portions of the chapter around this idea. approach to teaching, an approach which empha- An obvious advantage of this organizing scheme sizes the struggles of common Americans againstis that it emphasizes the in-depth, interdiscipli- oppression, an approach which takes a critical nary study of persistent issues, yet allows devel- stance toward dominant interests of our past and opment of chronological strands by topic. present and leads students to ask and to reflect onAn even more radical approach would imply dis- difficult and controversial questions. mantling current course offerings and creating courses organized by critical issues, but we will Ways of Implementing save discussion of that intriguing possibility for a Critical Approach another chapter. This approach raises several important questions regarding pedagogy, teacher and studentGuidelines for Critical Teaching roles, curricular content, and course organization. Regardless which of these approaches is Let me suggest several ways of implementing a deemed most appropriate, the following general critical, issues-centered approach in the teaching guidelines would apply for teachers and students: of U. S. History, each of which may be appropri- A critical approach to teaching U. S. History ate for different teachers depending on theirwould seek to stimulate a critical dialogue, with readiness, philosophical orientation, skill andemphasis on student to student communication experience as discussion leader, and student read-and student led inquiry. While the teacher ing and inquiry skills. would openly discuss her or his biases and frame First, infusing issues and critical perspectivesof reference, teachers would carefully consider may be most appropriate for a majority of teach- the timing and potential impact of their views ers. Certainly, this approach is most easilyon student beliefs. As a general rule, the accomplished without changing the basic format teacher's perspective will be shared as one of and structure of most chronologically sequenced many, to be opened to critical examination and textbooks and courses. The issues, knowledge, discussion (Evans, 1993). and perspectives detailed below would enhance A critical approach would foster deep reflec- any social studies course, and will no doubt betion on critical questions and issues about our useful for all teachers and students to consider. society, about our past and future. The questions A second approach would be to retain a broad and issues to be studied would be those holding chronological structure, studying particular top- the greatest potential for increasing our under- ics in depth within the stream of chronology, but standing of dominant institutions and interests in develop critical issues and perspectives as themes our society, and in the world. In the classroom, to be developed and explored by teacher and stu- openness and the freedom to hold contrary dents within each unit and topic studied. Thisbeliefs would be prized. approach implies a more consistent application of Course content would emphasize alternative a critical understanding and a more thorough voices, seeking out the voices of the oppressed, of revision of course goals and format. Thematic those who have offered critical perspectives on issues could be introduced in the form of persis- social institutions, historical events, and decisions tent questions at the start of the course, devel- of the past and present. It would necessarily draw oped in each unit of study, and returned to at theheavily on revisionist interpretations of history as end of the year for culminating discussion of the fuel for thinking critically about mainstream implications of the historical data studied. Forsources and interpretations found in the typical many teachers, given current student and parenttextbooks. While the balance of course content expectations and the format of most textbooks, would draw from non-traditional sources, teacher

1S3 1G3 and students would take great pains to includewill mean that students and teachers have a traditional sources and mainstream voices and biased interest in the study. Again, Howard Zinn perspectives as well. writes: This approach requires a rethinking of the dictum that historians, teachers, and students History is not inevitably useful. It can bind must carry on disinterested, neutral, scientific, us or free us. It can destroy compassion by and objective scholarship. As Howard Zinn sug- showing us the world through the eyes of gests, neutrality is impossible. Instead, historians, the comfortable ("the slaves are happy, just teachers, and students of history can follow these listen to them"leading to "the poor are guidelines: content, just look at them"). It can oppress 1. We can intensify, expand, sharpen our any resolve to act by mountains of trivia, by perception of how bad things are, for the diverting us into intellectual games, by pre- victims of the world. tentious "interpretations" which spur con- 2. We can expose the pretensions of govern- templation rather than action, by limiting ment to either neutrality or beneficence. our vision to an endless story of disaster and 3. We can expose the ideology that pervades thus promoting cynical withdrawal, by our cultureusing "ideology" in Mannheim's befogging us with the encyclopedic eclecti- sense: rationale for the going order. cism of the standard textbook. 4. We can recapture those few moments in the past which show the possibility of a better But history can untie our minds, our bodies, way of life than that which has dominated our disposition to moveto engage life the earth thus far (Zinn, 1970, 36-47). rather than contemplating it as an outsider. It can do this by widening our view to While the course would be based in the dis- include the silent voices of the past, so that cipline of history, teacher and students would we look behind the silence of the present consciously seek relevant information and per- (Zinn, 1970, 54). spectives from divergent fields of study, including literature and the arts. The study of problems These insights are not exclusive to the new andissues must be interdisciplinary and left historians of the 1960s, nor are they uncom- extradisciplinary for the course to realize its full mon. In fact, historians as a group have shifted potential. Thus, a critical approach would chal- in emphasis from telling a traditional story lenge the traditional admonition to "stick to undergirding national pride, with the concomi- your discipline" (Zinn, 1970, 11). tant emphasis on detachment and objectivity, to Teacher and students would seek full inclu- a focus on social history and on human respons- sion of social realities of present and past. No es to structures of power (Kammen, 1980). issues, questions, or content would be deemedIn fact, by 1980, Michael Kammen wrote that too controversial. In fact, controversy would be the discipline as a whole had witnessed a "stun- prized partly for the motivating emotional charge ning inversion with respect to these two tradi- it can give to any inquiry. This would challenge tional values" (22). National chauvinism has the traditional scholarly edict to "avoid emotion- given way to national self-criticism in historical alism" (Zinn, 1970, 12). A critical approachwriting, to a challenge to liberalism and the lib- would emphasize a meaningful reason for study- eral tradition. Increasingly, motives of national ing historical sources, events, and trends for the leaders are discussed cynically, and makers of wisdom we may gain in thinking about our soci- foreign policy are chastised on the basis of revi- ety, our world, and our collective lives together. sionist historical interpretations. In the 1960s Teachers and students would still seek bal- and 1970s, university teachers were sometimes ance, would search out competing and divergent forced by students to abandon academic impar- voices, and would strive to be scrupulously care- tiality and to declare their allegiances, and even ful in reporting evidence, but would abandon the to admit their emotions. This led to a shift con- naive attempt to remain "neutral" and "disinter-cerning the desirability of historians making ested". Selection of meaningful and important moral judgements, a shift from the thinking of topics, issues, and questions which can shed light Commager, "the historian is not God," to a on the struggles of common people to gain powersearch for truth "consciously suffused by a com-

164 /G4 mitment to some deeply held humane values" construction, developed in the context of power (Kammen, 1980, 22-24). relationships. Thus, students' lived experiences Truthisdependent uponperspective. will be a central focus (Cherryholmes, 1991). Historiography necessarily involves interpretation, making judgements on the importance ofProblematics: The Big Issues evidence and the implications of one event for The following issues and problem-topics may another. Thus, a critical approach to teaching and serve as a starting point for teachers and students learning U. S. History would mean questioningwho wish to apply a critical, issues-centered of assumptions and values. It would mean discus- approach to United States History courses. For sion of frame of reference whenever we considereach topic I have listed key critical issues, per- a source or interpretation, even our own. The all spectives and voices that might be included, and pervasive importance and inescapability of frame a few books and sources that should prove help- of reference was eloquently summed up by ful. Readers may also wish to consult previously Charles Beard more than half a century ago developed models for applying issues-centered when he wrote: approaches which would also be useful in teaching United States History. Among these are Any written history involves the selection of Hunt and Metcalf (1955; 1968) and Oliver and a topic and arbitrary delimitation of its bor- Shaver (1966). ders cutting off connections with the univer- The problematic topic areas are listed in an sal. Within the borders arbitrarily estab- order that may be helpful, though experimenta- lished, there is a selection and organization of tion could help a teacher find an order that facts by the processes of thought. This selec- makes sense, assuming that teacher chooses tion and organizationa single actwill be option three, issues-centered units. It seems controlled by the historian's frame of refer- eminently true that some of our most troubling ence composed of things deemed necessary and persistent problem areas, race, class, and and of things deemed desirable. The frame gender, might be a good place to start. It also may be a narrow class, sectional, national, or seems true that a study of power and knowledge group conception of history, clear and frank might lead naturally into a culminating unit on or confused and half conscious, or it may be a ideology and reform, leading as a point of tran- large, generous conception, clarified by asso- sition into a discussion of personal responsibility ciation with the great spirits of all ages. and social action. Whatever its nature, the frame is inexorably I have created nine topic areas. In a one-year there, in the mind... (1934, 29). course, these could become units of about four weeks each, though length may vary by topic, and Finally, and most importantly, a criticalby teacher and student interest. Each unit would approach will mean reflection on student's lives,begin with the present, with continuing ques- discussion of the significance of the topics studied tions and issues and exploration of relevant data. for the lives of students and for society. The grow- Within each unit students would spend the bulk ing literature on critical theory in education, of time with the historical strand of development notably Cherryholmes (1991; chapter 9 of this and chronology, cases from the past that may volume), Stanley (1992), Freire (1970), Girouxhave special relevance over time, inquiry into his- (1992), Apple (1979), and Bigelow (1987),torians' questions, and reflection on important instructs social studies educators to lead our stu- decisions. Each unit would conclude with devel- dents to look to history, to examine the effects and opment of meaning, that is, with students devel- exercise of power, and to search for distorted oping implications from the historical topics and beliefs and communications in trying to under- additional evidence studied for present belief and stand the world. Texts cannot be perceived as social policy on the topic. A few helpful sources authoritative and foundational, but must instead are listed for each topic. be interrogated and critiqued by student and teacher, with student's lives viewed as a text or Race and Ethnicity: source to analyze. Reader-response theory posits The American Obsession readers' lives as texts to be explored, examined, and Because of the confluence of issues that critiqued. Like written texts, students' lives are aimpact this topic, and because of its persistence

155 16 throughout our history, race and ethnicity Zinn, Howard. (1980).A People's History of the deserve top billing. At present, schools seem to United States. be promoting the idea that we have achieved Textbook coverage of topics related to race racial equality of opportunity in a nation in and ethnicity should also prove helpful, especial- which the ratio of White to Black net worth isly if used as a resource to be critiqued. Following 12:1. Something is obviously amiss. I believe that extensive study, teachers and students will want this impression of growing equity and the knowl- to re-visit several of the key questions posed edge that undergirds it are dangerous. Instead, we at the start of the unit, drawing on their study need direct attention to the following questions: of race and ethnicity in framing perspectives that are still tentative, yet better informed. In this and subsequent units, teachers may want to UT SOU3.1P33Tp ureidxa isaq ann AEW MOH use panel discussions, debates, simulations, and a ajr[uuDuauiv ut sdnor2 Druipa luarapp full range of large and small group discussion Jo RUMS DIWOUOJDOIDOS QUI sr lEcim e, activities to facilitate student communication, osEd alp jo sins ay roj atqlsuodsor am and& reflection and critique. sEapr pool uopyr aku-euirijiE puE seionb and Social Class in America mo uo Most textbooks on U. S. History hardly men- anEy LUDIU1113 puE DDEI op iyedun 1E4M tion social class, and tend to emphasize the stories of elites, of those who were at the top of the What should we do about differences inladder. Permeating textbook treatment of social social and economic status that coincide with a class is the myth of social mobility in America, history of racial oppression? that the poorest person, with hard work and dili- How have historical developments in Ameri- gence, and maybe a little luck, can achieve the can society influenced race and ethnicity andheight of success. This is the Horatio Alger impacted the pursuit of equity? How have these myth, and itis dangerous as well because it issues and institutions changed over time? ignores the overwhelming evidence on the After exploring some of these questions, entrenchment of social class in America and the teachers may want to lead students to study theimpact of socioeconomic status and ethnicity on historical development of race and ethnicity in individual chances for success in American life. American life. This could be handled chronolog- Continuing questions on social class include: ically, with in-depth study of one or two groups, and a focus on particular cases that are especially ? What attitude and policy po-sitions. should illuminating. Teacher and students may find the government take on social class issues?: following works helpful: What role should governrnent play ini'dat Bennett, Lerone. (1969). Before the Mayflower. :ing.for the general.welfare-Oftitizens?ni Brown, Dee. (1971). Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee. What impaCt piay Daniels & Kitano. (1970). American Racism. American live; oii;piiportunity for. social -. Daniels, Roger. (1990). Coming to America. and economic success? , Genovese, Eugene. (1974). Roll, Jordan, Roll. ? How are wealth and inconie distributed 'in.' Hacker, Andrew. (1992). Two Nations: Black and White, the United States? What determines this Separate, Hostile, and Unequal. pattern? Konig, Hans. (1993). The Conquest of America. ?; Whai are the.origins'ofsocial stratification Malcolm X. (1965). The Autobiography of Malcolm X in 'America? Meltzer, M. (1982). The Hispanic Americans. ? much mobility do Arnerita&citizeris Sowell, Thomas. (1984). Ethnic America. actually have? Takaki, Ronald. (1989). Strangers From a Different Shore. Takaki, Ronald. (1993)A Different Mirror: A History of After exploring some of these questions at Multicultural America. the start of the unit, teacher and students may Terkel, Studs. (1992). Race: How Blacks and Whites want to study the history of social class in the Think and Feel About the American Obsession. United States, perhaps focusing on different Woodward, C. Vann. (1955). The Strange Career of regions and different time periods, and exploring Jim Crow. changes in the social class structure over time, as

156 166 well as changing government policy and role on Faludi, Susan. (1991). Backlash: The Undeclared War social welfare. Many of the following works may Against American Women. be helpful: Flexner, Eleanor. (1975).A Century of Struggle. Harrington, Michael. (1960). The Other America. Friedan, Betty (1963). The Feminine Mystique. Harrington, Michael. (1984). The New American Poverty. Gilligan, Carol. (1982). In a Different Voice. Lundberg, F. (1968). The Rich and the Super Rich. Millen, Kate. (1969). Sexual Politics. Phillips, Kevin. (1992). The Politics of Rich and Poor Nelson, Jack. (1972). Teens and Sexuality. in America. Sadker and Sadker. (1994). Failing at Fairness: Piven and Cloward. (1977). Poor People's Movements. How American Schools Cheat Girls. Rose, Stephen. (1992). Social Stratification in the Zinn, Howard. (1981).A People's History of the United States. United States. Ryan, William. (1971). Blaming the Victim. Terkel, Studs. (1970). Hard Times: An Oral History Labor and Business of the Great Depression in America. The history of America is the history of busi- Wasserman, Harvey. (1989). Harvey Wassermans History ness; therefore, the critical history of America of the United States. is the history of labor, the study of the efforts of common people to gain dignity and rights in Gender and Sexuality a society which has valued dollars over people. in American Life Perhaps the central myth in capitalist America, Sex is still the great taboo in schools. Despite one which undergirds a continuing reverence for the increased mentioning of women at different largely unchecked economic power, is the notion points in the chronological story of America, wethat "what's good for business is good for seldom study gender, sexuality, or human rela- America." The corollary to this myth is that tionships in depth. We need to. Another of thelabor organizers are viewed as "agitators," fre- dangerous myths promoted in schools is that quently as mobsters or crooks, and sometimes as with the women's rights movement of the 1960sun-American advocates of an "alien" ideology, and beyond, we have achieved gender equity. socialism, communism, or anarchism. Much of In a unit on gender and sexuality, teacher andthe history of labor is underexposed in the typi- students may want to explore some of the follow- cal U. S. History course. Dramatic events such as ing questions: the Ludlow Massacre and the Seattle General Strike receive little or no attention. Some of the ? To what extent have we achieved gender central questions that teachers and students -equity? could be investigating may include: ? How can we assure gender equity? What -specific policies should we pursue? Should ? What are:the-rights of labor? How have our nation and schools promote: feminism? these rights evolved over time? 3- What role has sexuality played in American ? What role 'should government play in pro- life? What role should sexuality play in our tecting:and advocating the rights of labor? lives? 7 What is; the proper role of government in ? How should we address heterosexism and regulating business? homophobia in school and society? 7 How and;why:has the role of government ? What are the origins of gender inequality in theeCoriomy changed over time? in the United States? ? -How has the role of gender in our lives Several of the following sources may be help- changed over time? How might we best ful in exploring the history of these issues in explain the changing roles of women American life. and men? Bigelow, W. and S. Diamond. (1988). The Power in Our Hands: A Curriculum on Workers in the U S. After examining some of these questions, you Foner, Phillip. (1947-1964).A History of the Labor will probably want to study several in depth over Movements in the United States. time, especially the changing role of women in Greene, Laura. (1992). Child Labor Then and Now. American society. Several of the following Public Issues Series. The New Deal. sources may prove helpful: Public Issues Series. The Progressive Era.

157 167 Public Issues Series. The Railroad Era. Public Issues Series. The Rise of Organized Labor. ? How should we define the term empire? Josephson, Matthew. (1962). The Robber Barons. Is the U. S. an imperial power? Thompson, E. P (1963). The Making of the English ? What role should the U. S. play in the Working Class. world? Sinclair, Upton. (1906). The Jungle. ? How has the role of the United States in Wasserman, Harvey. (1989). Harvey Wassermans the world changed over time? History of the United States. ? What are the origins of American global- Yellen, Samuel. (1974). American Labor Struggles. ism? Empire? Zinn, Howard. (1980).A Peoples History .the United States. or two interpretations and to examine a few cases Industry, Technology, and in depth while giving some attention to the span Human Survival of time. The Spanish American war and Vietnam More than at any previous time in human his- may be especially important because of their tory, we are witnessing the combined effects ofimpact on a changing U. S. role in the world. The technology and human greed on the planet, on following sources would be especially helpful: species of life, on the very air we breathe. Our cur- American Friends Service Committee. (1991) The Sun rent ecological crisis is a direct and undesirable Never Sets: Confronting the Network of Foreign U S. consequence of the forces of progress, technology, Military Bases. and industrialization. Continuing issues include: Remarque, E. (1929). All Quiet on the Western Front. Foreign Policy Association. (Annual). Great Decisions. ? What actions, policies and lifestyles Keen, Sam. (1988). Faces of the Enemy: Reflections on should we choose in order to protect the Hostile Imagination. the environment? Schell, Jonathan. (1982). The Fate of the Earth. ? What role should government play in Williams, W. A. (1959). The Tragedy of American regulating and directing technological Diplomacy. development and growth? Williams, W. A. (1980). Empire as a Way of Life. ? What are the origins of our post-industrial economy? Power in America Americans are alternately suspicious of the The following sources may be helpful in power elite, and skeptical of the ideological orien- exploring the history and current status of this tation of anyone who raises the notion of some topic: groups having more power than others. Pluralists Brown, Lester. (Annual). State of the World argue that interest groups strike bargains to deter- Public Issues Series. Science and Technology. mine decisions in the general interest. This argu- Toffier, Alvin. (1980). The Third Wave. ment perpetuates the myth of a democratic power Mumford, Lewis. (1961). The City in History. structure in which constituents are represented Landes, David. (1969). The Unbound Prometheus. fairly in decision-making. The myth ignores the Thompson, E. P (1963). The Making of the English silencing of entire groups of people too tired or Working Class. otherwise disenfranchised to impact decisions or Wasserman, Harvey. (1989). Harvey Wasserman's History even vote. Case studies of groups who have chal- of the United States. lenged the power structure and of times in which governmental authority has been challenged Empire and American Life would be meaningful. We are living in the heart of the American Some of the key continuing questions include: empire. While many Americans may refuse to recognize this fact, due to the ideology of spread- sarels tri amps ing democracy and freedom, our nation is at pre- Jamod atp mop.' JO Jalp am pinotisloH sent, the dominant imperial power on earth, cul- a)areqs Jamod Si 'loam lupin o1 pur,:koH turally, economically, and militarily. anuon_ps iannod fralqp.run!ti a si In studying this topic, the entire history of alga lamod u alaq-4 si uoliaury salnr otim L Americandiplomacy wouldberelevant. However, it may be most helpful to focus on one

iso k. G' Harris, J. A. (1930). The Measurement of Man. ho ruled Ac ienca uie,:ear est!years e Fitzgerald, Francis. (1979). America Revised ',;; ( .Y.411.TWnP oAg Foucault, Michel. (1980). Power/Knowledge. Wheri; under what condition s; should °cite Kozol, Jonathan. (1991). Savage Inequalities. zens challenge legally constituted authority? Lee, Maritn and Solomon, Norman. (1991). Unreliable By what means? Sources: A Guide to Detecting Bias in News Media. Noble, William. (1990). Bookbanning in America. Some of the following readings will be helpful Oakes, Jeannie. (1985). Keeping Track How Schools Alinsky, Saul. (1946). Reveille for Radicals. Structure Inequality. Beard, Charles. (1921). An Economic Interpretation of the Parenti, Michael. (1986). Inventing Reality: The Politics Constitution of the United States. of the Mass Media. Domhoff, G. William. (1983). Who Rules America Now? Issac, Katherine. (1992). Civics for Democracy: A Journey Ideology, Social Theory, for Teachers and Students. and Reform Machiavelli. (1897). The Prince. (translation). A culminating unit of study for all courses in Markovits, A. (1988). The Politics of Scandal. history might focus on the reflective examination Mills, C. Wright. (1956). The Power Elite. of competing ideologies and social theories by in- Parenti, Michael. (1974). Democracy for the Few. depth examination of current ideological possi- Piven and Cloward. (1988). Why Americans Don't Vote. bilities, ranging from extreme left to extreme Public Issues Series. American Revolution. right, and a similar in-depth study of reform Public Issues Series. The Civil War. movements in American history. Socialism, Populism, and Progressivism might serve as a Power and Knowledge good starting point. Perhaps the most debilitat- The study of power and knowledge mighting myth is that of the American Ideology, the begin with the media or with schools. A good myth of freedom. The corollary to that myth is place to start may be the U. S. History textbookthe notion that certain "other" ideologies are which is already present in the classroom. Theun-American and must be suppressed, or at best, central myth to be explored is the pervasive notion grudgingly tolerated. Religious freedom poses that knowledge, and schools, are neutral. Nothing similar issues. could be further from the truth. Knowledge has The study of ideology, social theory, and historically been used to manipulate opinion andreform might include exploration of some of the voting, through propaganda and political cam-following questions: paigning and through schooling, in both the hidden and overt curriculum. Sometimes, knowl- ? What is the American ideology? edge has served dangerous purposes, such as the ? Are there ideologies that should be labeled categorization of people into mental groupings, or unAmerican? the girding of myth in American life that supports ? What are the ideological orientations little or no social change. Some of the continuing salient to American life? questions which might be posed: ? What is the proper relationship between religion and government? ? Who controls the knowledgewe gain ? What impact have reform movements through the media? In schools? had in American history? ? Who benefits? In whose interest does ? What can we learn from the history the knowledge structure operate? of reform? ? What determines the content of school ? What reforms should we support? curricula and textbooks? ? When, if ever, is violence justified in ? How has the role of knowledge changed pursuing a cause? over time? ? What are the political and social implica- The following sources may be helpful: tions of the technological revolutions which Bellamy, Edward. (1988). Looking Backward have transformed theuse of knowledge? Birnbaum, Norman. (1988). The Radical Renewal. Dolbeare, Kenneth and Patricia. (1976).American The following sources may be helpful: Ideologies

1S9 .169 BEST COPY AVAILABLE Ginger, Ray. (1949). The Bending Cross: A Biography of Boyer, Ernest R. Higher Learning in the Nation's Service. Eugene V Debs. Washington, DC: Carnegie Foundation for the Gitlin, Todd. (1987). The Sixties: Years of Hope, Days of Advancement of Teaching, 1981. Rage. Cherryholmes, C. "Critical Research and Social Studies Goodwyn. (1978). The Populist Moment. Education." In Shaver, James P., ed. Handbook of Harrington, Michael. (1968). Socialism. Research on Social Studies Teaching and Learning. Marx and Engels. (1848). The Communist Manifesto. New York Macmillan, 1991. Public Issues Series. The Progressive Era. Dewey, John. The Schools and Society. Chicago: Zinn, Howard. (1980). A People's History of the University of Chicago Press, 1899. United States. Evans, Ronald W. "Utopian Visions and Mainstream Practice: A Review Essay on Curriculum for Utopia: Education for Social Action Social Reconstructionism and Critical Pedagogy in the A social action/service learning component is Postmodern Era, by William B. Stanley." Theory and a profound need, and one that isreceiving Research in Social Education,21 (1993):161-173. increased endorsement from mainstream educa- Freire, Paulo. Pedagogy of the Oppressed New York tors (Boyer, 1981; Newmann, 1975). One of our Continuum, 1970. great failings is not to imbue students with a Gagnon, Paul. Historical Literacy: The Case for History in sense of community needs, a reality of which American Education. New York Macmillan, 1989. I have become painfully aware while collecting Giroux, Henry. Border Crossings. London: Routledge,1992. signatures on a petition for health care reform. Goodlad, John. A Place Called School: Prospects for the Americans tend to be concerned about their Future. New York McGraw-Hill, 1984. individual situations, and to vote and act accord- Hunt, Maurice P. and Metcalf, Lawrence E. Teaching ingly. This tendency is natural, but it is also an High School Social Studies: Problems in Reflective indication that civic education is failing to awak- Thinking and Social Understanding. New York en people to the interests of the community over Harper & Row, 1955 & 1968. the interest of self Service learning might take Kammen, Michael. "The Historian's Vocation and place in a separate course, or, better yet, it might the State of the Discipline in the United States." begin early on and become a part of all educa- In Kammen, Michael, ed. The Past Before Us. tional endeavors. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1980. In conclusion, a critical approach to the Newmann, Fred M. Education for Citizen Action: teaching of history deserves consideration by all Challenge for Secondary Curriculum. Berkeley, CA: teachers because of the potential it offers for McCutchan, 1975. enlivening the curriculum, because of its poten- Oliver, Donald and Shaver, James P. Teaching Public Issues tial for inspiring dreams of social justice, and in the High School Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1966. because of the attitude toward learning which it Shaver, J. P., Davis, 0. L., and Helburn, S. W. promotes, a critical and inquiring stance in which "The Status of Social Studies Education: assumptions are questioned and points-of-view Impressions From Three NSF Studies." are challenged. As I have illustrated, a critical Social Education 43 (1979): 150-153. approach may take a variety of pedagogical Stanley, William B. Curriculum for Utopia: Social forms, depending on teacher and student prefer- Reconstructionism and Critical Pedagogy in the ence, readiness, or institutional context. Regard- Postmodern Era. Albany, NY: State University of less of course organization or teacher ideology, New York Press, 1993. I believe that most teachers will find infusion of Zinn, Howard. The Politics of History. Boston: Beacon critical perspectives challenging and beneficial in Press, 1970. promoting student interest, critical analysis, and thoughtful citizenship.

References Apple, M. W. Ideology and Curriculum. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979. Beard, C. A. "Written History as an Act of Faith." American Historical Review 39 (1934): 219-229.

160 179 WOLD HISTORY AND ISSES-CENTERED INSTRUCTION

bq Ricird E. cross

Elements of World History are commonlyal, human, and learnable blocks of content. taught in grades six and seven and inIndeed, by this blending of depth and breadth, grades nine and ten. The most frequentsuch courses come closer to representing the true placement of a single year offering is in the principle of the social studies. tenth year of high school. Numerous sur- Nevertheless, in our present age of interna- veys and studies have revealed this offering tional intercommunications and contacts with characterized by pupils as the least interesting oftheir multi-cultural emphases, a truly global all of their curricular experiences in social studiesWorld History course becomes more impossible and history classes. In spite of this longtime than ever. In the past, in attempting to meet the complaint, few school districts have moved to the problem of too much content, so-called World one most logical change, making World HistoryHistorycourseshavefrequentlyfeatured a two-year course. This reluctance is understand- Western Civilization with, for example, limited able for such an extension of the subject wouldcoverage of the Asiatic peoples and minimal require controversial adjustments in a school pro- attention to much of Africa and Latin America. gram and social studies curricula already over- Today, however, curriculum planners and teach- crowded with competing subjects, all claimingers must meet an increased challenge to western their import as a necessity in the general educa- myopia. The growing demand for increased tion of future citizens. attention to overlooked portions of the human Nevertheless teachers and schools have experience must be met. There follow with brief experimented with a number of variations to try explanations and examples a number of attempts and satisfy students as well as instructors who areat redesigning conventional World History unhappy with the futile expectations of ade- offerings that have been and are being tried in quately treating World History in a single year schools throughout the nation. survey course. Probably the most frequent variationis a One of these approaches, as suggested above, course of selected studies in depth. Sometimes is to organize a two-year integrated offeringcalled postholing, this organization is based which includes key elements of World Geography on thorough examinations of key eras such as: and/or World Cultural Regions with history. "The Greco-Roman Age," "The Renaissance," Such a course, however, may not materiallyand "Nineteenth-Century Issues." A variation of increase conventional history content; indeed, it this patchwork approach selects certain nations or may reduce it. But such an arrangement, whether periods of their development for extended study treated in a basic regional organization or a such as "India's Struggle for Democracy," "The chronological one, can reduce the mass of super- Emergence of Germany," or "Modern Japan." ficial historical names, dates, and events which Treating particular areas or cultures is anoth- typically bore students and are claimed by them to er approach of selectivity. Often these courses be unimportant. Shallow reviews can be avoided may be designated as World Regions and are in two-year offerings that integrate the subjectcentered on a geographical organization. Also matter into selected longer or deeper exposures known as World Studies courses, these offerings that provide for the inclusion of more motivation- are characterized by enrichment from other disciplines in the social sciences as well as from the numerous specialized booklets, soft bound, and arts and the sciences. The geographically orient- relatively short, that can take the place of the ed area studies courses may be labeled "Latin usual large, inclusive, hardbound texts which America," "The Middle East Since 1914," students frequently refuse to carry out of their "China" or "Western Europe." Similar titles may lockers or home. The growing variety of these be found for the balanced emphases in the cul- minitexts provides satisfactory references for turally highlighted courses which may treat basic information that teachers of these courses a variety of subportions, including attention to want their students to share in common. economics, government, family life, and religion. Several further alternatives in World History The approach to these classes may employ ahave been suggested, but these have been flashback organization. The teacher begins aemployed by but a few mentors of a creative or unit with initial study of the current conditions experimental nature. Included are offerings with characterizing an area or a group of people. a biographical emphasis that treat seminal ideas Questions are raised as to how and why these and great personalities in history. Such a human conditions exist. In attempting to help students emphasis can be very intriguing and valuable for find the answers the teacher then moves back to students but with such organization even with an appropriate beginning point or event in the the help of timelines, supplemental reading, and past and then progresses chronologically toward visual media, large portions of history fall by the the present. wayside. Titles may include: "Charlemagne and For some teachers, a preferred adjustment is His Times," "Mohammed and His Heritage," to merely treat the modern time-periods of"Pioneers of the Industrial Revolution," or World History. Typically such organization "Marx and Lenin." begins with a study of events occurring since the A further World History variation is based Renaissance or the 1500s with a few looks back- upon studying the evolution of prime concepts and ward if necessary in explaining some develop- generalizations that characterize the human expe- ment. This avoidance of the ancient and earlyrience. The following "universals," some being history of countries still leaves large gaps to be similar to topical units, have been suggested as treated if the course is a truly global one. Courses importantacrossmostsocieties:"Power," may be labeled as those identified above for "Revolution," "Families," "Freedom," "Justice," and key era depth studies: "1588 and Future "Survival." Concepts, of course, can be featured in History," "The Revolutions of 1776 and 1789," numerous other units that are entitled: "The Rise "The Impact of Paper and the Printing Press," or of Christianity," "Prime Architectural Innova- "The Steam Engine, the Automobile, and the tions," or "Popular Culture versus High Culture." Airplane." In the minds of numerous, more tra- It is recognized that good teaching depends upon ditional instructors, such segmental and some- concept building, no matter what the form of what limited courses are unsatisfactory. course organization is. Where possible, at the con- Other educators prefer a topical or thematic clusion of a study unit students need to be encour- organization for World History. Again such aged to draw generalizations from the concepts arrangementsreflectnecessaryselectivity. they have been learning and dealing with. The subjects are usually treated chronologically. Case studies have been suggested as a means Conventional examples of such offerings may of increased involvement of students in the con- be entitled: "War and Peace," "How We Have tent of history and as a means for the sharpening Governed," "Living Religions," or "International of analytical skills. Such studies can be inserted Connections and Cooperation." Somewhator used from time to time in World History more unconventional themes or topics may be classes that are organized in other ways and some entitled: "The World of the Family," "Cities teachers have gone as far as developing an entire Through Time," "The Artistic Imagination," or course built upon case studies. Few materials are "Inventions That Changed the World." Teachers available commercially in this area and most preferring these and other variations of the usual mentors have had to develop representative cases chronological survey find the lack of related by themselves, sometimes working in teams. textbooks a basic deterrent to course implemen- Case studies often tend to emphasize anthropo- tation. In recent years, however, following the logical,social, psychological, and economic paperback revolution, publishers have producedaspects of history. Typical titles include: "The

162 172 Reformation in Great Britain," "Communism in ity and validity of primary as well as secondary the USSR," "A Village in India," or "The Evolu- sources and accounts remains at the heart of his tion of the Nigerian State." search for truth as best it can be ascertained. A prime suggestion for meeting the aims and Thus the students' involvement in historical content of World History rests in a focus on examination promotes the development of criti- a Problem of Humanity, Moral Dilemmas, or cal thinking skills, now frequently cited as a Continuing Issues Organization. Two major major need to be addressed in social education. variations of this inquiry approach exist. One is Growth in these competencies is naturally at the built upon the advanced selection of longtime center of inquiry into issues, past and present. human problems, such as: "Education for All," This writer recognizes the numerous condi- "Struggles for Independence," or "Attaining Indi- tions that tend to prevent any of the foregoing vidual Rights." Ideally such topics are stated in a variations in designing World History courses in question format so as to emphasize the problem- the schools. However, much is lost if any one of resolution elements of a unit. Representative titles these options is selected in name only and is pre- include: "How and to What Extent Has Slavery sented in merely a traditional expository manner. Been Ended?," "Why Do People and Nations Much of the motivation and encouragement of Fight?," "How Have the Roles of Women pupil involvement and resulting learning does Changed Since 1900?" or "Why Do Somenot occur in this long discredited manner of Nations Try to Restrict Population Growth and instruction. Others Promote It?" The more radical form of The problems approach is highly dependent such organization includes teacher/pupil selection upon the review of source documents, and the and planning of the study of such problems, many consideration of opposing views held in different of which are of vital contemporary significance. groups or societies by, for example, citizens, politi- Samples of this category include: "Can Divided cians, religious leaders, or business people. The Ireland Be Unified," "What Are the Essentials analyses of conflicting,positions held by authors, of a Lasting Palestinian-Israeli Agreement," or economists, labor unions, land owners, media per- "How Can International Drug Traffic Be sonnel, and historians provide the critical content Controlled?" Naturally, in such studies the exten- of problem-centered World History classes. sive historical backgrounds and interrelationships In probing these elements, pupil introduction to of the problem are explored in depth. and continuing experience with the steps and Viewing history as inquiry into the foregoing phases of problem resolution as described in other issues helps materially to avoid the storytelling, sections of this volume are essential. purely narrative approach that so commonly Additionally, there is much value in a prob- characterizes World History classes. It can also lems approach for history, in that it utilizes all of result in the valuable understanding for learnersthe social sciences and related disciplines in that any one explanation or conclusion about anbringing more complete knowledge to learners. historical event is open to question and usuallyIndeed, it is one of the best means of attaining cannot be accepted as the full and accurate truth.true social studies in the schools. What should The two major reasons for historical study are also be understood is that an issue-oriented 1. to develop knowledge of why we are, where we approach can be employed with or within any of are, as we are on this planet, and 2. to introducethe curricular options discussed previously for and employ the historical method of research asthe presentation of World History. It is a key to a means to reach understanding of the foregoingthe attainment of learning goals in topical, area, elements and aspects of the current human con- and depth studies, as well as in chronologically dition. With these aims the course will includearranged courses. Any of these approaches is necessary instruction in the methods used by his- enriched or motivated through the inquiry, torians in arriving at answers, past as well as pre- analyses, and concluding activities that mark the sent. History never repeats itself but accurate issue-oriented approach. I repeat, the true goals understanding of former developments in studiesof the social education of young citizens are well such as "What Caused the Cold War?" orattained in the application of the qualities of "International Factors in Creating the Great critical thinking in decision making in any orga- Depression" can clearly link past to presentnization for World History. The truism holds; issues. The historian's concern about the reliabil- the means determine the attainment of our ends.

163 173 gl E Part Five: Igeograpt-4p 6hohal Idles a- e Introduction bo Josiah Boo

hat is issues-centered social studies edu- allows students to develop analytical skills in cation? How should it be taught? Ronald articulating the issues and raising pertinent Evans' (1992) discussion of issues-cen- questions in problem-posing and problem-solv- tered social studies programs involves ing. In a multicultural and pluralistic society, it is interdisciplinary and discipline-basedvery important to provide the young with the education. It uses reflective teaching skills and attitudes necessary for communicating and probing inquiry to utilize relevant evidence. with each another. Issues-centered approaches It evaluates a variety of competing options and to social studies programs should include experi- values for the best possible answers. In dealing ences that provide for the study of people, places, with issues-centered perspectives, one shouldand environments (NCSS 1994). consider flexible approaches to knowledge, con- This section of the handbook deals with cepts, and attitudes and use inquiry as a methodissues-centered approaches to teaching geogra- of instruction and discussion. Issues-centeredphy, the environment, and global issues. The approaches have a practical application to human common theme that ties together the three social problems, for implicit in the issues-cen- subject areas is the global linkage that transcends tered education is the idea of self-improvement all national boundaries. in the quality of human lives through social prob- In their article "Issues-Centered Approaches lem-solving techniques. The issues-centered to Teaching Geography Courses," David Hill and approach to teaching social studies isstill an Salvatore J. Natoli offer insightful suggestions for evolving strategy that has not enjoyed the con-how the classroom teacher should handle geogra- sensus approval in the social studies educationphy. They suggest that teachers should view and field (Evans 1992). analyze an issue according to its spatial context; Issues-centered social studies education is that events and issues occur at different places consistent with democratic values and ideals. on the earth's surface, and that physical and cul- It provides open discourse and careful examina- tural characteristics of these spaces or places add tion of the issues under discussion, thereby pro- significant dimensions to the issues and events. viding new views on problems, encouragingThe many issues affecting the planet likewise divergent thinking, and valuing different per-have a tremendous impact on people's daily spectives (Pang & Park 1992: 108). Hence, lives. Many of these issues and events are caused issues-centered approaches to problem-solving by humans, and others are caused by natural phe- encourage students to have open-minded views nomena. In dealing with some of these issues, the in seeking solutions to human problems. It could authors suggest raising important questions be said that issues-centered education has awith students on how to solve environmental crosscultural base to it. As the values of society problems such as pollution, global conflicts, con- change from one generation to another, the servation, waste management, deforestation, haz- issues-centered approach allows students toards, infant and child mortality, drought and question the actions and practices of previous famine, poverty, race relations, and human rights. generations. An issues-centered curriculum does Hill and Natoli point out that students must not have a preset solution to problems. Rather, it learn to respect other people and other lands as

17" well as environmental unity and natural diversity. environmental problems provides for active dis- Both teachers and materials should avoid the use cussion about environmentalism and conserva- of sexist and racist language and challenge tion. Students can discuss environmentalism as stereotypes, as well as discourage ethnocentricity it pertains to the growth of natural rights, the and attempts to find simple solutions. Geogra- expansion of ethics, the uses and misuses of scien- phic skills help people make rational political tific knowledge, the economic basis of social poli- decisions on issues pertaining to problems of air, cies, and the practice of social issue analysis. water and land pollution. Local problems affect- In their chapter on issues-centered global ing residential areas and places where industries education, M. Merryfield and C. White provide and schools are located also require skillful use ofa framework for dealing with global issues in a geographic information. Whether the issuessocial studies curriculum. Collaboration with involve the evaluation of foreign affairs and inter- other globally-oriented teachers is encouraged, as national foreign policy or local zoning and land well as input from the students to select global use, geographic skills enable us to collect and critical issues that fit into a holistic framework analyze information, come to an informed con- for global education. The issues identified should clusion, and make rational decisions for a course challenge and concern citizens of today and of action (Geography Standards 1994). tomorrow as well as affect the lives of people in In the chapter on environmental issues, Stephen many parts of the world. C. Fleury and Adam Sheldon portray issues- Merryfield and White stress the nature of centered social studies as a solid affirmation of the both the interdisciplinary and discipline-based environmentalist belief that humans are shaped by content of issues-centered global education. The their environment. In Dynamic Sociology (1993), realities of global interdependence require Lester Ward introduces the concept that humans understanding the increasingly important and can bring about a better society by shaping theirdiverse global connections among world soci- environment. Teaching students about environ- eties (NCSS 1994). Instructional strategies uti- mental concerns in a way that will liberate rather lizinginquiry,reflection,andsimulation than crystallize their thinking is therefore crucial. provide important insight into handling the Like geography, the environmental problems materials on global issues-centered education. created by human beings extend beyond nation- Issues-centered global education is as much a al boundaries and cut across disciplines. In orderway of teaching as it is a focus on certain issues to deal with environmental problems more (Merryfield and White 1995). The teacher is a effectively, we need to consider two different facilitator of inquiry who questions, challenges, questions that always concern environmental probes, creates opportunity for extensive student policy: "What will be the societal result of this research, and develops methods for authentic policy?" and "Why are some policies acted onassessment and evaluation of student learning and others are not?" In working with students, it (Shapiro and Merryfield 1995). is necessary to understand the problem of the The issues-centered global approach to educa- environment as it relates to and affects policy. tion is pragmatic as it reflects the reality in the Find out who is attempting to influence policy classroom. Students are inspired and motivated to and what specific environmental conditionslearn when the teacher connects social studies would be affected by the proposed policy. Have content to students' interests and needs. The flex- students come up with their own ways ofibility of the issues-centered global perspective approaching the proposed policy. Using newspa- approach to education furthermore allows for fre- pers and publications from environmental quent updating, so that the content may remain groups like the Sierra Club may prove helpful. recent, fresh, stimulating, and exciting, thereby Teachers might stress the idea of sustainable appealing to a variety of different students. development and the necessity to better manage The Curriculum Standards for Social Studies environmental resources in order to preserve our and the National Geography Standards speak current quality of life. Accordingly, "placing envi- directly to the issue of global connection and ronmental concerns within the political andinterdependence in both cultural and economic moral framework of the U.S. makes every envi- relationships. A financial crisis in Mexico greatly ronmental problem the concern of all citizens."impacted the United States, Brazil, Germany, Using an issues-centered approach to teachingMalaysia, Canada, and other parts of the world.

165 175 An earthquake in Kobe had significant ramifications for financial markets in the United States, Britain, and Singapore. We are not insulated from the vagaries of global changes. We should therefore train our students not to view the issues and problems of the world in isolation, but to see instead that what is done in one part of the world affects everyone's environment and economy. World issues become our issues.

References Coplin, W. D. and M. K. O'Leary. Basic Policy Studies Skills, Crotonon-Hudson: Policy Associates, 1981. Evans, Ronald. 'What Do We Mean by IssueCentered Social Studies Education," The Social Student, May/June 1992, pp. 93-94. Geography Education Standards Project. Geography for Life: National Geography Standards, Washington, D.C., 1994. Klein, R "Expressions of Interest in Environmental Issues by U.S. Secondary Geography Students," International Research in Geographical and Environment Education 2, no. 2 (1993) 108-12. National Council for the Social Studies. Expectations of Excellence: Curriculum Standards for Social Studies, Washington, D.C., 1994. Pang, Valerie 0. and Cynthia Park "Issue Centered Approaches to Multicultural Education in the Middle Grades," The Social Studies, May/June 1992, p. 108. Shapiro, Steve and Merry Merryfield. "A Case Study of Unit Planning in the Context of School Reform," TeachingAbout International Conflict and Peace, edited by Merry Menyfield and Richard Remy. Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1995.

166 .1 1-16 ISS ES-CENTERED APPROACHES TO EACHING GEOGRAPHY COURSES

bn H. vid Hill and Salvatore J. Natoli

ifferent scientists study the same events forand that affect people in these and other places. entirely different purposes. A sociologist Because most modern geographical research may regard an environmental issue as an has become the study of the spatial aspects of event or experience that willaffect, issues, geographers have rich resource materials change, or seriously modify the nature and upon which they can draw to develop and orga- structure of social institutions. A physicistnize curricula and courses related to significant might pose a question on whether a given energysocial, economic, and political issues. Consider, source is sufficient to sustain a population or the for example, the issues involved in the titles of industrial and service infrastructure of a commu- some recent doctoral dissertations in geography, nity Environmental issues seem to concern manychosen randomly from the Guide to Departments scientists, but each seems only to have a particu- of Geography/AAG Handbook and the Directory of lar knowledge or point of view about any given Geographers, 1994-1995: "China's Potential for issue. For example, if the issue is water pollution, International Industrial Growth," "The Role of political scientists will ponder the nature of theFourth WorldNationsandSynchronous political processes and institutions best able to Geopolitical Factors in the Breakdown of States," cope with the problem. At the same time, biolo- "Ties to People, Bonds to Place: The Urban gists will examine organisms affected by theGeography of Low-Income Women's Survival pollutants, attempt to trace the sources of the Strategies," "A Geographical Analysis of Poverty pollutants, and examine the changes these may in the United States, 1980-1990," "Race, Class, bring about in the ecosystem. and Health: Health Behavior and Hypertension in Black and White Americans," "The Terms of Geography and Trade: The Restructuring of Canadian Society Issues-Oriented Education under the Canada-United States Free Trade Geographers view and analyze issues accord- Agreement," "Peer Educators' Geographic Range ing to spatial contexts. Such issues, and theEffect: An Analysis of an AIDS Intervention events that trigger them, occur at specific places Program in the Dominican Republic," "The on the Earth's surface. The physical and cultural Emergence and Dynamics of Citizen Participa- characteristics of these spaces or places add a sig- tion in Wyoming Energy Conflicts in the 1970's," nificant dimension to the issue or the event. In "An Examination of Factors Influencing Citizen's examining the spatial characteristics of water Actions in Response to Superfund Site Cleaning pollution, the geographer begins the analysis by Decisions in the State of Texas," and "Under- studying the pollution's locational characteristics standing the Effects of Small Hospital Closures and their implications. The geographer then for- on Rural Communities." mulates a series of questions about the spread of Master's-level research has become even more the pollutants from point or diffuse sources, practical, or applied, than doctoral-level work in their distribution over space and time, and the geography. 1 At the elementary, middle, and high relative severity of their effects on various areas. school levels, developing geography programs Issues to geographers are problems that have around the study of issues is a path toward engag- both direct and indirect relationships to places ing students' interest in the learning of geography.

177 According to theGuidelines for Geographic The High School Geography Project Education: Elementary and Secondary Schools (Joint (HSGP) Committee 1984) and the National Geography In the 1960's, the High School Geography Standards, 1994 Geography for Life (1994), their Project pioneered issues-centered (problem-solv- rationales for applying geographic knowledge ing) instruction in geography using inquiry constitute a clear mandate for learning geographylearning techniques (Table1). Although not today and in the future. The Guidelines for planned as an issues-oriented project, its teaching Geographic Education state and learning strategies as well as the media, procedures, skill development, desired attitudes, and Every day we make important decisions related optional assignments allowed experienced about our well-being and every day we use geography teachers to translate and transform geographic knowledge or encounter impor- the program'sactivitiesinto issue-oriented tant geographical influences in our lives. lessons or modules (Patton et al. 1970). The basic We interpret complicated geographic fac- conservatism of U. S. education and the difficul- tors to determine the places where we ties in introducing educational innovations in the choose to livephysical factors...[and] schools, especially in the form of non-text mate- cultural factors... all have a bearing on our rials, constrained the HSGP and similar projects quality of life. ...Geographic knowledge is in the new social studies (see the section below crucial in dealing with issues such as nuclear on GIGI and the politics of textbook adoption). armament buildups, siting nuclear power Geography in an Urban Age (High School plants, safe disposal of radioactive and toxic Geography Project 1970) reflected the major chemicals, segregation, race, age, or eco- social, cultural, and economic issues of the nomic status, discrimination against women 1960's, including the following: the persistent and minorities, and inequitable distribution and continuing problems of urbanization and of economic resources in and among devel- the growth and spread of cities, with their atten- oped and developing countries. Careful dant social and economic consequences; patterns geographic scrutiny can benefit the analysis and issues of manufacturing (planned versus of problems of environmental degradation, marketing economies) and agriculture (plan- rational use of ocean resources, the resettle- ning, risk taking, mechanization, and decision ment of refugees from war-torn nations, making); cultural diffusion and cultural influ- and political repression and terrorism. (p.1) ences influencing land use (the implied loss of national and cultural distinctiveness and identi- Two imperatives drove the creation of the ties); issues in political geography (boundary National Geography Standards: "First, geo- disputes, gerrymandering, regional politics and graphic understanding must be set into a process governance); and habitat and resources (natural of lifelong learning, thus requiring a connection hazards, resources management, and waste between school and adult life" (1994, 26). An management). There was also a regional unit on inseparable and seamless bond connects formalJapan concerning problems associated with the educational contextspreschool, K through 12, tension between retaining traditional values in and collegeand adult life. "Second, geograph- the midst of rapid modernization. ic understanding must be set into life contexts: One of the High School Geography Project school, family, society, and occupation" (ibid., activities, "School Districts for Millersburg," asks 26). Educated citizens must make thoughtful studentstoread background material on decisions about their world while living among Millersburg's growth that includes the racial and so-called patterns of normalcy made significant ethnic background of the population and only by their regular anomalies. Rather thandescribes some of the physical characteristics attempt to develop a theoretical system for of this hypothetical city. The teacher then asks explaining an issues-centered geography, we students to design school districts for six new might develop this discussion by highlighting high schools, each which will serve an equal four contemporary projects in geographic educa- number of studentsabout 2,000. Class mem- tion that embody such systems. bers must infer the student population from population density maps and their general knowledge about where families with teen-age children

168 ? Table 1: HSGP Activities by Unit.

UNIT INTEGRAL ACTIVITIES RELATED OPTIONAL ACTIVITES

1 1. City Location and Growth A Tale of Three Cities geography 2. New Orleans Bruges of cities 3. City Shape and Structure Time-Distance 4. Portsville Migrants to the City 5. Sizes and Spacing of Cities Megalopolis 6. Cities with Special Functions Local Community Study Local Shopping Survey

2 1. Geographic Patterns of Locating Metfab in the U.S.S.R. manufacturing Manufacturing Two Case Studies and 2. The Importance of Manufacturing agriculture 3. Location of the Metfab Company 4. Graphic Examples of Industrial Location 5. Hunger 6. The Agricultural Realm 7. Interviews with Farmers 8. The Game of Farming 9. Enough Food for the World

3 1. Different Ideas about Cattle Games Illustrating the Spread of Ideas cultural 2. A Lesson from Sports Supplementary Reading geography 3. Expansion of Islam The Long Road 4. Canada: A Regional Question 5. Cultural Change: A Trend Toward Uniformity

4 1. Section political 2. One Man, One Vote geography 3. School Districts for Millersburg 4. London 5. Point Roberts

5 1. Habitat and Man habitat 2. Two Rivers 3. Wachung 4. Rutile and the Beach 5. Flood Hazards 6. Water Balance 7. Waste Management

6 1. Introduction to Japan Japan 2. Traditional Japan 3. Japan Today 4. The Modernization of Japan

Source: High School Geography Project, Geography in an Urban Age (New York: Macmillan, 1970). The 1976 revised edition included several changes in activities and strategies to reflect new attitudes toward the environment and resources. Other information was also updated where available.

169 179 Table 2: Global Geography Examples of Issues for Study

South Asia: Why Are Forests Disappearing? Features population growth and shrinking forests. In a family in Nepal, deforestation forcesa father and son to travel far in search of firewood. The deforestation has caused soil erosion and flooding. Other examples from Kenya, West Germany, and Canada also show causes and remedies.

Southeast Asia: How Does Change Occur? Focuses on modern techniques that help farmers produce food for a growing population. A change agent and village headman urge a Filipino farmer to try new ways of growing rice. Provides examples of how agents in India, Guatemala, and the United States also help farmers adopt new ideas.

Japan: Why Does Trade Occur? Discusses Japan's import needs, especially for energy, and their effects on an urban Japanese family. Examines how Japan imports natural resources to manufacture goods for export. Other examples include how West Germany, Kenya, and the United States also depend on trade.

Soviet Union: Why Does Planning Occur? Visits with two Siberian families show how the government owns and manages vast resources, dividing the country into different economic planning regions with ties between them for sharing goods. Cities' different planning strategies in the Netherlands, the United States, and North Africa are presented.

East Asia: Why Do People Live Where They Do? A view of population distribution in China introduces a family on a cooperative farm in Beijing, where soils are fertile, water plentiful, and the growing season adequate for the crops they grow. In contrast, western China is presented, which has poor soil, scarce water, and fewer people. Population distribution in Egypt, Japan, and Canada are also discussed. Australia/New Zealand: Why Is The World Shrinking? An Australian wholesale florist and his children receive a telephone order from the United States for flowers, and they are able to get them to the United States the next day. Examples from Mexico, Canada, and the United States show that places move together or apart as the time-distance between them changes.

North Africa/Southwest Asia: What Are The Consequences Of Change? Background on desert, dams, and irrigation canals shows how the life of a three-generation Tunisian family has changed, as a newly drilled well replaces the yearly flooding needed for irrigation. Technology has also brought new costs and problems. Comparisons include Australia and the United States. Africa South of the Sahara: How Do People Use Their Environment? A brief historical overview introduces a familytoday and 15 years agoon Mt. Marsabit, Kenya, and how they have used scarce water resources in four distinct ways over many years. The ideas are presented of groups in Japan, France, and the United States about how to use the environment. Central and South America: Why Do People Move? This overview of population movement introduces a Central American family that settles in the city to escape the hardships of their former rural life and to provide schooling and medical care for their children. The program also highlights reasons for moving in Malaysia, the Netherlands, and the United States.

Europe: How Do People Deal With Natural Hazards? A map of the population distribution of Europe introduces a family living in the southwestern part of the Netherlands. The mother recalls a devastating flood that occurred when she was young. One focus is on Dutch engineers and how they control flooding with dikes, dunes, and dams. How people in Bangladesh, Japan, and Canada deal with water-related natural hazards is also presented.

170

1LS0 Table 3: BGGS-GIGI: Module Inquiry Focus and Case Study Locations

PRIMARY CASE STUDY REGION MODULE, FOCUS, AND LOCATIONS

POPULATION AND RESOURCES RELIGIOUS CONFLICT South Asia How does world population growth affect Where do religious differences contribute to conflict? resource availability? Kashmir, Northern Ireland, United States Bangladesh, Haiti 'fiVtin SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE HUMAN RIGHTS Southeast How can the world achieve sustainable agriculture? How is freedom of movement a basic human right? Asia Malaysia, Cameroon, Western United States Cambodia, Cuba, United States ,i,tiltillill NATURAL HAZARDS GLOBAL ECONOMY Japan How do the effects of natural hazards vary How does the global economy affect people and places? from place to place? Japan, Colombia, United States Japan, Bangladesh, United States

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION DIVERSITY AND NATIONALISM Former What are the effects of severe How do nations cope with cultural diversity? Soviet Union environmental area pollution? Commonwealth of Independent States, Brazil, Aral Sea, Madagascar, United States United States, Canada

POLITICAL CHANGE POPULATION GROWTH East Asia How does political change affect people and places? How is population growth to be managed? Hong Kong, South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, China, United States China, Canada

1 GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE INTERDEPENDENCE Australia What happens as global warming occurs? What are the causes and effects of New Zealand Australia, New Zealand, Developing Countries, global interdependence? Pacific United States, Gulf Coast Australia, Falkland Islands, United States

HUNGER OIL AND SOCIETY North Africa Why are people hungry? How have oil riches changed nations? Southwest Asia Sudan, India, Canada Saudi Arabia, Venezuela, United States (Alaska)

,,,,t INFANT AND CHILD MORTALITY BUILDING NEW NATIONS Africa-South Why do so many children suffer from poor health? How are nation-states built? of the Sahara Central Africa, United States Nigeria, South Africa, Kurdish

DEVELOPMENT URBAN GROWTH Latin America How does development affect people and places? What are the causes and effects of Amazonia, Eastern Europe, rapid urbanization and urban growth? United States (Tennessee Valley) Mexico, United States

WASTE MANAGEMENT REGIONAL INTEGRATION Europe Why is waste management both a local What are the advantages and barriers to and global concern? regional integration? Western Europe, Japan, United States Europe, United States, Mexico, Canada

Source: Britannica Global Geography System (Chicago: Britannica/Encyclopedia Britannica Educational Corporation, 1994). live. The number of students in Millersburg is (the Philippines), India, Guatemala, and the but one consideration in the problem of district- United States; import needs in Japan, West ing. The materials also include a series of maps Germany, Kenya, and the United States; govern- containing information on family income, popu- ment ownership and management of resources lation density, the ethnic composition of the pop- in the former Soviet Union, the Netherlands, the ulation, industrial and commercial zones, trans-United States, and North Africa; population portation facilities, and the locations of elemen- distribution and problems in China, Egypt, tary schools.Students will grapple with suchJapan, and Canada; the shrinking world with issues as integration, the potential for segrega- examples from Australia, New Zealand, the tion, busing, and future growth. The key questionUnited States, Mexico, and Canada; the conse- is, What sorts of information should you thinkquences of technological changes in agriculture about before you start to draw the district bound-in North Africa, Southwest Asia, Australia, and aries on your map? Students can work individu-the United States; water resource scarcity in ally or in groups and must be able to defend their Africa South of the Sahara, Kenya, Japan, boundaries based on the data they have accumu- France, and the United States; and rural-to- lated and analyzed, and to communicate theirurban migration in Central America, Malaysia, arguments via prose, statistical tables, graphics, the Netherlands, and the United States. Each of recordings, transparencies, or film strips. the case studies includes not only comparison- contrasts with different regions of the world but Global Geography also makes reference to the United States and The Agency for Instructional Technologyhow studying global issues in a local context can (AIT), in cooperation with geography and socialprovide students with a global perspective. studies consultants, developed a video series, Global Geography, that brought the study ofThe Influence of the Geography world problems into the classrooms and home- Education Standards Projects towns of middle-level students. Each of the self- The emerging geography standards escalated contained programs examines an issue or prob- expectations for strong instructional materials. lem in a different region of the world and ana-The National GeographyStandards,1994: lyzes each according to fundamental themes in Geography for Life are rigorous because by man- geography. Each of the ten case studies features date they are to be internationally competitive in one region of the world (Europe, for example), that they identify what the United States needs and dramatizes an issue (e.g., how people deal and wants from a systematic program in geogra- with natural hazards), and its importance to aphy, namely what geography students should topic (e.g., population distribution and floodknow and be able to do in order to be active and hazards as well as their relationship to the pres-responsible citizens in an internationally com- ence or absence of flood mitigation measurespetitive environment. The study of geography such as dikes, dunes, and dams). has the added practical value of viewing life sit- Students and teachers examine the problem uations through a spatial prism. For our purpos- according to a variety of geographical concepts es, we can define "life situations" as "issues." and ideas derived from the five fundamental themes of geography ( Joint Committee 1984), The Basis for the Development of such as human-environmental interactions, theIssue-Based Materials movement of waters, patterns of population dis- Three elements are necessary for developing tribution, and the social and economic effects ofstrong, issue-based geography materials and all flooding. Students also study and examineemphasize the role of the teacher: teacher train- examples from other parts of the world experi- ing in the use of good materials, the widespread encing similar hazards, such as Bangladesh,adoption of these materials, and their use by Japan, and Canada. Among the other issues well-trained teachers. Issues-based education highlighted in this project (in addition to floods faces some formidable barriers because of the in southwestern Netherlands) are deforestationpresent heavy reliance of teachers on textbooks in Nepal, Kenya, West Germany, and Canada; for content in geography, which is fact-oriented, modern agricultural techniques in producingrather than process oriented (see the earlier sec- food for growing populations in Southeast Asiation of the High School Geography Project).

172 182 Textbook adoption processes are dominated bygraphic forms. Students will not understand the hidebound procedures and by form and contentdatabook by itself, and so will derive meaning prescriptions that discourage innovation; schoolfrom the text only with the teacher's guidance. budgets traditionally favor textbook purchaseThe teacher's guide serves two purposes: to sug- over supplementary materials (Association ofgest teaching procedures and to help the teacher American Geographers and American Sociolo-with content and process. gical Association 1974). Since colleges and uni- All of GIGI's modules ask students to inter- versities have been untangling themselves frompret data critically in order to find supporting the stranglehold of textbooks as a result of elec-evidence for generalizations. For example, the tronic technology and print-to-order coursereligious conflict module, Lesson 3 ("What is packets (Cox 1993), perhaps the school marketthe nature of religious conflict in Kashmir?") has will follow. a section entitled "What events and conditions contributed to religious conflicts in Kashmir?" The GIGI Project The teacher's guide suggests that the class be The Geographic Inquiry into Global Issues divided into three cooperative learning groups to (GIGI) Project was funded by a grant from the examine data on Kashmir's colonial history, its National Science Foundation and directed byresources, and religious discrimination. Each of A. David Hill. Since 1990, the project hasthese three parts contains associated questions engaged Hill and a large group of writers, editors, for the students. Three tables on religious dis- and consultants in developing materials designed crimination present data on Kashmir's popula- to help meet the goals of responsible citizenship, tion, religious groups, and the state and central modern geographic knowledge, and critical and governments' employment of religious groups. reflective thinking. The project has created chal- Students are asked whether these data support lenging, useful, and relevant issues-oriented the Kashmiri Muslims' claims of religious dis- materials for motivating students to acquire crimination and how the data might be related geographic knowledge, skills, and perspectives. to Kashmiri Muslims' desires for independence from India. In addition, students are asked to GIGI Components speculate about what other information they GIGI developed two issues-based moduleswould need to test the discrimination claims of for each of ten world regions (Table 3).3 Each Kashmiri Muslims. The teacher's guide empha- moduleisfree-standing and independent. sizes the importance of critically examining a Teachers can use all twenty modules (in anywide range of data as well as the scientific pos- desired order), a small subset, or a single module. tulate that although scientific generalizations Each module requires ten to fifteen class periods may be supported, they are usually difficult to to complete. Modules typically begin with a prove absolutely. broad introduction to a global issue, after which a primary case study, lasting three to four lessons, The Role of Questions examines the issue in a selected part of the world. GIGI is based on Frances Slater's inquiry Next, usually in a single lesson, students explore planning model (1993), which is designed to a comparative case in a different regionmuch merge the inquiry process with the conclusions the like the Agency for Instructional Technology users draw. Directly linking questions and answers serieswhich gives a variant of the issue and ahelps achieve an intellectually satisfying under- sense of itsglobal nature. Because North standing of a problem. According to Slater (1993) America is not one of the world regions in the modules, these variant issues bring the issue close the progression from questions to general- to home wherever possible. Each study contains izations is crucial as a structure for develop- a print modulea teacher's guide that includes ing meaning and understanding. Meaning overhead transparencies, handouts, activities and understanding define the process of masters, student databooks, laminated mini-atlas tying little factual knots of information into maps plus multimedia packages that include bigger knots so that geography begins to videodiscs, a CD-ROM and user's manual, and make sense, not as a heap of isolated facts but barcode guides. The student databooks contain as a network of ideas and procedures. (p. 60) questions and data in a variety of textual and

1 When we ask students to learn conclusions tions, arguments, and questions. Teachers should without learning how to draw them, we perpetu- challenge students to raise new questions, ques- ate the tradition of an education centered upon tion the quality of their data, seek more useful getting answers and bereft of higher thinking. data, articulate relationships they perceive, GIGI strives for a balance between conver- explain their processes of investigation, and gent and divergent questions. Too much conver- defend their positions and solutions. Unless gent thinking inhibits critical thinking and leads teachers provide this kind of guidance, GIGI to little else than rote memorization, whereas toowill not meet its goal of teaching responsible much divergent questioning may discourage citizenship, modern geographic knowledge, and learning about facts and substance. We thinkcritical and reflective thinking. teachers should supplement the questions in GIGI by asking students additional convergentLocal Examples and divergent questions, as cited in Slater (1993). GIGI is a world geography, but it demon- The questions should strates that issues can work on various geograph- demand recall ic levelspersonal, local, regional, national, and encourage classification and ordering global. Younger students may often be unable to encourage the use of data to draw conclusions identify with faraway places, so teachers and stu- encourage awareness of the limitations of dents may develop the ability to relate global data or of the evaluation of data, and issues under investigation to examples in their encourage awareness of the processes of local community. Every community has issues reasoning used with fundamental geographic dimensions. If possible, teachers should make every effort Issues-Based Geographic Inquiry to take students into the field so they can see To foster active learning and higher-level phenomena that relate to their classroom stud- thinking, GIGI stresses issues-based geographic ies.Klein's (1993) field observations during inquiry. Inquiry generallyisthe scientific GIGI's national classroom trials convinced the method, and operates like good detective work. GIGI staff to urge teachers using the materials Inquiry poses questions and proposes answers to make frequent references to their local exam- about the world, and it tests its answers with real ples and to encourage their students, whenever data. To achieve GIGI's goals, students examine possible, to make local field studies related to the specific global issues by pursuing answers to geo- issues. Teachers also need to help students find graphic questions (Table 4). Students answerrelevance by identifying GIGI issues with real these questions by analyzing and evaluating data people, especially at the students' grade level, and using geographic methods and skills. Working as by making connections to everyday life in as geographers helps lead students to useful knowl- many ways as possible. Teachers eventually will edge, skills, and perspectives. In a free inquiry gain familiarity with teaching local examples, situation, students work independently, but with especially as they begin to develop field exercis- GIGI posing questions and providing data,es, put a human face on these materials, and teachers and students explore the issues togeth- adapt the GIGI modules to fit their particular er. GIGI materials may be the least teacher-modules. The more the trial teachers worked proof geography materials available: they willwith the GIGI materials, the more comfortable not work as designed without good teachers they became with them. guiding students in their use. Inquiry-based learning should teach students Fostering Perspectives habits of critical and reflective thinking. The The seriousness and complexity of the global issues posed should stimulate multiple andissues studied in GIGI can overwhelm students opposing positions, and students should use unless teachers foster optimistic and constructive facts to support different points of view. This perspectives toward issues. Teachers need to bal- context is necessary for developing habits thatance the pessimistic connotations of most issues foster critical perspectives. Interpretation is the with examples of success and prospects for posi- key activity. With GIGI, teachers can fostertive change. Teachers must also help students these habits and abilities as they help students develop efficacy, an attitude that their actions can interpret data guided by hypotheses, proposi- have some effect in solving world problems

174 E), 4 Issues

Methods of Processing0.- Geographic Questions- --`Exerciseof Skills

Data

Outcomes

Source: After Frances Slater, Learning through Geography (London: Heinemann, 1993).

(Klein 1993). The maxim, "Think globally, actthe pre- and in-service levels are absolutely locally" addresses the need to help students orga- essential. This preparation must include content, nize and take constructive actions that address process, and a support system that will be ready local variants of the issues they are studying. As to provide assistance when teachers need help. student involvement in local projects enriches the Materials such as those developed by GIGI, AIT, educational experience, it can also produce an the HSGP and ARGUS (see below) challenge optimism about their abilities to be a force for teachers who have had little formal education in change in their community and in their world. geography. Because learning the content of geog- GIGI includes lessons and activities focusing onraphy depends upon the exercise of higher-level possibilities for positive action. thinking, teachers without such content cannot Fostering certain perspectives, it is hoped, assist students in speculating, hypothesizing, ana- will promote student optimism and constructive lyzing, interpreting, and evaluatingall neces- behavior. Geography students must learn to sary and significant skills and aptitudes for suc- respect other people and other lands as well as cessful issues-oriented teaching and learning. understand and appreciate unity and natural diversity. They must develop a healthy skepti-ARGUS cism toward overly simplified explanations about Activities and Readings in the Geography of environmental degradation, human responses to the United States (ARGUS) is a new project hazards, and serious problems that might result funded by the National Science Foundation and from simple human oversights. Optimistic andsponsored by the Association of American constructive perspectives should accompany the Geographers (AAG).4 ARGUS is not designed development of empathy, tolerance, and open- as an issues-oriented project, but its activities and mindedness. Teachers and materials must avoid twenty-six case studies are replete with issues that sexist and racist language, discourage ethnocen- have a strong geographical focus. The case studies tricity, and challenge stereotypes, simple solu- are regional and topical, and a list of a few indi- tions, and basic assumptions. cates the strength of the issues implicit in them: As with any materials or innovations in edu- Native Americans, colonies, waves of immigra- cation, teacher preparation components at both tion, Old Dixie, South Florida, suburbia, the Rust

175

REST COPYAVAILABLE Belt, megalopolis, the Delta and ghetto, Hawaii, Secondary School. Washington, D.C. and Macomb, and a livable country. ARGUS helps to promote IL: AAG and NCGE, 1984. a strong series of conceptual contexts for geo- Klein, Phil. "Expressions of Interest in Environmental graphical ideas and phenomena, interdisciplinary Issues by U.S. Secondary Geography Students." uses, and cross-curricularsuggestions. The In International Research in Geographical and teacher's guide includes an array of pedagogical Environmental Education, 2, no. 2 (1993): 108-112. techniques, flexible in depth and procedure. National Geography Standards, 1994: Geography for Life. Other materials include the case studies, back- Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Research ground readings, handout activities, transparency and Exploration, 1994. masters, and an optional set of slides. Natoli, Salvatore J. "The Evolving Nature of Geography." In Social Studies and the Social Sciences: A Fifty-Year Perspective, edited by Stanley Wronski 1 Geographic research since World War II has and Donald H. Bragaw. Washington, D.C.: National increasingly emphasized applied topics. With the Council for the Social Studies, 1986. developmentandrefinementofGeographic Patton, Donald J. et al., eds. From Geographic Discipline Information Systems (GIS) technologies, the increase to Inquiring Student: Final Report on the High School has become exponential. See Natoli (1986, 28-42). Geography Project. Washington, D.C.: Association of 2 The following material relies heavily on a portion American Geographers, 1970. of Hill 1994. Slater, Frances. Learning through Geography. 3 The GIGI Project has been published as the London: Heinemann, 1993. BritannicaGlobalGeographySystem(BG GS) (Chicago: Britannica/Encyclopedia Britannica Educational Corporation, 1994). 4 Information on and sample materials about ARGUS are available from the AAG, 1710 Sixteenth Street, N. W., Washington, D. C. 20009.

References Agency for Instructional Technology (AIT). Global Geography, a video series. Bloomington, IN: AIT, 1987. Activities and Readings in the Geography of the United States. Washington, D.C.: Association of American Geographers, 1994. Cox, M. "Technology Threatens to Shatter the World of College Textbooks," Wall Street Journal, June 1, 1993 Dunn, James M. "The Translation of Geography for the Development of Precollegiate Instructional Materials." Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Geography, University of Colorado at Boulder, 1993. Guide to Programs of Geography in the United States and Canada, 1994-1995/AAG Handbook and Directory of Geographers. Washington, D.C.: Association of American Geographers, 1994. High School Geography Project. Geography in an Urban Age. New York Macmillan, 1970. Hill, A. David. "Geography Instructional Materials for Standards-Based Education. " Journal of Geography 93 (January/February 1994): 14-20. Joint Committee on Geographic Education, National Council for Geographic Education (NCGE) and Association of American Geographers (AAG) Guidelines for Geographic Education: Elementary and

176 1 8 6 ES-CENTERED GLOBAL EDUCATION

M. Merrofield and Connie S. White

"Education must teach us that all our actions in ancient civilizations and have become global on this planet, physical or social, are irrevo- issues as science and technology have accelerated cably interlocked" the interconnectedness of the world's peoples. Ernest Boyer In today's world global issues are a part of the Former U.S. Commissioner of Education daily lives of American students, teachers, and their communities. "Before you finish eating breakfast this In this chapter we share our conceptualiza- morning, you've depended on more than half tion of issues-centered global education and the world. This is the way our universe is suggest a framework for infusing a global issues- structured ...We aren't going to have peace centered approach into social studies courses. on earth until we recognize this basic fact of Our ideas come from our experiences as social the interrelated structure of all reality." studies teachers, our study and research of exem- Martin Luther King, Jr. plary practice in global education, and our col- U.S. clergyman and civil rights leader laboration with other globally oriented teachers in The Ohio State University's Professional The salvation of mankind lies only in mak- Development School Network in Social Studies ing everything the concern of all." and Global Education. Alexander Solzhenitsyn Soviet writer and dissident What Is Issues-Centered Global Education? emember the first time you saw a photo- Teachers who teach issues-centered global ngraph of Earth taken from outer space? education generally make a number of distinct There it was, a blue, green, and brown decisions that deal with content selection, the planet wrapped in wisps of white and gray. process of teaching and learning, and the devel- Although you might have looked for your opment of a global perspective. These decisions city or country, you found only natural are interrelated and fit into a holistic framework borders, separating water and landforms. For for issues-centered global education. many of us the photograph provided our first global perspective, a new view of our planet as aTeachers Select Critical Global Issues finite system, as one interconnected world. Teachers select issues that 1. challenge and If we examine our lives, our community, and concern citizens today and tomorrow,2.affect our world from a global perspective, issues the lives of persons in many parts of the world, emerge that are critical to our planet's survival and3.cannot be adequately understood or and the quality of life of the earth's peoples. addressed solely in a local or national context Some of the issuessuch as the disposal of(Anderson 1979; Becker 1979; Merryfield 1991). nuclear wastes or gene therapyare as new asMany of these issues have no immediate solu- the advanced technologies that brought us that tions, and the questions they raise may not have photograph of Earth. Othersreligious conflict, one "correct" answer. Issues that are significant to hunger, questions of human rightswere evident the world and of concern to students are often

187 controversial and value-laden. In our research we L.S. Stravrianos (1991a, 1991b) consciously make have found that teachers choose issues that they such connections. believe are significant and related to the interests and needs of their students (Merryfield 1993b, Teachers Plan Inquiry and Reflection. 1994). Teachers often find that several issues The process of instruction includes in-depth overlap and must be examined together. We haveinquiry, open-ended questioning, examination of included in the figure on page 179 many of the values, reflective practice, as well as the decision global issues relevant to social studies education. making and controversy that are authentic to cit- In studying issues such as population growth, izenship in a democracy (Angell and Avery 1992; teachers acknowledge the complex interrelation- Lamy 1990). Issues-centered global education is ships among such issues by bringing in contentas much a way of teaching as it is a focus on cer- related to environmental impact, implicationstain issues. Here, the teacher is a facilitator of for human services such as health and education, inquiry who questions, challenges, and probes political agendas of minorities or those who wieldcreates experiences for extensive student research power, economic issues such as the generation ofand develops authentic assessment and evaluation jobs, transportation, or housing, and cultural issues of student learning. (See Shapiro and Merryfield such as family planning and religious values. [1995] for a case study of the development and teaching of such a social studies unit.) Teachers Integrate Content across the Disciplines. Teachers Build Skills in The content of issues-centered global educa- Perspectives Consciousness. tion is both discipline-based (mainly from histo- Students develop skills in perspectives con- ry and the social sciences) and interdisciplinarysciousness, the ability to recognize, examine, (integrating appropriate knowledge and skillsevaluate, and appreciate multiple perspectives from other disciplines). Substantive content ison a particular issue or concern (Case 1993; the basic building block of issues-centered globalHanvey 1975). Issues-centered global education education(Merryfieldand Remy1995). begins with the assumption that people may per- Although most of the concepts, factual informa- ceive an issue or event in different ways based tion, and generalizations are from history, politi- upon their beliefs, experiences, and values. cal science, geography, economics, sociology, Students become adept at putting themselves in anthropology, and psychology, at times socialother people's shoes, at seeking out and appreci- studies teachers include content from the sci- ating views that are different from their own. ences, mathematics, literature, music, and art thatThey learn to appreciate the complexity and isessential for understanding complex issuesconflicts that come with the knowledge of from multiple perspectives (Kniep 1986; Levak, multiple perspectives. Merryfield, and Wilson 1993). Teachers Focus on the Development of Teachers Provide a Historical Context. a Global Perspective. Issues are examined within a historical Students develop a global perspectivethe context. That is, students understand relevant his- ability to (1) see the world as an interconnected torical antecedents and how the issue has evolved system, (2) recognize how they are connected, over time and space. Part of a historical context is how they affect and are affected by peoples an appreciation of the process of globalization around the world, and (3) appreciate the multiple (Anderson 1979; Dunn 1988; Kniep 1986). How realities and worldviews as perceived by individ- has an issue that was once only a concern withinuals and cultures as they deal with their intercon- one culture or region become a global issue that nected world (Alger and Harf 1986; Anderson touches the lives of people around the world and 1979; Hanvey 1975). As in perspectives con- can no longer be effectively the burden of a single sciousness, students are able to go beyond their nation? Every global issue has historical roots that own culture or nationality and examine issues provide important insights and perspectives on its globally and through the beliefs and experiences evolution, diffusion, and significance in the world of people different from themselves. today. Historians such as Ross Dunn (1988), Paul These characteristics are central to instruc- Kennedy (1987, 1993), Kevin Reilly (1989) and tional decision making in issues-centered global

170 Figure 1: Global Issues in the Social Studies

Political Issues Cultural/Social Issues peace and security issues, human rights, ethnic conflict, intermarriage, ethnicity, self-determination, peacekeeping issues, politi- cultural transmission, language policies, reli- cal stability, use of the military, weapons sales, gious issues, education and literacy issues, use of space, arms control, military aid, torture, health issues, population issues, global move- terrorism ment of people, refugees, immigration Development Issues poverty, sustainable agriculture, capital investment, population, food and hunger, women in development, technology transfer, issues related to dependency

Economic Issues Environmental Issues organization of labor, the global assembly pollution, use of natural resources, land use, line, non-tariff barriers, free trade, debt issues extinction of species/biodiversity, disposal of related to distribution (e.g., of wealth, technol- toxic wastes, energy issues, conservation, ogyandinformation,food,resources, renewable versus nonrenewable energy, global weapons), urbanization issues, transportation movement of people, refugees, immigration and communication issues

interrelationships across issues and problems education. They are complex, yet complementary. nections with such issues as human rights and Here is an illustration of how they can come environmental decay (Why are immigrants treat- together in a world geography course. In their ed differently by some countries or communities? study of the movement of peoples, students raiseWhat are relationships between deforestation several issues related to immigration policies,and the movement of people?). Taking into con- the reasons why people leave their home coun-sideration particular interests and mandated tries, and the effects that new immigrants have course content, the students work in small groups upon their new countries. "Why would anyoneto develop profiles of immigration to their com- leave the country they have grown up in?" munity (or city, state, or nation) and to present- "Aren't immigrants taking away jobs from people day Germany, Hong Kong, Kenya, and Australia. who have grown up here?" "Aren't most immi- To identify immigration issues, different perspec- grants poor?" tives, and the concerns of immigrants and other The teacher helps the students frame their citizens, students use their media center, a local questions in such a way that they will compare library's on-line data base (e.g., CompuServe), contemporary immigration in different world literature about immigrant experiences, and com- areas (Why do people choose to immigrate from munity resource people (e.g., immigrants and Russia, Eritrea, Vietnam, or Mexico?); examine people knowledgeable about immigration in immigration in their own lives and that of their other countries). Their profiles include historical community (How have our families and ourtime lines, immigration statistics, data from community been affected by our own immigra- primary sources (e.g., autobiographies, original tion and that of others?); search out the historicaldocuments) and secondary sources (i.e., views of background of global immigration (How hashistorians, sociologists, etc.) that help explain global immigration changed in the past 200past and current immigration issues from multi- years? What are commonalities that many immi- ple perspectives. After the students present their grants have shared over time?); and make con- profiles to the class, the teacher asks probing

17919 questions so students examine stereotypes andconcept of perspectives consciousness by first conventional assumptions about immigrants. examining different views on an event in their Students then draw inferences and redefine school or community. Then the students are issues about immigration globally and within asked to analyze the perspective of a histofical their community account. Without the students knowing it, half A culminating activity might be a simulation are given a firsthand account of Africans meet- of a meeting of the European Community toing Europeans on the Congo River from a develop a new immigration policy. Taking on dif- European explorer's point of view, and the other ferent European perspectives, the students use half read an African chief's account. As they dis- their knowledge on immigration to address the cuss their analyses in the class, it becomes appar- issues facing those countries as thousands ofent that something is wrong, that they don't Eastern Europeans and citizens of the formerhave the same information. Each half then is Soviet Union seek to enter their countries.given the other reading, and the teacher leads a The students' research and reflection results indiscussion of the implications of multiple view- considerable understanding of immigration points on the study of history and contemporary worldwide, as well as realization that some issues events (Merryfield and Timbo 1983). are very difficult to resolve, there are various legitimate points of view, and the issues areDevelop global perspectives by examining dynamic, changing over time. information across local, national, regional, Such issues-centered global education mustand global data bases. be planned within an overall framework so that Example: Students are first asked to brain- the teacher builds a knowledge base, inquiry and storm global problems or challenges that they perspective-taking skills, and a global perspective believe to be today's most critical world issues. over the entire course. In the following section, With this list on the board, the students are told we suggest such a framework. that the room now represents the total land area of the earth and that they are its total population. An Issues-Centered Since the current population of the world is Global Education Framework approximately five billion, the teacher can calcu- In our experience and research, we have found late the number of people each student represents that teachers approach issues-centered globalby dividing the population by the number of stu- education with four central objectives and use adents. Providing a global pie chart can help stu- variety of strategies to infuse issues-centered dents visualize the U.S. "slice" of a little more global education into conventional social studies. than four percent of the world's peoples. As thir- The teachers we work with commonly accept the ty-six percent of the class stands to represent the strategies presented below as good practice. people in the world suffering from malnutrition, the teacher leads a brief discussion of global 1. Build a Foundation issues those people would value and the global at the Beginning of the Course. consequences of that statistic. Then forty percent It is necessary for the teacher to make a of the class stands to represent people who can- conscious effort to establish a common vision not read or write, while two percent (perhaps not of issues-centered global education at the begin- even one student) represents those who have a ning of a course. We cannot assume that students college education. have already developed perspective conscious- Students are then grouped as sub-Saharan ness, reflected upon their connections with otherAfrica (eight percent of the class), the Middle parts of the world, or engaged in open-ended East and North Africa (five percent), Europe inquiry. One to three weeks of inquiry and skill- (ten percent), the former Soviet Union (six per- building to develop a global perspective provide a cent), North America (six percent), Latin jumping-off point for issues-centered instruction America (eight percent), and Asia (fifty-six per- in any social studies course. cent). Each region is given pretzels or candies to Develop perspectives consciousness throughreflect food consumption patterns, gross national examination of conflicting perspectives on his- product, use of energy, or other indicators of the torical or contemporary events. distribution and consumption of global resources Example: Students are introduced to the and wealth. In discussion the teacher questions

100 150 students about global issues that are priorities for Service listed at the end of the chapter.) the entire planet as well as those for Europeans, Many instructional materials exist to help Asians, Africans, North Americans, etc. The students think globally. We recommend Annual activity can also focus on the demographics ofEditions: Global Issues, The State of the Earth Atlas world religions, ethnic or linguistic diversity, (Seager 1990), World Eagle's maps and monthly environmental issues or others that are of partic-updates, Worldwatch Institute's annual State of ular interest to students or relevant to course con- the World, and the World Game. Publications tent. The teacher raises significant questions, such as Opposing Viewpoints and Taking Sides such as "What patterns do you see in population provide concise and timely articles on many glob- and wealth distribution? How do you explain al issues. All these materials and organizations these patterns? How might a farmer in Nigeria or are referenced at the end of the chapter. a textile worker in India explain these patterns? Students then reflect on the implications of2. Link Issues to Social Studies Content. examining such information and looking at How do global issues fit into the already over- issues from national, regional, multiple, and glob- loaded social studies curriculum? The substantive al perspectives. (The idea for this lesson came knowledge of global issues is essential for updat- from Gary Smith [n.d.]. See other instructional ing social studies topics for world citizenship. resources on immigration and global distribution If we look again at the figure on page 179, we can at the end of the chapter). see many relationships between these issues and K-12 social studies. Young children cannot study Begin a knowledge base and appreciation oftheir community, state, or nation without learn- local-global interconnectedness and interde- ing about conflict, cooperation, cultural univer- pendence. sals, and diversity. Issues such as the global Example: Several activities teach students assembly line, free trade and protectionism, and about the ways their lives are connected to those debt and loans are central to an economics of people all over the world. Students can exam- course. U.S. history could not be taught without ine a poster from Church World Service, attention to self-determination, peace and securi- entitled "Before you finish eating breakfast thisty issues, immigration, or ethnic conflict. A world morning," that depicts where the goods andcultures or geography course can be organized by services found in most American homes origi- global issues so that students deal daily with con- nate, along with data on the living conditions andnections across cultures and regions instead of wages of the people who produce those goods.the usual "four-weeks-on-Europe-then-three- For example, they learn that most baseballsweeks-on-Asia" sequence that isolates one world and gloves sold in the United States are maderegion from another despite their interconnect- in Haiti, where the infant mortality rate is one inedness. Alan Backler and Robert Hanvey's five. People making less than 25 cents an hour (1986) Global Geography is an excellent example assemble radios from Taiwan. Ralph Linton's of a globally oriented geography textbook that "100 percent American" (1937) provides a simi-connects world regions and cultures. lar historical view, and Robert Woyach's "A Day An issues-centered global approach enriches in the Life of Seymour Someday" (1981) takes us the social studies by teaching decision making through an entire day of global interconnections. from a global data base instead of a narrower one. Francis Moore Lappe (1971) provides stimulat- We cannot expect adults to deal effectively with ing and controversial alternativesfor how global complexity if we do not bring up our chil- Americans can rethink their roles in the global dren and youth to recognize and take responsi- consumption and distribution of food, agricul- bility for their place in the world. tural resources, and technologies. Lessons structured around these readings usually awaken Choose global issues as the knowledge base for interest and raise questions about trade, fairness, teaching social studies concepts and skills. dependency, and standards of living. Teacher Example: In world cultures or geography, questioning and debriefing is critical in such students can begin studying global issues central lessons if students are to recognize how theirto the relationships between humans and the personal choices and decisions affect the lives ofenvironment, such as agriculture, energy, or bio- others around the world. (See Church Worlddiversity. We have found that while the issues

181 11 change somewhat from year to year given world growing population of Indochinese immigrants in and local events, teachers usually include in their an eastside neighborhood. Part of their research world cultures/geography courses inquiry into can be finding out how people in other communi- population growth, hunger, national boundary ties have resolved such issues. Some of those com- disputes, environmental concerns, developmentmunities could be Kyoto, Hong Kong, Berlin, or issues, trade, and human rights. By focusing on Gaborone. Putting local issues in a global perspec- these issues, students learn not only about the tive usually reveals a wealth of new insights and five themes of geography (location, place, move- alternatives. ment, human-environmental interaction, and region) but also about the implicit interaction of3. Plan Authentic and the world's people as they deal with problems Personal Experiences. common everywhere. Parisi and LaRue (1989) Issues-centered global education is not simply is an excellent source for methods and materials academic knowledge studied for a test and then for issues-centered global education. forgotten. It is real-life education that flows into one's after-school decisions and personal life. An Organize courses through an issues-centeredessential part of global education is firsthand global approach. experience with people of different cultures, reli- Example: Government and civics courses can gions, ideologies, and worldviews. Such experi- bestructuredaroundcurrentissuesthat ential education comes from bringing people into American citizens face today, such as a unit the classroom and students into the community entitled "Are Minority Rights Protected underthrough simulations of cross-cultural events and Majority Rule?" While students study the struc- action learning (Wilson 1993a, 1993b). ture and function of the U.S. justice system, inquiry is based on issues that are of currentProvide cross-cultural experiences. interest and concern. It soon becomes obvious to Example: Students may interact with guests students that all of the "U.S. issues" are connect- from other countries or cultures through a panel ed to events and concerns in the wider world. on multinational corporations or small group dis- They learn that American "domestic" decisions, cussions with Chinese students from a local uni- such as changing the prime interest rate or pass- versity, for example. As many social studies ing a law to regulate acid rain, have an impact on teachers move toward authentic assessment, people in other countries. Other countries' deci-international people and experts become consul- sionsthe Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, the econom- tants to students' research or authentic audiences ic integration of the European Community, or for their exhibitions. One teacher with whom we impoverished Mexicans searching for a betterwork brought in South Africans and new lifecontinuously affect Americans. Russian immigrants to work with his students during a research project on international conflict Link social studies content to students' lives resolution (Shapiro and Merryfield 1995). through global issues. One of the most exciting new resources for Example: Jobs and standards of living, the cross-cultural interaction in schools is electronic changing environment, cultural conflicts, andcommunication. At Linden McKinley High prejudice are issues of vital concern to our nation School, teachers use computer technology so their and to the immediate lives of students and their students can "talk" with students in various coun- families. An issues-centered approach can bridge tries through live computer conferencing and elec- the gap between the global conflicts in the world tronic mail. Using a split screen, students from and real-life concerns and problems in the local Switzerland write about their views of conflicts in community. In each of these areas of concern, stu- Bosnia as students in Columbus, Ohio, ask them dents can be encouraged to study and address questions. Electronic connections create a genuine problems at the local level by thinking globally andglobal village. Teachers who have electronic net- acting locally. Through inquiry projects, students works available in their classrooms on a daily basis can explore significant local issues related, forcan have "global" discussions of historical events example, to a controversial development of a new and contemporary issues. (See information on elec- mall on wetlands, the chamber of commerce'stronic networks such as PeaceNet, ConflictNet, wooing of Japanese industry, or hostility over the Econet, and EnviroNet at the end of the chapter.)

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12 2 Use simulations and role-playing. iscritical in the development of perspectives Example: Many commercially produced sim- consciousness, cross-cultural understanding, and a ulations, such as Starpower, The Road Game, and global perspective (Merryfield 1993a). Baranga, teach students about the fundamental conflicts from which global issuesarise. InHelp students think about and connect global Starpower athree-tiered societyiscreated issues to problems or concerns in their own lives. through an unequal apportionment of wealth and Example: Students often experience intellec- power. Students trade and bargain, and the win-tual and emotional conflict when, on the one ners of the competition are the participants who hand, they are disturbed by acts of discrimination accumulate the most points (wealth) by the end against someone of a particular ethnic group or of the session. As in real life, some groups have religion in Bosnia or Germany, and yet, on the advantages in resources and strategies and always other hand, they see neighbors or friends treat accumulate more wealth. The Road Game focuses people "different from themselves" with resent- on the concept of territoriality as teams compete ment or discrimination. Open inquiry into prej- to build roads through each other's land. It helps udice can address this dissonance. Students carry students recognize how conflicts develop andout such an inquiry project by first analyzing grow as groups or nations pursue their own goals. newspaper articles about local and national Baranga is a card game in which students from events and issues related to housing, jobs, hate different "cultures" play an international trading crimes, education, immigration, and ethnic dis- game from their own culture's interpretation oftribution. They work with intergroup attitude the rules. As conflicts and accusations of cheating questionnaires and surveys, such as Bogardus's occur, students come to appreciate the implica- (1959) social distance instrument, to understand tions of people interpreting norms of interna- that negative attitudes exist within their own tional exchange in different ways. class. The students reflect in depth as they recon- BaFa BaFa (the high school version) and RaFa ceptualize terms such as racism, prejudice, dis- RaFa (middle school) are simulations in which crimination, ethnic group, ethnicity, minority students are divided into two groups and separat- group, stereotyping, social stratification, and ed to develop two distinct cultures with different social distance. They develop case studies that languages, customs, and beliefs. After they practice analyze situations representing these concepts. their culture, the groups send observers and then Then students use their new understandings visitors over to the other group. The new culture to examine Robert Coles's (1967) research about seems rather scary, unfriendly, and, at times, the effects of integration on the relationships bizarre to most visitors; students find that they between self-image and prejudice with children have a hard time functioning in the other culture. in the South in the 1960s. They observe the chil- Debriefing usually provides insights into difficul- dren's drawings and discuss Dr. Coles's inter- ties in entering a new culture. (These simulationsviews with the children and their families. This are referenced at the end of this chapter underintense reflective study of a global issue of con- resource organizations: American Forum, Inter-cern to students exemplifies issues-centered cultural Press, and Simile II.) global education.

4. Plan Time for Reflection. Use reflection to examine societies' assump- Inquiry-oriented learning and the develop-tions, conventional wisdom, and controversial ment of a global perspective take time and issues. concerted thought. Sometimes as teachers we rush Example: Terrorism used to be one of those from activity to presentation to assessment with- "it-happens-to-people-over-there" global issues. out ensuring that our students are internalizingWith the bombing of the World Trade Center new ideas, skills, and perspectives. Reflection is as and other acts of violence, international terrorism important as research in inquiry-based global edu- in the United States appears to generate a gut cation. Teacher questioning in debriefing sessions, reaction against people of certain religious or journal-keeping, letter-writing, and interviewing ethnic backgrounds. To what extent can this reac- are strategies teachers use to help students thinktion negate any progress that has been made in about and use new knowledge about their world creating tolerance and reducing prejudice? One and their place in it. Inquiry-based reflectionway to rebut the popular reaction to terrorism is

103 1 93 to have students place terrorism in the contexts ofready to take advantage of that student question U.S. and world history. Americans and others "why is there so much violence in our lives?" as a have used terrorism and other acts of political teachable moment where global perspectives can violence in order to effect change or express frus- provide insights into serious issues. trations. Activities such as an examination of "one From our perspectives, the rationale for using man's terrorist is another man's freedom fighter" an issues-centered global perspective approach to force students to think about where their assump- teaching social studies content lies not only in tions originate. Other lessons focus on the Sons ofpragmatic and philosophic justifications but also Liberty as "terrorists" from the British political in the reality of the classroom. Students must be point of view. Inquiry leads into multiple perspec- motivated to learn, and for some students, that tives of other "freedom fighters" around the motivation must come from teachers' abilities to world, as well as the acts of the Ku Klux Klan, connect social studies content to their interests the Molly Maguires, the Weathermen, the Black and felt needs. To the extent that those students Panthers, and recent "skinhead" and neo-Nazi can be challenged by a problem that affects them, groups. Students discuss such questions as: the issues-centered approach provides that moti- When, if ever, are political acts of violence justi- vation. Once students see that "their problem" is fied? Has the U.S. government ever sanctioned indeed part of a larger problem that affects peo- terrorist acts? Was President Reagan's bombing ofple like themselves in other parts of the world, Libya or President Clinton's bombing of Iraq they begin to think globally. terrorism? Reflection is built into the unit from the initial exploration of the meaning of "terrorism" inAcknowledgment students' journals and their identification of This chapter is the product of school-univer- hypothetical or real examples of terrorist actions sity collaboration in social studies and global or events that illustrate their definitions. Students education supported by the College of Educa- then work in research groups to examine the Irish tion, The Ohio State University, and Columbus Republican Army, the Palestinian Liberation Public Schools, Columbus, Ohio. Organization, the Sons of Liberty, the Black Panthers, the Irgun and Stern Gang, Hezbollah, and the Shining Path. Their reports disclose moreReferences reflection on why people around the world com- Alger, Chadwick F., and James E. Had. "Global mit acts of political violence and what can be Education: Why? For Whom? About What?" learned by the consequences of those actions. In Promising Practices in Global Education: A Handbook with Case Studies, edited by Robert E. Conclusions Freeman. New York National Council on Foreign Issues-centered global education prepares Language and International Studies, 1986. young people for their adult decision making Anderson, Lee. Schooling and Citizenship in a Global Age: as citizens in a democracy who are inextricably An Exploration of the Meaning and Significance of linked to peoples and issues worldwide. In Global Education. Bloomington, Ind.: Social Studies many ways such study is high interest, motivat- Development Center, 1979. ing, and as stimulating to the teacher as to the Angell, Ann V., and Patricia G. Avery. "Examining students. The processes of inquiry learning and Global Issues in the Elementary Classroom." the content of global issues do call for specialized The Social Studies 83(May/June 1992): 113-17. knowledge. Most practicing teachers in today's Annual Editions: Global Issues. Guilford, Conn.: Dushkin classrooms did not receive a global education Publishing Group. Published annually. Also available themselves, nor were they taught to teach an on Africa, China, India and South Asia, Japan and issues-centered approach in their preservice the Pacific Rim, the Third World, and world politics. teacher education programs. Extensive in-service Backler, Alan, and Robert Hanvey. Global Geography. education and professional development can pro- New York Teachers College Press, 1986. vide an intermediate step in the preparation of Becker, James M., ed. Schooling for a Global Age. teachers, but ongoing updates and study of glob- New York McGraw Hill, 1979. al events and historical interpretation are neces- Bogardus, Emory S. Social Distance. Yellow Springs, sary. Issues-centered global educators must be Ohio: Antioch Press, 1959.

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BEST COPYAVAILABLE Case, Roland. "Key Elements of a Global Perspective." Reilly, Kevin. The West and the World. A History of Social Education 57(October 1993): 318-25. Civilization. New York Harper and Row, 1989. Coles, Robert. Children of Crisis. Boston: Little, Brown Seager, Joni. The State of the Earth Atlas. New York and Co., 1967. Simon and Schuster, 1990. Dunn, Ross. A World History: Links across Time and Shapiro, Steve, and Merry M. Merryfield. "A Case Place. Evanston, Ill.: McDougal, Littell and Study of Unit Planning in the Context of School Company, 1988. Reform." In Teaching about International Conflict and Hanvey, Robert G. An Attainable Global Perspective. Peace, edited by Merry M. Merryfield and Richard New York Center for War/Peace Studies, 1975. C. Remy. Albany, N.Y.: State University of New Kennedy, Paul. Preparing for the Twenty-First Century. York Press, 1995. New York: Random House, 1993. Smith, Gary. Cultural Sight and Insight: Dealing with . The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers.New York Diverse Viewpoints and Values. New York American Random House, 1987. Forum on Global Education, n.d. Kniep, Willard M. "Defining a Global Education by its Stravrianos, L.S. The World since 1500:A Global History. Content." Social Education 50(October 1986): 437-66. Englewood Cliffs, NJ.: Prentice Hall, 1991a. Lamy, Steven L. "Global Education: A Conflict of . TheWorld to 1500: A Global History. Englewood Images." In Global Education: From Thought to Action, Cliffs, NJ.: Prentice Hall, 1991b. edited by Kenneth A. Tye. Alexandria, Va.: Taking Sides. Guilford, Conn.: Dushkin Publishing Association for Supervision and Curriculum Group. Development, 1990. Wilson, Angene H. "Conversation Partners: Gaining a Lappe, Francis Moore. Diet for a Small Planet. Global Perspective through Cross-Cultural Experi- New York Ballantine Books, 1971. ences." Theory into Practice 32(Winter 1993): 21-26. Levak, Barbara A., Merry M. Merryfield, and . The Meaning of International Experiencefor Schools. Robert C. Wilson. "Global Connections: An Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1993. Interdisciplinary Approach." Educational Leadership Woyach, Robert. Bringing a Global Perspective to World 51(September 1993): 73-75. Geography. Columbus, OH: The Mershon Center, 1983. Ralph Linton. "100 percent American." The American "A Day in the Life of Seymour Someday." in Mercury, 50 (1937) pp.427-429. World Regions: The Local Connection. Columbus, OH: Merryfield, Merry M. "Science-Technology-Society and The Mershon Center, 1981. Global Perspectives." Theory into Practice 30(Autumn Bringing a Global Perspective to American History. 1991): 288-93. Columbus, OH: The Mershon Center, 1983.

."Reflective Practice in Teacher Education in Global Perspectives: Strategies for Teacher Resource Organizations Educators." Theory into Practice 32(Winter 1993a): THE AMERICAN FORUM OF GLOBAL EDUCATION 27-32. 120 Wall Street, Suite 200 ___."Responding to the Gulf War: A Case Study of New York, NY 10005 Teacher Decision-Making." Social Education (212) 742-8232 Fax (212) 742-8752 57( January 1993b): 33-41. A newsletter, ACCESS, an annual conference on glob-

."Shaping the Curriculum in Global Education: al education, and instructional materials such as The The Influence of Student Characteristics on Teacher Road Game and Smith's Cultural Sight and Insight: Decision-Making."Journal of Curriculum and Dealing with Diverse Viewpoints and Values. Supervision 9(Spring 1994): 233-49. Merryfield, Merry M., and Richard C. Remy, ed. AMIDEAST Teaching about International Conflict and Peace. Albany, 1100 17th Street, NW N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 1995. Washington, DC 20036 Merryfield, Merry, and Adama Timbo. Teaching about (202) 785-0022 Fax (202) 822-6563 Francophone Africa. Bloomington, Ind.: The African Videos, instructional materials, student and teacher Studies Program, 1983. abroad programs, and conferences. Opposing Viewpoints. San Diego, Calif: Greenhaven Press. Parisi, Lynn S., and Robert D. LaRue Jr. CENTER FOR FOREIGN POLICY DEVELOPMENT Global/International Issues and Problems: A Resource Brown University Book for Secondary Schools. Santa Barbara, Calif: Box 1948 ABC-CLIO, 1989. Providence, RI 02912

195 (401) 863-3155 Washington, DC 20526 "Choices in the 21st Century Education Project," (202) 606-3970 curriculum development, and teacher education. Program linking Peace Corps volunteers with U.S. schools (grades 3-12); instructional materials and speakers. CENTER FOR TEACHING INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS University of Denver PROJECT ICONS (International Communication and University Park Negotiation Simulations) Denver, CO 80208 Department of Government and Political Science (303) 871-3106 Room 1127E Graduate courses, teacher workshops, and instruction- Tydings Hall al materials such as Teaching about Human Rights: University of Maryland Issues of Justice in a Global Age. College Park, MD 20742 (301) 405-4172 Fax (301) 314-9690 CHURCH WORLD SERVICE Multisite computer-assisted foreign policy simulations PO Box 968 and professional development programs for teachers. Elkhart, IN 46515 (219) 264-3102 SIMILE II Video loan service and free materials on global issues. 218 12th Street PO Box 90 FOREIGN POLICY ASSOCIATION Del Mar, CA 92014 729 Seventh Avenue Simulations such as Starpower and BaFa BaFa. New York, NY 10019 (212) 764-4050 Fax (212) 302-6123 THE SOCIAL STUDIES DEVELOPMENT CENTER Scholarly works on foreign policy issues, the annual 2805 E. Tenth Street Great Decisions book with the Teacher Activity Bloomington, IN 47405 Book, and teacher in-services. (812) 855-3838 Materials on global education such as Lessons from Africa. INTERCULTURAL. PRESS PO Box 700 SOCIAL SCIENCE EDUCATION CONSORTIUM (SSEC) Yarmouth, ME 04096 3300 Mitchell Lane, Suite 240 (207) 846-5168 Fax (207) 846-5181 Boulder, CO 80301-2272 e-mail: intercultural @mcimail.com (303) 492-8154 Publications on cross-cultural and intercultural Teacher in-services, study tours, and instructional understanding and interaction such as Developing materials such as the Public Issues Series: American Intercultural Awareness and simulations, such as Revolution, Public Issues Series: Immigration, Baranga and Ecotonos. Global Geography, and A Look at Japanese Culture through the Family. MERSHON CENTER Citizenship Development STANFORD PROGRAM ON INTERNATIONAL AND for a Global Age Program (CDGA) CROSS-CULTURAL EDUCATION (SPICE) 1501 Neil Avenue Institute for International Studies The Ohio State University Littlefield Center Room 14C Columbus, OH 43201 Stanford University (614) 292-1681 Fax (614) 292-2407 Stanford, CA 94305-5013 Instructional development such as Bringing a Global (415) 723-1114 Fax (415) 723-6784 Perspective to American History, Bringing a Global Teacher workshops, summer institutes, study tours, Perspective to World Geography, World Geography curriculum development, and other publications. and National Security, and Approaches to World Studies: A Handbook for Curricular Planners. UNITED NATIONS ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA PEACE CORPS OF THE UNITED STATES 485 Fifth Avenue World Wise Schools Program New York, NY 10017 1990 K Street, NW (212) 697-3232 Fax (212) 682-9185

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I 3 S Model U.N. program, speakers, publications, and Electronic Networks curriculum development. UNA-USA chapters are in many cities across the country. The PeaceNet, ConflictNet, EcoNet, and EnviroNet UNITED STATES INSTITUTE OF PEACE (USIP) data bases described below are located at: 1550 M Street, NW, Suite 700 INSTITUTE FOR GLOBAL COMMUNICATIONS Washington, DC 20005 18 DE BOOM STREET (202) 457-1700 Fax (202) 429-6063 SAN FRANCISCO, CA 94107 National Peace Essay Contest, monthly journal, (415) 442-0220 resource library, grants and fellowships for graduate students and educators, and teacher workshops. PeaceNet:Helps the peace, social justice, and human rights communities throughout the WORLD EAGLE world communicate and cooperate more effectively. 111 King Street ConflictNet:A network of people dedicat- Littleton, MA 01460-1527 ed to promoting the constructive resolution of con- (508) 486-9180 or 1-800-854-8273 flict. ConflictNet enhances the work of groups and Fax (508) 486-9652 individuals involved in conflict resolution and links Monthly publication, World Eagle (up-to-date users to the worldwide conflict resolution commu- comparative data, graphs, and maps) and series of nity. reproducible atlases, Global Perspectives Maps and EcoNet:Serves organizations and individuals Would You Believe? maps. working for environmental preservation and sustainability. It is a community of persons using the THE WORLD BANK network for information sharing and collaboration 1818 H Street, NW in order to enhance the effectiveness of all environ- Washington, DC 20433 mentally oriented programs and activities. (202) 477-1234 EnviroNet:A free computer network Annual World Development Report, the featuring conferences on environmental subjects, Development Data Book, and poster kits on popu- daily Greenpeace press releases, and environmental lation, life expectancy, and GNP per capita. newsletters, as well as real-time e-mail. To gain access and establish an account, set modem to WORLD GAME INSTITUTE call 1-415-512-9108 (1200 or 2400 baud). University Science Center For information, call (415) 512-9025. 3508 Market Street Philadelphia, PA 19104 (215) 387-0220 Fax (215) 387-3009 Publications, instructional materials, speakers, conferences, and the simulation, "World Game Workshops."

WORLDWATCH INSTITUTE 1776 Massachusetts Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20036-1904 (202) 452-1999 Fax (202) 296-7365 e-mail [email protected] Publications on global environmental issues, such as the annual State of the World.

107 197 ENVIRONMENTALISM AND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

hq Step n C. Fleurq and Rdam Sheldon

Environmental issues are deceptively easy to many different views. The clarification of the understand because these struggles meta- value basis of social knowledge should be no phorically represent theclassicfight minor goal for social studies. between the "good guy" and the "bad guy." But who the good guy is often depends Environmental Issues on your vantage point and value system. as Policy Issues In other words, unless you understand how Social issues become policy issues whenever social, economic, cultural, and political factors people's beliefs clash over what should be done influence people's ideas about what should beby those who have the authority to do some- done for the environment, your own perspective thing. Coplin and O'Leary (1981) have found may remain at an ideological level. What follows that policy issues can be successfully clarified by in this chapter is an approach for teaching about asking who is attempting to influence public environmental concerns to liberate rather than policy-making, what is the environmental condi- crystalize students' thinking. tion targeted by the policy, and what is the pro- Curricular materials on social problemsposed or contended policy? They emphasize the often package controversies by presenting stu- importance of being specific when describing dents with two or three pre-defined positions. each of these components. For example, vague The main intellectual task asked of students is toterms such as "big corporations" or "environ- "take sides," a pedagogical exercise that reinforces mentalists" are not very useful for enhancing our their ideological predispositions instead of help- understanding of the value conflicts involved in ing them develop an understanding of the coman environmental issue. Instead, we need to plexity of different perspectives. Probing theknow who in the industry is speaking? What is value-laden assumptions that underlie various their personal interest in the outcome? What will public perspectives about an issue is a significant- they personally lose or gain? Whose views do ly more fruitful approach for social studies edu- their statements reflect: Their own? Official cators, whose concerns for thoughtful citizenship company policy? How organized are the people should be paramount. With such an approach,who hold an environmental viewpoint? What the dynamics of power in society are more likely access do they have to sources of information that to surfacedynamics that otherwise are too eas- are used in making a policy? To what extent are ily concealed in the social studies curriculum. the sides aligned according to social class, gen- Compared to traditional textbook accounts ofder, or race? Responses to these types of ques- how political decisions are made, engaging stu-tions help when analyzing the implicit value dents in identifying assumptions and posingconflicts. These conflicts are often more reveal- questions about specific environmental issues ing of the parameters of the policy problem than provides a more realistic understanding of why the so-called hard data that is involved. some policies are accepted and others are not. Environmental policy issues are even more Unlike the consensus viewpoint of many text- interesting when we realize that all information, book accounts, a policy analysis approach helpsregardless of how "scientific,"is value-laden. students clarify why so many people hold so Scientific information has traditionally been

I 9 S credible with policy-makers because it appears in other states were abhorrent of this sale, claim- objective and technical. The scientific communi- ing, according to the article, that it "shows how far ty, however, increasingly recognizes that the the leadership of the environmental movement creation and presentation of scientific findings has strayed from the ideals of an earlier time." are influenced by human values.1 The task for Explaining that the future of logging lay in educators when analyzing environmental poli- the harvest of managed second-growth forests, cies especially social studies educatorsis to the director was surprised at the negative press evaluate the relative merits of technical knowl- he was receiving. He was not violating any of edge within the context of human concerns. the Sierra Club's policies. Indeed, the director was not violating the club's logging policy, but Resources for Studying the policy itself was a highly contentious item for Environmental Policy Issues the membership. In 1990, New York State's Resourcesforstudyingenvironmental 40,000-member Atlantic Chapter proposed the topics abound for social studies teachers. Issue- "virtual end to logging in the Northern Rockies." oriented problems are readily available from The ensuing debate in the national organization newspapers. For example, within a typical three- galvanized support of chapters in other states week period, the Christian Science Monitor car- including California, Oregon, Montana, Illinois, ried stories about the clear-cutting of virgin and Indiana. The resulting policy change called woodlands in the Pacific Northwest, the "slash- for the prohibition of logging virgin forests on and-burn" elimination of tropical rain forests private or public lands, except for second-growth for "development" purposes in South America, timber in national forests. Remaining dissatis- the difficulties of regulating nuclear energy, thefied, the leadership of the New York chapter promotion of human genetic engineering, the sponsored legislation pending in the national permitting of hormone injections for greater organization to stop "all logging in national food production in dairy and beef animals, and forests, period." the fears of harmful electromagnetic radiation The explosive feelings involved in the fight for students and teachers who attend schools over the Sierra Club's logging policy reveal a adjacent to large power lines. couple of significant issues in the study of envi- Here we begin with a newspaper article about ronmentalism. The first issue is that "environ- an environmental disagreement among some mentalism" includes a range of beliefs and ideas. members of the Sierra Club, one of the oldestMany environmentalists are eager to negotiate (and more conservative) organizations concernedwith the power brokers of society, but others are with the health of the wilderness. Their disagree- not. Some believe nature should be preserved in ment can be used to model a policy-issue analy- a pristine form. To them, environmental groups sis for identifying many of the conflicting values should warn and mobilize citizens to do some- often surrounding environmental issues. The thing about environmental dangers. These goals identification of conflicting values in this matter should not be "compromised," regardless of will help generate relevant questions about political and economic impairments to society. environmentalism that will be useful in the studyOne club member, Jim Bensman, exemplifies this of other environmental issues. position:

Issues in the Environmental Movement? Our job is not to facilitate compromise. A 26 December 1993 New York Times byline That is what we pay politicians to do. Our reads "Logging Policy Splits Membership of job is to stand up and fight for what we Sierra Club." (p. 20). The leadership of the oldest, believe is best for the environment. largest, and most powerful environmental organization in the United States was embroiled in an Others believe, however, that negotiations internal struggle over environmental goals. Theand compromises are more effective, and that director of the Sierra Club's office in Seattle, who intractable demands are a "turn-off " The head of is also the club's "chief forest lobbyist in thethe Sierra Club in Idaho remarks: Pacific Northwest," sold $10,000 worth of second-growth timber from a ten-acre tract of land A hundred years of thoughtful, decent, and he owned in Washington. Critics from chapters pragmatic work in conservation stands

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RFST nnpv AVAILABLE threatened by the rise of ideology, zealotry, in 1980 by the Global 2000 Report to the President and the power of true believers. and in 1990 by Lester Brown's State of the World: A Worldwatch Institute Report on Progress toward A second issueis that environmentalism a Sustainable Society (Disinger 1990). The ques- inescapably includes political and economic tion we pose is "Sustainable for what?" And for issues as well as scientific and cultural ones. whom? Environmentalists are increasingly part of the One response might be "sustainable for ecopolitical mainstream. The New York Times article nomic development," that is, to continue the explains that many former environmental group transformation of agrarian and small-scale eco- members are in charge of the "very government nomics into an ever-larger, more interdepen- agencies they have long fought." This change ofdent and more cost-efficient production of con- vantage point, it is alleged, creates dissonance in sumer goods. The idea of development has the way they think about environmentalist ideas. brought unprecedented wealth, comfort, and While many environmental policies are success- lifestyles for many people in the industrialized fully lobbied, implementation is problematic. world. Most people wish to maintain this level Officials find themselves frequently criticized of prosperity and, theoretically at least, extend it for disrupting "the lives of ordinary Americans." to others throughout the world. The use of the One official interviewed for the article, a Sierraterms "first world" and "third world" implies Club member, poignantly describes the difficul- an objective evaluation of the state of various ty of supporting certain environmental positions economic systems in the world. In reality, these and then facing neighbors whose livelihoods are descriptions are laden with implicit values, one adversely affected. Accusations of "compromise" of which is the idea that industrial development and "selling out" notwithstanding, Carl Pope, is both a desired and necessary goal of all peo- executive director of the Sierra Club, argues the ple and all nations. need for environmentalists to play both inside Disinger (1990) suggests that "sustainable and outside political circles in order to have development" may seem to be an oxymoron for influence. anyone familiar with the increasing demands that our growing population makes on the world's The Identification of Questions decreasing resources. Faith that natural resources to Study are inexhaustible or that we can always create a Environmental brouhahas such as the above- technological solution to problems has eroded mentioned timber sale reveal deep fissures in the among many people in the industrialized world. American value system. Our economic system A growing number of people are concerned produces an enormous appetite for affordable nat-about managing our environmental resources in ural resources. Multi-national industries as well as order to preserve our economic values. This envi- individuals who own small parcels of land are ronmental position is sometimes called "anthro- capable of coveting natural resources for private pocentric," as opposed to the "ecocentric" beliefs gain, despite the environmental detriments thatof deep ecologists. might be shared by everyone. Environmental con- "Deep ecology" utilizes phrases about the flicts increasingly force us to reconsider definitions "natural rights" of all living creatures (as well as of ownership, property rights, and ethics. Thisof nature), about the need to develop an "eco- leads to questions that arise in the study of almost logical consciousness," and about "challenging every environmental issue. the assumptions" that undergird the worldview of Western society. This language may seem far 1 Why are some environmental actions consid- from the mainstream of social studies education, ered thoughtful and pragmatic, and othersyet Roderick F. Nash, in The Rights of Nature ideological and zealous? Environmental ideas (1989), reminds us that deep ecological princi- that complement the prevailing social and eco- ples are based on perhaps the "the single most nomic structure are usually considered pragmat- potent concept" in American political thought ic and thoughtful. The best example is the goal that of liberty: of "sustainable development." The emphasis on educating students about sustainable develop- Liberalism explains our national origins, ment has grown since the visibility brought to it delineatesour ongoingmission,and

190 anchors our ethics. Natural rights is a cultural given in America, essentially beyond debate as an idea.

Theodore Rozak (1978) argues that the "nat- N ature ural environment is the exploited proletariat, the Endangered Species Act, 1973 downtrodden nigger of everybody 's industrial system. B lacks ...Nature must also have its natural ri ghts"(p. 32). Civil Rights Act, 1957 Laborers 9 How does environmentalism differ from ear- Fair Labor Standards Act, 1938 lier attempts at conservationism? Traditional N ative Americans conservationist attempts were anthropocen- Indian Citizenship Act, 1924 tricthat is, an overriding concern for saving Women resources was to ensure their availability for use Nineteenth Amendment, 1920 by humans in the future. The additional moral Slaves tone of environmentalism distinguishes it from Emancipation Proclamation, 1863 previous conservationist attempts. Placing envi- American Colonists ronmental concerns within the political and Declaration of Independence, 1776 moral framework of the United States makes English Barons every environmental problem the concern of all Magna Carta, 1215 citizens. The potential to draw upon the moral N atural Rights outrage of citizens makes ecocentric reasoning a powerful social force in the environmental movement: tioned, unbridled technological and economic development. Old-style conservation, recast in ethical terms and plugged into the American liber- The ultimate value judgment upon which al tradition, became the new, radical envi- technological society restsprogress con- ronmentalism. (Nash 1989, 10) ceived as the further development and expansion of the artificial environment Nash argues that elevating environmental necessarily at the expense of the natural protection to a moral plane is a natural out- worldmust be looked upon from the eco- growth of the application and extension of ethics logical perspective as unequivocal regress. in Western society. Note his description and (Nash 1989, 48) explanation of the concept of expanding rights (1989, 7) in Figure 1. But science is somewhat maligned in this sce- One might take issue with Nash's proposi- nario, omitting the important role it has played in tion that rights have truly been extended to each the development of an ecological consciousness. of the groups in Figure 1, but his general point Grove (1992) writes: is important, because it makes deep ecology understandable as part of the American political Arising in a search for utopia, European- tradition. based environmentalism first took shape in the mid-18th century. At that time, colonial What is the role of scientific knowledge in enterprise began to clash with Romantic a..11 environmental disputes? Deep ecologists idealism and with scientific findings. (p. 42) align science with the engines of a technocratic society. Because scientific knowledge leads to Scientists were hired to inventory natural specialization, it leads to the creation of exper-resources during the industrial exploitation of tise. The authoritarianism of expertise is rejected distant islands. As a result of meetings among by deep ecologists, who correctly perceive thata growing organization of scientists, various issues of human values are ignored in many pol- theories about environmental degradation stimu- icy decisions. The authoritativeness of scientific lated early conservation policies for these islands. information is often misused to bolster unques-A major breakthrough occurred when French

191 2u1 scientists were able to explain local climatetion and forcing the migration of millions of changes as the result of the deforestation of these displaced farmers to urban centers. islands (and later to explain the desertification of Environmental issues can also be infused by Africa). The science of ecology has consistently constructing an environmental unit around a grown to support the idea that everything is selected social studies topic. For example, stu- interconnected. dents might study the "ecological imperialism" of Europeans. To what degree was the successful Should environmental policies proceed incre- global expansion of European cultural, econom- mentally, or do impending environmental ic, and political influence due to their uninten- dangers require revolutionary changes in the tional transformation of the ecological system? ideas, values, and behaviors of all citizens? Most Here one could involve students in studying how environmentalists share the belief that resources microbes, bacteria, and viral strains may have are ultimately finite and that the earth canbeen primarily responsible for the domination of absorb only a limited amount of pollutants. They Europeans over the American continents. Such differ, however, in terms of how immediate they an approach, of course, might help students ques- perceive the threat and in how drastically they tion whether sacred nationalistic values such as think humanactivitiesneedtochange. "Manifest Destiny," the "Puritan work ethic," Environmentalists who favor sustainable devel- and the "frontier spirit" are really necessary for an opment count on educating and preparing enduring sense of democracy citizens to employ new technologies to solve Another infusion technique is to offer a environmental problems. On the other hand, separate course on the study of environmental deep ecologists promote a worldview that calls issues. The benefit of this approach would be for living in harmony with nature, recognizing that teachers and students might feel unre- that the world's supplies are finite, increasing strained by having to "cover" pre-determined recycling, reducing material needs, and limiting content. The problem, of course, is that an issue- resource-consuming technology to necessary centered approach would be symbolically, if not human activities. formally, marginalized to one place in the curricular offerings. Relevance to the Social Studies The following is an example of a teacher-con- Curriculum structed text and activities for use with students The growth of natural rights, the expansion in examining the problem of water pollution. of ethics, the uses and misuses of scientific knowledge, the economic basis of social policies,An Issue-Centered Analysis: and the practice of policy-issue analysis are allWater Pollution enduring topics in the study of environmental The world's freshwater supply has two things issues. These topics also permeate social studies in common with other resources on this planet: it content. Heath's (1988) suggestions of how stud- is limited, and it is inequitably distributed. When ies of science and technology can be infused intolooking at the global map, one is quick to see that the social studies curriculum are applicable towater is the major part of the exterior of our environmental issues. planet. This appearance of abundance, however, First, teachers can supplement their regular is deceiving. People may believe that we have an topics with special activities that relate to envi- inexhaustible supply of water, but fresh, drinkable ronmental issues. For example, deep ecology and water is only a small portion of the earth's total Nash's (1989) theory of the expansion of ethicswater supply. In fact, if all the earth's water was and rights can serve as a catalyst for a structured represented by a gallon jug, the available freshwa- class discussion when students are studying the ter would equal just more than a tablespoon! foundations of the American Constitution or theThat's less than one-half of 1 percent of the total. contemporary status of civil rights. AnotherNinety-seven percent of the earth's water is approach would be to examine how the selective ocean saltwater, another two percent is locked in use of agricultural research since the 1930s leadthe polar ice caps and glaciers. More freshwater to the increasing productivity of American farm- exists in reserves under the earth's surface, but ers, but at a long-term cost to the quality of lifemost of itis too deep to economically tap in both rural and urban areas by increasing pollu- (National Geographic 1993).

192

.r" Consider the following excerpt from Worldthree of the largest U.S. inland cities, and they are Resources: 1990-91: all adjacent to major rivers or lakes.

The quantity of [water] is fast becoming an Water is essentially a renewable resource, but issue in some areas. Although essentially a the human rate of extraction is in danger of renewable resource on a global scale, fresh- exceeding its natural replacement rate. Popula- water is being extracted from some river tion increases create an exponential increase in basins at rates approaching those at which water pollution. Doubling the size of the popula- the supply is renewed and from some under- tion does not merely double water pollution. In ground aquifers at rates exceeding natural an increasingly industrialized, urbanized society, replacement. Many human activities have more water is used personally and commercially. high water use rates. As the human population has grown, so have withdrawals of Environmental policy issues contain opposing water for agriculture, industry, and munici- or contradictory positions about environmen- pal use. A new element of uncertainty is tal decisions. Policies are governmental deci- potential changes in precipitation and hence sions applying to a large number of people. in freshwater resources due to changes in Within any given group, individual experiences climate caused by human activities. give rise to differing points of view. Some points of view are philosophical differences over the relationship between humans, technology, and Creating a Framework for Studying nature. How a particular view becomes the dom- Water Pollution Issues inant view in policy decisions is the content of In preparing to involve students in examining policy analysis. the water pollution problem described in the above passage, we created a conceptual frame-The sides of an environmental policy issue are work by drawing upon ideas about environmen-often portrayed as "hard" scientific data versus talism that were discussed earlier in this chapter. the emotional concerns of citizens. Initiators of Developing this framework provides teachers an proposed policies tend to have arguments that opportunity to analyze the content of the above are supported with scientific information. This is passage, explore what they already know about a necessary part of the public policy-making the topic, and seek other sources, if necessary. process, but one which can be intimidating to non-scientists. Citizen groups usually do not Humans depend on water forsurvival. have the power and resources to create an Although human uses for water vary, the need for acceptable scientific challenge. Lacking "credible water is constant. The level of this dependency is information," oppositional groups are easily cast clear when one realizes that a human can live for by the media as weak, emotional, reactive "pro- a month without food, but will die in less than atesters," or "NIMBYs""Not in my back- week without water. This constant need has cre- yard"whose ecological attitudes are shaped by ated a number of concerns regarding the supplytheir own self-interests. On an interesting note, ofwateronourplanet.Issuessuch self-interest is considered a virtue when teaching as the effect of population on water quality,classical economics and political theory, but and questions as to the amount of usable waterseems to lose this meaning when studying envi- available will be raised in the adjoining text. ronmental issues. Water tends to attract population centers.The public policy analysis model can help Looking at a map of the world's population, one develop a clearer understanding of environ- can see that a high percentage of the majormental issues. Environmental policy issues are population centers are located near large waterbest understood by analyzing the conditions giv- supplies. Australia's four largest citiesSydney, ing rise to the environmental issue, the assump- Melbourne, Brisbane, and Adelaidcare all situ- tions of the proposed policies, and the various ated on its coastline. Lakes and rivers have an perspectives of the key players. equally important effect on inland population centers. Chicago, Pittsburgh, and Cleveland are

193 03 n contrast to any scientific-sounding thoughts, plants coming in here to destroy our lives." angry citizens, irate over the prospect of their children drinking from toxic wells, personify This case however, may seem to be an excep- the emotional furor that can accompany watertion, as industry usually wields more economic pollution concerns. Equally as emotional, yet resources to lobby their position than the resi- somewhat more restrained, are the industrial dents of a particular area. Hard, "objective" scien- moguls who quote calculations of long-termtific data is usually considered stronger than the economic gain and diminish thenegative emotional "subjective" opposition that citizen environmental effects of a given policy. This sce- groups often utilize as their main weapon. The nario can be seen in an issue of National ability to present a position is often more impor- Geographic, where some Mississippi residents are tant than the substance of the position itself. trying to stop a rayon-making plant from opening: The ability to marshal scientific data in support of a position has political clout. Given this con- There is anger upon this riverfront land. tention, it becomes imperative for individuals to Voices are being raised in the small churches be not only aware of how scientific knowledge where cardboard fans stir the steamy air of relates to power, but to have the skills to analyze summer, and what was once so easy for a this knowledge when necessary. This poses inter- company desiring to locate along the lower esting questions for students to pursue: Mississippi has become a challenge, even for What does objective scientific knowledge a giant like Formosa Plastics Corporation. mean? Formosa Plastics planned to build the world's Why should the passion and emotion of largest rayon-making plant on 1,800 acres of citizens lessen the credibility of citizens? land in the Wallace area. But there were those in the community with this concern for the These types of questions allow us to touch health of the people and the environment, upon the value-laden basis of science and to ask and one of them is Wilfred Greene. He who has access to technological information. We formed the RAP group, for River Area can also examine the different methods used to Planning, which challenged Formosa at every decide an environmental dilemma. turn until the company abandoned its plans. 'We certainly believe there can be something Summary done to help the community economically," The questions and activities above demon- Greene said, "but we don't want the chemical strate that teaching about environmental issues

Activity One: Initial Questions

he textual passage above raises a host of questions that can stim- including demographic data analysis. These lessons could address the ulate both classroom discussion and learning activities. One of concept of human dependency on water. Other questions generated by the most attractive features of analyzing easily available content the students or initiated by the teacher might involve students in ana- resources is that activities will emerge from the questions and lyzing assumptions: interests of both the students and the teacher. Every question is How much of the Earth's water supply is readily usable? a potential activity. As students are engaged by questions related to What does "readily" usable mean? what they have read, teachers will develop a sense of what the students What makes a resource, a resource? truly desire to investigate. This enables teachers to find out what the These questions can lead to interdisciplinary lessons about the water student really wants to learn and also to avoid simply teaching what he cycle or an imagination-based activity dealing with creative inventions or she thinks the students need to know. Standard material such as that might increase and/or perpetuate the Earth's water supply. geography and history are combined with activities that engage the Why is water inequitably distributed? student's preexisting interest. For example: Is there anything that can be done to change this inequity? What major urban areas are located near water? Is it our responsibility to change this inequity? What major urban areas are not located near water? Is water free? How does water help an urban area? These questions involve students in an environmental dilemma, and These questions lend themselves directly to a geography activity oralso encourage them to examine their own system of beliefs as they unit. Activities could center around population center identification, relate to these environmental issues.

194 204 Activity Two: The Application of a Policy Analysis Model

The objectives of this lesson are to have students utilize the poli- Charles River" 1993). Each groups' initial task, after reading the arti- cy analysis model to examine water pollution issues, and also to cle, is to determine the social and economic conditions, the policy demonstrate presentation skills while pretending to persuade a players, proposed or actual policies, and critical issues in their article. superfund comptroller to designate money to clean up water The next step is to have the groups construct a presentation to con- pollution in their area. vince a government superfund comptroller to allocate funds to clean Students are divided into two groups. Each group is given an arti- up their area. The presentations can be delivered to the "comptrol- cle about one area's attempt to clean up a water pollution problem ler"the teacher, or maybe a guest speaker on water pollutionwho (see "Boston Harbor Clean Up" 1993, "Clean Up Lures People to can then evaluate their effectiveness.

Activity Three: Examining Science and Citizenship

111 n underlying problem in agreeing how to analyze environmen- mechanisms in society. tal policies is that many students intuitively "turn-off" argu- Policymakers recognize that how a problem is defined has a great ments involving scientific arguments as the final arbiter. deal of influence on its outcome. Water pollution is an environmen- Inevitably, some students may feel constrained by the appear- tal issue that often brings about very strong feelings on all sides. Why fiance of a purely "logical" method; these may be the same stu- does water pollution evoke such strong feelings? Usually the oppor- dents who become mentally disengaged in a traditional textbook-dri- tunities for jobs and financial needs are pitted against preserving a ven classroom. Their response may not be dissimilar to a large por- quality of life. This is a seemingly trite, yet very important question. tion of the public who feel disenfranchised by the governing use of

can be accomplished with simple and relevant Disinger, J. F. "Environmental Education for Sustainable resources. Newspapers and magazines provide a Development?"Journal of Environmental Education. steady supply of current policy debates. Most of (1990) these debates can be placed within the context Grove, R. H. "Origins of Western Environmentalism." described in the first part of this chapter, name- Scientific American, (July 1992): 42-47. ly that the positions of "sustainable develop- Heath, P. A. "Science/Technology /Society in the Social ment" and "deep ecology" are thoroughly Studies." Clearinghouse for Social Studies/Social Science embedded in the political and economic founda- Education, Bloomington, IN. tions of our American culture. Changes in our "Logging Policy Splits Membership of Sierra Club." cultural ideas about science, ethics, economics, New York Times, December 26, 1993. and politics are bound to influence what is Nash, F. F. The Rights .Nature: A History ,'Environmental meant by "environmentalism," and a close study Ethics. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1989. both of the issue of environmentalism and of Rozak, T Person/Planet. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, various environmental issues in the social studies 1978. curriculum will enhance the overall preparation ---. World Resources:A Guide to the Global Environment. A of citizens in our contemporary world. report by the World Resources Institute in collaboration with the United Nations Environment Programme. New York Oxford University Press, 1990. References Woyach, R. B. "Ecopolitical Issues and the Secondary "Boston Harbor Clean Up." Christian Science Monitor, Curriculum." Paper presented at the Annual March 17, 1993. Convention of the International Studies Association, "Clean Up Lures People to Charles River." Christian Atlanta, GA. ERIC 269313. Science Monitor, August 9, 1993. Coplin, W. D. and M. K O'Leary. Basic Policy Studies Skills Croton-on-Hudson: Policy Studies Associates, 1981. 1 Thomas Kuhn's Structure of Scientific Revolutions Devall, B. and G. Sessions. Deep Ecology: Living as if (1962) is frequently referred to in discussions about the Nature Mattered Layton, Utah: Gibbs Smith, 1985. human value orientation of scientific work

205 Activity Four: Deep Ecology, An Alternative

Below are excerpts of a reply made by Chief Seattle to President Franklin Pierce, who, in 1854, made an offer for a large area of Indian land:

How can you buy or sell the sky, the warmth of the not care. His father's graves and his children's land? The idea is strange to us. If we do not own the birthright are forgotten. He treats his mother the freshness of the air and the sparkle of the water, how earth, and his brother, the sky, as things to be can you buy them?... We know that the white man bought, plundered, sold like sheep or bright beads. does not understand our ways. One portion of land His appetite will devour the earth and leave behind is the same to him as the next, for he is a stranger only a desert. ... This we know: the earth does not who comes in the night and takes from the land belong to man; man belongs to the earth. This we whatever he needs. The earth is not his brother, but know: all things are connected like blood which his enemy, and when he has conquered it, he moves unites one family. All things are connected. on. He leaves his fathers graves behind, and he does

Lesson: CHIEF SEATTLE'S REPLY Objectives: Students will be able to compare and contrast environmental views of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Students will identify predictions made by Chief Seattle, and check their accuracy. Activities: 1. Read Chief Seattle's Reply (see attached text). 2. Each student is asked to make a list of similarities and differences regarding the environmental views of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. These lists will be shared to determine if the class has identified any consensus items. The student generated lists should lead to some interestingdiscussion items, such as: How have environmental views changed over the past two centuries? How have they not changed? To what degree could Chief Seattle's claims be justified as "scientific," or do you consider them emotional statements? What do you think Franklin Pierce thought about Chief Seattle's reply? Who uses the environment more effectively, Chief Seattle or Bill Clinton? (This may seem obvious at first, but when one asks what is meant by "effectively," discussion can intensify.) 3. Students will identify two predictions from the reading. The predictions will be analyzed for their accuracy in today's world. For example, in reference to the white man, Chief Seattle states, "His appetite will devour the earth and leave behind only a desert." One could make a case to agree or disagree with this statement, depending on how one interprets it. This exercise can create some very rewarding discussion.

196 206 Part Five: SEW Sde-ces

Introduction bo Patricia 6. kern

Iln this section, the authors address issues- and government courses and reframes them to centered instruction within traditional social reflect an issues orientation. The authors use the studies subject matter: anthropology, psychol- organizingquestionsfromtheNational ogy and sociology; civics and government; Standards for Civics and Government as a foun- economics. The authors describe how signifi- dation for developing issues-based inquiries. cant concepts and central issues related toA question from the standards, "What is the rela- the disciplines can be translated into engaging, tionship of American politics and government to powerful classroom teaching and learning. world affairs?" provides the springboard for ques- In addition, the authors recommend a range tions such as "What principles seem to guide U.S. of exemplary resources for the development ofrelationships with other countries?" and "What issues-based instruction. principles should guide those relationships?' The Ligon and Chilcoat chapter describes an A central theme in the chapter on civics and issues-centered orientation to the study ofgovernment is that democracies depend on citi- anthropology, sociology and psychology. One is zens' abilities to deal with the conflict inherent struck by the degree to which the concepts inin politics. Opportunities to experience and these subject areassuch as culture, prejudice, understand conflicting perspectives are an essen- race, social stratification and deviancereflecttial part of civic education. Avery and her co- the very issues about which the public expresses authors advocate using structured controversy grave concern. It is indeed ironic that the behav- and cooperative learning to develop students' ioral sciences, perhaps best equipped for helping perspective-taking abilities. students develop a framework for analyzing Perspective-taking is also a theme developed personal and public issues, are those coursesby Armento, Rushing and Cook in their chapter least often required of high school graduates. on issues-centered economics instruction. The In the classrooms envisioned by Ligon andauthors suggest that students analyze economic Chilcoat, controversial social issues are the focal issues according to three major philosophical point of instruction. The authors problematize stances:conservative,liberalandradical. traditional inquiries in the behavioral sciences: Students can develop a better understanding of "How does a religion influence a part of the cul-the complex dimensions of economics issues by ture?" becomes "What role should religion play using these conceptual lenses. in forming public policy in a democratic society?" Armento, Rushing and Cook present an and "How are cultures different?" becomes "How Issue-Oriented Teaching Model that is ground- might different cultures live together peacefully?" ed in current research on teaching and learning. Using the Sweeney-Parsons Controversial Social In a departure from the traditional "principles of Issues Model, Ligon and Chilcoat describe how economics" orientation of most economic cours- oneissueintelligencetestingmight be es, the model focuses on having students develop addressed in the classroom. interdisciplinary perspectives and contextual In an approach similar to that of Ligon and understandings. Although the model was designed Chilcoat, the article by Avery, Sullivan, Smith and by the authors to address economics issues, it Sandell takes traditional questions posed in civics could easily be adapted to other subject areas.

207 Throughout this section, the authors pose complex questions for exploring issues in the classroom: Do industrialized countries have a "social responsibility" to improve the standard of living of persons and countries with low per capita income? Should the United States trade with countries that have a poor human rights record? How should people with different backgrounds form institutions to support the public good? What are our public responsibilities as citizens in a democracy? The questionsfor which there are no "right" answersrequire students to grapple with multiple sources of data, draw concepts and generalizations from many disciplines, analyze conflicting perspectives, and develop their own informed opinions. As each of the authors notes, in-depth teaching and learning experiences require a special learning environment. Ligon and Chilcoat stress that the controversial issues discussions must take place in a trusting, respectful classroom environment. Avery and her co-authors note that an open classroom climateone that supports and encourages diverse viewpointspromotes more democratic attitudes. And finally, Armento et al. describe a "culture of thinking" in the classroom, characterized by curiosity, skepticism, persistence, and contemplation. In short, the adoption of an issues-centered approach cannot be separated from a re-examination of the cognitive and affective dimensions of the classroom. We hope these chapters give readers ideas for developing issues-centered content and environments.

2 ISSU S-CENTERED APPROACHES TO T ACHING CIVICS AND GOVERNMENT bu Pat *cid 6. berg, John L. Sullivan, Elizabeth S. Smith, and Stephen Sandell

The major job was getting people to under- committed to social change, do not fit well withstand that they have something within their in the traditional "structures and functions of power that they could use, and it could only government" framework. be used if they understood ... how group In this chapter, we briefly examine traditional action could counter violence even when it civics and government instruction, and suggest was perpetrated by the police or, in some that it is inadequate for citizens in a multicultur- instances, the state. My basic sense of it has al, pluralistic democracy. We argue that issues- always been to get people to understand centered teaching and learning is particularly that in the long run they themselves are the appropriate for the civics classroom. Finally, we only protection they have against violence turn most of our attention to approaches, meth- or injustice. ...People have to be made to ods, and materials that support issues-focused understand that they cannot look for salva- civics instruction and provide a central place for tion anywhere but in themselves. (Lerner the stories of citizen advocates such as Ella Baker. 1972, 347) The Traditional Civics/ These are the words of Ella Baker, an activist Government Curriculum in the civil rights movement. Baker was a For most students, civics and government consistent voice in organizing and empow- classes are associated with diagrams of "How a ering African Americans from the earlyBill Becomes Law" and the three branches of 1930s until her death in 1986. She worked governmenta reflection of a curriculum that tirelessly for the National Association for emphasizes the structures and functions of gov- the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), ernment rather than the skills and processes of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference politics. In the traditional civics class, democratic (SCLC), the Student Non-Violent Coordinat- values are discussed in the abstract, controversial ing Committee (SNCC), and finally, for the issues are ignored, conflict is absent, and partici- dismantlement of apartheid in South Africa. pation forms the "invisible" part of citizenship Baker was frequently the only female in strategyeducation (Stone 1992; Zellman and Sears sessions of the African American leadership, and 1971). Political socialization within schools gen- once remarked that she "wasn't one to say yes erally, and civics classes specifically, supports a [just]because [directions] came from theculture that "marginalizes" the role of conflict Reverend King" (Cantarow 1980, 84). Although and dissent in a democracy (Merelman 1990). she was a quite vocal and able advocate, she Not surprisingly, most research on political often downplayed her role because she main- socialization suggests that the traditional formal tained that movements were more effective civics curriculum has a limited impact on stu- when associated with ideas and groups rather dents' civic knowledge and attitudes. More than than a handful of charismatic leaders. twenty-five years ago, a national survey of young It is doubtful that Baker's voice is heard inpeople in grades 10 through 12 concluded that most civics and government classes. Her strug- the modest effect of the standard civics course gles, like those of countless other individualswas "so minuscule as to raise serious questions

2 0 about the utility of investing in governmentbenefits of available policy options. As courses in the senior high school, at least as theseGuttman (1987) argues most eloquently, delib- courses are presently constituted"( Jennings, eration about public issues is critical to the sus- Langton, and Niemi 1974, 181). Reviews sincetenance of democracy. She suggests that the that time suggest little change in the civics cur-"ability [to reason about politics] is so essential riculum (Ehman 1980; Ferguson 1991). to democratic education that one might question A review of eighteen civics and government whether civics courses that succeeded in increas- textbooks by People for the American Waying political trust, efficacy, and knowledge offers a devastating critique of the traditional but failed to increase the ability of students to curriculum: reason about politics were indirectly repressive" (p. 107). The public schools can and should pro- What is missing, in a word is controversy. vide a forum for developing deliberative skills; Eighty percent of the civics books and half of the civics classroom is a most appropriate place the government books minimize conflict and for fostering reflection on public issues. compromise. The dynamic sense of govern- The second primary goal is that students ment and politicsthe fierce debates, color- become familiar with a repertoire of strategies ful characters, triumphs and tragediesis for meaningful participation in the democratic lost. Controversies like school prayer and process. Civics classes or related community civil rights that have ignited passions at all service activities should provide opportunities points along the political spectrum are for students to participate in making choices ignored or barely mentioned. The vitality of that affect their communities. The traditional political involvement and the essential give conception of political participation focuses on and take between people and their elected electoral behavior. During the past thirty years, officials is neglected. (Carroll et al. 1987, i) however, students of political socialization have begun to recognize the significance of advocacy, Unfortunately, textbooks play a major role service, and community politics. It is this broad- in shaping classroom instruction. In the 1988 er view of political participation that should be National Assessment of Student Progress reflected in our civics classrooms. (NAEP), more than 86 percent of the students in the eighth and twelfth grades reported that read- A Rationale for Issues-Centered ing from the textbook was the most commonCivics Instruction instructional format in their civics class (National Issues-centered instruction in the social stud- Assessment of Student Progress 1990). ies is consistent with calls for greater depth and Rather than encouraging active political less coverage in our social studies curriculum involvement, the traditional civics curriculum (Newmann 1990), for teaching for understand- succeeds in portraying the political sphere as a ing as opposed to knowledge (Perkins and Blythe complex entity quite removed from students' 1994), for the inclusion of multiple perspectives lives. When participation is discussed, it is usual- (Banks and Banks 1989; Tetreault 1989), and for ly limited to conventional forms of participation, "authentic" learning opportunities and assess- such as voting and letter writing. Young peoplement (Newmann and Wehlage 1993). Each of thus come to view their political role as that ofthese educational trends supports a sustained fairly passive bystanders. examination and analysis of complex public problems. The Goals of Civics Instruction We believe that an issues-centered approach is What should be the goals of civics and gov- particularly appropriate for civics instruction. ernment courses in a multicultural, democratic Since politics involves the "authoritative alloca- society? We suggest two primary goals for learn- tion of values" (Easton 1953) and the exercise of ing and teaching in the civics classroom. First, power (Dahl 1957), all forms of politics inevitably classes should foster the ability to recognizeentail conflict. In fact, a recent textbook about and analyze significant social and political U.S. politics defines politics as "the way people issues, to imagine the short- and long-term with different values fight over what government consequences of alternative actions, and to should, and should not, do" (Dawson 1987, 19). evaluate both personal and social costs andThere are always "winners" and "losers" in the

200 210 Table 1: National Standards for Civics and Government Organizing Questions for Grades 5 through 12

I. What are civic life, politics, and government? A. What is civic life? What is politics? What is government? Why are government and politics necessary? What purposes should government serve? B. What are the essential characteristics of limited and unlimited government? C. What are the nature and purposes of constitutions? D. What are alternative means of organizing constitutional governments? II.What are the foundations of the American political system? A. What is the American idea of constitutionalism? B. What are the distinctive characteristics of American society? C. What is American political culture? D. What values and principles are basic to American constitutional democracy? III. How are the values and principles of American constitutional democracy embodied in the government established by the Constitution? A. How are power and responsibility distributed, shared, and limited in the government established by the United States Constitution? B. What does the national government do? (grades 5-8 only) C. How is the national government organized and what does it do? (grades 9-12 only) D. How are state and local governments organized and what do they do? E. What is the place of law in the American constitutional system? F. How does the American political system provide for choice and opportunities for participation? G. Who represents you in local, state, and national governments? (grades 5-8 only) IV. What is the relationship of American politics and government to world affairs? A. How is the world organized politically? B. How has the United States influenced other nations and how have they influenced American politics and society? C. How do the domestic politics and the constitutional principles of the United States affect its relations with the world? (grades 9-12 only) V. What are the roles of the citizen in the American political system? A. What is citizenship? B. What are the rights of citizens? C. What are the responsibilities of citizens? D. What civic dispositions or traits of private and public character are important to the preservation and improvement of American constitutional democracy? E. How can citizens take part in civic life? Source: Center for Civic Education, National Standards for Civics and Government (Calabasas, Calif: Center for Civic Education, 1994). Available from the Center for Civic Education, 5146 Douglas Fir Road, Calabasas, Calif. 91302-1467. Phone: 818-591-9321. political process, and losers do not often accept An issues-centeredcurriculumshould defeat without a struggle. Nations, therefore, areenhance students' internalization of this proce- democratic not because they ignore conflict or dural consensus, and at the same time it ought to because there is so much consensus that deepgive them experience with, and an understand- conflicts seldom arise, but rather because theying of, political controversy. They should under- have found a way to allow open yet controlled stand that, when conflict takes place among par- expression of the conflicts that do arise. A largeticipants who accept the procedural norms that part of their success is that political conflict takesallow for open conflict, it enhances democracy place within a broader consensus on the "rules ofand has the potential to prevent the evolution of the game." permanent "winners" and "losers" in the political process by promoting respect and understanding of citizenship education. Students should have of different points of view. experience with reflection about both their polit- An issues-centered civics curriculum shouldical values and their political self-interest. They also emphasize how the rules of the game can be should also have some practice asserting these changed if they are found wanting. Again, how-values and interests in the face of opposition. ever, some level of consensus must exist on howIdeally, the curriculum would provide guidelines this is to be done. If there are permanent "losers" on how to separate the individual from his or her in a democratic process, and if the processes ofideas, and assertive advocacy from aggression or change are thwarted by a permanent and large selfish advancement. Learning to "agree to dis- majority, then such a consensus is unlikely. agree" may be a seldom-learned mode that helps In short, then, structuring conflict into an students not only become better citizens but also issues-centered curriculum is an essential featuremore effective in their personal relationships. Approaches, Methods, and Materials for Issues-Centered Civics Instruction

Introducing an Issues-Centered How has the role of government changed over Perspective of Civics and Government time? How have various social groups and orga- We suggest that an issues-centered civics or nizations viewed the role of government? What government course begin with a careful analysis purposes should government serve? What pur- of several social and political movements in the poses should government not serve? Who United States. This is the approach taken by an should decide? outstanding text entitled Civics for Democracy Students might begin an exploration of these (Isaac 1992). In this text, students learn about questions through traditional literary offerings the history of five citizen movements: the civil such as Lord of the Flies and To Kill a Mockingbird, rights, labor, women's rights, consumer, andas well as less well known works such as Roll of environmental movements. Students can see Thunder, Hear My Cry! and Summer of My that change often requires the long-term com- German Soldier. Literature often provides a "safe mitment of individuals, such as Thurgood context" in which to begin discussion of complex Marshall and Mother Jones, as well as the orga- issues (Spurgeon 1991/92). From fiction, stu- nized efforts of groups, such as Greenpeace and dents could move on to oral histories (e.g., John the United Farm Workers of America. They can Tateishi's And Justice for Alk An Oral History of the become familiar with the wide range of partici- Japanese-American Detention Camps), biographies patory techniques used by citizen movements, (e.g., The Autobiography of Malcolm X), and non- including lobbying, boycotting, and demonstra- fiction (e.g., A Dfferent Mirror: A History of tions. Most important, however, ordinary citi- Multicultural America). Finally, court cases such zens become the focal point of discussion rather as Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), Brown v. Topeka than governmental institutions. Board of Education (1954), Miranda v. Arizona (1966), and Regents of the University of California Developing an Issues-Centered v. Allan Bakke (1978) provide excellent primary Civics or Government Course source material for examining the role of govern- In this section, we describe how we mightment. Throughout their inquiry, students should develop an issues-centered civics or governmentbe judging the degree to which government fur- course. We use the National Standards for Civics thers democratic principles and ideals. and Government (1994) as an organizing framework upon which to pose engaging and often CIVIC CULTURE. The second set of organizing controversial issues (see Table 1). Whenever pos- 2questions focus on our civic culture. Students sible, we try to relate our inquiries to what we might develop their own description of the civic believe is one of the most significant concepts in culture in the United States by examining data political educationpolitical participation. such as the following: Contributions to environmental, health, youth, and THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT. For example, social action groups increased by 25 percent from

11the first set of questions might lead to an 1987 to 1991; donations to the arts, education, and exploration of the role of government in society religion declined. There were significant increases in

202 2t2 donations from one age group-18-to 24-year-olds; What constitutes an "abuse of power"? Have contributing was highest among those who had abuses of power occurred in U.S. history? What been active in student government or youth groups, mechanisms are designed to prevent the abuse of had done volunteer work, had wanted to make a power? To what degree have they been effective? change in society, or had witnessed good deeds by To explore these questions, students might read someone they admire. (Franklin 1992) excerpts from It Did Happen Here: Recollections of One in five U.S. high school students say they want Political Repression in America (Schultz and to be president of the United States; three-fourths Schultz 1989). The book includes case studies of say they want to be president of a company. (Conn political repression, ranging from the Palmer and Silverman 1991, 39) Raids to the McCarthy Era to Wounded Knee. When asked if they believe in free speech for everyone, about 90 percent of U.S. citizens will INTERNATIONAL ISSUES. The fourth set of say yes. When asked about a more specific situa- questions focuses on the role of the United tion, such as the Ku Klux Klan appearing on pub- States in world affairs. What principles seem to lic television or communists marching in their guide U.S. relations with other countries? What neighborhood, less than 30 percent support the principles should guide those relations? In a rights of free speech and assembly. (McClosky structured controversy format, students might and Brill 1983) explore the role of human rights in shaping U.S. Although a majority of women in the United States foreign policy. Structured controversy is a pow- say they "believe in equal rights for women," only a erful method for analyzing a wide range of civic minority (33 percent) are willing to identify them- issues; we describe it in some detail here, using selves as feminists and, thus, to identify themselves the issue of human rights and foreign policy as as active participants in the women's movement. an example, but encourage interested teachers to (Cowan, Mestlin, and Masek, 1992) read further about this approach.l While most U.S. citizens with formal education Structured controversy, an adaptation of beyond high school favor equality between blacks cooperative learning, offers participants a format and whites in principle, in practice they appear to for analyzing complex social and political issues. be no more likely than other, less well educated Table 2 summarizes the basic procedures used in citizens to support government policies that pro- a structured controversy exercise. For example, mote racial equality. (Jackman 1978 and 1981) suppose students were given the following ques- While the first African American female entered tion for value inquiry: Should the United States the U.S. Senate in January 1993, voter turnout trade with countries that have poor human among African Americans in the 1992 election rights records? The teacher divides the class into decreased by 13 percent from the previous presi- heterogeneous groups of four. Two persons in dential election. ("The Voters" 1992) each group are assigned the pro position, while the other two research the con position. Based on the preceding data, how might one Typically, the teacher suggests readings that will describe the political culture in the Unitedhelp students develop a given position, and States? What motivates people to take an active encouragesstudentstoexploreadditional role in political life? What are the obstacles toresources. Students outline their position and active participation? What are the short- andplan ways to advocate it to the opposing pair. long-term consequences of participation andEach pair presents arguments for their position, non-participation? while the opposing pair listens, takes notes, and asks questions for clarification. The pairs then POLITICAL POWER. The underlying theme of switch sides and present the opposing side's 3the third set of questions is political power. view. In the final phase, students abandon their In the United States, one of the fundamental"positions" and try to reach a group consensus principles of our Constitution is the "separationon the issue based on the merits of the argu- of powers." What is the purpose of the "separa- ments presented. tion of powers"? What if there were no "separa- The question of whether the United States tion of powers"? How might the outcome of the should trade with countries that have poor Watergate affair or the Iran-contra scandal havehuman rights records is an excellent issue for been different? illustrating the role of controversy and conflict in

203) Q 6+ ti Table 2: Sample Structured Controversy Lessons

1. The teachers and/or students select a significant Chinese government. civic issue about which there exists a range of Economic sanctions on China will mean the competing, well-articulated views. loss of jobs for U.S. workers. Example: Should the United States trade with countries that have poor human rights records? Most Favored Nation Status: 2. The teacher groups students into fours, andSample Con Arguments assigns two students to prepare the "pro" side Economic sanctions have been an effective tool and two students to prepare the "con" side. in promoting human rights in other countries. 3. The teacher gives students lists of readings to U.S. companies may profit from high tariffs help them organize their positions. For example: placed on Chinese clothing and textiles. "Back to Business on China Trade," New York Times, May 27, 1994. 5. Students on the "pro" side present their position; "Clinton's Call: Avoid Isolating China on Trade the opposing pair listens, takes notes, and asks and Rights," New York Times, May 27, 1994. clarifying questions. (The amount of time allot- J. Donnelly, Universal Human Rights in Theory and ted to presenting positions is predetermined.) Practice 20 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 6. Students on the "con" side present their position; 1989). the opposing pair listens, takes notes, and asks "Pressures Rise over China's Trade Status," clarifying questions. New York Times, May 20, 1994. 7. Students switch sides, i.e., students on the "pro" A. M. Rosenthal, "License for Torture," side adopt the "con" position and students on the New York Times, May 20, 1994. "con" side adopt the "pro" position. 4. Students read the materials, and plan strong, per- 8. Students present their "new" positions to one suasive arguments to present to the "opposing" another. side. The teacher might give students with little 9. Members of the group drop their positions and experience in this approach examples of good try to arrive at a consensus on the issue. arguments. Oftentimes, students will develop a third position that reflects elements of both sides. Most Favored Nation Status: 10. Groups present their consensus statements to Sample Pro Arguments the class. The United States will have a greater influence Source: Adapted from D. S. Johnson, R. T. Johnson, on human rights through regular educational, and K. A. Smith, Active Learning: Cooperation in economic, and cultural contacts with China the College Classroom. Edina, Minn.: Interaction than by isolating and antagonizing the Book Company, 1991. a democracy and the fact that in the political also been argued that the Chinese government process there are often "winners" and "losers." will be unwilling to improve their human rights For example, in the debate over whether torecord if they feel they are being "bullied" into extend Most Favored Nation Status to China, this by the United States through trade policies. a country that has consistently been found to vio- Additionally, U.S. corporations, such as Ameri- late its citizens' human rightssuch as the right can Telephone and Telegraph and Boeing, have to voice opposition to the governmentthere found big markets in China, which in turn can has been considerable conflict over the question mean more jobs for workers in the United States. of whether the U.S. government should allow Conversely, economic sanctions have proven free trade with China. One argument in favor ofin other cases to be an effective tool in prompt- trading with China, despite the country's human ing countries to improve their human rights rights abuses, is that trade will increase econom- record (e.g., South Africa). Additionally, the ic, cultural, and educational contacts with ChinaUnited States has more trade imbalance with and will thus allow the United States to have a China than with any other country. U.S. compa- greater influence in that country and a greaternies, such as the textile corporations that are role in promoting respect for human rights. It has unable to compete with cheap labor in China,

204 21 .1 may stand to gain if high tariffs are placed on education is that of "good citizenship." What is Chinese clothing and textiles. citizenship? What are the rights and responsibil- Students could be encouraged to think ofities of citizens? How can citizens participate in other arguments for and against trading with public life? These kinds of questions are fairly a country that violates human rights abuses common in most civics curricula. As Schwartz e.g., do trade barriers only punish the citizens (1984) has shown, however, the prior issue of while having little effect on the government and how we conceptualize and understand concepts officials of the offending country? Additionally, such as "political participation" and "citizenship" students could read newspaper articles and can predetermine our answers to these former editorials, government documents outlining thekinds of questions, and can do so in rather non- U.S. position over the years on human rights obvious ways. It may be important, then, to begin issues, and books that deal more generally withby helping students think through (in an active human rights. Students could then debate from way) how they want to understand the concept of the opposing positions of a U.S. corporation that citizenship. would gain from free trade with China, a U.S. One of the primary goals of civics education corporation that would be hurt by free trade, and in the United States has been to teach students from the positions of a government official andto be "good citizens" in our democracy. While of a human rights advocate. the notion of a "good citizen" is often associated In the end, students could try to reach a with such behaviors as voting or obeying the law, group consensus on the issue, and through the a basic exercise is to identify, discuss, and debate use of procedural rules predetermined by thevarious understandings of citizenship and the students, make a final policy decision. An exer-forms of political participation available to and cise such as this would illustrate for students not required of a good citizen. Rather than adopt a only the complexity of politics but also theconventional understanding of citizenship in notion of dealing with conflict and controversy the United States, a better way to teach about through agreed upon "rules of the game." citizenship might be to focus students' attention Students will learn how the rules of the game on the questions "what does good citizenship can benefit one group (e.g., the majority) while mean to different people?" and "what do differ- disadvantaging another (e.g., the minority), and ent people think are individuals' rights and how checks can be put into the system to protect responsibilities as citizens?" minority rights and interests. Recent political science research offers a vari- When compared to conventional debate or ety of conceptualizations of citizenship that can individual research projects, structured contro- be used to open a debate among students about versy is more effective in promoting studentthe role of a good citizen. For example, Conover retention of material, perspective-taking abilities,and Searing (1993) outline two broad conceptu- and critical thinking skills (Johnson, Johnson,alizations of citizenship that have emerged from and Smith 1991). We suggest that it is an idealvarious political theorists over the centuries: vehicle for exploring complex, multifaceted civiccivic republicanism and a contractual version of issues, such as the relationship between humancitizenship. The civic republican perspective rights and foreign policy. It is also consistentmandates a highly active and participatory citi- with our understanding of the role of conflict andzenship rooted in the communal ties that bind controversy in a democratic society. individuals together. According to this conceptualization, "citizens... not only have a right to THE "GOOD CITIZEN." We believe that the participate in politics but are also expected to do fifth set of organizing questions address theso, both for their own good and for the good of most crucial aspect of civic education for young the community" (p. 4). Conversely, the contrac- people, and hence it is this area to which wetual or "legalistic" perspective outlines a very devote most of our attention. The fifth question, limited role for the citizen, a role defined more "What are the roles of the citizen in the by rights than responsibilities. American political system?" encourages students In addition to outlining the more theoretical to examine the nature of citizenship in a democ-conceptualizations of citizenship, many scholars ratic society. A topic that seems ideally suited to are interested in identifying the different ways illustrate the issues-centered approach to civics ordinarycitizensunderstandcitizenship.

205 2'5 Elizabeth Theiss-Morse (1993), for example,what they think good citizenshipentails. uses a method called Q-analysis in order to dis- Students should be encouraged to question vari- cover how individuals conceptualize citizenship. ous conceptualizations of citizenshipparticu- With Q-methodology, individuals evaluate state- larly the most common conceptualization of the ments (usually developed by the researcher) passive citizen who votes dutifullyto determine about a concept according to the degree to which for themselves what they feel are the rights and each statement reflects their understanding of a responsibilities of a good citizen and to consider concept, such as "good citizenship." the consequences and implications of these rights Four perspectives of citizenship emerged in and responsibilities. For example, does a citizen the statistical analysis. Theiss-Morse labels thesewho fails to meet her responsibilities forego some the Representative Democracy perspective, theof her rights? One way to encourage them to Political Enthusiast perspective, the Pursued think more deeply, and perhaps also to act on Interests perspective and the Indifferent perspec- their thoughts, is to present information about tive. The Representative Democracy perspectivehow scholars and other citizens conceptualize conceptualizes good citizenship as an informed "good citizenship." vote based on the belief that political participa- Orit Ichilov (1990) argues that "as for exist- tion and politics are important and that individ- ing citizenship education, it seems fair to con- uals can make a difference in determining policy clude that it directs youngsters to a rather narrow outcomes. The Political Enthusiast perspective definition of the citizen role" (p. 22). However, it defines good citizenship as participation in a is apparent from the research discussed above variety of activitieswriting letters, protesting, that citizenship is a multifarious concept that can even civil disobediencethat may be more pow- be (and has been) understood and manifested in erful than simply voting in hope of ensuring that a variety of forms. We believe that by focusing individuals' interests are being met by the gov- students' attention on the variety of conceptual- ernment. This perspective also encourages citi- izations of good citizenship, students can begin zens to monitor and question the policy decisions to consider more thoughtfully the meaning of of elected officials. The Pursued Interests per-citizenship for them and the consequences of spective envisions good citizenship as politicalthat meaning for their lives. The survey present- participation by those who are informed about ed in Table 3 is comprised of selected statements politics, and also as active participation in the used by Theiss-Morse (1993), and could be used family and community. It stresses group asto stimulate students' thinking about their opposed to individual political activity. Finally,conceptions of good citizenship. the Indifferent perspective strictly conceptualizes good citizenship as casting an informed vote. REFLECTIVE DELIBERATION. Underlying the Theiss-Morse found that an individual's entire set of organizing questions should be a political behavior was highly correlated with his commitment to developing students' skills in or her conceptualization of citizenship. For reflective deliberation andparticipation. example, she finds that "the Political Enthusiasts Throughout any course on civics or government, are most likely to be involved in unconventional students should have multiple opportunities to activities, while the Indifferent are most likely to analyze issues of significance to them. The ques- shun such activities" (Theiss-Morse 1993, 369). tions shown in Table 4 serve as a guide for ana- Overall, this research suggests that not only lyzing issues ranging from the nutritional value of scholars but also ordinary individuals hold a school cafeteria food to U.S. immigration policy. variety of conceptualizations of citizenship. And, Each question embodies fundamental con- these varying conceptualizations of the rights cepts in civics and government. For example, the and responsibilities of citizens are likely to affect question "Who seems to have an interest in the the varying forms of political behavior people issue and its implications?" might prompt a dis- feel obliged to perform as citizens. cussion about the role of interest groups in a This research suggests that one way todemocracy. The question "Who can do some- enhance citizenship skillsisto focus civics thing about the issue?" might encourage students instruction around the issue of defining citizen- to examine the role and structure of government. ship. Before students can become "good citi- Similarly, the question "Is there adequate oppor- zens," they need to struggle with the question oftunity for all to demonstrate their beliefs and

206 Table 3: Survey of Conceptions of Citizenship

Indicate your agreement with the statements below by choosing one of the following responses: SA = Strongly Agree, A = Agree, D = Disagree, and SD = Strongly Disagree Given the fact that there's only so much the average person can do... 1.Citizens should let the government know their opinions in several ways: by voting; by writing letters to government officials; and by joining groups that are for or against a government policy (PE) 2.Citizens should, nevertheless, participate in politics, especially by voting, so they can represent their own political interests. (RD) 3.Citizens should focus their energy on political issues they are really concerned about and then join groups that lobby on these issues. (PI) 4.Most citizens should not waste their time participating because only the wealthy and powerful can influence what the government does anyway. (I) 5.Citizens should still learn about politics by keeping in contact with members of Congress, by voting, by discussing politics, and so on. (RD) 6.Citizens should join political interest groups if they want to have an impact on government decisions. (PI) 7.Citizens should be involved in their local community by joining neighborhood groups and organizations that try to influence local officials about community problems or issues. (PE) 8.Citizens should still regularly participate by voting and discussing politics so government officials have to be responsive to the public. (RID) 9.Citizens should view politics as the making of any important group decisions, which means politics exists everywhere. They should be involved in making all of these decisions. (PE) 10. Citizens should talk about politics often with other citizens to hear different points of view on issues. (PI) 11. Citizens do not need to participate because, ultimately, all of the important decisions are being made by big corporations anyway, not by the government. (I)

Note: These statements reflect a particular conception of citizenship: PE = Political Enthusiast; RD = Representative Democracy; PI = Pursued Interests; I = Indifferent. Source: E. Theiss-Morse, "Conceptualizations of Good Citizenship and Political Participation," Political Behavior15 (1993).

interests?" lends itself well to an analysis of the Two resourcesNational Issues Forums (NIF) role of minority rights within a democratic soci- pamphlets and Opposing Viewpoints booklets ety. An examination of these concepts within the offer diverse perspectives on critical social and context of studying a specific issue seems to us a more political issues. The NIF pamphlets, developed powerful approach than the more traditional pre-by the Kettering Foundation, provide a frame- sentation of concepts as isolated bits of informa- work for discussing enduring public issues. More tion. We hope such an approach will help stu-than twenty booklets, including college, adult, dents to develop a deeper understanding of theand abridged editions, have been developed on role of these concepts and issues in a democracy topics such as abortion, poverty, the environment, and health care. Each pamphlet describes Inserting Issues-Centered Content three or four commonly held positions on a given into the Traditional Curriculum issue. For example, the pamphlet on criminal Due to time constraints or district guidelines, violence includes three positions: "Deterrent many teachers may prefer to adopt a more limit- Strategy:Getting Tougher on Criminals," ed issues-oriented approach. Exemplary materi- "Preventive Strategy: Attacking Crime at Its als are available to educators, many of which Roots," and "Selective Incapacitation Strategy: require only two to three class sessions. Targeting the Violent Few." The costs and bene-

207 2 7 fits of each alternative are presented, as are relevant results from major research studies. National Issues Forum materials are used by adults in communities across the country. The Understanding the Issue pamphlets are also quite appropriate for secondary students and have been endorsed by the What's the issue? National Council for the Social Studies as part Have there been similar issues in the past in the United States? Outside the United States? of the council's Public Issues Program. Whether conducted with adults or secondary students, VVhy is it important? Who seems to have an interest in the issue and its implications? forums focus on a careful deliberative process, Do interested people/groups define the issue differently? much in the spirit of the classic town hall meeting. At the close of the forum, participants are Who can do something about the issue? Do we need to change laws or consider enforcement, regulation, or issues encouraged to choose a position. Their decisions at this point should reflect a careful considera- implementation of present laws? Who can or might participate in the discussion? tion of the complexities of the issue. What circumstances limit participation of some people or groups? Similar to the NIF materials, Opposing View- points pamphlets encourage students to consider a range of perspectives on important social and Identifying Alternatives How shall the alternative choices be debated? political issues. Excerpts from articles written by "experts" or noted voices on a subject are What are our goals in this problem-solving effort? collected and presented for student discussion. Who agrees or disagrees? Who influences opinion? The topics of the pamphlets include such diverse Is there adequate opportunity for all to demonstrate their beliefs issues as racism, the role of the U.S. government, and interests? gun control, and numerous other topics. A range of opinionsmoderate, radical, minorityare What are the relative values of the costs and benefits we anticipate? presented on each issue to provide balanced, Moving toward Decision and Action thoughtful, and convincing arguments on all sides Who will make the final decision and how? of the debate. The Opposing Viewpoints Series can How are those people accountable to others they represent? be an effective tool for teaching students how to think critically about issues that are important How can we influence the final decision? Do we feel strongly enough about the issue to take action? to their life and role as U.S. and world citizens. How will we evaluate the effectiveness of our action? Structuring the Issues-Oriented Civics Class problems. They learn to handle conflict within a We believe that an issues-centered civics broader framework of consensus, which is neces- curriculum will be most effective when itis sary in order for individual members of the frequently organized around cooperative learn- groupindeed for the group itselfto succeed. ing groups. Cooperative learning groups are an Cooperative learning has also been found to important means by which to teach students enhance individuals' ability to see the world values related to being a citizen in a democracy. from another's perspective. Individuals gain "the A cooperative learning situation forces students ability to understand how a situation appears to to learn how to deal effectively with controversy another person" (Johnson, Johnson, and Smith and conflict among individuals within a group 1991, 25), which is, in turn, useful for students in setting. Although the concept of cooperation is their roles as citizens and their willingness and emphasized, students learn to assert their views ability to respect the rights and interests of within the group, and the reward structure ofothers. This form of empathy and perspective cooperative learning exercises increases the taking is essential to handling serious conflict chances that students will also learn to compro- and disagreement within a broader framework mise and cooperate once different views are of agreement. Cooperative learning groups are expressed within the group. This parallels the thus particularly well suited for the learning of political process in democracies. As in a democ- civics and democratic values. racy, the students must work together in order to Regardless of content or grouping strategies, resolve their differences and develop solutions to however, civic learning within a closed classroom

208 2 environment is not likely to promote democratic Foresman, 1987. orientations. A number of studies indicate that Easton, D. The Political System. New York Knopf, 1953. classroom climate has a strong impact on stu- Ehman, L. H. "Social Studies Instructional Factors dents' political values and attitudes (Allman- Causing Change in High School Students' Sociopolitical Snyder, May, and Garcia 1975; Ehman 1977, Attitudes over a Two Year Period "Paper presented at 1980; Hahn, Tocci, and Angell 1988; Torney, the annual meeting of the American Educational Oppenheim, and Farnen 1975). At the secondary Research Association, New York, April 1977. level, young people's perception of a more "open" --. 'The American School in the Political Socialization classroom climate is associated with higher levels Process." Review of Educational Research 50, no. 1 of political interest, efficacy, and confidence (see (1980): 99-119. Harwood 1992 for a review of the research). Ferguson, P. "Impacts on Social and Political Similarly, issues-centered discussions that encour- Participation." In Handbook of Research on Social age the expression of diverse viewpoints tend to Studies Teaching and Learning, edited by James P. promote more democratic attitudes (Ehman Shaver. New York Macmillan, 1991. 1980; Leming 1985; Torney, Oppenheim, and Franklin, R. "National Study Finds Surprising Farnen 1975). On the other hand, an emphasis on Donation Trends." Minneapolis Star Tribune, rote memorization and patriotic rituals(e.g., October 27, 1992. reciting the Pledge of Allegiance) is associated Guttman, A. Democratic Education. Princeton, NJ.: with higher degrees of authoritarianism and less Princeton University Press, 1987. democratic attitudes (Torney, Oppenheim, and Hahn, C. L., C. Tocci, and A. Angell. 'Five-Nation Farnen 1975). Study of Civic Attitudes and Controversial Issues In sum, if we are to develop a supportive yet Discussions. "Paper presented at the International critical democratic citizenry, we must do more Conference on the Social Studies, Vancouver, B.C., than adopt an issues-centered approach. The June 1988. issues-centered approach, however, may serve as Harwood, A. M. "Classroom Climate and Civic the catalyst for re-examining content, methods, Education in Secondary Social Studies Research: pedagogy, and classroom climate. It is reflection Antecedents and Findings." Theory and Research in on these issues that may help us find a place for Social Education 20, no. 1 (1992): 47-86. the "Ella Bakers" in our classrooms. Ichilov, 0., ed. Political Socialization, Citizenship Education and Democracy. New York Teachers College Press, 1990. References Issac, K. Civics for Democracy: A Journey for Teachers and Banks, J. A., and C. A. M. Banks, eds. Multicultural Students. Washington, D.C.: Essential Books, 1992. Education: Issues and Perspectives. Boston: Allyn and Jackman, M. R. "General and Applied Tolerance: Bacon, 1989. Does Education Increase Commitment to Racial Cantarm, E. Moving the Mountain: Women Working for Integration?" American Journal of Political Science 22 Social Change. Old Westbury, N.Y.: Feminist Press, 1980. (1978): 302-324. Carroll, J. D., W. D. Broadnex, G. Contreras, T. E. Mann, --. "Education and Policy Commitment to Racial N. J. Orenstein, and J Steihm. We the People: A Review Integration." American Journal of Political Science 25 Government and Civics Textbooks. Washington, (1981): 256-269. D.C.: People for the American Way, 1987. Jennings, M.K., K.P. Langton, and R.G. Niemi. Conn, C., and H. Silverman, eds. What Counts: The "Effects of the High School Civics Curriculum." Complete Hyper's Index. New York Henry Holt and In The Political Character of Adolescence, edited by Company, 1991. M. K. Jennings and R. G. Niemi. Princeton, NJ: Conover, P. J., and D. D. Searing. Citizenship and Princeton University Press, 1974. Political Psychology. Paper presented at the Annual Johnson, D. W., and R. Johnson. "Conflict in the Political Psychology Conference, University of Classroom: Controversy and Learning." Review of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, June 1993. Educational Research 49 (1979): 51-70. Cowan, G., M. Mestlin, and J. Masek. "Predictors of --. "Classroom Conflict: Controversy vs. Debate in Feminist Self-Labeling." Sex Roles 27 (1992): 321-330. Learning Groups." American Educational Research Dahl, R. 'The Concept of Power." Behavioral Science 2 Journal 22 (1985): 237-256. (1957): 201-205. . Creative Conflict. Edina, Minn: Interaction Book Dawson, P. American Government. Glenview, Scott Company, 1987.

209 2 9 .Cooperation and Competition: Theory and Research. New York John Wiley and Sons, 1975. Edina, Minn.: Interaction Book Company, 1989. "The Voters: Gains and Losses in Turnout." Johnson, D. S., R. T Johnson, K. A. and Smith.Active New York Times, November 8, 1992. Learning: Cooperation in the College Classroom. Edina, Zellman, G., and D. Sears. "Childhood Origins of Minn.: Interaction Book Company, 1991. Tolerance for Dissent." journal of Social Issues 27 Leming, J. S. "Research on Social Studies Curriculum (1971): 109-136. and Instruction: Interventions and Outcomes in the Socio-Moral Domain." In Review of Research in Table 5: Resources Mentioned in Chapter Social Studies Education, 1965-1983, edited by W. B. Stanley. Boulder, Colo.: ERIC Clearinghouse for Social Studies/Social Science Education, 1985. Books Lerner, G., ed. Black Women in White Anzerica: A Golding, W. Lord of the Flies. London: Faber and Faber, 1954. Documentary History. New York Pantheon Books, 1972. Greene, B. Summer of My German Soldier. New York Dial Press, 1973. McClosky, H., and A. Brill. The Dimensions of Tolerance. Malcolm X. The Autobiography of Malcolm X Secaucus, NJ: Castle Books, New York Russell Sage, 1983. 1965. Merelman, R. M. 'The Role of Conflict in Children's Takaki, R. T. A Different Mirror: A Histoy of Multicultural America. Boston: Political Learning." In Political Socialization, Little, Brown & Company, 1993. Citizenship Education, and Democracy, edited by Taylor, M. D. Roll of Thunder, Hear My Cry. New York Dial Press, 1976. 0. Ichilov. New York Teachers College Press, 1990. National Assessment of Educational Progress. Teaching Materials The Civics Report Card Washington, D.C.: National Issues Forum pamphlets. Available from National Issues Forums, U.S. Department of Education, 1990. 100 Commons Road, Dayton, Ohio 45459-2777. Phone: 800-433-7834. Newmann, E M. "Higher Order Thinking in Teaching Opposing Viewpoints Series. Available from Greenhaven Press, Inc., P 0. Box Social Studies: A Rationale for the Assessment of 289009, San Diego, Calif 92198-9009. Phone: 619-485-7424 Classroom Thoughtfulness." journal of Curriculum Studies 22 (1990): 41-56. Endnotes Newmann, EM., and G. G. Wehlage. "Five Standards 1 Persons interested in using structured controversy in their classrooms can of Authentic Instruction." Educational Leadership 50 find a more extensive description of the technique in Johnson and Johnson (April 1993): 8-12. (1979, 1985, 1987). Perkins, D., and T Blythe. "Putting Understanding Up Front." Educational Leadership 51, no. 5 (1994): 4-7. Schultz, B., and R. Schultz. It Did Happen Here: Recollections of Political Repression in America. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989. Schwartz, J. D. "Participation and Multisubjective Understanding: An Interpretivist Approach to the Study of Political Participation." journal of Politics 46 (1984): 1117-1141. Spurgeon, C. 'Teaching about a Citizenship Issue through Literature." Citizenship 2, no. 1 (1991/92): 3-7. Stone, L. "What Matters for Citizenship Education?" Theory and Research in Social Education 20, no. 2 (1992): 207-219. Tetreault, M. K. "Integrating Content about Women and Gender into the Curriculum." In Multicultural Education: Issues and Perspectives, edited by J. A. Banks and C. A. M. Banks. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1989. Theiss-Morse, E. "Conceptualizations of Good Citizenship and Political Participation." Political Behavior 15 (1993): 355-380. Torney, J. V., A. M. Oppenheim, and R. F. Famen. Civic Education in Ten Countries: An Empirical Study.

210 2 20 ANPPROACN TO ISSUES-ORIENTED ECOOMIC EDUCATION

kg Bevrig J. Menlo, Francis W. Rushing, and Wagne R. Cook

PART ONE: about what is right or wrong when it comes to FRAMING THE APPROACH economic issues. Because some of the ideological perspectives incorporate social, historical, and hat are the economic benefits and costs political dimensions of issues, classroom instruc- of dropping out of school? Is there reallytion must be approached in an interdisciplinary a trade deficit, and if so, what differencemanner. Also, since economic issues are often does it make? Are there salary differ- complex, they should be explored in an informed ences between men and women, and ifand thoughtful manner. We will propose a plan so, why? Should there be? What aboutfor organizing instruction around economic salary and employment patterns by gender andissues that facilitatesinterdisciplinary and ethnicity? What are the causes, and what should informed analysis. Prior to thinking about class- "we" do about these patterns? Should farmersroom practice, however, we must consider the around the world be "forced" to operate strictlynature of economic issues and the implications by the rules of supply and demand? Is every perfor instruction. son entitled to health care, and if so, who should pay? Should the minimum wage be raised?What is economics? What economic and social effects would follow? Economics as a discipline deals with the Who should pay for environmental and safetyproblem of scarcity. Scarcity occurs when human protection? How should community-owned landwants are greater than the resources available to be used, by whom, and for what purposes? produce goods and services to satisfy those wants. These are only a few of the many personalThe existence of scarcity forces upon all people and public policy economic issues of interest to the requirement of making choices. A primary young people who face such problems daily,objective of the teaching of economics is to pre- either in their own lives or in the larger social, pare students to make rational choices as individ- political arena. Of course, everyone has an opin- uals and as members of society based on objective ion about such questions, but is the opinionanalysis and the values of the choice makers. informed, thoughtful, and mindful of alternatives, trade-offs, and the short- and longer-term How are economic decisions made? consequences of various policy options? Issues- The primary tools of analysis that have centered instruction in economics should assistproven to be effective in making economic deci- students in developing analytic and reflectivesions are fairly simple concepts: opportunity cost, ways of thinking about and addressing importantproduction possibility analysis and trade-offs, economic issues. and supply and demand analysis. The concept of This chapter aims to define the nature ofopportunity cost states that the real cost of economic problems, discuss tools of economic obtaining one good or service is the next best analysis, and present criteria for evaluating solu-alternative good or service that would have been tions to economic issues. We argue that instruc- produced with the resources used to produce our tion must acknowledge and incorporate ideolog- first choice. The opportunity cost concept can be ical differences and multiple interpretations applied to any scarce resource. One example is

2 1 time allocation: should one's time be used to docigarettes, but we and other similar-minded per- volunteer work or to go swimming? sons may also work for local ordinances against Production possibility analysis is most typi-smoking in public (and sometimes private) cally used in analyzing macroeconomic choices, places. Economic analysis can tell us what should since it demonstrates the possibilities between happen to the sales of cigarettes as demand falls, society's choices of producing one basket ofbut it does not address whether or not a local goods as opposed to an alternative basket. The ordinance should be put into place to improve classic trade-off is between "guns and butter," or individual and public health. it could be between clean air and less steel production. In actuality, society does not normally What philosophies (ideologies) make an either/or choice, but some of each when guide economic decisions? dealing with difficult economic matters. The The economy of the United States may be choices depend not only on the reality of limiteddescribed as a private enterprise, market econo- resources, but also upon the aggregate prefer- my. However, economic decisions are made both ences or values of society. in the private sectorhouseholds and business- Supply and demand analysis also plays anesand in the public sectorsfederal, state, and important role in economic decision-making. local governmentsas well as in the internation- Supply and demand forces in our market econo- al arena. Although described as a market economy generally determine the prices of the factors my, it is really a mixed system in which resources of production and of the goods and services pro-are allocated outside of markets or are partially duced in the economy. The price of a good tells directed through the markets. The extent to its economic value relative to other goods. Aswhich the markets are relied upon depends consumers or as producers, we attempt to gain somewhat on the balance within the economy of the greatest benefits by allocating our money or the "free-market advocates," the "managed-mar- our time among the various choices available to ket advocates," and the "radicals." Each group us as buyers of goods and sellers of services. has a philosophical underpinning that guides the position of advocacy that they take. These What are objective and normative approaches to economic issues are often closely economics? related to one's political ideology. They define If economics only dealt with the theoretical the questions one asks, the data one seeks, and or the abstractif it only dealt with the tools ofthe general parameters one sets for issue analysis. analysisthen it would be a fairly straightfor- The free-market advocates (or conservatives) ward discipline with little controversy associated believe that competitive markets allocate resources with it. Of course this is not the case. Economics best and that the individual and the common good really has two dimensions: the objective and the is served best when markets are free to function in normative (subjective). The objective empha- the absence of outside interference, particularly sizes "what is" and attempts to explain the collective or governmental interference. The free- process by which choices are made. The norma- market advocates believe that the national wealth tive or subjective dimension deals with "what will be maximized when individuals are allowed ought to be." Even in objective economics, there to create new products and services and compete is an assumption that people have developed a in markets for customers. Although they general- set of preferences based upon their own experi- ly recognize that some "public goods" will have to ences, tastes, and values. What people want will be provided by government, the conservatives depend on how they feel their economic deci- believe that these should be limited to just a few, sions will satisfy their unique wants (however principally those relating to defense, laws and they may have been derived). courts, and safety (police and fire). In addition, Normative (subjective) economics addresses free-market conservatives generally think that how people's values influence the future alloca- individuals are free and rational and that they tion of resources by altering the outcomes of eco- make economic choices based on their tastes and nomic decision making or perhaps even by preferences. Thus, problems such as unemploy- changing the characteristics of the institutions inment and poverty are often seen as the outcome which economic decisionsaremade. For of individual actions and choices. instance, as individuals we may refuse to purchase The managed-market advocates (or liberals)

212

r)22 What are the criteria for go beyond a strictly economic analysis in their evaluating economic choices? examination of issues, looking to social, cultural, Economists generally agree on the set of crite- historical, and political contexts for clues about ria that should be considered when deciding any causes and solutions to complex problems. economic issue. What they cannot do is deter- Liberals generally feel that markets do not work mine which is the most important. This is deter- perfectly and can be improved or made more mined by the individual or the group making the compatible with society's objectives if govern- decision. The criteria include several factors: ments manage some aspects of market function. I. Economic growth. How will decisions affect For instance, in addition to the public goods the rate of wealth creation? Will the econom- described above, the managed-market adherents ic pie grow faster or slower, regardless of how would contend that the government should be it will be sliced? involved in providing for education, workplace 2.Economic efficiency. How isthe system legislation, drug and product safety validation, organized to make economic decisions? Are environmental regulations, redistribution of the resources used to their fullest to obtain income, and services such as agricultural stations, the greatest output for the least inputs? and subsidies to special groups, such as farmers, 3.Income distribution. Will all parties share in married people, dependent children, the elderly, the output of economic activity? Will the college students, and so forth. In other words, let shares of outputs be changed by the decisions the markets and their prices guide the system in being made? Who wins and who loses, or do general, but expect the government to have to all win? intervene to redirect some market outcomes so as 4.Economic freedom. Are individual rights to maximize society's general welfare. They protected? Are some group rights reduced so believe private property should remain intact, but other group rights are enlarged? Are net free- that the use of and income from property should doms expanded, contracted, or do they be subject to redirection by government from the remain the same? Are property rights individual or one group to others. changed? Is freedom of job choice preserved? The radical (or critical) advocates think that 5. Equity. Is the system fair? Can all people issues of power, conflict, and exploitation are benefit to the extent of their talents and con- central to economic analysis. The questions tributions? Does discrimination reduce the posed by this group take as a premise that "prob- "fairness"? Does the market have more or less lems" such as discrimination and oppression are equity than legislation? normal (i.e., regularly occurring) in society and 6.Stability. Do our decisions make the econo- that for contemporary American society these my less susceptible to wide fluctuations in forces are crucial to the maintenance of the income and employment? Can you reason- political/economic status quo. The radical econ- ably anticipate the future? omist would have us think of replacing some 7. Economic development. Does economic of the existing institutions with new ones growth change our economic structure and believed to be more harmonious with the values economic opportunities? Is development of a more egalitarian and just society. In the creating not only something different, but world of decision making, conservative, liberal, something better for people? Do we want and radical perspectives are not as clear as the more things or a higher quality of life con- descriptions above might imply. Many free-mar- sisting of clean air, short commutes to work, keteers relax to some extent to permit govern- and more "at home time"? ment intervention; however, in principle, they attempt to minimize government involvement. Take health care as a recent case to contrast In contrast, the managed-market advocates have the two major schools of thinkingconservative been willing to suggest that government with- and liberal. Under the traditional health care draw from some market activities when the evi- system in the United States, the private sector dence is clear that intervention has not achieved provides the vast majority of health services the desired outcomes. delivered. Recently, the coverage and the cost equity and efficiencyof the system have been brought into question. The free-market advocates predict that if government initiates a corn-

213 223 prehensive federal program, costs will rise and The dominant approach is uni-disciplinary and individual care will decline, resulting in the often employs choice theory, a popular analytic aggregate level of care falling. The managed- tool that accentuates "rational" individual behav- market group says that the market has left too ior and neglects the complex social, historical, many Americans outside the health care system and cultural factors that surround and mediate and offers a general welfare and equity argument individual choices. to support legislation on coverage and institutions to deliver health care to the citizens. Some Informed Instruction questions one might ask given this situation are: Pedagogy aswellascontent must be How would you go about recommending the informed, balanced, constructed, grounded, and solution to this problem? In the context of alter- dynamic in order to assist learners as they become native philosophies, what solutions do you think more thoughtful (Newmann 1992), analytic, car- would be recommended? What information ing, and creative economic decision makers. Some would you need to address the problem? What economic issuessuch as those dealing with kind of economic criteria will you use to assess social stratification, unemployment, international the potential solutions to the issue? How will the trade, taxes, the role of government in allocating potential solutions affect the people? and redistributing resources and income, the We argue that instruction must recognizedistribution of wealth, and so onare so "hot," that there are ideological differences, and it must emotional, and loaded with intensity, and often place the differences within their proper social, with dogmatic and pre-determined conclusions, historical, and political contexts to be relevant to that thoughtful classroom treatment is difficult. issue analysis. Economics instruction as it is cur- Both the content of issues-centered economics rently practiced fails to provide students with the instruction and the pedagogy employed are tools needed to hear (or understand) the voices sources of conflict in the classroom. In addition, of various groupsdefined by race, gender, or they are the keys to determining whether learning ideologywhose points of view shape the pub- will be meaningful or aimless. lic discussion of social policy. To remedy this, Issues-centered instruction demands a "cul- economic issues should be presented in their ture of thinking" in the classroom: an attitude by complexity,- including the reality of multiple teachers and students of curiosity and skepticism; interpretations of economic life. To do that,of calmness and contemplation; of informed economic issues must be dealt with in an inter- investigations and logical thinking; of objectivity disciplinary manner and they should be explored along with creativity; of role playing and empa- in an informed and analytical manner. thy; of persistence in the pursuit of data and alternative perspectives; of doubt and critical Interdisciplinary Instruction thinking; and of questioning, questioning, ques- If classroom economics instruction isto tioning. Teachers and students must adopt the include the full range of ideological perspectives, attitude that other perspectives are valid and rea- the curriculum must include questions, data, sonable. In addition, all should remain open to concepts, and analyses drawn from history and their own views changing as they construct new the relevant social sciences. The economic, ways of seeing and assessing issues. social, and political world is so complex that eco- Not only should pedagogy be informed by the nomic models alone are restricted in their abili- latest, most relevant insights from theory and ty to fully represent reality. research, but issues-centered instruction should An issues-centered approach would call for a be informed by data rather than mere opinion. richer, more deeply contextualized focus on Students should learn where to find information, "how human beings, in interaction with onehow to assess itsreliability, authenticity, and another and the environment, provide for theirvalidity, and how to interpret data presented in a own survival and health" (Nelson 1993, 34), and range of forms. on the range of problems and concerns that have While it is not the goal of this chapter to occurred and continue to occur in that endeavor. develop the research base for issues-centered A more interdisciplinary approach to teaching instruction, we believe there is considerable the- economics represents a major break with the oretical and empirical work to guide educators in mode currently prevailing in the United States. making wise pedagogical choices. Through the

214 224 employment of such work, we now propose the The Issues-Oriented Teaching Model: following plan for making the transition to a An Outline more issues-centered approach to economic instruction. Step 1: Representing and defining the PART TWO: DEVELOPING THE issue and its parameters INSTRUCTIONAL APPROACH (This aspect of the model is based on the students' current knowledge and awareness of the issue). ssues-oriented economics instruction, then, Identify the issue or the topic for investigation; reframe the should embody the essential principles devel- issue as questions; represent the issue in alternative ways. oped in part one of this chapter: it should Identify causes, constraints, sub-issues, and the historical, foster an informed and interdisciplinary social, and political factors that influence the central issue. treatment of issues, and these should be Develop a graphic representation to portray the broad dimensions of the issue and to show the way the aspects of 11explored from various ideological perspectives. We have developed an issues-oriented the issue relate to one another (causal, chronological, etc.) teaching model drawing on these principles and Step 2: Linking prior knowledge with on the literature on role taking (Selman 1976), new information about the issue learning (Vygotsky 1978; Wittrock 1986), Brainstorm with students to identify what they know or domain-specific knowledge and knowledge think they know about any of the questions/categories restructuring (Spilich et al. 1979; Voss 1986; identified as relevant to this issue. Voss et al. 1983; Voss, Tyler, and Yengo 1983; Identify what data and sources will be needed in order Vosniadou and Brewer 1987), and on problem to address the questions asked. solving and thoughtfulness (Beck and Carpenter Discuss what economic (and other) analytical concepts 1986; Newmann 1992). The model blends effec- will be needed to fully understand the issue. tive pedagogy with content knowledge to pro- Conduct data collection and analysis. In addition, at this duce an approach that addresses the interpretive point in instruction the teacher should design and imple- and interdisciplinary aspects of economic issues. ment mini-lessons on concepts students will need to The model begins with student interest and understand in order to continue the analysis of the issue. prior knowledge, and leads them through a purposeful process of inquiry and investigation in Step 3: Reconceptualizing/redefining the which their visual representation and under- issue, given new data and ideas standing of an issue is reconstructed as they Ask what new dimensions of the issue are apparent after uncover new information and new perspectives. examining the data and reading alternative opinions? The model can be applied in elementary, Ask if the sub-issues can be redefined and addressed by middle, and high school classrooms. Typically, applying the new factual and conceptual knowledge economics is taught as a separate course in high learned? schools. The most prevalent approach is a principles of economics orientation, although courses Step 4: Developing alternative points of in personal finance may also be offered. In addi- view, with substantiating data tion, Advanced Placement economics courses are Ask how conservatives, liberals, and radicals would offered, which are usually highly analytical and approach this issue. What criteria would each use to conceptual. At the elementary and middle school assess the problem? What policy recommendations would levels, economic content is generally integrated persons holding each perspective propose? What are the into the ongoing social studies curriculum, short-term and long-term consequences of each propos- although there are some stand-alone programs, al? What other considerations should be addressed? such as Mini-Society, the Stock Market game, and Kinder-economy. Step 5: Stating personal positions, giving supporting rationale and data More about the model Have students address the questions, What position do STEP 1: Representing and defining the I have on this issue, and why? What are the short-term issue and its parameters. Tapping the current and long-term considerations and consequences of my knowledge of students, try to identify the broad position? What are the steps and impediments to policy dimensions of the issue, exploring its causes, con- implementation?

21S 225 texts, and aspects. It is helpful to rephrase ques-parable worth" earning different incomes? Should tions into as many forms as possible, because this businesses be concerned with "social responsibility"? process will uncover aspects of the problem thatShould school attendance be compulsory? Should students may not have initially considered. public education be privatized? Do United States For example, suppose students are interested citizens save enough? Who should pay for and in issues surrounding social stratification and receive low-cost housing? Should businesses be able poverty and, therefore, have initially asked Why to close profitable factories in a local community to are some people (or countries) less well off than move the business to another country where they others? As part of the reframing of this issue, would pay lower wages? students might generate questions such as Who is When studying macroeconomics, students poor? What do words like"poor" and "poverty"might ask Has the U.S. government become too mean? Why are some people poor? Where do the poor big? Who should pay for health care, and should live? What jobs do the poor have? How do poor peo- everyone be entitled to it? Workfare or welfare? ple get their food, clothing, and shelter? Should the Federal Reserve target zero inflation? What is meant by social class? Who is in what Should the government pay reparations to African social class (by gender, race, region), and what are Americans? Are affirmative action policies equi- the historic trends? table? Should any immigrant to the United States be What is the extent of mobility from one socioeco- allowed to work at any wage rate? Is the federal nomic class to another? What are the dominant soci- budget deficit of any real consequence? Should the ological/psychological theories about poverty and rich pay fewer taxes to encourage greater invest- social stratification? What percentage of each ethnic, ment? Should the federal government take actions to gender, and age group is currently living in pover- protect endangered species when it means jobs will ty? What political issues center on poverty? What be lost? percentage of the federal and state budgets go toward When studying international economics, poverty-related programs? What are the outcomes ofstudents might ask Should the world's farmers be such programs? protectedfrom the competition of the market? Should How do different countries rank in terms of per countries protect their infant industries? Should the capita income and standard of living? What mea- United States have an industrial policy? Should the sures indicate general quality of life? Do industrial- United States feed the world's poor? How much aid ized countries have a "social responsibility" to should the United States give to Russia or to improve the standard of living of persons and coun- Mexico? Should the military-industrial complex be tries with low per capita income? expanded? Suppose the question raised is What role(s) Students' prior understanding of the scope of should the United States government assume in pro- the issue surfaces during step one, as they attempt moting its interests in international trade? The to define the parameters, causes, and sub-issues of brainstorming and representation of the scope ofthe problem. Having students organize the con- the issue might include such sub-issues and tent of this brainstorming into a visual represen- aspects of the issue as Why do nations trade? What tation will enable them to see the major views trade agreements does the United States have with they currently hold about the issue. Using Post- other nations? What major trading partners does its, have students write each of their questions, the United States have, and what is the extent ofsub-issues, and current information about the import/export exchange with each partner? Whatissue. The Post-its then can be arranged visually forms of protectionism, quotas, or other barriers are on chart paper to show how the questions and currently used by the United States and by our trad- ideas relate to one another. This representation is ing partners? Should we protect certain industries useful for showing the complexity of many issues, from international competition? What is our trade and the graphic can be used as a teaching tool deficit, and should we try to reduce it? Should our throughout the course of the issue's analysis. government have an industrial policy and a nation- As students gather data and identify new aspects al plan for the nation's productivity? of the issue, they can be added to the graphic High school students face many economic organizer, which now becomes a dynamic repre- issues in their own lives as well as in their formalsentation of how the students are thinking about study of economics. In microeconomics, stu- the issue. dents might ask Why are men and women of "com- This same process can be used with students

216 of all ages, using issues that are developmentally about the issue and the sub-issues. Misconcep- appropriate. Young children are curious and tions and errors will surface, and, at this point in puzzled by economic choices they make or the analysis, these should be accepted by the observe in their homes, schools, and communi- teacher. However, as new information is gathered ties. Children observe local economic dilemmas and processed, students should make corrections as communities decide whether to raise taxes, and additions to their graphic representation. how to use land for alternative purposes, how to Discussions of the reliability and accuracy of data address the needs of homeless persons, or how to sources should be an integral part of any inquiry. use available local resources. Even young chil- Step two implies a major investigation of the dren can begin to realize that different people issue, with an identification of data sources and see issues from different perspectives, as they alternative points of view. Research in today's practice the roles of persons attending a town technologically equipped school media centers meeting to decide whether to raise property should enable students to access not only insight- taxes to build new schools. Elementary schoolproviding data but also editorial commentaries students easily learn to portray their representa- on issues written from various ideological per- tion of a problem visually, and to generate new spectives. In addition, all high school economics questions for further investigation. Of course, classrooms should have copies of books that young students will need more assistance with address important economic issues from different the procedural and conceptual aspects of an views. These include Feiner's Race and Gender in investigation and with skills of data interpreta- the American Economy (1994) and Schwartz and tion than older students, but, with expert teacher Bonello's Taking Sides: Clashing Views on Contro- guidance, they also can apply the five-step, versial Economic Issues (1993). issues-analysis model to their thinking. During this "finding out more" phase of issue Middle school students are actively involved analysis, students and teachers should engage in in the economy as consumers, and in many cases developing the necessary conceptual tools for as producers and savers, and are conceptually able understanding the data and the issues. For exam- to understand, at least at a fundamental level,ple, on international trade issues, students will some of the same issues as high school students. need to understand a wide range of ideas, such as Economic issues are dominant in the social stud-quotas, protectionism, NAFTA, trade deficits, ies curriculum at grades six through eight, comparative and absolute advantage, capital, bal- whether the focus be on the United States orance of trade, subsidies, supply and demand, world history, global studies, or regional studies.exchange rates, infant industry, dumping, inter- Economic issues for analysis can also be drawn national equilibrium, and so on. from current local, national, and world events This phase of issue analysis involves a slowing that are of interest to the students, and the five- down of dialogue about the issue itself, and a step, issues-teaching model can be employed to realization on the part of students and teachers help students gain a deeper understanding of thethat, in order to fully understand it, they must dimensions and context of issues: Should the stop and learn underlying concepts and facts. United States provide economic aid to other countries Here, pacing and relating the information to the that are improving their industrial base? Shouldcentral issue helps students "remember" why they there be economic incentives for students to get good are doing so much research. grades in school? How should a wilderness area in the local community be used, and who should decide STEP 3: Reconceptualizing the issue, given its use? How should the state's lottery money be used? new data and ideas. After students have con- Should cigarette producers be allowed to advertise? ducted a broad investigation of data and perspec- Should commercial products be sold in schools? The tives related to the central issue, they should list of issues that might be of interest to middlereturn to their initial conception of the problem, school students is endless. and work to reconceptualize and refine their focus, sharpening their questions, reevaluating STEP 2: Linking prior knowledge with new sub-issues, and beginning to organize data and information about the issue. Continuing to use views around the related issues. It is useful at this the same graphic organizer, students should stage of the inquiry to have students develop new identify what they know or think they know graphic representations as a means of comparing

217

BEST COPY AVAILABLE their new views with the images they developed other communities, even across the globe. initially. Hopefully, the new representation illus- Dialogue on environmental issues as well as on trates the students' growth in seeing not only the critical national issues of privatization, economic issue's complexity, but also demonstrates greater growth, unemployment, and international trade accuracy and completeness in identifying sub- are daily matters for many young people (in over issues and information that illuminates the topic. a dozen countries) who are part of programs such as the Global Thinking Project, sponsored by STEP 4: Developing alternative points ofGeorgia State University. As such programs grow view, with substantiating data. Before launching and our capacity to communicate with other peo- an in-depth issue analysis, students should con-ple increases, the dimensions of classroom issues- sider the nature of differing points of view onoriented instruction become more exciting and economic issues. More mature students can readdynamic for teachers and students. point-of-viewessaysby economistsfrom The guiding principles of issues-oriented Schwartz and Bonello (1993), for example, andeconomics instruction, then, are the same regard- attempt to uncover the essential differences in less of student age or sophistication level: perspectives. They could then practice identify- Economics issues are complex and embed- ing these alternative ideological viewpoints in ded in the social, political, and historical editorials in newspapers and news magazines contexts of life. They should be viewed and prior to creating their own policy options based studied in ways that reflect this richness. on various perspectives. People have different opinions about how Younger students should be able to identify economics issues should be addressed, and the people who might be interested in the issue these various viewpoints should be consid- being analyzed, and then speculate about how ered and evaluated by students as they con- the issue might look from each person's perspec- template their own position. tive. For example, on the issue of raising proper- Analysis of issues should be informed by ty taxes to build new schools, it could be asked reliable and valid data. How would the issue look if you were a retired per- Students learn best when they are interested son on a fixed income whose children were grown? in an issue and when they are intimately What if you were a businessperson wanting to involved in the identification of the problem attract new workers to town? What f you were a and in the construction of its dimensions middle-income home owner with four children in and its "solution." school? Role-taking gives students the opportu- Teachers must practice thoughtfulness, bal- nity to see how an issue might look differently ance, objectivity, and issue analysis in their depending not only on a person's circum- own lives in order to practice the proposed stancesbut also on the beliefs and values held pedagogy in their classrooms. by that person. The role of the social studies classroom is to STEP 5:Stating Personal Positions, assist students in informed reflection on impor- Giving Supporting Rationale and Data. tant economic matters, to instill dispositions of Finally, students should have enough informa- thoughtfulness and inquiry, rather than impetu- tion, awareness of alternative perspectives, and ousness and dogmatism, and to foster awareness conceptual knowledge to make informed judg- and appreciation for the validity of alternative ments about the sub-issues and the major issue interpretations of complex issues. To achieve under investigation. Students should be able to these goals, the social studies and economic substantiate these positions, and be able to pro-teaching communities have much work ahead. ject the short-term and long-term consequences Teachers themselves must embody these traits of their proposed actions and policies. Students and skills before they can adequately implement can present their views in letters to the editor,issues-oriented economics instruction in any essays, editorials, mock economic conferences,classroom. Teacher education programs must video presentations, debates, panel discussions, address the development of prospective and public hearings, or round table discussions. mature issues-oriented educators. Additionally, In many schools, students are able to connect these teachers will need newly conceived instruc- (via Internet, distance learning) with students intional materials in order to easily implement such

210 2 an approach. At present, most economics educa- Vosniadou, S. and W. F. Brewer. "Theories of tors will find themselves developing their own Knowledge Restructuring in Development." Review issues-oriented lessons, and will need to identify of Educational Research 57 (1987): 51-67. and gather the available data sources. What is Voss, J. "Social Studies." In Cognition and Instruction, needed is a commitment by all to move toward a edited by R. E Dillon and R. J. Sternberg. Orlando, more interpretive, interdisciplinary, and informed Fla.: Academic Press, Inc., 1986. approach to economic education. , et al. "ProblemSolving Skill in the Social Sciences." In The Psychology of Learning and Motivation: Advances in Research Theory, edited by G. H. Bower. References and Further Readings New York Academic Press, 1983. Alexander, P. A., D. L. Schallert, and V. C. Hare. , S. Tyler and L. Yengo."Individual Differences in the "Coming to Terms: How Researchers in Learning Solving of Social Science Problems." In Individual and Literacy Talk about Knowledge." Review of Differences in Cognition, edited by R. Dillon and R. Educational Research 61, no.3 (1991): 315-343. Schmeck. New York Academic Press, 1983. Amok, T, and J. Mattaei. Race, Gender and Work Vygotsky, L. S. Mind in Society: The Development of A Multicultural Economic History of Women. Boston: Higher Psychological Processes. Cambridge: Harvard South End Press, 1993. University Press, 1978. Armento, B. J. "Changing Conceptions of Research on Wittrock, M. C. "Students' Thought Processes." In the Teaching of Social Studies." In Handbook of Handbook of Research on Teaching, 3rd Edition, edited Research on Social Studies Teaching and Learning, by M. C. Wittrock New York Macmillan, 1986. edited by J. Shaver. New York Macmillan, 1991. . "Economic Socialization." In Citizenship for the Twenty-first Century, edited by W. T Callahan. Bloomington, Ind.: Foundation for Teaching Econo- mics and Social Studies Development Center, 1990. Beck, I. L. and P. A. Carpenter. "Cognitive approaches to Understanding Reading."American Psychologist 41, no. 10 (1986): 1098-1105. Feiner, S. F. Race and Gender in the American Economy: Views fromAcross the Spectrum. Englewood Cliffs, NJ.: Prentice Hall, 1994. Nelson, J. A. "The Study of Choice or the Study of Provisioning? Gender and the Definition of Economics." Beyond Economic Man: Feminist Theory and Economics, edited by M. A. Ferber and J. A. Nelson. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993. Newmann, F. M., ed. Student Engagement and Achievement in Secondary Schools. New York Teachers College Press, 1992. Schwartz, T R and E J. Bonello, eds. Taking Sides: Clashing Views on Controversial Economic Issues. Guilford, Conn.: Dushkin Publishing Group, Inc., 1993. Selman, R L. "Social-Cognitive Understanding: A Guide to Educational and Clinical Practice." In Moral Development and Behavior: Theory, Research, and Social Issues, edited by T Lickona. New York Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1976. Spilich, G. J., et al. "Text Processing of Domain-Related Information for Individuals with High and Low Domain Knowledge. " Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 18 (1979): 275-290. Tobias, S. "Interest, Prior Knowledge, and Learning." Review of Educatimal Research 64, no. 1 (1994): 37-54.

219 229 TEAHING ISSUES-CENTERED ANTHROPOLOGY, SOCOLOGY, AND PSYCHOLOGY

bq Jer fl. Ligon and George W. Chi 'coal

The troubles young people experience today they must understand how their individual biog- in and out of school are shocking. Youth raphy relates to U.S. culture, society, and history. are worried and troubled by an increasingWe believe that an issues-centered study of suicide and homicide rate, drug use among central concepts in anthropology, sociology, and their peers, and disintegration of their fam- psychology would give students perspective on ilies (Ingrassia 1993). Ingrassia (1993) also the problems they face. In this chapter we iden- reported that they worry about their peers steal- tify the central concepts for student inquiry in ing from them (68 percent), being attacked (46 these disciplines, share a model for issues- percent), or threatened with a gun (24 percent). centered instruction, and suggest resources in How hard is it for students to concentrate on teaching these subjects. their social studies classes when they have such concerns? To what extent do students todayCentral Concepts of Anthropology, experience what Hunt and Metcalf (1968, 26) Sociology, and Psychology called "intrapersonal conflict" and are "uncertain No single source contains a listing of the cen- as to what to believe or value"? To the extent thattral concepts of each discipline. While the students view the resolution of this uncertainty asAmerican Psychological Association (1986) is being within themselves and their immediate the only organization among the three disci- social setting, they are experiencing what Mills plines to offer an official high school curriculum, (1959) called "troubles." However, students' trou- lists of suggested sociology units continue to bles transcend themselves to the institutions and surface (National Commission on Social Studies culture of their society. For students to betterin the Schools 1989; Gray 1993). Sociologists understand their troubles, they must examine continue to debate what are the basic concepts of these societal issues. As social studies educators sociology and if they should be standardized with a primary purpose "to help young peoplea continuing debate since Emile Durkheim and develop the ability to make informed and rea-Max Weber's time (Wallace 1990). Though we soned decisions for the public good" (Nationaldo not agree, a faction within the American Council for the Social Studies [NCSS] 1994, Sociological Association believes sociology is vii), we might ask our students: "To what extent actually too difficult for precollegiate education are the troubles of U.S. society influenced by: (Smith 1981). While evidence suggested that the culture of the United States?" rarely are high school students enrolled in how individuals learn, perceive, and grow?" anthropology courses (Erickson 1991), concepts how people meet their basic needs?" and topics central to anthropology are taught how groups and institutions form and throughout K-12 schooling (Rice 1993). change?" those who hold power and authority?" Issues-Centered Anthropology how power and authority are gained, used, Culturethe patterned and learned ways of and justified?" life and thought that a human society sharesis the concept central to anthropology. Anthro- As students grapple with their private lives, pologists attempt to explain why and how the cul-

230 tures of groups of people are different, "why theyaspects of the cultures under study. A cross- have different physical characteristics, speak dif- cultural study of religion, taught with an issues- ferent languages, use different technologies, and centered approach, shifts the question from why they think, believe and act" differently "How does religion influence a part of a cul- (White 1989, 31). Anthropologists also studyture?" to "What role should religion play in human biology, archaeology, and linguistics, as forming public policy in a democratic society?" well as cultural anthropology (Bodley 1994). In an issues-centered lesson, the questions for Because anthropologists draw freely from study are open-ended and have no "right" concepts, theories, and methods of all social sci- answers but require thoughtfulness and in-depth ences (Bodley 1994), anthropological concepts study of evidence. This shift in focus from study- are often taught in U.S. elementary and sec- ing the factual to studying the problematic ondary schools within an interdisciplinary admittedly is more controversial, but, in tackling framework.Unfortunately,someevidence important questions, it interests students. showed that much of what is taught is "trivial and noninformative" (Rice 1993); the study ofIssues-Centered Sociology culture is more than the study of dance, food, Sociology is the science of society (Stewart holidays, and history (White 1989). Central and Glynn 1985) that focuses on two principal concepts and topics in anthropology, in addition aspects of social life: group membership and to culture, include family, race, ethnicity, evolu- face-to-face interaction (Henslin 1988). In the tion, adaptation, and technological change. classic Invitation to Sociology, Peter Berger When students analyze artifacts, original docu- (1963, 20) wrote that sociologists ask: "What are ments, art, and accounts of everyday lives of peo- people doing with each other here?" What are ple, they are modeling the methods of anthro- their relationships to each other?" "How are pologists (Bodley 1994; White 1989). these relationships organized in institutions?" We believe strongly that anthropology must The traditional goal of sociology has been to become a part of the social studies teacher understand society, but today stronger interest is education curriculum. If the first strand of the in practice, where sociologists develop critical social studies discipline's standards (NCSS 1994) perspectives through applying sociology in acad- is culture and if the position of social studies emic studies, in the workplace (by sociologists education professionals is that "social studiesand nonsociologists), and in personal use programs should include experiences that pro- (Basirica 1990; Friedman 1987). An increasing vide for the study of culture and cultural diversi- number of sociologists seek improvements in ty" (NCSS 1994, 21), then the primary discipline citizenship education and design their own that studies culture should not be overlookedcourses with the overriding goal to "promote within teacher preparation. critical citizenship" (Dressel 1990; Gray 1993). Furthermore, as a discipline that can empha- The central concepts that sociology students size "interdisciplinary integration rather than may study are numerous. Gray (1989) suggested disciplinary exclusiveness" (Rollwagen 1989, deviance and social control, family, social stratifi- 138), anthropology, we believe, is an ideal candi- cation, education, and gerontology. "Introduction date for issues-centered instruction. Teachersto Sociology" college texts, which are often can build lessons, units, and courses around "sit- adopted for secondary courses, also include: racial uations and dilemmas that pose problems, that and ethnic minorities, demography, collective make us ponder what to do in matters of public behavior, human societies and culture, and sepa- policy as well as in private course of action" rate chapters on the institutions of the family, (Evans 1994, 43). For example, instead of asking religion, education, political institutions, and the "How are cultures different?" an issues-centered economy. While no precollegiate curriculum rec- lesson might ask "How might different cultures ommendations have been released, the American live peacefully together?" This question demands Sociological Association published their own more inquiry because the latter question cannot one-semester high school text, Inquiries in be answered until students probe the initial Sociology (Sociological Resources 1972), which question and, in order to arrive at an answer, addressed socialization, institutions, social strati- students must examine the problematic instead fication, and change in the social order. of the factualthey eat this and we eat that The sociology teacher in an issues-centered

21 231 lesson would do well to organize under a question heiedity and environment substance Macdonald (1977, 20) suggested: "How shall we :attitiide lofmaticifi'. arid change prejudice and discrimination live together?" In issues-centered instruction moral developmeiit sex role develOpinent and Berger's questions would be rephrased: "What racism stereotyping should people be doing with each other in this intelligence tests'and measurement's of situation?" "What should be their relationships gender issues intelligence with each other?" "How should these relation- self-esteein child abuse ships be organized in institutions?" ethnic and cultural diversity teenage suicide A lesson or unit dealing with racial and minority issues interpersonal relations. ethnic minorities, for example, could ask students at any grade level, "How should we relate to different people?" "How should people with All of the topics listed above have implica- different backgrounds form institutions to sup- tions for how an individual develops a personal port the public good?" "What are our publicidentity. Most of the topicsafter careful responsibilities as citizens in a democracy?"studycould lead to implications for social None of these questions have definite "rightaction. For example, how individuals come to answers." Most will probably be controversial, define themselves is influenced by their percep- and all demand reflection, discussion, inquiry. tion of their intelligence. Definitions of intelli- They are also questions, appropriately framed, gence (IQvs. multiple intelligences, for example) that should generate a high level of student reflect ways that a culture views intelligence and interest across grade levels. certainly how schools reward students. Studying intelligence as a controversial issue would allow Issues-Centered Psychology students to better understand, make decisions, According to the American Psychologicaland possibly influence what happens to them in Association (APA) (1986, 12): "Psychology is the school in the area of testing, ranking, and sorting. science and profession concerned with the behavior of humans and animals." The core areas An Issues-Centered of study delineated by the APA are the scientific Instructional Model methods of psychology, growth and develop- A model of issues-centered education that is ment, learning, personality, mental health, behav- readily adaptable to lessons, units, and courses in ioral disorders, and social psychology. anthropology, sociology, and psychology is the The teacher of issues-centered psychology Sweeney-Parsons Controversial Social Issues would draw from psychologically relevantModel (1975). It provides teachers with a way to concepts and topics to teach young peoplestructure classroom lessons and activities to from a more social psychological perspective. encourage thoughtful examination of decisions The course objectives would include studyingand the decision-making process. The teacher the core concepts and theories of psychology; follows the model's seven stages, known as phas- learning thebasicskillsof psychological es, assisting the students as they study, examine, research; applying psychological concepts to life; analyze, and attempt to resolve the issue at hand. developing critical thinking skills; building read- In selecting an issue for study, the teacher ing, writing, and discussion skills; and learning may look to students' interests or timely prob- about ethical standards. The key questions in an lems, but it is best to also consider an issue's issues-centered psychology class would be: relevance to the students' lives and whether it "What factors influence individual development concerns the community and/or the larger soci- and identity?" and "How do culture, groups, and ety. As a result of careful selection, the topic institutions influence personal identity?" The itself and the accompanying investigation activi- teacher using an issues-centered approach could ties sustain the students' motivation throughout encourage students to reflect upon (Dewey the study. The lesson used as a sample here is a 1933), inquire into (Massialas and Cox 1966), composite drawn from several social studies make decisions on (Engle and Ochoa 1988), and teachers and is presented to give readers a fully dialogueaboutsuchcontroversialtopics developed issues-centered lesson. The issue (Muessig 1975; Sweeney and Parsons 1975) as: studied in the unit is standardized testing, suitable for study because it is relevant to students'

222 232 o "What different kinds of tests have you taken?" The Sweeny-Parsons Controversial o "What do you think about all of these tests Social Issues Model that you and others take?" © "What do you think about the results of any PHASE I: Selection and Presentation given test that might determine who you are PHASE II: Analysis for the rest of your school or regular life?" PHASE Clarification P HASE IV:Classification and Comparison After a lively discussion on each of the five PHASE V: Reflection questions, the teacher presents the topic and rationale. These discussions might take up the Ismasa VI:Application first day of the lesson. P lum VII:Evaluation Phase II: Analysis lives and the larger community. It also is a con- The objective of Phase II is to define the temporary problem that has many facets: e.g., issue. It consists of three steps: first, the teacher elementary and high school students in many presents students with selected materials for their states routinely take standardized tests, and testreading, looking, and/or listening; second, stu- scores of each school district are often publisheddents engage in a question-and-answer discus- in the local newspapers for public scrutiny. sion limited to the material's facts, values, and definitions about the issue; and third, upon Phase I: Selection and Presentation conclusion of the discussion, the class agrees on a This first phase is primarily the responsibilityworking definition of the issue. of the teacher. The teacher selects a real-life issue, The teacher gives students a copy of "Standard- develops a rationale for its study, selects instruc- ized Testing: A Defense" by K. H. Ashworth tional materials, determines the approximate (1990). As students read the article, the teacher time for the entire lesson, and establishes anencourages them to underline information that open-minded and respectful climate of teacher- clarifies the intent of the author or take notes in student mutual trust. This last area is very impor-order to understand the inferences about standard- tant in the entire process of teaching issues. ized testing that the article offers. To help the stu- Sweeney and Parsons (1975, 47) explain: dents understand the facts, values, and definitions of the material, the teacher asks students to use Perhaps the most important teacher ingre- their notes to discuss the answers to the following dient for the examination of controversial general questions (Sweeney and Parsons 1975, 56): issues, is establishing the emotional climate What does the material say? of the classroom. Itiscritical that the What is the intention of the material? teacher establish rapport in a class where How does the material want you to feel? controversial issues are going to be dis- What is occurring in the material? cussed. There must be mutual confidence What action is happening? that the students can and will supply important information to the discussions. After the discussion, the teacher asks, "What The students must have faith that the issue appears sufficiently important that we teacher can moderate an open and honest might continue to focus on it through the bal- discussion of the materials. If the teacher ance of this unit?" has a bias, the students must be confident that the teacher will show it as a bias. Phase III: Clarification Phase III helps students to analyze their own In the testing lesson, the teacher begins with values and belief systems relevant to the issue a series of five questions meant to provoke strong under study. Students must come to some under- emotional responses: standing of how they feel about the issue. This "If I use the word test or testing, what comes phase allows students to think deeply about their to your mind?" positions and to become acquainted and learn "How many tests do you think you take in a about the positions of others both in and out of year?" the classroom.

223 233 The teacher begins this phase by organizing Who do you think influences your decisions? the class into small groups of four students. Can you trace some influence to another Students are instructed to discuss their feelings person? Why do you think it is that person? and beliefs about the issue of standardized test- GOAL 3: To discuss examples of similar value ing as they understand it. Each group is to take conflicts: notes on the groups' conversation and report to What are other examples of the stated value the whole class. The groups meet for about ten to controversy? fifteen minutes, depending on student interest. How are they compared or contrasted with After a lively discussion, the teacher records the our example? groups' findings on the chalkboard. Have similar questions been raised and The teacher next asks the class what they resolved in the past? If so, how? must do to find answers to any questions that they might have and find outside support for These same questions guide the whole class their positions. The students might poll their discussion after the small groups report on their parents, friends, other students, teachers, and findings. The teacher notes on the chalkboard the administrators both in their and other high value conflicts that emerged from the discussions, schools. Some might begin a library search ofsuch as control of testing results vs. individual relevant information or expert opinion in such self-control; rote memorization vs. multiple intel- references as Facts on File or the Readers' Guide to ligences; teaching to tests vs. real-life learning. Periodicals. Students then divide up responsibilities and determine a schedule. Phase V: Reflection In Phase V students reflect on what they have Phase IV: Classification and Comparison been thinking and doing concerning the issue In Phase IV the teacher develops activities to and if they have changed their opinions about the help students probe the underlying values in issue. The small groups discuss what they believe the presented materials, compare those valuesto be the implications of the values and value with their own, support their positions, and conflicts discussed so far in the study. To help the determine the influencing sources of their values discussion, the teacher asks the students: "What (personal experience, family, religion, television, is it we do like about these implications?" "What etc.). The teacher structures open-minded dis- is it we don't like about these implications?" To cussions that analyze different and similar posi- elicit student responses, the teacher asks students tions and concludes the phase by helpingto personally answer the following questions students extract 1. the basic conflicts inherent in (Sweeney and Parsons 1975, 64): the presented materials,2.the students' own val- Have my values changed? In what ways? Why? ues, and3.values and conflicts from other Have my values remained as they were? sources of information. If so, why? In their groups the students discuss the infor- Have I modified my values? In what ways? Why? mation they collected and then discuss the follow- Having made decisions about the issues ing questions (Sweeney and Parsons 1975, 61). involved, what are the implications of the decisions? How do they affect me as GOAL 1: To probe the underlying values in an individual? the presented material: What can I do about my decisions? What are some of the value conflicts which If I do act, what are the alternatives of my seem to be involved in this issue? action? How many sides are there to this controversial topic? Phase VI: Application GOAL 2: To compare student values with Phase VI allows students to apply what they those values presented in the materials: have learned and put their values into action. The How do you view the various sides of this teacher encourages students to find ways in issue? which to take action based on their decisions and How did you arrive at your decisions? values. Students who do not wish to take part in Do you know whether your family would agree the implementation of any decision should not with you on your decisions? Why or why not? be forced to do so. According to Sweeney and

224 234 Parsons (1975), the application process is not in developing perspectives about issues. always an essential aspect of the model. The teacher asks students, "Assume that you are in a position to solve most of the problems References associated with standardized testing as we have American Psychological Association. Statement on the discussed them. Based on the alternatives to Curriculum for the High School Psychology Course. testing that you have proposed, do you think Washington, D.C.: American Psychological that some sort of action should be undertaken?" Association, 1986. "Do you want to propose some type of action?" Ashworth, K. H. "Standardized Testing: A Defense." "Do you want to carry it out?" After much dis- Educational Digest 56 (1990): 40-42. cussion, students develop possible proposals and Basirica, L. A. "Integrating Sociological Practice into carry out their plans. Traditional Sociology Courses." Teaching Sociology 18 (January 1990): 57-62. Phase VII: Evaluation Berger, P. L. Invitation to Sociology: A Humanistic The last phase, evaluation, is not always a Perspective. New York Anchor Books, 1963. part of the Sweeney and Parsons Controversial Bodley, J. H. Cultural Anthropology: Tribes, States, and the Social Issues Model. If evaluation is used, it Global System. Mountain View, Calif.: Mayfield should emphasize process and students' person- Publishing, 1994. al learning during the lessons, not acquisition of Dewey, J. How We Think. New York D. C. Heath, 1933. specific content. The teacher can use multiple Dressel, P. "Films That Put Social Problems in Global activities to evaluate student learning: ask ques- Context." Teaching Sociology 18 (April 1990): 226-30. tions; have written reports; or have a student- Engle, S. H., and A. S. Ochoa. Education for Democratic initiated activity that is concerned with the stu- Citizenship: Decision Making in the Social Studies. dent's ability to analyze, take a position, and New York Teachers College Press, 1988. logically evidence a position. Erickson, P A., ed. Interim Report on Precollege In this last phase, the teacher asks, "Now that Anthropology Committee on Research to the AAA Task you are somewhat experts in testing and evalua- Force on Teaching Anthropology in Schools. Halifax, tion, should we evaluate our experiences?" "On Nova Scotia: St. Mary's University, 1991. what should we evaluate?" "And how should we Evans, R. W. "A Bold Vision for the Future of Social evaluate?" The students, then, design and imple- Studies." In The Future of the Social Studies, edited by ment their own evaluation. M. R. Nelson. Boulder, Colo.: Social Science We believethattheSweeney-Parsons Education Consortium, Inc., 1994. Controversial Social Issues Model is an excellent Friedman, N. L. "Expansively 'Doing' Sociology: model for teachers to use in developing issues- Thoughts on the Limits and Linkages of centered lessons and units dealing with anthro- Sociological Practice." ASA Footnotes 15 (1987): 11. pological, sociological, and psychological con- Gray, P. S. "Sociology" In Charting a Course: Social cepts and topics. The Sweeney-Parsons model Studies for the 21st Century, a report of the National capitalizes on student interest and concerns of Commission on Social Studies in the Schools, 71- the community and/or larger society. It offers 75. Washington, D. C.: National Commission on teachers the flexibility to decide how much time Social Studies in the Schools, 1989. and how much depth might be necessary to study Gray, P S. "Sociology in the Schools." In Teaching Social a topic. And, most importantly, it encourages stu- Studies, edited by V.S. Wilson, JA. Little, and G.L. dents to thoughtfully examine decisions and the Wilson. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1993. decision-making process as they develop per- Henslin, J. M. Down to Earth Sociology. 5th ed. spectives on the issues they face in everyday life. New York Free Press, 1988. Hunt, M. P, and L. E. Metcalf. Teaching High School Resources in Anthropology, Social Studies. New York Harper and Row, 1968. Sociology, and Psychology Ingrassia, M. "Growing Up Fast and Frightened." Because there are many resources available for Newsweek, November 22,1993,52-53. teachers who teach concepts from these three Macdonald, J. B. "Value Bases and Issues for Curric- disciplines, we have listed on the next page sever- ulum." In Curriculum Theory, edited by A. Molnar al general resources that offer ideas and other and J. A. Zahorilc Washington, D.C.: Association resource materials, some that may help students for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1977.

225 235 Resources in Anthropology, Sociology, and Psychology

AnthroNotes, a National Museum NW, Washington, DC 20036, (202)833-3410. of Natural HistoryBulletinfor Teaching Sociologyis an excellent Teachersis published three times a year and was American Sociological Association journal for originallypartof theGeorge Washington ideas on teaching sociological concepts and topics. University/Smithsonian Institution Anthropology Also primarily written for the collegiate level but for Teachers Program, funded by the National adaptable. Science Foundation. Free. Contact Anthropology The American Psychological Associa- OutreachandPublicInformationOffice, tion Monitoris the association's monthly high Department of Anthropology, NHB 363 MRC 112, school psychology newsletter, which includes teach- Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC 20560. ing activities and curriculum materials. Careers in TheTeacher's Resource Packet: Psychology is also available. The APA sends the Anthropology,published by the Anthropol- newsletter free to all its High School Teacher ogy Outreach Office of the Smithsonian Institu- Affiliates. Write the APA, 750 First Street, NE, tion is also available upon request. It contains infor- Washington, DC 20002, (202)336-5500. mation, articles, activities, and resources on anthro- Teaching of Psychologyis a journal with pology, American Indians, creationism, and local ideas, lessons, and activities that may be used to archaeology. Contact at address above. improve teaching at all levels. TheGuide to Departments of Anthro- The Opposing Viewpoints Series,edit- pology,which describes facilities and pro- ed by D. L. Bender and B. Leone and published by grams at over 250 schools and museums in the Greenhaven Press, offers 61 paperbacks dealing United States and Canada and a Summer Field with a wide range of controversial topics, many School List, isavailable from the American related to anthropology, sociology, and psychology, Anthropological Association, the central profes- including abortion, AIDS, death and dying, sional organization of anthropologists, at 4350 male/female roles, and racism. Each paperback North Fairfax Drive, Suite 640, Arlington, VA offers pro and con debates on the specific issue. 22230, (703)528-1902, ext. 3005. Rethinking Schoolsis a nonprofit, indepen- Innovative Techniques,a resource guide dent newspaper advocating the reform of elemen- with suggested lessons and activities for teaching tary and secondary public schools with emphasis sociology,ispublishedbytheAmerican on urban schools and issues of equity and social Sociological Association. Although it is mainly justice. It provides editorials, articles of interest, intended for college level, the high school teacher and examples of teaching that would be of inter- can adapt the activities and lessons. Send $11.50 est to teachers employing issues-centered instruc- for members or $15.50 for nonmembers to the tion. Contact Rethinking Schools, 1001 E. Keefe American Sociological Association, 1722 N Street Avenue, Milwaukee, WI 53212, (414)964-9646.

Massialas, B. G., and B. C. Cox. Inquiry in Social Rice, M. J. "Precollege Anthropology/Archaeology." Studies. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1966. In Teaching Social Studies, edited by V. S. Wilson, Mills, C. W. The Sociological Imagination. Fair Lawn, J. A. Little, and G. L. Wilson. Westport, Conn.: NJ.: Oxford University Press, 1959. Greenwood Press, 1993. Muessig, R. H., ed. Controversial Issues in the Social Rollwagen, J. R. "Anthropology and 'Contemporary Studies: A Contemporary Perspective. Washington, Issues': Anthropology, Political Economy, and the D.C.: National Council for the Social Studies, 1975. General Education Curriculum." Urban Anthropology National Commission on Social Studies in the Schools. 18 (1989): 135-51. Charting a Course: Social Studies for the 21st Century. Sociological Resources for the Social Studies. Inquiries Washington, D.C.: National Commission on Social in Sociology. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1972. Studies in the Schools, 1989. Stewart, E.W., and J. A. Glynn. Introduction to Sociology. National Council for the Social Studies. The Curriculum 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1985. Standards for Social Studies. Washington, D.C.: Smith, D. W. " What Went Wrong with the Social National Council for the Social Studies, 1994. Studies Reform Movement." Indiana Social Studies

226 2 c Quarterly 15 (April 1981): 19-24. Sweeney J. A. C. , and J. B. Parsons. "Teacher Preparation and Models for Teaching Controversial Social Issues." In Controversial Issues in the Social Studies:A Contemporary Perspective, edited by R. H. Muessig. Washington, D.C.: National Council for the Social Studies, 1975. Wallace, W. L. " Standardizing Basic Concepts in Sociology" American Sociologist 21 (Winter 1990): 352-58. White, J. J. "Anthropology" In ChartingA Course: Social Studies for the 21st Century, a report of the National Commission on Social Studies in the Schools, 31-36. Washington, D.C.: National Council for the Social Studies, 1989.

227 2 3 7 a Parr Sen aII AssBS° rric

Introduction bq William C. Wraga

f one takes seriously the historic mission ofcurriculum, offering "real life" examples of such education in the United States to educate practices throughout the chapter. They also sug- enlightened citizens of democracy who act as gest the possibilities of examining issues in inter- a check against the powers-that-be, it is diffi- disciplinary units and outline an extensive unit cult to deny the imperative of teaching stu- on racism in the United States. dents how to examine, evaluate, and act upon Robert Yager and Martha Lutz briefly build a important public issues. These tasks are, after all, case for teaching with social issues in science and principal competencies of the office of citizen in mathematics on the basis of constructivist learn- a democratic republic. Teaching and learning ing theory. For these authors, the contexts that about social issues should, therefore, permeate students need to construct knowledge meaning- the public school curriculum. The aim of this fully are found in problematic societal issues to section is to offer practical ideas, strategies, and which appropriate science and mathematics sub- examples of teaching about social issues acrossjects are applied. Yager and Lutz indicate that the curriculum and throughout the grade levels. the conditions favorable for knowledge construc- Recognizing that students are faced with tion are in fact hallmarks of Science-Technology- social issues on a daily basis, Dorothy Skeel pre- Society education and review the implications of sents a rationale for issues-focused curriculum recent developments in science and mathematics and instruction on the elementary level, identifies education reform for constructivism and for criteria for selecting appropriate issues for chil-issues-centered curriculum and instruction. dren to examine, and recommends specific issues Finally, they describe four examples of issues- and activities for the primary and upper elemen- centered science and mathematics curriculum tary grades. The issues she recommends relateand instruction in action. both to the social studies curriculum and to the Acknowledging that adolescents face a myri- local community. Skeel identifies developmental- ad of social issues, Ronald Evans and Jerry ly-appropriate trade books and outlines a sampleBrodkey call for a substantive change in the orga- unit organizing the total curriculum around a nization of the high school social studies curricu- particular social issue. lum. After summarizing existing models for Samuel Totten and Jon Pedersen recognize issue-focused social studies, namely those devel- that not only are students bombarded with socialoped by Hunt and Metcalf, Oliver and Shaver, issues in the media as well as the home, school,Engle and Ochoa, and Stanley and Nelson, they and community, but also that many students present a new framework that attempts to build experience social issues first hand. They summa- upon these previous efforts. Evans and Brodkey rize recent developments in middle level educa- propose to organize the curriculum around social tion that point to the need for focusing curricu- realities and related ethical issues. They offer an lum and instruction on personal-social issues andextensive outline for a high school social studies offer useful criteria for identifying issues appro- program that identifies major topics and focus priate to middle level students. Totten and questions for each course. They conclude their Pedersen suggest a variety of ways to incorporatechapter by discussing the strengths and weak- the study of societal issues into all subjects of the nesses of their proposal. William Wraga suggests ways to infuse teaching about societal issues across the secondary curriculum, focusing on those areas not addressed in the other chapters and including cocurricular activities. Wraga explains how the English, fine and performing arts, modern foreign language, physical education and health, and vocational curricula can contribute to developing students' understanding of social issues. He identifies pertinent issues that can be infused into these subject areas, suggests issues-related goals and objectives, presents guidelines for handling controversialissuesin the classroom, and describes several interdisciplinary approaches to teaching about issues that combine or transcend the conventional subjects. The authors in this section regard the reality that students already face pressing social issues and the imperative that the schools prepare students for the office of participatory citizenship as challenges to the K-12 curriculum to embrace teaching and learning about social issues as a means to achieving the greater end of sustaining our fragile democratic republic. It is hoped that together these chapters will serve as a modest resource of useful ideas for the practicing educator who wishes to teach students how to act on societal issues in a thoughtful, responsible fashion. In this way teachers can participate in the historic mission of American education to prepare students for participatory citizenship in a democratic republic. SSUES-CENTERED ELEMENTARY CURRICULUM J. Mel

harlene, a kindergartner, lives in a home- ronment, the nation, and the world. .01less shelter with her mother and sister. Many would question whether elementary Kenya, a happy African American second school children should study social issues. grader, hears the epithet "nigger" as his Parents often do not want their children to raise jbus pulls away from school. Roscoe, aquestions or confront serious matters. Teachers, fourth grader, watches a drug deal go too, may steer away from controversial issues, down from the front steps of his home in the especially in the elementary school (Gross 1989). projects and wonders if his family will ever be Yet research suggests that "learning activities and able to live in a better neighborhood. Rachel materials should be concrete, real, and relevant to watches the news each night in her rural home, the lives of young children" (National Associ- but does not understand why there is fighting ination for the Education of Young Children 1986, Bosnia or Rwanda; they do not talk about it in 7). Joyce (1970, 255) reminds us, "The natural her fifth-grade class. Angela, with her sixth-world of childhood is filled with conflict, aggres- grade class, takes pictures of the pollution that a sion, interdependence and warmth. To pretend chemical company left in a lot around the corner that their world is bland is false." from her school. Children construct their social knowledge as they attempt to build coherent systems that will Rationale allow them to think about and explain their Elementary school children everyday con- immediate environment and the larger world: front situations like those above and others that Put another way, children's social judgments are equally difficult for them to understand. The are not random responses; rather they are the media brings into their homes the stark realities result of the application of analysis and reason in of the problems facing our nation and the world. the social world and are influenced by such How do they learn to cope with these problems? factors as peer groups, adults, social and educa- More importantly, how do they learn to seek tional environments, experiences, and the insti- solutions to them? How do they relate the his- tutions to which they are exposed. Social judg- toric events of the past with what is happening in ments also involve more than the child's "getting their lives today? How can they become rational, along" in the home or school environment. They participating members of society? involve the child's ability to make decisions An issues-centered social studies curriculum about such issues as race and ethnicity, citizen offers opportunities for children to develop cop- concerns of law and justice, and social welfare ing and problem-solving skills and to use the and economics, many of which make competing knowledge of the past to understand the present. claims in a rapidly changing world. (Turiel 1983, Issues-centered study leads students to question, as cited in National Council for the Social to acquire information from different perspec- Studies 1989, 19). tives, to discern fact from fiction, and to develop Research tells us that, for our purposes, the their reasoning skills. Students confront issues early years of life are important, because we are that have plagued society over the centuries, as more open to diversity (Stone 1986) and have an well as issues that confront their immediate envi- interest in and analyze racial and ethnic differ-

240 ences (Semaj 1980). Racial and ethnic prejudices6.Is it appropriate for the children's develop- are well established and resistant to change by the mental level? Each teacher must answer these time children reach age nine or ten (Joyce 1970). questions relative to the children in the class- Also by this age, self-concepts are formed, and room. However, it should be understood that the positive feelings about the self are important instudy of issues is not an add-on to the curricu- social interactions (Stanley 1985); politicallum. It is, rather, a different way to look at socialization is well advanced by the end of ele- instruction. It is recognizing that, as a teacher, mentary school. Additionally, children will have you are not passing on a set of right answers to developed a sense of need for consensus andchildren, but that you are assisting them in seek- majority rule (Hess and Torney 1967). ing answers to questions that excite and motivate Young children develop personal flexibility, them, questions that may have many possible creativity, open mindedness, and tolerance ofanswers. Issues are often best stated in the form unfamiliar ideas through interaction with their of questions. socialenvironment( Joyce1970;National Association for the Education of Young Children Suggested Issues-Focused Activities 1986). Issues-focused instruction provides opportunities for children to work with others, learnPrimary Grades how to handle conflict, solve problems, develop As an example of issues-focused activities, we concern for others, and interact with value issues will highlight the topic of homes. When kinder- that they encounter daily in their environment. garten children are studying about homes, they These experiences will permit children to become may ask the questions, Why do people live in reflective citizens who understand their world, different types of homes? Why do some people who can make rational decisions, and who will benot have a home to live in? For both questions, humane, participating members of society. there may be several answers. In this situation, instead of giving children pat answers as to why Developing the Curriculum people live in apartments, houseboats, etc., How should an issues-centered curriculum rather provide them the opportunity to think for the elementary school be organized? How do about the different possibilities. The same is true teachers decide which issues to pursue? Engle of the homeless situation; there may be various (1989) suggests that teachers should be highlyreasons why people are homeless. One of the selective and limit study to a relatively smallproblems teachers face in having children seek number of topics or episodes (each of whichalternative answers is securing information that should be examined in depth). The topics should is understandable to them. Often textbooks be those that encourage thinking, may be contro- present "right" answers, as opposed to giving versial, or are "historical interpretations of thechildren the opportunity to arrive at their own past, or about alternative resolutions to social conclusions. problems of the present" (ibid., 187). For young Children's literature, both fiction and non- children in the early grades, the issues should be fiction, may serve as useful resources when teach- more personal, ones that they can understand,ing about issues. As an example, Houses and and with which they have had experiences. Homes, by Ann Morris, describes various types of By the third or fourth grade, children can begin houses and homes around the world and the cul- to examine more abstract issues. turally diverse people who live in them; This Is Selection of the issues to be studied is of cru- My House, by Arthur Dorros, gives full-page cial importance. Criteria to apply include the illustrations of houses around the world with the following: 1. Is the issue of real significance? text written in the language of the country. A 2.Is it likely to be or has it been continuallybook that asks What does home mean? and recurring?3.Will study of the issue help attain answers it multiculturally is Home: A Collabora- the goals of issues-centered education? Will the tion of Thirty Distinguished Authors and Illustra- students become better-informed, thoughtful tors of Children's Books to Aid the Homeless, edited citizens as a result of the study?4.Does the by Michael J. Rosen ("Notable Books" 1993). issue require judgment and/or critical thinking? Older children can make use of other resources, 5. Are the children sufficiently mature andincluding reference books, and can conduct experienced to thoroughly understand the study? interviews, take field trips, or invite knowledge-

231 241 able persons to speak to the class. people not to litter and reminding them to recy- As children listen to the stories and observe cle; learning about laws to fight pollution and the illustrations about homes, they will begin towriting letters to editors or others to encourage examine reasons why people live in the types ofpeople not to litter. homes they do. Questions arise such as Why do Environmental issues can be pursued at any some people who live near the water have their age. When studying the westward movement, for houses built on poles? What type of homes doexample, children can pursue the reason why people live in where it is cold most of the year?people moved and what happened to the land An activity that might follow would be to pose and the animals. Sixth graders might look histor- situations: If you were going to build a home inically at the problems people have had over the the mountains, what might it look like? Why? centuries in attempting to dispose of their waste. Children can draw pictures of homes; for Why has the amount of waste increased? What instance, if they were going to live in the city,can be done about it? what would their home be like? Why? Another As third graders study about their communi- activity might be the building of a house out ofty or communities in other parts of the world, cardboard boxes. The class can then analyze thethey might pursue the issue of why communities issue of people living in cardboard boxes: Whyare formed and why they grow up where they do. does this happen? What would be some of the Interviewing the oldest residents of the commu- problems if you lived in a cardboard box? nity and visiting cemeteries to find out who lived Throughout the elementary grades, issues to there can provide important information about highlight can be identified within the topics the community. Were there immigrants from generally included in the curriculum. Forother countries who came there to live? Why did instance, as children, (whether in first or second some families remain there for generations while grade) pursue the study of neighborhood or theirothers moved on? immediate community, they may focus on the Another issue that may be pursued is housing environment. After a walking tour of the play- patterns in the community. Why do people live ground and several blocks around their school, where they do? Do ethnic and racial groups tend the issue identified may be the types of pollution to live only in certain areas? Have social and eco- present in the neighborhood: Why are they nomic factors caused them to live where they do? there? Children may identify trash that litters Is there prejudice against certain groups in the the playground and streets, air pollution from community? Why? Should attempts be made to cars, or water pollution, if there is a stream or alter the old housing patterns? If so, how can they river nearby. Science may be combined to iden- be changed? tify living things in the neighborhood and how they are affected by the pollution. Upper Elementary Grades If litter is one of the problems the children Research tells us that elementary-age chil- identify, they might collect trash from the play-dren are already aware of societal attitudes ground or a one-block area in the city or a quar- toward different groups of people in regard to ter-mile area around the school in a rural or sub- housing location, dating and marriage, etc. urban area. The children then separate the trash Children can think critically about these things and categorize it. What are the most commonwhen they have sufficient experience and active categories of trash? Why do people throw theseinvolvement in discussion and inquiry (Ragan things away? What can be done to stop it? What and McAulay 1973). As children's thinking abil- is being done to stop it? ities develop they are able to deal with more Children might do a "waste audit" by check- abstract issues. Fourth graders might select a cul- ing the amount and kind of waste in their class- tural group, either in this country or another room and the school, including the cafeteria. country, and determine how the culture has They may examine how much food is wasted, changed. They can then pursue the reasons for how much paper and paint is thrown away, the changes. Did the culture change because the and if this can be changed (Seefeldt 1993, 191). environment changed, such as a loss of resources, There are always action plans that children can drought, or famine? Were the changes a result of pursue, including recycling paper, cans, glass, technology or did other cultural groups cause and plastic; developing posters that encourage themtochange? Any groupof Native

232 Americans, Aztecs, Mayas, or Incas of Centralsolutions might be workable in other areas of the and South America, or the Irish during the pota- country or the world. to famine or any group in a country that was colonized would be used as examples. Current Integrating Issues Within identifiable groups of people that are entering the the Total Curriculum United States would also be examples. The following learning activities are intended Fifth graders typically study U.S. history that as examples of what a teacher might do. Teachers emphasizes the American Revolution, but domay prefer to identify issues related to the units children really understand the concept of revolu- that they currently teach, rather than the issue tion and why it occurs? One way to approach this used here, and other activities can be added subject is through the issue of when and why rev- depending on the class and the amount of time olutions occur. Researching earlier revolutions that will be spent on an issue. and modern-day revolutions, children begin to understand that some revolutions are not wars.The Example What are some of the ideas that have been the The study of an issue can encompass the basis for revolution? How do revolutions start?total curriculum, utilizing connections among How is the Industrial Revolution different fromthe subject areas. When we tackle an issue in our the French and American Revolutions? Ques- everyday world, we do not separate it by subject tioning whether the American Revolution matter; therefore, it seems reasonable that such should have been fought will give children a dif- an approach in the classroom causes unnecessary ferent perspective. How might their lives be schisms. Let us begin with a fifth-grade class different today if it had not occurred? that is about to study the American Revolution. An issue that is generally connected only toInstead of the usual chronological/topical what- the Civil War is that of slavery. Many children were-the-causes approach, we ask the question, think the only slaves were those brought from"Should the American Revolution have been Africa. Historically, different groups of people fought?" As with any other instructional have been slaves or enslavers. Why were peopleapproach, it is important to outline the rationale slaves? What were the economic, religious, cultur- and objectives for the study. al, and geographical reasons for people becoming slaves? By studying slavery from a comparative The Rationale perspective, a more valid concept of the term can Students are presented with a situation: be realized (Baptiste and Baptiste 1977). Events in history that threatened the American Often, local issues that affect students' lives colonists' way of life, such as the imposition of will become a focus of study. A manufacturingheavy taxes, led them to the decision that it was plant closes, leaving many people out of work, important to be free from British rule. As a affecting the parents of children in the school. result, we have the Declaration of Independence What has caused the plant to close? What canand the fighting of the American Revolution: be done about it? Are there other jobs available Should this have happened? Was the American in the community? Do people need new job Revolution necessary? skills to take advantage of available employ- By pursuing these questions, students view ment? How can the community help? Another the revolution from several perspectives and issue that frequently comes up in a community is become decision makers. After investigating the how to help the increasing number of homeless information available about the events leading up families. Children need to investigate what ser- to the war and thereafter, students test several vices are available for the homeless in the com- alternatives to war and decide whether they munity. Who helps thempublic or private believe it should have happened or could have organizations? What else can be done? How can been avoided. The goal of the study is to foster the children help out? the skills necessary for democratic citizenship. Many of the issues above are common to communities across the nation and the rest ofThe Objectives the world. After pursuing solutions to the prob- In this exercise, students will lems in their own communities, children can search for information from different perspec- then expand their study to determine if the same tives and a variety of sources;

233 9 4 el learn to assess and validate information; Washington (Carolrhoda, 1986). use skills of critical thinking, problem solving, Smith, Carter, ed. The Arts and SciencesA Sourcebook and decision making; on Colonial America; Daily LifeA Sourcebook on become aware of the interrelationships among Colonial Life; The Revolutionary WarA Sourcebook content areas; on Colonial America (Millbrook, 1991). communicate with members of a group through a variety of means; 7 Have students take on the role of colonists use skills of cooperation in working with and write letters to their relatives in Great the members of a group; Britain explaining what is happening in the learn to accept the opinions of others and colonies. Some students should write from the recognize that opinions will vary. perspective of loyalists.

Integrated Activities Estimate the distance of the colonies from There are any number of possible activities to 4Great Britain and how long it would take to accompany this study. The following is an outlinetravel between the two lands. Investigate the of some suggestions. number of troops that were brought to the 1j Place the Declaration of Independence on acolonies from Great Britain. Find out the num- 0 series of transparencies. With the entire class, ber that could be carried in each ship and esti- analyze the document and identify in it the griev- mate the number of ships it would take to trans- ances of the colonists. Make a list of the griev- port them. Also determine how long it would ances. For example, the British failed to approve take to bring supplies for the troops from Great laws passed by governors; dissolved houses ofBritain. representation; kept armies in the colonies during peaceful times; cut off trade with other countries; E Investigate the number of troops that were imposed taxes without colonists' consent; and d quartered in colonists' homes. Determine deprived the colonists of trial by jury. what the cost would be to the families to keep the After the class has identified the grievances,soldiers. Decide whether this was a legitimate divide them into small groups with each groupgrievance. Estimate what the cost would be to taking one of the grievances to investigate. quarter troops in people's homes today. Within each group, some students should view the grievances from the perspective of the fo After reading Buttons for General Washington, colonists, while others view it from the perspec- Paul Revere's Ride, and Arts and Sciences tives of the Loyalists (those sympathetic to theA Sourcebook on Colonial America, determine the crown). Each group should identify the event or extent of the technology available at that time. events that have caused their grievance. Later,Find out how people communicated within the after the research is completed, the groups shouldcolonies and with people in Great Britain. present their information to the class from both Determine how long it would take to get mes- perspectives. sages from Great Britain to the colonies. Discuss the effect that lags in communication might have Have students read literature that will helpon the war. Determine the types of guns and IU them understand what life was like in theammunition that both sides had available and colonies at the time of the revolution. Bookswhether that could affect the outcome. can be read to the students or they may read them individually or in groups. Some possibilities 7 Develop a time line of the major battles of the are the following: 11 Revolutionary War. At the same time, devel- Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth. Paul Revere's Ride op a map of Great Britain and the colonies, indi- (Dutton, 1990). cating where battles were fought and what the Meltzer, Milton. The American Revolutionaries: A History outcomes were, including the battles at sea. in Their Own Words, 1750-1800 (Crowell, 1987); George Washington and the Birth of Our Nation Have students role play. This should be used (Watts, 1986); Thomas Jefferson: The Revolutionary till in seeking solutions to issues or in presenting Aristocrat (Watts, 1991). issues as "real-life" situations, demonstrating how Roop, Peter, and Connie Roop. Buttons for General they affect the lives of people. It may also illus-

234 2 4 4 trate the complexities of issues and the differentSummary value positions people hold. Role playing a dis- This chapter has demonstrated how issues- cussion between a colonist who is a patriot and centered social studies education can be imple- one who is a loyalist is one example. Other situ- mented within an elementary curriculum. An ations that might be good for role playing would example of a historical issue, the American be Cornwallis' surrender to Washington atRevolution, illustrates how the total curricu- Yorktown or the signing of the peace treaty inlumincluding reading and language arts, Paris. Murals could be painted as backdrops, pro- math, science, the arts, and certainly social stud- viding a more authentic setting for the situation. iescan be integrated through such study. One cannot deny the importance of the elementary Have students draw political cartoonsyears in laying the foundation for later and depicting different perspectives of the causes increasingly mature understanding of civic of war, for example, loyalist and patriot posi- responsibility and the information and skills tions. necessary to make informed rational decisions as a citizen of a democracy. An issues-centered in Using primary sources, such as diaries, let- social studies curriculum provides the opportu- [U. ters, and journals, help students under- nities to develop those skills and to foster a life- stand the feelings and ideas of the people long habit of active participation for living in involved in the war. Abigail Adams' letters to a democracy. her husband, John Adams, when he was attending the Continental Congress in Philadelphia is a good example. Letters among the delegates at References the Constitutional Convention and those who Baptiste, H. Prentice, and Mira Baptiste. "Developing were in Europe, such as Thomas Jefferson, John Multicultural Activities." In Multicultural Education: Adams, and Thomas Paine, tell some of the Commitments, Issues, and Applications, edited by story of what was happening as the Constitution Carl A. Grant. Washington, D.C.: Association for was being written. Paintings and music from Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1977. that era could further illustrate what life was like Engle, Shirley H. "Proposal for a Typical Issue- and how people represented it through the arts. Centered Curriculum" Social Studies 80 (September/October 1989): 187-189. 11 Investigate the forms of government in the Gross, Richard. "Reasons for the Limited Acceptance of

11II coloniesbeforetheDeclarationof the Problems Approach." Social Studies 80 Independence, during the time of the Articles (September/October 1989): 185-186. of Confederation, and after the Constitution. Hess, R. D., and Judith Torrey. The Development of This provides important information to students Political Attitudes in Children. Chicago: Aldine, 1967. that will help them make some decisions about Joyce, Bruce R. "Social Action for the Primary Schools." the revolution. A data retrieval chart might be Childhood Education 46 (February 1970): 254-258. used to illustrate the differences among the gov- National Association for the Education of Young ernments at each of these times and their effect Children. "Position Statement on Developmentally on the colonies and the people. Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood Programs Serving Children from Birth through Age 8." 9. As a culminating activity, a debate or panel Young Children (September, 1986): 4-19. discussion can be held to discuss whether National Council for the Social Studies. "Social Studies the American Revolution should have been for Early Childhood and Elementary School fought. Alternatives to the war should be dis- Children Preparing for the 21st Century." cussed. Students should consider what their lives Social Education 53 (January 1989): 14-23. might be like if the war had not been fought. "Notable 1992 Children's Trade Books in the Field of After the debate or discussion, each student Social Studies." Social Education 57 (April/May should decide whether he or she would have 1993): 197-208. been a patriot or loyalist if he or she had lived at Ragan, William, and John D. McAulay. Social Studies for that time. Each should write down his or her Today's Children. 2nd edition. New York: Appleton- decision and give reasons for being a patriot or Crofts, 1973. loyalist. Seefeldt, Carol. Social Studies for the Preschool-Primary

235 245 Child New York Merrill, 1993. Semaj, L. 'The Development of Racial Evaluation and Preference: A Cognitive Approach." journal of Black Psychology 6 (1980): 59-79. Stanley, William B. Review of Research in Social Studies Education: 1976-1983. Washington, D. C.: National Council for the Social Studies, 1985. Stone, Lynda. "Intercultural and Multicultural Education." In Elementary School Social Studies: Research as a Guide to Practice, edited by Virginia A. Atwood. Washington, D. C.: National Council for the Social Studies, 1986.

236 ISSES-CENTERED CURRICULA AND INSTRUCTION AT TE MIDDLE LEVEL

bq Sd el Totten and Jon Pedersen

hether adults wish to believe it or not, prior to age 15 and as many as 20 to 25 per- early adolescents are definitely aware of, cent already have problems with substance if not influenced and plagued by, many abuse by that age. of the key social issues of our times. How (Scales 1991, 28) pfcould it be otherwise when the media radio, television, newspapers, and maga- At present, one in five young adolescents zinesflood our homes and schools daily with aged ten to fifteen lives in poverty. more and more information about the latest (Hechinger 1992, 30) problems and issues facing Americans. Indeed, it is astounding to consider what sitcoms, talk About 10,000 adolescents under the age of shows, television movies, compact discs, and fifteen annually give birth in the United videos disseminate to our young people. Through States. such means, they may witness tales of drug abuse, (Hechinger 1992, 72) the homeless, racism, discrimination, genocide, child and spouse abuse, gang warfare, degrada- Society can hardly expect young people to tion of the environment, and poverty. That doesbecome fully engaged, thoughtful, and active not even take into consideration what young citizens if our schools do not prepare them to be adolescents see, hear, and experience in their own informed and skilled in responsibly addressing homes, schools, and communities. socialissues. The CarnegieFoundation's It is a simple but profound fact that many(Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development early adolescents have firsthand knowledge of1989, 93) report on middle level education cor- society's ills and problems. Statistics on the num- roborated this point when it asserted that young ber of early adolescents affected by poverty, vio- people should be "encouraged to reflect on the lence, homelessness, drug use, and crime open underlying causes of current social problems and our eyes to the realities: to design appropriate action campaigns in response to these conditions." By the end of October 1992, 4,051 of cases A key rationale educators have for developing of AIDS were in children less than 13 years and implementing an issues-centered education- of age; 912 cases were in adolescents aged al program is to develop "a unitary field, fusing 13-19; and 103,842 cases were in young material from the disciplines but organizing it adults 19-34 years. Because of the 10-year around societal issues or problems" (Evans 1989, average incubation period for AIDS, many 178). At the heart of issues-centered education is young adults who have AIDS were infected the recognition that change and healthy conflict with HIV in their teens. are inherent in a democratic society. The aim of (Council of Chief State School Officers this approach is to develop reflective citizens who January 1993, 1) are ultimately capable of rationally analyzing, synthesizing, and acting upon issues central to Between 60 and 75 percent of all adoles- citizenship. Students learn to acknowledge, cents first try alcohol or tobacco products appreciate, and wrestle with the need to continu-

247 ously reinterpret, reevaluate, and address societal while the "broad fields," "social problems," and values, issues, and policies. At the core of the "emerging needs" approaches all have the poten- issues-centered instructional process is discus- tial for engaging students in an issues-centered sion, problem solving, investigation, and reflec- approach, they are the most seldom used tion.Finally,inherentinanyissues- approaches in middle level programs today. centered program is the commitment to a learn-The two key reasons why the subject-centered ing process in which students examine issuesapproach has held up so long is simpletradi- central to their lives. tion drives the curriculum and instructional programs of most schools, and public schools are Middle School Curriculum overwhelmingly influenced by the curriculum of and Instruction postsecondary educational institutions, which Surprisingly, while much discussion in the have a propensity for approaching curriculum in United States has centered on meeting the an almost strictly subject-area fashion. unique educational needs of early adolescents, That said, three recent developments provide discussion about the middle level curriculum has hope on the middle level front in garnering been, at least until very recently, oddly and dis-middle level educators' commitment to imple- turbingly shunted aside or totally ignored. Beane ment a personal and social problems curricular (1990, 5) cogently noted that approach. First, the Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development (1989, 15-16) delin- efforts to reform middle level education eated five qualities that it envisions "in the have made considerable progress in the 15-year-old who has been well served in the nearly thirty years of the middle school middle years of schooling." Three are particular- movement, particularly with regard to ly germane to an issues-centered curriculum developing more widespread awareness of the development of 1. an intellectually reflective the characteristics of early adolescence and person: "to analyze problems and issues, examine reorganizing institutional features, such as the component parts, and reintegrate them into school climate. ... Largely obscured in this either a solution or into a new way of stating the search for improved middle level education problem or issue";2.a good citizen: "accept has been what is probably the most critical responsibility for shaping and not simply being question in this or any other kind of shaped by surrounding events.... ayouth who authentic school reform: What should be the is a doer, not just an observer. ... a feeling of curriculum of the middle school? personal responsibility for and connection to the well-being of an interdependent world commu- Unfortunately, for the most part, the curricu- nity"; and 3. a caring and ethical individual: "rec- lar programs in many so-called middle schools ognize that there is good and bad and that it is today are no different from those found in typi- possible and important to tell the difference. ... cal junior highs. That is, they are generally tradi- exhibit the courage to discern the difference as tional in their approach"subject centered anda normal part of daily life and to act on the largely academic" (Beane 1990, 8). This situationconclusions reached." persists despite the fact that over the past forty- Second, the National Middle School Associ- five years or so, numerous individuals in both theation (1993) developed a position paper (NMSA junior-high (Gruhn and Douglas 1947; Faunce 1992) on middle level curriculum, which contin- and Bossing 1958; Van Til, Vars, and Lounsbury ues to be germane to a personal- and social- 1967) and middle level (Moss 1969; Lounsbury focused curricular approach: and Vars 1978; Arnold, 1985; Vars 1987; Beane 1990) movements have called for at least a por- We strongly support learning experiences tion, if not the total curriculum, to be "problems- which: help young adolescents make sense of based." But, as Beane (1990, 23) pointed out, not themselves and the world around them; only has a problems-based approach largely been address students' own questions and focus ignored but the reality is that "middle school upon enduring issues and ideas; and actively practice continues to be confounded by the dead- engage students in problem-solving and a ening effects of low level subject area instruc- variety of experiential learning opportunities. tion." Toepfer (1992) agreed and noted that ...Further, we advocate learning experiences

ri 4 230 Ka ,;>2,5 which: cultivate initiative and responsibility; lescents have many and varied needs and inter- involve students in meaningful and useful ests, educators must develop diverse and versatile service activities; and above all, seek to devel- curricular and instructional programs. Such an op good people, fostering caring for others, approach reflects the major tenet of middle level democratic values, and moral sensitivity. education in attending to all aspects of young adolescents' developmentcognitive, social, Third, Beane (1990, 21) has developed a the- emotional, moral, and physical. oretical curriculum framework for the middle For those working with middle level students, level. The goal, in part, is to "integrat[e] infor- it is a good idea to begin planning issues-cen- mation from different subjects within themes tered programs by tapping student curiosity, that transcend the subjects themselves." More interests, and experiences. As Berman (1993, 9) specifically, he argued that "the middle school observed, it is wise for teachers ought to be a general education school and that its version of general education ought to be of the to pay attention to the circumstances of kind based upon personal and social concerns" their students' lives and then create the (36). He argued that a key dimension bridge to the larger world. By helping students see the larger context of their lives which a general education must be con- and enter that context with a sense of concerned [with] is the array of larger social fidence and responsibility, they empower issues that face our society and world today and inspire them. and those which are likely to do so in the future. In conceptualizing this dimension we In selecting issues for study, teachers are wise must remember that early adolescents do not to determine those of the greatest interest to their live in isolation within that stage of develop- students and those that may have the greatest ment or apart from larger realities in the influence upon their lives. Issues of local impor- world....To think that [social] issues are tance often meet these two important criteria remote from early adolescents is to ... miss (Penick 1985; Pedersen 1992; Harms and Yager the fact that they are real people living out 1981; Totten and Pedersen 1993). If a local issue real lives in a very real world....These holds interest and has influence, it is likely that [social issues such as] poverty, homelessness, students will more readily come to understand pollution, and racism are "marginalized" by that social issues faced by members of their com- the typical academic-centered subject area munity may also be common across the state, curriculum both in terms of the narrow view nation, or world. Second, selecting a local issue of what it presents and by what it leaves out. may help students examine the issue "up close." An adequately framed general education Third, and possibly most significant, if the stu- must thus address these issues or risk col- dents become involved in local community ser- lapsing under the weight of its own irrele- vice, the impact of the students' actions will be vancy (38-39) apparent to them. A fifth-grade teacher who approached the study of social issues through the personal con- Selecting Appropriate cerns of his students said: Social Issues for Study As for identifying appropriate issues for early I talk to them about the violence in the adolescents, it is our belief that almost any topic, world and relate that to the violence in their no matter how serious (AIDS, child abuse, the own lives. They are beginning to have homeless) or even horrendous (such as the strong opinions about these issues by fifth Holocaust) can be addressed in a middle level grade. We talk about what could have been classroom if done in a sensitive and pedagogical- done in the situation: What are the possi- ly sound manner. In concert with their students, bilities? Who was affected if the situation teachers must use professional judgment and dis- became violent? What if innocent persons cretion, searching for sensitive and accurate were caught up in this? We often talk about information that challenges but does not depress the 'genie' of violence being released from or overwhelm students. Knowing that early ado- the bottle. Once it'sreleased, you can't

239 249 control it. Lots of times situations that issue because they were genuinely interested and occur in school exemplify that quite readily. concerned about the homelessness problem in (Goodman and Kreidler 1993, 81-82) their community.

Involving students in issue selection corre- Infusing Social Issues at the Middle Level sponds with the tenet of middle level education Can the study of social issues be incorporated that calls for providing students with ampleintoaschool that usesability grouping? opportunity "to choose and make decisions" inA subject-centered curriculum? A multilingual regard to their studies. Teachers and studentsclassroom? A school where student boredom could generate a list of possible issues by: with a staid curriculum has led to outright resis- 1. gleaning those items that particularly catch tance to learning? The answer to each question is students' interest during the daily discussion an unequivocal "yes." Indeed, the incorporation of current events; of social issues into the extant curriculum can be 2. conducting a brainstorming session; done in scores of different ways, e.g., within a 3. placing a suggestion box in the classroom single subject in or outside of the core curriculum in which students submit their ideas; or within a cross-disciplinary or interdisciplinary 4. discussing conflicts in the community and/or approach. It can also be done by conducting the school for which students want more facts; study in advisor/advisee classes or within an 5. generating a web from a target word or exploratory curriculum program. phrase (e.g., "social issues in our communi- In light of the typical constraints in any pub- ty" or "social issues in which I'm interested" lic school setting (e.g., time factors and an already or "social issues that influence young peo- packed curriculum), the most opportune place to ple") to cluster ideas related to interesting include an issues-centered course is within the issues; and exploratory curriculum. In such programs teach- 6. developing a questionnaire and conducting ers generally have greater freedom to develop an a survey. entire course along such perennial issues as racism, poverty, violence, and individual freedom. Speaking about how a student project on That said, those teachers who are either hunger was initiated by her combination innovative or working in schools where there is fourth- and fifth-grade class in Cambridge, more freedom to be innovative can develop out- Massachusetts, Susan Hughes reported that it all standing issues-centered courses within the started with a weekly current events assignment: extant curriculum. An exemplary instance is the one developed by Debbie Bell in northern One week in October, the assignment was California (see below). to bring in a [news item] about something No matter which approach is used, none pre- local. One child brought in an article about cludes incorporating current events, biographies, someone who was homeless in Cambridge. literature, music, and multicultural strands They talked about why people are homeless throughout the study. This not only enriches the and who is homeless and what it would be curriculum but assists students in making con- like to be child in a homeless family. I think nections between the various disciplines, bene- everybody had probably heard about home- fiting students both cognitively and affectively lessness, but had never thought about it in through study that is in depth, not superficial. Cambridge, right in their own area. Most of Such an approach will also more likely meet the children were devastated by the idea the needs of students' various learning styles as that there might be someone who had lived well as their individual interests. near them at one point who might be Take for example Zakiyah Bilal, a seventh- homeless (Reindl 1993, 42) grade English teacher at Solomon Lewenberg Middle School in Mattapan, Massachusetts, The children were curious as to what theywho teaches social issues through the study of could do to help address the problem, and from literature and uses drama and oral history to that news clipping, an issue of high interest engage her students. Her students comprise an hungerbecame the focus of a class project.eclectic groupa mix of African-American, The students chose to study the facets of thisHispanic American, Asian-American, and

240 European-American studentsyet she makes abase their songs. Similar efforts could be con- special effort to portray the richness of her stu- ducted in other fine arts as well. dents' cultures through literature and drama. Another excellent example of the issues- Speaking of the power of literature, she said: centered approach is Debbie Bell's fifth-grade class at Ohlone School in northern California. Good literature has a way of opening up She teaches in a self-contained, bilingual class- topics the kids are concerned about. They're room where 98 percent of her students are children, but they're aware of things.... Hispanic, 89 percent are Limited English There's a lot on kids' minds these days and Proficient, 75 percent meet Chapter 1 require- on mine, too. A student I taughta sixth ments, and 90 percent are members of families grader I remember as the kid who chewed that qualify for Aid to Families with Dependent gumwas stabbed to death in a foolish Children (AFDC). Bell (1992, 175, 177) shared argument. A twelve year old girl was shot to the impact of her program: death on a street corner, mistaken for a gang member....I don't want to exploit my stu- Through our partnership with university dents' bad experiences, or probe any psychic students [from the University of California, wounds. But they have the potential to wit- Santa Cruz], my fifth graders have chal- ness another's pain without laughter or lenged the educational status quo. Because mockery, and I want them to learn through of political, economic, linguistic, cultural, literature that the human spirit is resilient, andeducational"realities"allsocial in spite of terrible circumstances and events. issuesnearly all of my students are (or I want them to know about the sufferings have been perceived as) at risk of dropping and eventual triumphs of Jean Valjean and out of school and/or low academic achieve- Cosette [characters in Victor Hugo's Les ment, or at least are very unlikely to go on Miserables]. About Richard Wright's strug- to higher education, especially above the gle to become literate in a society where it community college level. Those that do was a punishable crime for an African make it into the four-year system are statis- Americantopossessalibrarycard. tically unlikely to graduate. Nonetheless, (Beckwith 1993, 113, 115) this partnership has started to redefine my students as "college bound." Bilal used drama-oral history methods with Langston Hughes' "Thank you, Ma'am," which Within a partnership between fifth graders allowed her to explore the impact of poverty and and university students who write and exchange repression with her studentsmany of whomletters, share translation duties, read letters aloud deal with poverty in their own lives. Students to one another, establishing real and lasting rela- read and discussed the literature and acted out tionships, Bell's students examine many of the folk tales, created alternative endings to stories systemic issues that most teachers shy away from and poems, shared their own experiences and discussing in a school setting, e.g., what it means concerns, and conducted oral histories related to (and feels like) to be marginalized in a society, the stories and issues they read. the lack of expectations by educators and society The incorporation of music is easy to tie to at large for certain portions of our society, and the study of most social issues. Teachers can pro- the power of knowledge and the abuse of that vide the lyrics of rock artists like Sting, Pearl power by those within the power structure (and Jam, Salt-n-Pepa, and others who address social how to overcome that abuse). issues in their music. After listening to and dis- The middle level curriculum is also rich with cussing why songwriters and singers address possibilities for conducting cross-disciplinary and such issues, the students could ascertain what interdisciplinary studies. A group of seventh- the messages are and how accurately the lyrics grade students in Basking Ridge, New Jersey, took portray each problem; creating their own social- partinacross-disciplinarystudy of the ly conscious lyrics and then putting the lyrics to Holocaust, which addressed issues of prejudice, music; performing the songwriters' or their own discrimination, and the deprivation of human lyrics; and reading interviews of songwriters and rights. In this study the social studies teacher musicians about the social issues on which they taught the basic historical events that led up to

241 251

BEST COPY AVAILABLE and culminated in the Holocaust; the Englishgrated and interdisciplinary in nature. If, for teacher read portions of Lois Lowry's Number the example, the students focus on AIDS, trends and Stars to the students (an account of the Danes' cycles could be used as one of the unifying efforts to rescue Jews fleeing the Nazis), and stu- themes that tie together all of the disciplines. dents discussed and wrote about Anne Frank's More specifically, in science the students could diary; the math teacher had "students calculate study the life cycle of the virus; in social studies, therelationshipbetweenthenumber ofthey could track and examine the trends of AIDS Holocaust victims and the current population ofinfection in the community or state; in health, New Jersey"; and the science teacher and students P.E. or home economics, they could track examined "the physiological conditions that madelifestyle trends (e.g., changes) as the epidemic it possible for the Danes to desensitize the sense becomes more worrisome for all members of or smell of guard dogs as part of their rescue society; in math, both statistical trends and cycles efforts" (Townsend and Wraga, forthcoming). regarding the AIDS infection rate in a commu- Eighth-grade English students in Tacoma, nity or state and/or the changes in public opinion Washington, selected to study about the home- as the epidemic becomes more prolonged and less. They generated focal questions, researchedwidespread could be monitored and studied; and, the issue using INFOTRAC (an automated ref- in literature, students could ascertain and study erence system that provides easy and fast com- how the spread and threat of the disease impacts puter-aided retrieval of bibliographic references the trends and changes in the type of literature to more than four thousand magazines, journalsthat is produced. This approach, it should be and newspapers), interacted with guest speakers noted, is still far removed from the "general edu- (including a teacher who had been homeless as cation" model recommended by Beane (1990). well as an advocate for the homeless), read young The table on pages 244 and 245 provides an adult literature whose focus was the homeless, example of an issues-centered unit that covers wrote reflective pieces in journals concerningcore curriculum within a U.S. history course their new insights and feelings in regard to the through an interdisciplinary study centered plight of the homeless, and devised solutions to around a perennial human issue. address the homeless problem. In Media, Pennsylvania, a seventh-grade middle level teacher and her students conducted an any subjects, such as art, physical educa- interdisciplinary study of peoples' perceptions tion, health, industrial arts, music and and treatment of the physically handicapped, home economics, are often perceived as including access and lack of access for such indi- subjects that do not lend themselves to viduals. In doing so, they discussed various dis- the study of social issues. The fact is, abilities; studied the anatomy of the nervous, however, that each of these content areas muscular, and skeletal systems; conducted simula- can address many vitally significant social issues. tions where the students were hearing impaired, On a rather simplistic level, for example, sub- learning disabled, or physically disabled; interact- stance abuse (including use of steroids), AIDS, ed with speakers who were disabled; and evaluat- and stereotyping could easily and powerfully be ed the level of access in their school and, whentied to the extant curriculum in physical educa- they discovered some buildings did not meet basiction. Recycling, hazardous substances, pollution, requirements, drew up an action plan. and defective products are all legitimate issues for Students of Amy Blanchard, a teacher atstudy in the industrial arts classroom. Home eco- Southern Middle School in Louisville, Kentucky, nomics lends itself to the study of abuse in fami- conducted a study of child abuse. Students lies, homelessness, food additives, pesticides, and "interviewed social workers, nurses, and juvenile truth in advertising. Health class promotes justice officials, wrote a seven-act play which theyhealthy life styles and healthy living, and these performed before an audience, and prepared a concerns naturally correspond with such issues as booklet for younger students on how to get help"AIDS, substance abuse, water contamination, (Lewis 1991, 4). poverty, and malnutrition. The environment, On a more sophisticated level, the study could human rights, civil rights, civil disobedience, and involve the use of unifying themes which would war could all be tied to the art and music cur- result in a study that is more thoroughly inte- riculums. Ideally, though, all disciplines, could

242252 approach the study according to Beane's (1990) con- group organization presents a challenge because cept of general education. of the wide span of cognitive and moral reasoning abilities that may be represented in a single Challenges in the Issues-Centered class, and the vast differences in regard to the Classroom students' social and emotional, and physical One of the major problems in implementing development. In order to address these problems, an issues-centered curriculum is the dominance different instructional strategies designed for of the subject-centered curriculum and teachers' teaching and studying about social issues are rec- headlong push to cover everything listed in the ommended with heterogeneous groups, such as curriculum guides, state mandates, and text-Cooperative Controversy (Holubec, Johnson, books. This drive for total coverage emits pres- and Johnson 1992); the Jurisprudential Model sure, convincing many teachers that there is no for Science, Technology, and Society (Pedersen room or time left for the study of social issues. 1992); the Jigsaw Synthesis (Totten 1995); and Instead of examining the age-old curriculumGroup Investigation(Sharanand Hertz- question of "what knowledge is of most worth," Lazarowitz 1980; Wheelock 1992). teachers and administrators take for granted that It is worth noting that the National Associ- the subject approach is the best simply becauseation for Gifted Children (1991) argued that tradition dictates it. However, by using an issue asproviding a homogeneous group for gifted stu- the context, then integrating the various disci- dents allows teachers to match instruction to the plines into the study, the teacher may "cover" less rapidly developing skills and capabilities for the information but the student will more readilygifted student. On the other hand, the National make key connections between major ideas. Middle School Association is adamantly opposed Teachers have also faced the challenge ofto rigid ability grouping in educational settings. implementing interdisciplinary units effectively. As Beane (1990, 21) stated: Matching Missions Despite the few challenges of issues-centered What interdisciplinary teaching does take education in a middle school setting, the goals of place is consistently of a particular kind, issues-centered education and the tenets of mid- namely "simple" correlations of subject dle school education are compatible. A primary areas. For example, many [interdisciplinary] purpose of the study of social issues is to assist teams undertake thematic units ... in which students to become reflective, analytical citizens various subject areas make subject-specific who are capable of participating effectively in a contributions during some part of the unit. democratic,self-governingsociety.Middle However, the subjects retain their distinct school educators accept an extremely worthwhile identity in the units and the contributions undertaking by preparing young adolescents to often depend upon how much time partic- ask penetrating questions, to weigh and solve ular teachers want to devote to them in problems, to search out information pertinent to relation to other content they "need" to make intelligent, just, and measured decisions, cover in their subject. ... [Such teachers end and to add a voice to a shared discussion among up stopping] short of possibilities for inte- all concerned. Through issues-centered educa- grating information from different subjects tion, those who teach early adolescents can capi- within themes that transcend the subject talize upon youth's deep and abiding concern for themselves. the earth, a sense of social justice, and a genuine concern for those who find themselves in unfor- In fact, most middle level teachers only find tunate circumstances. the time to conduct one or two so-called "interdisciplinary" units a year. By truly working with- References in interdisciplinary teams in which team mem- Arnold, John. "A Responsive Curriculum for Early Adoles- bers design a semester- or yearlong curriculum cents." Middle School, ournal6 (May 1985): 14-18. where the disciplines truly and thoroughly inte- Beane, James A. A Middle School Curriculum: From grate around social issues, teachers are able to Rhetoric to Reality. Columbus, Ohio: National move beyond a fragmented approach. Middle School Association, 1990. Issues-centered study within heterogeneous Beckwith, Barbara. "Literature in the Classroom:

243 253 UNIT GOALS DAILY ACTIVITIES Students will gain: Students will: 1. a deeper understanding of racism and its ramifications brainstorm preconceived ideas of racism. throughout history in the United States. share their own experiences in regard to racism: 2. an appreciation and understanding of key documents, legal 1. personally feeling the brunt of it. structures, and legal options for taking action against racism. 2. behaving in a racist manner. 3. observing incidents of racism. Interdisciplinary Nature of Study clarify and define the term racism after: The study draws on and interweaves contributions from such fields 1. webbing or clustering racism as the central theme. as history, political science, English (literature, composition, gram- 2. discussing individual webbing. mar, speaking, and listening), art, and music. 3. creating a mind map based on individual webbings as a whole-class activity. Identifying Central Issues 4.defining racism in small groups, then developing Teacher conducts a brainstorming session to ascertain issues of a class definition. interest that also relate well to students' lives: Teacher will: Individual students "argue" their case for inclusion of share classic examples of racism (e.g., events, incidents, periods) desired issues. within U.S. history and provide a synopsis of each. Study may Following ample discussion, students vote on the preferred issue focus on any of the following events/periods: of unit study. Civil War KKK activity during the 1920s (baiting of Jews, Catholics and UNIT ACTIVITIES Blacks) Reflective Practice U.S. internment of the Japanese during World War II Note: This strand is woven throughout the unit. Civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s 1. Learning logs emphasize reflection, analysis and synthesis of the Contemporary examples issue. 1. Skin Heads 3. Rainbow Coalition 2. Class meetings allow students the opportunity to share thoughts 2. Nation of Islam4.Treatment of recent immigrants and ideas pertaining to the issue. Students and teacher will: 3. Ongoing discussions with e-mail groups regarding various decide on four key areas to examine. perspectives on racism. locate resources (print, audio, video, and conduct searches 4.Periodic responses to affective and cognitive questions posed over the Internet). by the teacher. develop e-mail conferences with other classrooms around the United States that are studying parallel issues. analyze, synthesize, and discuss key sources of information. Note: During the course of unit study, students will examine seminal documents and Pathways to Social Responsibility." In Promising governmental actions such as the Declaration of Independence, Emancipation Practices in Teaching Social Responsibility, edited by Proclamation, the Brown vs. Board of Education decision, and the Civil Rights Act. S. Berman and P LaFarge, 104-119. New York State University of New York Press, 1993. Bell, Debbie. "Public School and University New York Carnegie Corporation of New York, 1989. Companeros: Changing Lives." In Social Issues in the Council of Chief State School Officers. Turning Points: English Classroom, edited by C. M. Hurlbert and S. State Network News: A Newsletter of Carnegie Totten, 174-195. Urbana, Ill.: National Council of Corporation of New York Middle Grade School State Teachers of English, 1992. Policy Initiative 3 (January 1993): 1-23. Berman, Sheldon. "Introduction." In S. Berman and P. Evans, Ronald W. "A Dream Unrealized: A Brief Look Lafarge, eds., Promising Practices in Teaching Social at the History of Issue-Centered Approaches." Responsibility (Albany, N.Y.: State University of The Social Studies 80, no. 5 (1989):178-84. New York, 1993): 9. Faunce, Roland C., and L. Nelson Bossing. Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development. Turning Developing the Core Curriculum. 2d. ed. New York: Points: Preparing American Youth for the 21st Century. Prentice-Hall, 1958.

244 Sample Middle Level Interdisciplinary Unit on U.S. Racism: (continued)

Small groups of students will: CULMINATING SOCIAL ACTION PROJECT select different mediums and analyze various examples of In order to meet the interest of as many students as possi- racism from the periods under study in order to ascertain ble, the teacher and students will brainstorm ideas addressing key similarities and differences during the various periods. racism in their school or community. Based on these sugges- They will also examine how the racist incident was tions, individuals and/or small student groups will design and addressed or ameliorated through various channels (e.g., carry out social action projects. Among the many racism- social activism, legislative actions, etc.). They will report related projects that might be considered are the following: their findings to the class. 1. Writing and acting out a play. Students will: 2. Producing and appearing on a public access television show. set up a panel discussion on racism. The panel will be com- 3. Initiating and/or becoming a member of an Amnesty prised of members from NAACP, Rainbow Coalition, local International Adoption Group. police department, Skin Heads, local member of the clergy, 4.Developing and conducting a survey on racism for a community college or university history or American use in the local community and publishing the results. studies professor, and other relevant organizations. 5. Developing and conducting a panel discussion on racism as study related literature (short stories; slave narratives; oral a school assembly. histories by freed slaves, interned Japanese during World 6. Initiating a school-based conflict resolution process and War II, civil rights leaders, and recent immigrants (especial- submitting it to the school administration for approval. ly Hispanics and Asians) and at least one novel (e.g., Ernest 7. Developing a community-based lecture series on Gaines' The Autobiography of Miss Jane Pittman). tolerance in which invited guests give lectures throughout study key music, including slave spirituals, gospels, rap, and the school year contemporary rock. study art by and about different races that depict incidents of racism and/or solidarity. Students will also develop their own artistic products (including collages, pen and ink drawings, paintings, sculptures, and mobiles) based upon their Hugo, Victor. Les Miserables. Translated by Charles E. studies. Wilbur. New York The Modern Library, 1931. Lewis, Anne. "Hewing City Life: Foxfire and Urban Youth." High Strides: The Bimonthly Report on Urban Goodman, Sara, and William J. Kreidler. "'You Need Middle Grades 4 (December 1991): 4. Lots of Choices': Conflict Resolution in the Lounsbury, John H., and Gordon F. Vars.A Curriculum Elementary Grades." In Promising Practices in for the Middle School Years. New York Harper and Teaching Social Responsibility, edited by S. Berman Row, 1978. and P Lafarge. Albany, N.Y.: State University of Lowry, Lois. Number the Stars. Boston: Houghton- New York Press, 1993. Mifflin, 1989. Gruhn, William T, and R Harl Douglas. The Modern Moss, Theodore C. Middle School. New York Junior High School. New York Ronald, 1947. Houghton Mifflin, 1969. Harms, N. C., and R. E. Yager. What Research Says to National Association for Gifted Children. Position Paper: the Science Teacher. Vol. 3. Washington, D.C.: Ability Grouping. Washington D.C.: NAGC, 1991. National Science Teachers Association, 1981. National Middle School Association. Middle Level Hechinger, Fred M. Fateful Choices: Healthy Youth for the Curriculum: A Work in Progress The Initial Position 21st Century. New York Carnegie Council on Paper of National Middle School Association. Adolescent Development/Camegie Corporation Columbus, Ohio: NMSA, 1993. of New York, 1992. Pedersen, Jon E. "The Jurisprudential Model of Study Holubec, Edythe Johnson, David W. Johnson, and for STS Issues." In The Status of Science-Technology- Roger T Johnson. "Dealing with Conflict A Society Reform Efforts around the World: International Structured Cooperative Controversy Procedure." Council of Associations for Science Education Yearbook, In Social Issues in the English Classroom, edited by 1992, edited by R. E. Yager. Washington, D.C.: C. M. Hurlbert and S. Totten. Urbana, National National Science Teachers Association, 1992. Council of Teachers of English, 1992. Penick, J. W. Science, Technology and Society: Resources for

245 255 BEST COPY AVAI BLE Science Educators. Columbus, Ohio: SEMAC Information Reference Center, 1985. Reindl, Sheila. "Bringing Global Awareness into Elementary School Classrooms." In Promising Practices in Teaching Social Responsibility, edited by S. Berman and P. LaFarge. Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 1993. Scales, Peter C. A Portrait ofYoung Adolescents in the 1990s: Implications for Promoting Healthy Growth and Development. Carrboro, N.C.: Center for Early Adolescence, 1991. Sharan, S., and R. Hertz-Lazarowitz. "A Group Investigation Method of Cooperative Learning in the Classroom." In Cooperation in Education, edited by S. Sharan, P Hare, C. Webb, and R. Hertz- Lazarowitz. Provo, Utah: Brigham Young University Press, 1980. Toepfer, Conrad F. Jr. "Middle Level School Curriculum: Defining the Elusive." In Transforming Middle Level Education: Perspectives and Possibilities, edited by J. Irvin. Needham Heights, Mass.: Allyn and Bacon, 1992. Totten, Samuel. "Jigsaw Synthesis: A Method for Incorporating a Study of Social Issues into the Extant Curriculum." In Cooperative Learning in Secondary Schools, edited by J. Pedersen and A. Digby, 389-424. New York: Garland Publishing, 1995. Totten, Samuel, and Jon E. Pedersen. "Taking Action at the Local Level: The Study of Social Issues in the Middle School." Inquiry in Social Studies: Curriculum, Research, and InstructionThe Journal of the North Carolina Council for the Social Studies29 (Spring 1993): 19-33. Townsend, Regina, and William G. Wraga. "Implementing an Interdisciplinary Unit on the Holocaust." In Social Issues and Community Service at the Middle Level, edited by S. Totten and J. Pedersen. Needham Heights, Mass: Allyn and Bacon, forthcoming, 1997. Van Til, William, Gordon F. Vars, and John H. Lounsbury. Modern Education for the Junior High School Years. 2d ed. Indianapolis, Ind.: Bobbs-Merrill, 1967. Vars, Gordon E Interdisciplinary Teaching in the Middle Grades. Columbus, Ohio: National Middle School Association, 1987. Wheelock, Anne. Crossing the Tracks: How 'Untracking" Can Save America's Schools. Boston, Mass.: The Massachusetts Advocacy Center, 1992.

246 TEAKING SOCIETAL ISSUES IN HOOL SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS

bu Ho rt E. Yager and Martha V. Lutz

Traditional science and mathematics class- established the importance of constructivism in rooms generally lack relevance and use. teaching science and mathematics (Cleminson The National Science Foundation Status 1990). This chapter offers science and mathe- Studies provided abundant evidence thatmatics teachers a teaching approach that is 90 percent of all U.S. schools have tradi- constructivist, issues-centered, and true to their tional classrooms (Helgeson, Blosser, and disciplines. Howe 1977; Stake and Easley 1978; Weiss, 1978). This is true even in most college class-Constructivist Theory rooms and laboratories (AAAS 1990). Students Constructivism is a theory about how people perceive a deep chasm between the classroom'slearn. This explanation developed from observ- world of explanations and information in the real ing that individual knowledge is what the mind world. Brumby (1984, 501) offered a succinct constructsnot what the mind is taught. At the diagnosis of the problem, describing how science heart of constructivism is the need to make is presented as "a body of absolute knowledge, connectionsbetween new information coming most of which is recorded in books, or yet to be in and previously learned information already discovered by experts." According to Brumby, structured in the learner's mind. These connec- students see their task as primarily memorization tions are most easily made when new informa- of facts so they can answer their teacher's question is offered within a context. A familiar, per- tions. These students may become highly skilled sonally relevant context is usually most effective. at rote memorization but without learning to Constructivism received particular attention reason. Brumby asked: "When will they begin to after 1985 when cognitive scientists' research use rather than recite their knowledge?" (501). was made public (Fosnot 1989; Resnick 1987; Issues-centered education provides both rele- Simon and Schifter 1991; von Glasersfeld 1987, vance and use. It parallels current constructivist 1988). It has emerged as a dominant theme in learning theory and meets demands for new educational reform. teaching strategies in science education grounded Constructivism predicts that true learning in such theory. It is also compatible with two vital requires both a context and the active involve- goals in science education: to assist students in ment of the learner. It requires learners to take becoming independent learners, and to provide responsibility for their own learning. Because students with opportunities to apply their knowl-learning and teaching are intrinsically related, edge to real-world situations. Rather than solvingeffective teachers provide a personally relevant contrived puzzles found in textbooks or lab man- context for students and encourage them to uals, students learn about current communityengage in the learning process (Driver and and global issues and how scientific and mathe- Oldham 1986). matical analysis, problem solving, and research Reinsmith (1993) asserted that, without an have direct application in their daily lives. appropriate context, no learning can take place. Constructivist theory and its research base Conventional teaching strategies attempt to cre- provide a critical rationale for issues-centered ate learning only within a textbook's context, and curriculum. Research from cognitive science has curriculum is too often determined by those who have not set foot in a real classroom for a responsible decision making in the real world. long time. Although conventional teachingSTS prepares students for current and future strategies may produce students who appear to citizenship roles. have learned the required material, later tests STS offers science and mathematics teachers a often confirm that the students have not retained strategy for achieving scientific and technological much information, and may not have understood literacy for all. Analyzing this approach in light of it even while they remembered it (Brumby 1984). constructivist theory shows how use of issues pro- Constructivist theory predicts such conse- motes real learning. Aldridge (1993, 2) described quences. a childhood experience that is a classic, prototyp- Many physicists and physics teachers are con- ical STS-type investigation: he was "drifting, cerned by suggestions that schools move to andoing enough to pass but little else." Then a issues-centered orientation. Will science and friend's older brother told him about electronics, mathematics mastery be compromised by issues- and his interest was engaged (the initial step in centered teaching? When undergraduate physics both learning and STS). He learned as much majorsviewed as the most successful learners in information about electric circuits as he could. terms of concept mastery, laboratory skills, andHe tried to build a circuit but discovered that motivationwere given real-world problems tohe needed to learn mathematics, which he had investigate, 85 to 90 percent of the time theypreviously "never bothered with" (2). This need were not able to solve the problems (Champagne stimulated a search for information, another fea- and Klopfer 1984; Mestre and Lochhead 1990). ture of STS. A young Aldridge also discovered With real-world problems and issues as relevantthat he needed to learn chemistry and physics, contexts for learning, students will learn more and ultimately recognized the need to understand physics content, understand it better, and retainunderlying principles, not just repeat descriptive this understanding longer than if studying explanations. His initial interest in and experience physics consists of solving a series of book prob- with electronics provided a sustained motivation lems and recalling formulas on exams. If learning and grew into a career in physics. is a desirable outcome, then physics proponents STS teachers encourage their students to need not fear an issues-centered curriculum. develop their own theories to account for the data they collect in their experiments. Aldridge STS: A New Approach (1993, 3) believed that all students should have to Teaching Science such "science experiences": Science and technology can be learned within the context of human experiences through the Working one's way through the creation of teaching approach known as Science/Techno- a theory to account for an entire array of logy/Society (STS)(National Science Teachers seemingly unrelated scientific principles or Association [NSTA] 1990-91). This "context of laws opens a whole new world of thought. human experiences" means teachers use relevant The experience of learning a basic part of societal issues in instruction. It is essential in STS science for yourself can be a powerful, long- to provide a context for all content, which quali- term source of motivation. The history of fies it as a constructivist teaching strategy. Using science is filled with examples of a small, a real-world issue provides a context that first apparently insignificant learning experience engages students in questions, encourages them that was sufficient to sustain the person to search for answers, and finally, extends to test- until an exponentially increasing number of ing alternative solutions the students proposed. such experiences produced major scientific The goal of STS is to meet the serious need achievements. How many young people for an informed U.S. citizenry, capable of making have never had even one such experience? crucial decisions about current problems and These are not privileged experiences open issues and taking personal actions as a result of only to the elite few who will become these decisions. STS teachers identify local, research scientists. They should be open to regional, national, and international issues, plan all students. individual and group activities around them, and promote actions designed to address or resolve STS instruction follows the steps in the con- the issues under investigation, emphasizingstruction of knowledge promoted by construc-

248 258 tivists. The first step is filtering incoming stimuli (1963). STS teachers encourage students to test based on perceived context. (For example, the their ideas (hypotheses), something not done in word set has one meaning for a tennis player, traditional science classrooms. Students discuss another meaning for an interior decorator, and their results, inform others (a feature of basic sci- still another very particular meaning for a math- ence), and take action based on the results. ematician. Knowing the context determines These actions may not be science per se, but they which meaning to use to interpret the word set.) illustrate the value of extending science across By providing a context, STS focuses the students' the curriculum, or even outside the school. Such attention on relevant stimuli and information. extensions can engender community support for The second step is making connections and the science program, provide recognition for stu- generating knowledge structures. This will only dents, and generally illuminate the inherent happen if the learner is actively involved in thevalue of science. learning process. Without engagement on the STS empowers students with skills, allowing part of the learner, no real learning will takethem to become active responsible citizens, place; at best, there will be rote memorizationresponding to issues that influence their lives. without comprehension, and the information will STS is structured around issues and problems soon be forgotten. STS satisfies the second con- with local importance and relevance. Many condition necessary for construction of knowledge temporary global problems are rooted in science by using real-world issues to engage students. and technology; radioactive waste, pesticide drift Finally, the knowledge that an individual between national borders, and AIDS are just a constructs must be tested against both internal few examples. Local applications are obvious: and external information. If the learner perceives what happens to radioactive waste from the local consistency, the knowledge will be subsumed into hospital? Do pesticides applied to a lawn or farm long-term memory. STS prescribes that studentfield end up on the neighboring lawns or in questions and investigations drive the lessons, so groundwater? How can individuals reduce their when STS teachers allow students to design and chances of contracting AIDS? carry out their own tests rather than using STS advocates propose to make school sci- prepackaged "experiments" from a text or lab ence a more accurate representation of real sci- manual, it is consistent with constructivism. ence (Yager 1988, 1990). Science content is an These features of STS (defining a question, emergent property of STS investigations, not a designing tests, and engaging in creative list of prescribed concepts and activities. In STS thinking based on data) are all basic fea- courses the lists of science concepts and process tures of science as defined by Simpson skills ordinarily used to dictate instruction are

ducational efforts such as environmental education, energy education, drug education, AIDS education, technology education, and even metric education can be thought of as STS-related. Today most science educators who advocate STS accept it as representing a new science teaching approach, not a new curriculum approach (NSTA 1990-91). NSTA (1990-91, 47) has identified ten features that characterize the STS approach:

1. Utilizing issues (with scientific and technical 6. Viewing science content as relevant to life, components, and which are interesting and rele- not exams; vant to students) as organizers for the course; 7. Removing the emphasis on mindlessly 2. Using local resources (human and material) mimicking science process skills; as original sources of scientific or technical 8. Emphasizing career awarenessespecially information; careers related to science and technology; 3. Involving students in seeking scientific or tech- 9. Providing opportunities for students to perform nical information to solve real -life problems; in citizenship roles as they attempt to solve 4. Extending science learning beyond the class problems and answer questions about the period, the classroom, and the school; natural world; and 5. Focusing upon the impact of science and 10. Demonstrating that science and technology are technology on each individual student; major factors which will impact the future.

249 instead the products of learning: constructed pilots, rocket launches, kite-flying contests, and knowledge. If students can use such higher order water-balloon launches. Flight Day showcased a thinking skillsas application, synthesis, and variety of community talent and the work of local evaluation, learning is evident. Use of skills and and state transportation agencies. Students took knowledge is further evidence of mastery (Yager, on various rolessome were system flight ana- Blunck and Ajam 1990). lysts (recording flight times and patterns of rock- ets); others were photographers, video-camera Examples of Issues-Centered operators, or announcers. The assistant airport Instruction manager and a team of students arranged for Using current problems and issues as curricu- twenty different pilots and their planes to be lum organizers is both motivating and contextu-available for tours and demonstrations. alizing for students. In this section of the chapter Students built community awareness through four authentic narratives about issues-centered Flight Day. They followed up with a presentation science and mathematics instruction illustrateat the City Council Meeting, voicing their con- how issues-centered STS courses can be taught. cerns and the concerns of the community. Today These four examples are not organized aroundrepairs have been made to the runways. The air- prescribed content areas nor are they focused pri- port continues to serve the community's needs. marily on scientific or mathematical processes.The eighth graders felt that they enlightened the Instead, each classroom example is organized entire community Flight Day has become a around a context: an issue of personal relevance tradition in Chariton, Iowa, continuing to link to the students. the school and the community in a special way.l

Analyzing Problems Measuring Crime, Babies, and Grades of the Local Airport In Jennifer Matt's Probability and Statistics MorganMasters'sciencestudentsin class in Cresco, Iowa, students learn on their own Chariton, Iowa, made discoveries about their air-by using problems from the "real world." They port when its maintenance funds ran low. These collect data and then present written and oral eighth graders were beginning a two-day unit on reports to people who might be interested in the flight, when a student asked, "Why all this fuss results. Examples are: about the airport?" Others questions followed. Birth of babies at the Howard County "Who uses the airport?" "What types of planes Hospital. Students evaluate data on weight, land at the airport?" "How much does a pilot's length, circumference of head, time of birth, license cost?" None of these questions could be length of pregnancy, and other information they answered by looking in a textbook. select. The students draw conclusions from the Students searched for answers to their ques- data. (Critical features of this experience are that tions. They telephoned airport personnel, city the students select variables for data collection, officials, and community business people. The develop their own hypotheses, and draw conclu- County Extension Offices, the Iowa Department sions from the data. This is radically different of Transportation, Iowa Civil Air Patrol, andfrom having the text or teacher tell them what other airports across Iowa gave the students more the hypothesis is, what data to collect, and what information. The students set up a network of the "right" answer will be.) resources, and each resource contacted led to Ambulance calls. Students evaluate data more ideas, deepening the students' understand- on the time a call is received, length of the run, ing of the issue. time to reach the location, time to return to the Students surveyed the community to deter- hospital, and type of call. After the data collection, mine what people knew about the airport's students are encouraged to speak with the emer- financial crisis; the majority of the people were gency staff with recommendations that have rea- not aware of problems. The students decided to soned conclusions drawn from the collected data. put the airport at the center of the public's atten- Crime in Cresco. Students evaluate data on tion by planning a "Flight Day." The students the type of crime, when it happened, where it took charge of setting up Flight Day activities happened, dollar amount involved, etc. Upon for this one-day event. evaluation, they look for patternse.g., more The big day featured hot-air balloonists, stuntcrime occurs on paydays. (Looking for patterns

2S0 260 WIC* .4CrAii .7" wit a.garagdillfi Ofilla formulas and definitions; they were using them. itndants*Otleffe'ISOri.'- Students surveyed the Charles City commu- iSChnOiiii`Charlei .the nity to determine personal recycling habits and answer: How many milk jugs'ddesit'take'to'fill a what people thought of recycling. Apparently, garage dr 'MalcC:ajecycled picnic table? Charles plastic milk jugs were causing the most concern. City 'stildentslised i'donatedgOi* as a"'reCy- Charles City did not have a comprehensiverecy- cling- center-- for-:- an :.entireTyear;':i'eaichirk. for cling plan. The students thought that perhaps answers tn'Suchqiiestions. They -Usedtheir Math- they could collect and recycle milk jugs. People ematics and science' skills in al-Way thatwas began stopping by the elementary school to drop meaningful and useful. off milk jugs. The students asked if someone It all' begair one day in sCience.: class'rwhen could donate "warehouse" space for the jugs. someone asked: Doesn't the- density of "`plastic A neighbor donated a vacant garage adjacent have something to do with Vthetlief you can.iecy- to school property. de it orniot?Thi- question inideWerybneihinlc. The Girl Scouts and Boy Scouts heard of the For yeais **sixth- graders in --"Scienceclass 'had project and offered help by sorting and baling. explored density, but their teacher, Janet Dunkel,The local grocery store provided a compactor, thought exploring this student question would and a local trucking firm donated a truck and dri- uncover a wealth of understanding connected ver to move the bales of jugs to the recycling cen- to an important statewide ter in northeast Iowa. The idea had taken hold, lenges heitiidelifs on a. regular. basi'eib question and the project was growing. The students creat- and devise-test:Slot their quei-ions. For their pro.- ed a proposal for the City Council, asking for the ject students. ,collected plastic containers.. of all community to assume some responsibility and sorts. They contacted engineers and scientists make recycling part of the overall city plan for and manufactureis who create plastics, investi-waste management. Today Charles City has a gating the concept of density ina new way. comprehensive recycling plan that grew out of Students collected, analyzed, and' interpreted thegaragefulofplasticmilk jugsand data. They were not mindlessly memorizing the concerns of sixth-graders.3 in data is a key feature of basic science.) Students ural state. These students are concerned with recommended the time of day when the police issues in the real world and have come to view chief should assign more police officers on duty. science as a way of thinking and doing. Absences and grade-point average. Students Students generated questions concerning the collect comparative data on the number ofbest way to manage the roadside near Elkader. absences in high school and GPA. When theyRather than using a text's predetermined and discover a negative correlation, they then must generic ecology questions, the students brain- decide if it is significant. stormed their own ideas and questions, and then Some students do not like these projectsdefined a specific issue for their attention. because they do not know what the answer is For many years, the county's standard operating going to be. Many of Matt's "good" students areprocedure had been mowing roadside areas on good merely because they mimic her steps. It is a regular basis. The students viewed roadside very difficult for them to think on their own. areas as places for wildflowers and native grasses They really don't want to struggle with learning. to flourish. The students wondered if these areas They often ask her to "Just tell me how to do it." could be managed in a more efficient and natur- Other students like the projects because they can al way. Students investigated issues of wildlife see that mathematics is more than working text- preservation, effective land management, cost, book problems? and beautification of Iowa's highways. The county gave the students a stretch of Beautifying Iowa Roadsides highway where they could test their ideas on con- Clayton County employees won't be spend- servation and integrated roadside management. ing their time mowing roadsides. Bill CrandallMany county engineers and officials served as and his biology students have returned areas consultants on the project. The students realized along highways near Elkader, Iowa, to their nat- that their ideas were working and could perhaps save the county dollars in labor costs and equip- curriculum developers. This does not suggest that ment. The students took their data, organizing it teachers should sit idly until students suddenly into a proposal, and presented it to the countywant to learn. Instead, teachers should deter- board of supervisors. The students' skills and minedly and enthusiastically try to encourage knowledgeinscienceandmathematics all students to question and become involved. impressed the adult leaders, and the county board This encouragement and call to action can approved their plan for change. As a result, the provide motivation. If a list of "vital" constructs roadsides in this section of eastern Iowa are rich of science is identified and accepted, STS propo- with native grasses and wildflowers. nents will work to provide a setting (context) that Since 1990, biology students have monitored will assist students in using such constructs in changes in roadside areas that have returned to areal-world situations. When students internalize natural condition. Some of these students havelearning, it tends to last; it arises from and con- part-time jobs working for the county alongsidenects with their experiences in the real world. county engineers. People notice the beautiful There is considerable research to indicate that all Clayton County highways, and other countieslearners are able to learn more and to retain it are considering this approach to roadside longer when the learning takes place in a real- management. The ideas of these high schoolworld context (Lochhead and Yager, 1996; science students resulted in dramatic changes.4 Mestre and Lochhead, 1990; Yager, 1993). Surely the real world provides countless problems that Barriers to Implementing STS need resolution. as an Issue-Centered Approach Anything that builds upon students' curiosi- Traditional science and mathematics teachers ty, encourages students to create explanations, find the use of social issues to organize their cours- and insists upon explanations being verified and es a difficult philosophical position. Many prefervalidated, is in reality science. Activity-based to transfer their own knowledge to the students. science programs have been shown to improve However, this process (i.e., giving students infor-reading readiness skills, stimulate vocabulary mation that scientists know, and the skills theydevelopment, increase verbal fluency, enhance use) may destroy the chance for a real sciencelogical thinking, and strengthen concept forma- experience. The term passive learning is an oxy- tion and communication skills (Pratt, 1981). moron. Unfortunately, school administrators and When such programs are also issues-centered, parents are often in favor of maintaining the status the advantages are even more pronounced. Using quo. They are content to picture teachers as pur- science-related issues across the curriculum is veyors and students as passive recipients of math- compelling. Science provides real issues, stimu- ematics and science information. There is clearlates real curiosity, engenders real tests, allows evidence that such a static view of classrooms, cur- actual practice with decision making, and pro- riculum, and instruction invites failurestudents vides opportunities for personal actions. who have not learned how to think. STS advocates readily accept such "core" ideas References as those advanced within Project 2061 (AAAS Aldridge, B. G. "A Circuitous Route." Quantum 3 1989) or the Scope, Sequence, and Coordination (July/August 1993): 2-3. Project (Aldridge 1991). They refrain, however, Aldridge, B. G. "Improve Science Education Using from identifying a list of concepts as organizers `Basic Science' with Applications."NSTA Reports! for teaching. They doubt that any set of individ- (May 1991): 8,32. uals can determine with complete certainty what American Association for the Advancement of Science. all students must know. Instead, STS proponents Science for All Americans: SummaryProject 2061. argue that natural curiosity, a facilitative teacher, Washington, D.C.: AAAS, 1989. discrepant events, current situations and news, American Association for the Advancement of Science. and the social structure of schools and classrooms The Liberal Art of Science: Agenda for Action, The can be used to achieve mastery of all important Report of the Project on Liberal Education and the concepts and processes. Mastery is achieved Sciences. Washington, D.C.: AAAS, 1990. because students perceive a need for information Brumby, M. N. "Misconceptions about the Concept and because they use that information, not of Natural Selection by Medical Biology Students." because of the efforts of teachers, scientists, or Science Education 68 (1984): 493-503.

252 or.9 Champagne, A. B., and L. E. Klopfer. "Research in Erlbaum, 1987. Science Education: The Cognitive Psychology Simon, M., and D. Schifter. "Toward a Constructivist Perspective." In Research within Reach: Science Perspective: An Intervention Study of Mathematics Education, edited by D. Holdzkom and P. B. Lutz, Teacher Development." Educational Studies in 171-89. Charleston, W.V.: Research and Mathematics 22 (1991): 309-31. Development Interpretation Service, Appalachia Simpson, G. G. "Biology the Nature of Science." Educational Laboratory, 1984. Science 139 (1963): 81-88. Cleminson, A. "Establishing an Epistemological Base Stake, R. E., and J. Easley. Case Studies in Science for Science Teaching in the Light of Contemporary Education, Volumes I and IL Urbana, Ill.: Center for Notions of the Nature of Science and of How Instructional Research and Curriculum Evaluation, Children Learn Science."Journai ofResearch in University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1978. Science Teaching 27 (1990): 429-45. von Glasersfeld, E. The Construction of Knowledge. Driver, R, and V. Oldham. "A Constructivist Approach Seaside, Calif.: The Systems Inquiry Series, to Curriculum Development in Science." Studies in Intersystems Publication, 1987. Science Education 13 (1986): 105-22. von Glasersfeld, E. Cognition, Construction of Knowledge, Fosnot, C. T Enquiring Teachers, Enquiring Learners: and Teaching. Washington, D.C.: National Science A Constructivist Approach to Learning. New York, Foundation, 1988. N.Y.: Teachers College Press, 1989. Weiss, I. R. Report of the 1977 National Survey of Science, Helgeson, S. L., P. E. Blosser, and R. W. Howe. The Mathematics, and Social Studies Education: Center for Status of Pre-College Science, Mathematics, and Social Educational Research and Evaluation. Washington, Science Education: 1955-75. Columbus, Ohio: Center D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1978. for Science and Mathematics Education, The Ohio Yager, R. E. "A New Focus for School Science: S/T/S." State University, 1977. School Science and Mathematics 88 (1988): 181-90. Lochhead, J., and R E. Yager. "Is Science Adrift in a Yager, R. E. "STS: Thinking over the Years: An Sea of Knowledge? A Theory of Conceptual Drift." Overview of the Past Decade." The Science Teacher 57 In Science/Technology/S'ociq.. Research Implications for (1990): 52-55. Science Education, edited by R E. Yager, 25-38). Albany, Yager, R. E. ,ed. What Research Says to the Science Teacher, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 1996. Vol. 7. The Science, Technology, Society Movement. Mestre, J. P., and J. Lochhead. Academic Preparation in Washington, D.C.: National Science Teachers Science: Teaching for Transition from High School to Association, 1993. commas in original title? College. New York, N.Y.: College Entrance Yager, R E., S. M. Blunck, and M. Ajam, ed. The Iowa Examination Board, 1990. Assessment Package for Evaluation in Five Domains of National Research Council. National Science Education Science Education. 2d ed. Iowa City, Iowa: The Standards. Washington, D.C.: National Academy University of Iowa, Science Education Center, 1990. Press, 1996. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School 1Science Teacher: Morgan Masters; Principal: Bernard Mathematics. Reston, Va.: NCTM, 1989. Stephenson, Chariton Middle School, Chariton, Iowa National Science Teachers Association. "Science/ 2Mathematics Teacher: Jennifer Matt; Principal: Technology/Society: A New Effort for Providing Charles E. Miller, Crestwood High School, Cresco, Iowa Appropriate Science for All." In NSTA Handbook, 3Science Teacher: Janet Dunkel; Principal: Doug 47-48. Washington, D.C.: NSTA, 199Q-91. Bergston, Jefferson School, Charles City, Iowa Pratt, H. "Science Education in the Elementary 4Science Teacher: Bill Crandall; Principal: Donald School." In What Research Says to the Science Teacher, Grove, Central Community School District, Elkader, Iowa Vol. 3, edited by N. C. Harms and R E. Yager, 73-93. Washington, D.C.: National Science Teachers Association, 1981. Reinsmith, William A. "Ten Fundamental Truths about Learning." The National Teaching and Learning Forum 2 (1993): 7-8. Resnick, L. B. "Constructing Knowledge in School." In Development and Learning: Conflict or Congruence?, edited by L. S. Liben, 19-50. Hillsdale, NJ.:

253283 .J" AN SSUES-CENTERED CURRICULUM FOR HIGH SCH OL SOCIAL STUDIES )bq Ro Id W. Evans and Jerrq Brodheq

01.1 dolescents today face real, difficult chal- model than others. In some classrooms, lectures lenges: teenage pregnancy, drug use, vio- are interesting and discussions are lively: simula- lent communities, racial stereotypes andtion, debate, and role-playing may occur on a prejudices, broken homes. Many face the regular basis. While these classrooms may be bleak economic realities of escalating livelier, and students are more involved, the basic llcollege costs, or low-paying jobs for thepattern remains. Students leave the classroom non-college bound. Their families face the prob- and leave social studies behind. They enjoy the lems of unemployment or declining or stagnant company of their friends in the halls, and then real income. As students walk the streets of our shuffle off to math, or science, or English, or art. nation's cities they are confronted with home- The curriculum, and the school day, are segment- lessness, declining social services, and environ- ed into unrelated packages. Even more damaging mental blight. They will soon face pressing is the fact that what is learned is divorced from problems of securing health care, finding a job the rest of their lives. that will allow growth and success, and making In the following pages, we develop a propos- decisions about their lives as individuals and as al for an issues-centered social studies curricu- part of a larger community. Unfortunately, the lum framework aimed at creating stronger link- typical social studies curriculum fails to explicit- ages between students' lives and the topics they ly address these issues, fails to help prepare study in high school social studies. In developing students for the very real issues and problems an alternative conceptualization for social stud- they will face in their lives. ies curricula, we will describe previous models For social studies to reach its potential, we for an issues-centered social studies program and believe that the classrooms of the 21st centurydiscuss the potential strengths and limitations must be different from the classroom of today. of each. Following that, we present our own In today's typical high school, the bell rings and curricular framework, then discuss its potential thirty to forty students shuffle in. Students sit in strengthsandanticipatelikelycriticisms. rows. A heavy textbook is pulled out of studentWe have chosen not to include direct discussion backpacks, and the lesson begins. Students sit, of our rationale for an issues-centered approach take notes, complete fill-in-the-blank worksheets, in this chapter because this is dealt with in depth answer questions from the book, study for exams, in another section of the Handbook. and are graded on mastery of factual knowledge. By issues-centered education we mean an Tests are often multiple choice and graded by approach to education centered around problem- a machine. Students endure courses in Ameri- atic questions, probing questions which have can History World History, Geography, Govern- no "right" answer. It is an approach to education ment, and Economics. The social studies curricu- thatdemandsthoughtfulnessanddepth, lum, and typical classroom activities, are veryweighing evidence, values, and consequences. similar to what went on in the same space twentyThis approach is heavily dependent on reflective or even fifty years ago (Cuban 1984; Goodlad discussion using multiple formats, including: 1984; Shaver, Davis and Helburn 1979). socratic seminar, groupwork, role-playing and Some individual teachers are better at this simulation, student research, and a variety of

264 other formats for large and small group discus- focussed on international problems... 'the World sion (Evans, Newmann and Saxe 1995). It is anProblem'counterpartof'TheAmerican approach that seeks to create a critical dialogue, a Problem.'" The two-year capstone course is titled, problem-posing education in the classroom"The American Problem and Its Historical (Freire 1970). Background." This is a Problems of Democracy Content selection should include a mix ofcourse spread over two years, with the "history emergent and pre-determined curricula and of each group of problems directly studied." materials. Out of practical necessity teachersThough dated, Rugg's framework illustrates a must make use of content from history and the thorough blending of strand history and the in- social sciences. On each topic considered, a series depth study of problem-topics such as problems of lessons or a unit could be developed by using of "reconstructionof naturaland human a problem or issue as the starting point and prob- resources...economic abundance...labor... lem resolution as the goal. Given an issues-cen- farming... housing... social security... democra- tered orientation, we believe that consideration cy and government" (1939, 147). With the excep- of alternative scope and sequence possibilities tion of the capstone course, however, Rugg's pro- may help teachers and school districts developposed curriculum stopped short of calling for more powerful models for fostering student courses titled and devoted to problems and issues. reflection. Designing a curriculum to facilitate Hunt and Metcalf (1955 and 1968) proposed this possibility is a challenge we will examine in a curriculum that would inquire into problemat- the following pages. ic areas of culture, focusing in particular on "closed areas" of culture as appropriate in a given Examining Alternative Models community. They proposed that "problems, Previous advocates of an issues-centered socialunits, projects, blocks of workcall them what studies have developed alternative visions of anyou willshould focus on a problematic area of issues-centered curriculum. For the most part, culture," and suggested that such an approach these thinkers have conceived of issues education "does not require major disruption of present as an approach that would be implemented across curriculum patterns. It does require that teachers the social studies curriculum and infused within conceive social-studies courses more broadly. discipline-based courseofferings, organized History, for example, will include data from chronologically or conceptually. Several othersociology, anthropology, psychology, and the alternatives might be developed and explored. Forlike. But no overhauling of the present pattern of example, one alternative for the implementationcourses seems necessary in order to apply the of issues-centered approaches would be to createproblem-centered approach recommended here" issues-centered units within discipline-based (1968, 302). Like Rugg, their approach stopped courses. A second alternative would be to develop short of recommending a dramatically new courses built around issues and issue areas, a full- course framework. Table 1 provides an overview blown issues-centered structure. This approachof their "Problematic Areas of Culture." would mean creating an issues-centered alterna- Oliver and Shaver (1966) proposed a some- tive to the typical scope and sequence. A thirdwhat similar set of "General Problem Areas" and alternative would be to pose an open curriculum sample unit topics as a guide for selecting in which selection of topics and issues would and organizing content for issues-centered educa- emerge based on student interests and needs. tion, as illustrated in Table 2. In their analysis of Several previous models for an issues-centered methods of organizing and teaching issues, Oliver curriculum deserve description and comment. and Shaver discuss two different approaches: the Rugg (1939) proposed an entire social studies historical crisis approach and the problem-topic curriculum centered around what he termed "The approach. Thefirst,"thehistoricalcrisis American Problem." The curriculum contained approach," focuses on historical periods ripe with strands or themes relevant to major problem- multiple issues which are analogous to or may be topics and culminated in a two-year course on contrasted with contemporary history, and which American Life and Problems. Rugg's tenth grade may help explain contemporary problems. The course istitled, "World Problems and Worldsecond, "the problem-topic approach," begins History" and contains "'Strand' history of twowith selection of a contemporary issue considered chief concepts: 1. industrialism;2.democracy... important and persistent, then examines relevant

2SS 7.- o D Power and the Law Social Class Sovereign Citizen vs. Power Centers Rank in a Classless Society Law as Protection of the Weak vs. Law Earned Success and Fortuitous Success as a Weapon of Power Success and Happiness Courts as Dispensers of Justice vs. Courts Liberal vs. Vocational Education as Dispensers of Injustice Religion and Morality Economics Religious Belief and Practice Government Frugality vs. Government Science and Religion Financing of Needed Projects High Pleasures and Low Pleasures Taxes and Government Spending Democracy and Religion Monopoly and Free Competition Race and Minority-Group Relations Free Enterprise and Socialism Race and Minority-Group Relations Prosperity and Population Growth Racial Differences and Human Similarity Nationalism, Patriotism, Negro Inferiority and Negro Capacity and Foreign Affairs Jewish Greed and Jewish Radicalism War and Peace Catholic Conservatism and Catholic Liberalism National Honor and Foreign Commitments Sex, Courtship, and Marriage Self-Determination of Nations and Puppet Purity Versus Experience Governments Chastity and Peer-Group Status Patriotism as Obedience and Patriotism as The Nice Girl Versus the Good Sport Critical Inquiry Modesty and Sex Appeal Career Versus Housewifery data from a variety of sources, including histori- al curriculum scope and sequence, and suggest cal, journalistic, social sciences, etc. that the subjects of United States history, world Oliver and Shaver blended these approaches, history, and geography would remain the prima- and chose to site their work in a particular course, ry courses taught, but that their "usual content United States History, and "allowed chronologywould be broadened"... and "in some cases com- to dictate roughly the order of the units." They bined with content from other disciplines and suggest that "The topic-problem and historicalfields of study"... to be fully relevant to society crisis organization of content can thus easily be and its problems. They propose eight suggested fitted into a 'conventional' history course. The curriculum strands, described in Table 3, and, like rationale for our decision was partly convenience: the scholars discussed above, suggest that these It was more in line with the expectations ofwill be helpful in enlivening a standard curricu- children and parents. But it also stemmed from lum and infusing a reflective focus. the conviction that a broad chronological frame- One final model for consideration comes from work does give the course additional structure an article which appeared in Social Education. In and meaning" (1966, 147). Like both Rugg, and an article tided "Social Education for Social Hunt and Metcalf, Oliver and Shaver developedTransformation," Stanley and Nelson develop curriculum strands but stopped short of recom- guidelines for a critical approach to social studies, mending courses titled by and centered in prob- with broad and general themes for groupings of lem-topics or issues. different grade levels (see Table 4). While their In a somewhat similar vein, Engle and Ochoaideas are admirable (if implemented they would (1988) developed a "Framework for the Curricu- lead to a fully issues-centered curriculum), most lum" in which issues and problems would be teachers and administrators prefer more guidance. selected for their "potential for encouraging Unlike the authors of models considered previ- thinking, or even controversy, about matters ofously, Stanley and Nelson (1986) suggest a major fact... historical interpretation... or resolution to rethinking of scope and sequence. They propose social problems in the present" (1988, 129). Theydismantling traditional, discipline-based course recommend a modest change from the tradition- titles, and replacing them with social studies work

256 2 Gs Racial and Ethnic Conflict Conflict Among Economic Groups School Desegregation Organized Labor Civil Rights for Non-Whites and Ethnic Minorities Business Competition and Monopoly Housing for Non-Whites and Ethnic Minorities "Overproduction" of Farm Goods Job Opportunities for Non-Whites and Ethnic Minorities Conservation of Natural Resources Immigration Policy Health, Education, and Welfare Religious and Ideological Conflict Adequate Medical Care: for the Aged, for the Poor Rights of the Communist Party in America Adequate Educational Opportunity Religion and Public Education Old Age Security Control of "Dangerous" or "Immoral" Literature Job and Income Security Religion and National Security: Oaths, Conscientious Objectors Taxation of Religious Property Security of the Nation Federal Loyalty-Security Programs Security of the Individual [Foreign Policy]l Crime and Delinquency

1This topic obviously should be the center of a new curriculum, extending our analysis of domestic problems. It might consist of a wide variety ofsubtopics.

aimed at education for social transformation. practice in the field indicates a need to entertain Each of these models has strengths and weak- alternative visions and curricular frameworks, nesses. Each presented innovative approaches and requires that alternative visions be innovative that would enhance the intellectual quality ofand dynamic. In what follows, we propose a cur- classroom discourse. Only one, that of Stanleyriculum in which social studies is defined as a and Nelson, offered a description and rationale unitary field of study that is fully issues-centered, for an alternative curricular scope and sequence, interdisciplinary and extradisciplinary rather the others instead suggesting that issues and than a field that is merely derivative of academic problems should be a strong part of any curricu-disciplines (Wraga 1993). We believe that we lar framework or scope and sequence. These have created a vision that may lead to the kind of advocates of issues-centered approaches believed border crossing that Henry Giroux espouses, it prudent to offer their models as alternative overcoming the boundaries of the traditional dis- approaches to teaching traditionally structuredciplines and school subjects and the tension courses. This was perhaps a strategic considera- between social issues and academic disciplines as tion given the expectations of teachers, students, the foundation for the curriculum (Giroux 1992). parents, and administrators concerning the cur- Instead of building a curriculum around riculum. In each case, the frameworks developed courses based in the academic disciplines, we might be viewed in hindsight as emergent mod- believe that a more powerful vision for the future els for a more radical departure from the tradi- of social studies might be built around certain tional reliance on course structures drawn from social realities and the ethical questions and the social sciences and history. possibilities they raise. This is similar to the Social studies theorists and practitioners owe problem-topic approach discussed by Oliver and a great debt to these thinkers. Their work is still Shaver (1966, 139-140). Imagine a semester- the best of social studies theory applied to prac- long high school course titled Race and Ethnicity tice. Yet, we believe that it is time to consider in American Life; another titled Social Class, more dramatic departures from typical scope and Stratification and Social Responsibility; another sequence alternatives. on Gender and Sexuality in Social Life and Culture; another on Ideology, Government, and Developing a Framework for Economic Life; another titled Power in America; Secondary Social Studies stillanother, Nationalism, Patriotism, and We believe that the often mediocre state ofAmerican Foreign Policy; another on Philosophy

076 7 Table 3: Engle and Ochoa's Suggested Curriculum Strands

Environmental Studies Problems in Decision Making The study of problems that surround human use of the environ- Three groups of questions would guide this study. Epistemo- ment. This strand should be organized around a listing of important logical: What is knowledge? What is evidence? Which way of know- environmental problems, which should be revised from time to time to ing is most dependable? Communications: What are the purposes of bring it into correspondence with current realities and concerns. the media? How can we judge the dependability of what we read or hear? Values: What do I value most? What do I do when two or more Institutional Studies of my values seem to be in conflict? The study of the origins and the present circumstances of the broad range of social institutions of the United States, including: Internship in Citizenship 1) institutions that express and protect fundamental freedoms, 2) eco- A one-year, one-day-a-week internship in some useful social or nomic institutions, 3) political institutions, 4) global institutions, andcivic enterprise would be a natural progression from thinking about 5) the family, religious groups, etc. social problems. Useful volunteer work would be sought with a service, political, or civic organization. Cultural Studies Why people of different regions, historical backgrounds, national- Electives ities, and ethnic groups grow up differently; How we can live usefully Electives would focus on nature of the disciplines and methods by in a world of differing cultures; How people of varying cultures share which social scientists and historians arrive at dependable knowledge. profound human similarities; and, How we turn cultural differences One-year courses in economics, political science, sociology, anthropol- into assets for social improvement. ogy, and journalism. Students would engage in laboratory practice in each discipline, and be expected and encouraged to complete one such Social Problems elective. One major social problem would be studied for an extended period, in depth, on one occasion each year in each social studies class- A Democratic School Environment room at every grade level with all classes engaged in study at the same The school itself must be governed democratically. Never underesti- time, with principal as leader and involvement of other departments, mate the willingness of students to particpate in their own governance. parents and the community. Democracy is also exemplified by the respect shown by teachers for intellectual honesty and the intelligence of students to think for themselves.

in Personal and Public Life; another on Mediatitled Social Research might be included, in andSocialUnderstanding;anothertitled which students engage in in-depth research on a Utopian Visions and Competing Ideologies; yetcommunity or school issue that is linked to a another on Technology,Society and the national or global problem. Most courses could Environment; another tided Sex, Marriage, andinclude research components, and time for indi- Family Life; and, of course, The School as anvidual and committee study while consulting Institution.... this incomplete list could go on with teachers. Perhaps a service learning compo- and on. The main criteria are that the course nent could be built in where appropriate. Most must have an issue-focus and must not be limit- importantly, the starting point for each course ed by any of the disciplines sited at the universi- would be the present manifestations of persistent ty. A shift to semester-long courses might also issues and dilemmas. Students must have first- help break dependence on massive textbooks and hand knowledge of the issue, and should be able encourage use of multiple sources. to study the issue directly both within the school Each of these courses would be extradiscipli- and outside in the community. Each course nary and interdisciplinary by necessity, and each would be built around the reflective investigation could have strands reflecting what we currentlyof central questions, problems and issues. Each think of as the major sources of knowledge. Each course would also allow for the kind of in-depth would include cross-national perspectives. Their study required for meaningful social education. length may vary; some might be required, others It might be helpful to explore the possibilities elective. The curriculum might begin with for a particular course following this approach, An Introduction to Problems and Issues, and and then compare and contrast it with a disci- concludewith Philosophy and Life. A course pline based course. Let's take American Foreign

2S0 26 Table 4: Stanley and Nelson's Curriculum for Social Transformation

GRADES 7-9 GRADES 1 0- 1 2 Theme: Testing ideas, refining ethical ideology Theme: Refining critical thinking proposals for Content: change; social participation examining criteria considering ideologies Content: ideas and their sourcespolitical economy of ideaspolitical reviewing ideas from previous sodal education work geography of ideasexamination of historical examples of ide- interdependenceethicsideologiesnature, sources and uti- ologieslogic, reasoning, alternative viewsideological domi- lization of knowledgetraditional forms of knowledge and their nance and repressioncultural and ideological differencesroots criticscontributions of history and the social sciences of ideologiesthe nature of our culture as compared to others developing and reviewing process skills meanings and messages ethical reasoningdiscourse/discussion responsibilitiescon- media examinationtext analysishistoric document study ducting researchsocial criticismcritical thinking: decision ways of knowing, different conceptions of truth makingsocial participation activities discourse development examining identified significant social issues analysis of language, language theoryconcern for ideas of localnationalglobal othersjustice and equalityimproving reading, writing, considering alternative futures and "relevant speaking, listeningdiscourse, science, and social science utopias" based on ethical justification for examination of elected social problems social transformation defining significant social issuesdeveloping hypothesesrecon- proposing ideas for social improvement rooted sidering ethical criteriaidentifying and evaluating evidence in justice and equality testing hypothesesdrawing tentative conclusionsproposing developing interdependent social participation potential social improvementsexamining contrasting view- active work, over a period of time, in social pointsselecting avenues for social participation improvement activities taking responsibility for views and actions evaluating social education social participation activities

Policy as an example. In the typical high school current problems would be studied, discussed and today, our nation's role in the world is addressed debated. This approach would, in the end, help to primarily in courses on United States History. prepare students who are conversant on the issue Typically, American foreign policy issues are notand knowledgeable about its history. Students explicity addressed, at least not directly, exceptwould leave the course understanding relevant in the occasional forays into current events. scholarship and evidence that might help them Potentially relevant evidence on the issueis develop a saner and more sophisticated approach covered as part of the chronological survey of his- to thinking about foreign policy issues. tory. In a classroom in which an issues approach is infused, the issue would at least be addressedAn Issues-Centered Framework each time the chronology dictates (Monroe In what follows we offer an illustrative scope Doctrine, Spanish American War, etc.). and sequence, drawing on elements of the works In the alternative vision we have sketched described earlier. Actual courses, possible unit above, our nation's role in the world would titles and a few of the central issues that might receive in-depth treatment through a separate be explored are presented. Throughout, students course. The course could begin and end with will be asked to evaluate, critique, and take the question: "What role should the U. S. play in responsibility for their own education. This the world?," and would examine alternatives for framework is only a partial start. It will need the future as well as our changing role in the considerable further development by interested world over time. The course might include units teachers and curriculum developers who choose on various aspects of the central issue, e.g., theto apply this approach. Like any framework, defense budget, world government, etc. It would in practical application it would allow students also include an in-depth study of key episodes in and teachers to pursue "open" topics and issues history and examination of the chronologicalas desired, or when events or student interests development of U. S. foreign relations. Specificwarrant.

269 Grade 9. Introduction to Problems the courses that will follow. Students will draw and Issues (first semester) on and consider knowledge from history, the This course will introduce students to alter- social sciences, and other relevant fields of study native perspectives on social issues, competing as well as community, media, and personal expe- ideologies, and the process of reflection and rience. Students will engage in consideration of problem investigation. Students would consideralternative perspectives, research in field and rationales for issues-centered study, the nature oflibrary, and social participation in the communi- knowledge, meaning and messages, language, ty. In addition, each of these elements will con- and the role of personal, public, and disciplinedtinue to appear and reappear in later courses knowledge in making decisions on matters ofthroughout the curriculum. interpretation and public policy as well as per- Electives: These courses offer greater depth sonal decisions. Students would investigate a on topics of special interest to students. They select number of issues that are chosen to may be offered as teaching schedules and student introduce some of the key issues from interest permit.

Grades 9-12. One-Semester Courses students would be required to enroll in one of these courses each semester for ftIIQa total of six required semesters. Students may enroll inadditional elective courses ftas schedules permit. Each course would include emergentpresent-day manifestations of the central issues, study of relevant historical cases and trends from the United States and the world, cross-cultural and global study, and inclusion of relevant art, literature, music, etc. Teachers and students would make judicious selectionsfrom a multitude of resource materials. Race and Ethnicity in American Life History Defining the Issues: Changing Demographics Rural Poverty and Urban Blight in the U. S. Today The Rich and Super Rich Alternative Perspectives on Racial and Middle Class America Ethnic Conflict Crime and Delinquency: Gangs, Drugs, Prostitution, etc. Prejudice and Institutionalized Racism Utopian Visions and Competing Ideologies Racial Patterns in Schools, Housing, and Schools and Social Class Employment Social Welfare: AFDC, Social Security, Health Care History of Racial and Ethnic Groups: Chronology Social Policy and Personal Responsibility and Cases How are wealth and income distributed? What Immigration: What Should Our Policy Be? determines these patterns? How and why have these pat- Global Perspectives on Race, Ethnicity and terns changed over time? What role should government Cultural Diversity play in providing for the general welfare of citizens? Policy and Personal Responsibility What impact do race and ethnicity have on ourGender and Sexuality in Social Life lives? How have attitudes, beliefs and social practices and Culture regarding race and ethnicity changed over time? How Defining the Issues: Status of Women and Men can we best explain the socioeconomic status of differ- Alternative Perspectives on Gender Oppression ent ethnic groups? What are the origins of race oppres- Feminist Thought sion? What should we do about racial oppression? Historical Development of Women's Rights: Chronology and Cases Social Class, Stratification, and Change in Gender Roles Over Time Social Responsibility Changing Definitions of Manhood Defining the Issues: Social Class in the U. S. Homosexuality: Gay and Lesbian Rights Alternative Perspectives on Social Class The Changing Family History of Class Conflict in America: Chronology History of Sexuality: Attitudes, Belief, Practices and Cases Dating, Sex, Marriage Global Perspectives: Class and Caste in World Social Policy and Personal Responsibility

260 27Q Grades 9-12. One-Semester Courses continued

,-- What are the origins of gender inequality? Political Institutions: Hierarchies of Control How has the role of gender in our lives changed over vs. Citizen Empowerment time? How might we best explain the changing roles Global Perspectives: Comparing Governmental of women and men? What role should gender and Form and Function sexuality play in our lives? Civil Rights and Civil Liberties Dissent: Stability vs. Right of Protest Ideology and Economic Life Religious and Ideological Conflict Defining the Issues: Conflicting Ideas Power, Words, and Images: Who Controls in Economic Life the Media? Who Benefits? Alternative Perspectives on Economics: Politics, Power, and Personal Responsibility Smith, Marx, Keynes, etc. Who rules America? Who benefits? How have Government Regulation or Control in power relationships changed over time? Is a hierarchi- Economic Life cal power structure inevitable? How have other cul- The Market: Command vs. Free? tures handled the question of power? In what ways Historical Development of the American should we alter or reform the power structure in the Economy: Chronology and Cases United States to gain greater empowerment for the Industrial Revolution: Blessing or Curse? average citizen? When, and under what conditions, Giants of Industry: Industrial Statesmen or Robber should citizens challenge legally constituted authority? Barons? By what means? Rise of Labor Technology and Society: Nationalism, Patriotism, and Environment vs. Development? American Foreign Policy Are Multinational Corporations Beyond Control? Defining the Issues: America's Role in the World Global Perspectives on Economic Life Perspectives on Foreign Policy: Social Policy and Personal Responsibility Missions of Hope or Tragic Imposition How can we best understand the economic aspects Historical Development of of our society and the world? What role should gov- American Foreign Policy ernment play in economic life? What is the proper American Expansion and Empire role of government in regulating business? What role Rise to Globalism: The World Wars should government play in protecting the rights ofCold War and Beyond labor? What role in these matters has government Nuclear Pasts and Futures played in different times and cultures? Defining Patriotism: Obedience vs. Critique The Military: How Much Defense is Necessary? Power in America A Peace Time Draft vs. Voluntary Service Defining the Issues: What is Power? World Government: How Much Power for Perspectives on Power in America: the United Nations? Elitism vs. Pluralism Policy and Personal Responsibility Historical Development of American Government: What role should the United States play in the Chronology and Cases world? How and why has the role of the U. S. The Constitution: Protector of Democracy or changed over time? What are the origins of Conservator of Elitism? American globalism?

The Border Mentality: Nationalism and Introduction to the Social Sciences International Relations Introduction to Social Research Religion and Philosophy in Personal and Public Life Media and Social Understanding Grade 12. Philosophy and Life Utopian Visions and Competing Ideologies (second semester capstone course) Technology, Society, and the Environment In this course, each student would develop Sex, Marriage, and Family Life a personal statement of individual and social The School as an Institution philosophy, based on the student's own under-

261 271 standing of our society and our world. The Opposition to issues-centered approaches has course would include a revisiting of issues posed long centered around the following main argu- throughout the curriculum, with special focus on ments (Evans 1987): philosophical issues including the nature of First, critics are likely to charge that the knowledge, theories of reality, theories of value, approach lacks content. This charge is patently and perspectives on social justice. Students will false. Content for each course may be found in also consider alternative futures and propose textbooks, and in materials in school and public ideas for social improvement, engage in commu- libraries. If this approach is to be thoroughly nity involvement or service learning activitiesimplemented, it will mean including more consistent with a personal vision of social justice, data than the current curriculum typically consider ethical implications of career alterna- offers. Of course, current texts aren't organized tives, and other personal choices. Finally, stu- in an issues-centered fashion. For this approach dents will be asked to evaluate and critique their to take hold, alternative materials will have to be own education. developed; texts, teaching manuals, and discussion guides will have to be created to correspond Strengths of the Framework with this framework. In the meantime, current- and Potential Problems ly available texts and materials can be used While we reiterate our respect for the frame- effectively, but they will be used only as relevant works discussed earlier and the invaluable to the topic and issue under consideration. Until contribution their authors have made to the field, appropriate issues-centered texts and materials we believe that the framework we propose has are developed, teaching social studies with this several advantages over previous proposals. The framework as a guide would be quite demand- curriculum builds on student interest in issuesing for teachers. Realistically, any department affecting their lives. In each course, the relevance or school district choosing to implement a fully of the issues examined will be immediately clear. issues-centered curriculum would need suffi- The focus on a central set of questions in eachcient preparation time to locate and create course will help to create a reflective, engaging appropriate materials. environment. In each course, teachers and stu- Other critics are likely to voice a related com- dents will also study relevant strands of historicalplaint that students won't know their history. development, cases and cross-cultural and globalThis depends how history is used in this format. aspects of the topic being considered. We hope that we have made clear that our Unlike the previous attempts at developing anframework is heavily historical, that data, cases, issues-centered curriculum, we have suggested strands of chronological development, and con- the establishment of actual courses with issues at sideration of competing interpretations of the center. This is at the heart of our proposal, and is past would permeate the curriculum. We believe the major distinction between this frameworkthat this will likely result in a better understand- and the earlier proposals we discuss. This choice ing of historical knowledge gained than in the elevates issues to a more prominent place in the traditional curriculum. curriculum. If we can achieve this, it will be more A related complaint is likely from those who likely that books and materials will becomefavor a discipline-based approach. They may reflective and problem-centered in orientation, argue that students won't have a sufficient under- and that the curriculum will address issues rele- standing of disciplined knowledge as a base for vant to students' lives. As we indicate above, thisintellectual growth and social understanding. framework allows history and social science Again, we think this depends on how disciplines perspectives to be employed, especially so inare used. We view the academic disciplines as courses corresponding to economics and political helpful but inadequate to the challenge of science, or including aspects of sociology andpreparing thoughtful citizens. The focus of our anthropology. Our proposal also encourages curriculum is on the critical thinking process, extradisciplinary and interdisciplinary study bypart of any intellectual endeavor but beyond the siting courses outside any particular discipline. scope of any one discipline or combination of While we believe that our proposal deserves disciplines. fair consideration, we recognize that any such Another likely complaint is that this will lead proposal will draw a good deal of criticism. to a superficial hodge-podge of topics and issues

262 in no logical sequence. We are sensitive to this of classroom constancy. It must be amenable to argument. While there may be no absolutely adaptation in a variety of forms and contexts. best logical sequence for social study, we haveWe recognize the wisdom in continuing to pro- endeavored to sequence the courses in our promote an issues-centered focus within present posal from the study of issues and topics close to offerings, yet we believe that it is helpful to students lives, to issues they will face as adults, develop alternatives such as the framework we some of which seem further from students'propose. It is important to continue to offer immediate experience. Hence, following thestrong options to the currently dominant inter- introductory course, we chose to begin the cur- ests that would replace social studies with histo- riculum with issues of race, class, and gender. ry and geography. Each of these areas is immediate to student As we noted at the outset, young people experience, and later courses explore underlying today face real and difficult challenges. We structures behind these issues in greater depth. believe that teachers and schools ignore those Students would have completed in-depth study challenges at great peril. The curriculum must, at of race, class, and gender issues by the end of its very foundation, offer studies relevant to tenth grade. Grade eleven would be primarily students' lives. Social studies must introduce devoted to the economic and political issues and a rising generation to the challenges and dilem- institutions that undergird and cut across mat- mas faced by all inhabitants of our planet. ters of race, class and gender. By this time in It must provide them with the knowledge and their intellectual development, students should skills necessary for thoughtful and participatory be interested enough in furthering their under- citizenship so that we might all find better ways standing that these courses will be especially rel- to live as part of one family. evant. Each course builds on previous learning, adding greater depth and breadth to student understanding. Finally, in their senior year, stu- References dents will focus outward, on their relationships Cuban, Larry. How Teachers Taught. New York with the world and on their own individual rela- Longman, 1984. tionship with the community. Engle, Shirley H., and Anna S. Ochoa. Education for Another likely complaint, and one with Democratic Citizenship: Decision Making in the Social merit, is that legal mandates exist for teaching Studies. New York Teachers College Press, 1988. the U. S. Constitution, U. S. History, and eco- Evans, Ronald W. Defining the Worthy Society: A History nomics, and that in some states, standardized of the Societal-Problems Approach in Social Studies, tests require a more traditional curriculum. As we 1895-1985. Ed.D diss., Stanford University, 1987. have noted above, each course will contain strong Freire, Paulo. Pedagogy of the Oppressed New York elements of U. S. History. The Constitution and Continuum, 1970. economic content would be infused across cours- Goodlad, John. A Place Called School. New York es, but would also be a focus in the 11th grade. McGraw-Hill, 1984. We suggest that creative teachers and curriculum Giroux, Henry. Border Crossings: Cultural Workers and developers could build units on these subjects the Politics of Education. New York Routledge, 1992. where appropriate. Hunt, Maurice P, and Lawrence E. Metcalf. Teaching High School Social Studies: Problems in Reflective Conclusion Thinking and Social Understanding. New York Given the diversity of ideas and approaches Harper and Row, 1955 (2nd edition, 1968). in the field of social studies education, it is Oliver, Donald 0., and James P Shaver. Teaching Public impractical to suggest that there is one best Issues in the High School. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, scope and sequence. Nevertheless, we believe 1966. that our proposal merits consideration and hope Rugg, Harold 0. "Curriculum Design in the Social that it will inspire discussion and action toward Studies: What I Believe..." In The Future of the Social a more engaging curriculum. We recognize the Studies, edited by James A. Michener. Curriculum daunting nature of trying to reform school cur- Series no. 1. Washington, D.C.: National Council ricula (Cuban 1984; Shaver 1989), yet reformers for the Social Studies, 1939. have had some success over the years. Our pro- Shaver, James P. "Lessons From the Past The Future of posal must be tempered by a realistic assessment an Issues-Centered Social Studies Curriculum." The

2 7:3 263 Social Studies 80 (September/October 1989): 192-196. Shaver, James P, 0. L. Davis, and Suzanne Helburn. "The Status of Social Studies Education: Impressions from Three NSF Studies." Social Education 43 (1979): 150-153. Stanley, William B. and Jack L. Nelson. "Social Educa- tion for Social Transformation." Social Education 50 (1986): 528-533. Wraga, William G. "The Interdisciplinary Imperative for Citizenship Education." Theory and Research in Social Education 21 (1993): 201-231.

164 2` 4 TEAHMG SOCIETAL ISSUES ACROSS THESECONDARY CURRICULUM

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ocietal issues are too important to confineand against which lessons, units, courses, and to the social studies. Every subject can andprograms can be evaluated. should make important contributions to the development of students' understand- Teaching about Societal issues ing of complex issues that they will face as in Subject Areas adults. While the previous two chapters Each conventional subject in the school offer suggestions for addressing societal issues in curriculum can contribute to students' under- the secondary social studies, science, and mathe- standing of social issues, even though not all of matics curricula, this chapter attempts to orientthem are typically regarded as fertile ground for the reader toward the possibilities for addressing addressing issues (e.g., Vatter 1994). Insofar as societal issues in other areas of the high schoolsocial issues provide a connection between the curriculum, namely, English, the fine and per- scholastic treatment of subject matter and forming arts, modern foreign languages, physical the "real world," the study of social issues across education and health, and vocational education. the curriculum also can enliven subject areas per- The imperative of interdisciplinary approaches ceived by students as being divorced from life to societal issues and the educative power ofbeyond the school walls. Since curriculum devel- the daily operations of the school, including co- opment is most meaningful when teachers and curricular activities, will be discussed, as well. students genuinely collaborate to identify and The ability to identify, analyze, and act upon examine ideas and issues, the examples below pressing societal issues comprises a requisiteshould be regarded as possible starting points for competency of democratic citizenship, and as examination of social issues and, therefore, also as such should be firmly anchored in the local suggestive rather than exhaustive. school district's educational philosophy and learning objectives. Local endeavors to identify English Language Arts and develop aims and objectives related to An effective way to study social issues in the participatory citizenship and the concomitantEnglish classroom is to examine the use and ability to address societal issues can be informed abuse of language by public officials and by by notable past efforts to formulate usablespokespeople for special interest and lobbying educational goals. The Commission on the groups (Totten 1992). The National Council of Reorganization of Secondary Education (1918), Teachers of English monitors such usage, high- the Educational Policies Commission (1938), the lighting its concern by annually presenting its Survey Study of Behavioral Outcomes ofDoublespeak Award to notable efforts to obscure General Education in High School (Frenchreal practice with euphemistic verbiage (Lutz 1957), and Good lad (1984), a study of schooling, 1989). English classes could maintain their own can serve as useful resources in this area. Selected doublespeak lists and issue their own awards. The goals from the Educational Policies Commission current movement to promote so-called political- (1938) are presented in Table 1 as a model of the ly correct speech could be examined in a similar kinds of learnings issue-focused curriculum and light, as well. Students also could learn to detect instruction across the subject areas seek to attain,propaganda devices, logical fallacies, and other

275 BEST COPY AVM ABLE 1. Social Justice The educated citizen is sensitive to the disparities of human circumstance. 2. Social Activity The educated citizen acts to correct unsatisfactory conditions. 3. Critical Judgment The educated citizen develops defenses against propaganda. 4. Tolerance The educated citizen respects honest differences of opinion. 5. Conservation The educated citizen has a regard for the nation'sresources. 6. Social Applications of Science The educated citizenmeasures scientific advance by its contribution to the general welfare. 7. World Citizenship The educated citizen is a cooperative member of the world community 8. Political Citizenship The educated citizen accepts his civic duties. 9. Devotion to Democracy The educated citizen actsupon an unswerving loyalty to democratic ideals. 10. Public Health The educated person works to improve the health of the community 11. Occupational Choice The educated producer has selected his occupation. 12. Occupational Appreciation The educated producer appreciates the social value of his work. 13. Consumer Protection The educated consumer takes appropriatemeasures to safeguard his interests.

Source: Educational Policies Commission, The Purposes of Education in American Democracy (Washington, D.C.: National Education Association, 1938), pp. 50, 90,108.

techniques of persuasion by analyzing a variety ofstudents to participate effectively in social dis- print and non-print texts for such usages (see Lee course (see, for example, "Civic Literacy" 1991). 1939; Beyer 1987; Paul and Rudinow 1990; Literature traditionally read in high school Steele 1992). English classes is virtually brimming with oppor- There is growing emphasis in English educa- tunities for addressing social issues. In American tion on the idea that since the superordinate pur- literature, conventional titles such as Paine's pose of the language arts is to communicate Common Sense, Thoreau's Civil Disobedience, meaning, students best learn the tools of written Hawthorne's The Scarlet Letter, Stowe's Uncle and verbal communication in the context of pur- Tom's Cabin, Twain's Adventures of Huck Finn, poseful dialogue about matters that are meaning- Lewis' The Jungle, Hemingway's A Farewell to ful to them. Additionally, there are signs thatArms, Steinbeck's The Grapes of Wrath, and English educators are increasingly placing a pre- Miller's The Crucible cover a wide range of social mium on the social value of communicationand political issues. Titles commonly read in which moves English curriculum and instruction British literaturesuch as Julius Caesar, Macbeth, beyond the mere acquisition of common skillsand almost any work of Dickensoffer similar and information and toward treating these areas opportunities. A thematic unit such as "Industri- of competence as vehicles for fostering a common alism in Victorian Literature" or "Evolution in discourse in the name of democracy (Lloyd Jones Victorian Literature" could simultaneously intro- and Lunsford 1989; Hlebowitsh, Muller, and duce students to basic characteristics of the era's Pickett 1991). Together these two developments literature and to perennial social issues (see provide favorable conditions for social issues Abrams 1968, 1334-1372). becoming the focus of student reading, writing, Yet as Tanner (1971, 224) points out, litera- and speaking. A variety of textual materials can be ture selections must transcend traditional reading used, both expository and persuasive, includinglists to represent the reality of our polyglot soci- magazine and newspaper articles, news reports, ety and to bear relevance and meaning to stu- editorials, reference works, and policy books. In dents of diverse backgrounds. Calls to add to this way, social issues become meaningful top- school reading lists literary works written during icsespecially if selected carefully by studentsthe twentieth century and by minority authors for research and writing assignments that providehave come to dominate scholarly discourse on the context for developing important language English curriculum, but have made only slight arts competencies and at the same time enable inroads into classroom practice (Gehrke, Knapp,

266 and Sirotnik 1992). Suggestions for diversifying (c. 1768), characterized by one art historian as high school reading lists in terms of race, ethnic- "probably the first picture of political protest by ity, and gender ("Rediscovering America" 1992), an American artist" (Baigell 1974, 60); Innes' the variegated experiences of today's youth Lackawanna Valley (1855), an exploration of the ("Adolescent Literature" 1992), and providing a relationship between nature, the new technolo- global perspective through literature ("A Globalgy, and man; Hopper's bleak depiction of indi- Perspective" 1990) are readily available in theviduals who exist in close physical proximity but professional literature. Such readings are rich inemotional isolation in works such as Room in social issues that can hold special meaning for the New York (1932) and Second-Story Sunlight groups they represent but also can serve to broad-(1960); and Wood's satirical representations of en the perspective of majority students(HurlbertAmerican myths and traditional values in works and Totten 1992). such as the famous American Gothic (1930) and Daughters of Revolution (1932). Of particular rel- Fine and Performing Arts evance here is the social realism movement dur- Dewey (1985) contends, "The freeing of theing the 1930s, in which artists espoused a wide artist in literary presentation ... is as much a pre-range of political viewpoints through their condition of the desirable creation of adequate painting (see Baigell 1973). opinion on public matters as is the freeing of As an artistic medium, photography not only social inquiry" (p. 183). He identifies the special often captures great moments of social and role of art in public discourse when he notes, human import, but also can yield insight and per- "Artists have always been the real purveyors ofspective on social conditions and problems news, for it is not the outward happening in itself(Newhall 1978). The work of Jacob Riis around which is new, but the kindling of it by emotion, the turn of the century and that of Dorothea perception, and appreciation" (p. 184). The art Lange and other Depression-era photographers curriculum can contribute to the development ofare exemplars in this latter application of the students' ability and inclination to handle socialcamera's lens. Photographs can be used to raise issues by providing opportunities for them to issues, as sources of information and insights into examine art as a means of expression, as a source particular social issues (Lesy 1982), and as sub- of a unique perspective on an issue, and as ajective statements to be analyzed for inherent reflection of temporal issues. biases (Stott 1973). Students can also use the Painters, for example, have long used theirmedium themselves to document or comment media to comment on social issues of the day. upon a particular issue under study. Indeed, entire artistic movements, such as Dada The performing arts also enjoy a long tradi- during the post-World War I era and, to a lesser tion of addressing social issues. From The Birth of extent, pop art of the 1950s and 1960s, have a Nation to Do the Right Thing, for example, films claimed social commentary as an express purpose. have attempted to comment on issues of race, In art classes, individual works can be employed power, and social structure. Recent films such as to illustrate the social-political function of artistic City of Hope, Bob Roberts, and Roger and Me, expression; across the curriculum, art can be usedto cite just a few examples, speak to a range of to raise or represent particular issues under dis- social issues that could be discussed in relation cussion. Famous paintings that deal with political to cinematic techniques employed by the film- issues include David's The Death of Socrates (1787) makers. Similarly, dramatic productions conduct- and The Death of Marat (1793), Goya's The Third ed by the school's drama club or visiting profes- of May (1808), and Picasso's Guernica (1937). sional troupes could be chosen for their potential Similarly, well-known works such as Daumier's contribution to student understanding of a The Third-Class Carriage (1862) and Munch's The perennial or contemporary social issue. To Scream (1893) raised issues about the alienation increase the educational impact of the assembly, of the individual in modem industrial societyprior to attending a performance, students could more than fifty years before David Riesman examine the background of the play and related coined the term "the lonely crowd." information about the issue(s)itaddresses. There is a strong tradition of social commen- Following the assembly, students would discuss tary in American painting, as well.Notable the implications of the play for the particular examples include Copley's Portrait of Paul Revere issue as well as the role of the performing arts in

267 277 addressing social issues. Physical Education and Health Popular music is a staple of adolescent life and In developing a case for reconceiving physi- culture, and addresses social issues more often cal education to serve the purpose of "emancipa- than adults sometimes think. The role of folk tory education," Bain (1988) raises a number of music in social protest, for example, is a conve- issues relating to physical education with which nient vehicle for examining societal issues she feels physical educators must come to terms, through music. (See the many useful issues of many of which could be examined by students as Folksong in the Classroom.) Likewise, popularpart of the physical education/health curricu- music styles and lyrics can be examined as alum. The "cult of thinness" in our society, the reflection of trends and themes representative ofpervasive influence of sports on our lives, racism particularperiods,includingthepresent. and sexism in sports (relating to stereotyping Similarly, a consideration of Antheil's Ballet and access, for example), sports-related drug use mecanique (1925) could serve to open the possibil- (i.e., steroids), family planning, sexually trans- ity for students that even formal music attempts mitted diseases (including HIV/AIDS), and to comment on changing social conditions.images of alcohol and smoking in the media Furthermore, art students would likely profit from (including advertising) are among the issues stu- an investigation of issues surrounding govern- dents could consider in the physical educa- ment funding of the arts and the First Amend- tion/health education curriculum. Other issues ment. Again, these suggestions are offered as pertinent to these subjects include the salaries of examples and clearly do not exhaust the innumer- professional athletes, the effects of tobacco use able possibilities for examining social issues and government subsidy of the tobacco industry, through the performing arts. and proposals for a national health plan. As greater attention is devoted to the social vari- Modern Foreign Languages ables of health and well-being (e.g., Sagan 1987; Although during the last half-century the Sen 1993), possibilities increase for teaching emphasis on the function of modern foreign about social issues in health classes. language education has shifted in both the literature of popular school reform (from cold war pre- Vocational Subjects paredness to international economic competition) The primary purpose of vocational education and the professional literature (from discipliningis usually taken to be that of providing students the mind to appreciation of other cultures to com- with marketable job skills. The focus tends to be municative ability), the functions most often pro- on fitting students into the existing job market, moted commonly include a strong practical versus rather than on providing them with life-long academic bent. The examination of social issues is competencies to forge their personal place and clearly consistent with and a logical extension ofultimately to exert significant influence over their this trend toward the practicality and applicabili- own employment destinies. Concerns about ty of foreign language study to social affairs. The international economic competitiveness have of modem foreign language curriculum could, for late focused discussions of vocational education example, provide opportunities for students to on servicing business-sector needs and national- investigate issues surrounding the social, political, istic imperatives more than on enhancing the and economic relationships between the United efficacy of the individual citizen-worker. States and countries and/or regions where the tar- Vocational education, however, holds great get language is heavily spoken or indigenous. The potential for addressing societal issues. While foreign language program may also be the appro- early writings about vocational guidance placed priate place in the school curriculum for students remarkable emphasis on the personal-social (ver- to examine the issue of an official national lan-sus political-economic) function of vocational guage in the United States. Although the so-education (see Wraga 1994), in practice the called English First issue is usually the property ofemphasis is usually on developing trade skills at bilingual educators in the education field (seethe expense of fostering an understanding of Secada and Lightfoot 1993 for a discussion of the vocations in wider economic, social, and civic politics of the issue), the issue may well be ofcontexts. Dewey (1966) is worth quoting at some interest to students who enjoy an aptitude length about the social power of vocational in language arts. education:

268 ... aneducation which acknowledges the fight to abolish child labor, or the struggle for full intellectual and social meaning of a minimum wage laws and for workers' rights in vocation would include instruction in the general" (p. 253). These are among the numerous historic background of present conditions; social issues highly pertinent to vocational edu- training in science to give intelligence and cation (which recent proposalsfor youth initiative in dealing with material and agen- apprentice-ship programs seem to neglect, as cies of production; and study of economics, well). Other issues appropriate for the vocational civics, and politics to bring the future work- curriculum include problems created by the er into touch with the problems of the day application of technology; consumer rights; and the various methods proposed for its product safety; right-to-know; and workplace improvement. (p. 318) safety. Issues of race, ethnicity, and gender regarding occupational access and salary equity, Dewey (1966) emphasizes, "Above all,it such as the specific case of women in the military, would train power of readaptation to changingalso provide fruitful opportunities for examining conditions so that future workers would not societal issues in vocational classes. Examination become blindly subject to a fate imposed upon of these kinds of issues could even lead to a dis- them" (p. 319). From this perspective, vocational cussion of the role of government in regulating studies offer substantive opportunities for theworkplace practices and the trade-offs involved reflective examination of socialissuesthatin protecting individual rights and maintaining impinge on the nature of work, on opportunitiesan effective market. Issues such as these could be for securing and maintaining fulfilling employ- examined in almost any vocational course. ment, and on the need to view occupations in the In developing a case for integrating social wider socioeconomic context rather than simplystudies and home economics curricula, Gentzler as a matter of mastering specific job-related skills. (1991) points to important opportunities for The recent report of the Department ofteaching about social issues in home economics Labor's Secretary's Commission on Achievingcourses. Gentzler summarizes the traditional Necessary Skills (1991), which identifies an aim of home economics as "helping individuals impressive array of relatively sophisticated com-and families improve the quality of their living" petencies that will ostensibly be required of(p. 199) through five areas of study: child and future workers, nevertheless falls into the con-human development; foods and nutrition; ventional school of thinking about vocational clothing and textiles; family and consumer eco- education. Despite the elaboration of complexnomics; home and family management. Though skills and caveats such as "We are not calling for Gentzler does not raise them in this context, a narrow work-focused education" (p. v), theseveral societal issues are clearly inherent to SCANS report discusses its targeted competen-these areas of study, including issues relating cies only in the context of solving work-relatedto education, product development, and adver- problems. It omits mention of the skills workerstising. The study of the role of advertising in will need, for example, "to protect themselves shaping purchasing patterns as well as in manip- from on-the-job dangers and from employers ulating consumers by creating desires (see Ewen who would exploit them or who would discrimi- 1976), for example, could be a rewarding com- nate on the basis of race or sex," as Hayes (1991, ponent of the home economics curriculum. 253) insightfully indicates. Such skills obviously Gentzler (1991)provocativelycallsfor are those that enable employees to deal with per-collaboration between social studies and home vasive social issues that impinge directly upon the economics departments that would bring to bear workplace and upon the lives of workers. an understanding of wider social contexts on tra- Examination of such issues in vocational edu- ditional home economics topics. Such a unit cation can go a long way toward helping workersabout world hunger would focus on questions to identify and subsequently deal with these such as "What should be done about hunger in issues on the job. Echoing Dewey's call for a our communities? Are there social structures in broad conception of vocational education, Hayes place that promote hunger? If so, what steps (1991) notes, "I've read nothing about the should be taken to restructure our system to dis- SCANS proposals that would help students courage hunger? Is hunger good? Should hunger appreciate the history of the labor movement, thebe resolved?" (p. 199). Gentzler offers similar

269 279 suggestions for deliberation about social issues knowledge and perspectives as appropriate to the surrounding substance abuse. issue at hand without deference to conventional In summary, myriad opportunities exist forsubject divisions. The core curriculum can be incorporating the examination of social issueseither pre-planned by the teacher (structured into conventional subject areas outside the social core) or collaboratively planned by the teacher studies. Implementation strategies for infusing and students (open core). teaching about social issues into existing courses What might these theoretical interdiscipli- include the addition of regular lessons, an ongo- nary designs look like in practice? In a correlat- ing independent or group research project, aed issue-focused unit, two or more subjects separate unit of the curriculum, or through would schedule a series of lessons devoted to a co-curricular clubs. Again, insofar as social issues particular issue to be taught at about the same provide a connection between the scholastic time, and the teachers would explicitly identify treatment of subject matter and students' real-lifeways in which their respective disciplines illumi- experiences, the infusion of social issues across nate the issue. Using conventional subject matter the curriculum also can enliven subject areas per- in English and social studies, for example, issues ceived by students to be divorced from liferelating to freedom of speech, public opinion, beyond the school walls. due process, the dignity of the individual, and the relationship between the individual and the Interdisciplinary Approaches society can be examined through the study of to Societal Issues Arthur Miller's The Crucible and the time peri- The sheer complexity of many social issues ods in which it was written and about which it requirescrossingconventionaldisciplinarywas written. Recognizing the work as a 1950s boundaries to develop a thorough understandingplay about the 1690s, students could compare of them, as Gentzler's discussion of home eco- social contexts to consider how Miller used his- nomics-related issues suggests. The school cur-torical drama to illuminate contemporary issues riculum, therefore, should provide planned expe-that go to the heart of the American experience. riences through which students learn to integrate This unit could be extended to include compar- and apply knowledge from multiple disciplines in ative analysis of the film Dead Poet's Society an effort to grasp important social issues. a 1980s film about social conditions in the While numerous terms are used to describe 1950sas it deals with issues of individualism various interdisciplinary curriculum designs, and conformity. these designs can be organized into three gener- Engle and Ochoa (1988) recommend annual- al categories (National Association for Core ly devoting a block of time (at least two weeks) to Curriculum 1992; Vars 1993; Wraga 1993). a correlated, school-wide study of a selected Curriculum correlation involves bringing two orsocial issue. Figure 1 represents possible subject more subjects to bear on a selected topic, issue, or area contributions to an issue-focused unit about problem in ways that purposefully seek connec- acid rain. After determining the problem area to tions between and among the subjects in relation be studied, in this case acid rain, the next step to the topic of study. Correlation is the easiestwould be to identify specific questions that focus form of interdisciplinary curriculum to imple-on critical dimensions of the issue. Some of these ment since it involves no significant reorganiza- questions would lead to an informed understand- tion of the overall school program, with the result ing of many facets of the issue, while others that the disciplines (and, therefore, teachers)would be open-ended, requiring students to use retain their identities. Fused curriculum involves evidence to take and defend opinions about the combining the content from two or more sub- issue. Activities would be designed to answer the jects into a new course. Fused courses are often focus questions, and may resemble those suggest- team-taught by teachers representing traditional ed in Figure 1. In addition to subject-related subjects. In such arrangements the disciplines activities, school-wide and community-based usually remain recognizable although the focus is activities could foster a wider sense of social increasingly on the topic or issue rather than onresponsibility and public-mindedness that tran- the subject matter. The core curriculum involves scend the classroom. These activities could focusing on personal-social problems and issues include conducting an information campaign or that are meaningful to students, applying subjectpetition drive, holding an assembly featuring

270 guest lecturers and/or student panels about thecurriculum as well as integrate subject knowl- issue, and devoting a special section of the stu- edge and perspectives as appropriate to the par- dent newspaper to an examination of the prob- ticular problem under study. Again, the unit lem area. Such a unit could be correlated among depicted in Figure 1 could be conducted through the various subject courses or conducted as a a core or common learnings course. Descriptions component of a problem-focused or core course. of secondary core programs can be found in Examples of curriculum fusion can be found Giles, McCutchen, and Zechiel (1942), Wright in courses that purposefully blend content from (1950),EducationalPoliciesCommission two or more conventional disciplines to address a (1952), Tanner and Tanner (1980), and Vars societal issue. Indeed, the two units just described (1993). McDonald and Czerniak (1994) offer a can be conducted as either correlated or fused variety of strategies and guidelines for develop- curricula. Science-Technology-Society courses ing interdisciplinary units, and explain the use of and some Problems of Democracy courses fallplanning wheels, webbing, and concept maps. into this category, as do the courses described by Geller (1973) and Dillingham, Kelly, and Strauss Societal Issues (1975) that integrate subject matter from science beyond the Classroom and social studies to address issues pertaining to Teaching and learning about social issues pollution, health care, housing, racism, elitism inshould not be limited to the confines of the the environmental movement, and the ethical use classroom. As noted above, students can consid- of scientific knowledge. Table 2 suggests learning er social issues in subject-related clubs or in objectives for an issue-focused unit or course that school assemblies such as dramatic presentations can also serve as general classroom procedures for that complement classroom examination of formally examining a social issue or problem. selected issues. In fact, co-curricular activities such as the student government, peer leadership Common Learnings Course programs, the school newspaper, and the debate Required of An Students society provide numerous opportunities for While there certainly are ample opportuni- engaging students in important personal-social ties in correlated and fused interdisciplinary issues. Significantly, a positive correlation exists curricular organizations for the application ofbetween involvement in school governance and subject knowledge to an examination of societalother co-curricular activities and post-gradua- issues, there is, however, an equally great, if not tion involvement in civic and community affairs greater, tendency for such courses to dwell (Ferguson 1991; Berk 1992). Community ser- largely, if not solely, on the mastery of pertinentvice projects obviously offer further opportuni- subject knowledge. Ideally then, an interdisci- ties for students to become actively involved in plinary,problem-focused,heterogeneously social issues (Nathan and Kielsmeier 1991; grouped, full-year core or common learningsBarber 1992). Related directly to the formal course required each year for all students should curriculum, co-curricular and service activities be an integral, unifying component of every high can make "academic" subjects valuable sources of school curriculum. In this course, students ofinformation about the world beyond the school. various backgrounds, abilities, and aspirations In short, the co-curriculum and the daily opera- would engage in a collaborative effort to tackle tions of the school can serve as valuable common problems and issues. Problem areas resources for engaging students in problematic could be predetermined by teachers or developed social issues. In 1918 the Cardinal Principles cooperatively by teachers and students. In such report proposed that every high school include a setting, students would have the opportunityamong its staff a citizenship director whose job to participate in a sustained study of problem it would be to "foster civic-mindedness through areas that would include issues of personal and the school paper, debating society, and general community health, interpersonal relationships, school exercises, and give suggestions for direct- cultural diversity, racism and prejudice, econom- ing the thinking of pupils to significant prob- ic change, global interdependence, the environ- lems of the day" (Commission on the Reorgani- ment, communications and the media, and oth- zation of Secondary Education 1918, 28). This ers. Problem-focused units would correlate with recommendation is clearly commensurate with the discipline-centered subjects of the schoolthe status the preparation of citizens should hold

271 281 Table 2: Sample Learning Objectives for an Issue-Focused Course

Students will learn to do the following: 1. Identify local, national, and/or global issues or problems. 2. Apply knowledge and concepts from pertinent disciplines to understand these issues. 3. Explain the relationships between the disciplines pertinent to the problem/issue. 4. Assess the relevance of research information and the credibility of information sources. S. Identify bias in media sources. 6. Identify possible solutions to the problems/issues. 7. Assess the possible impact of solutions. 8. Choose a particular solution and defend it in writing using logic, evidence, personal values, and social ideals. 9. Generate the best logical argument against evidence that is in conflict with a chosen solution. 10.Develop and implement an activity to promote their solution.

Adapted from: E. Wolf, Foreign and Domestic Policy Practicum Curriculum Guide (Basking Ridge, NJ.: Bemards Township Public Schools, 1993).

Table 3: Suggested Guidelines for Dealing with Societal Issues

1. Lead students to expect controversy in the classroom. 2. When dealing with an issue, clarify the nature of the issue and agreements and disagreements surrounding it. 3. Ensure student exposure to a best-case, fair hearing of competing points of view. 4. Ensure that sufficient factual information is brought to the discussion to promote the development of informed opinions. S. Ensure that logic is used as a criterion for evaluating the credibility of arguments. 6. Employ small-group discussions to enable all students the opportunity to participate and to enable the teacher to work individually with more students. 7. Respect students' right not to express their opinions publicly on all issues. 8. Be willing to accept that not all issues can be resolved. 9. Establish closure to all discussions of issues (e.g., deciding when the class will agree to disagree). 10.Occasionally provide opportunities, as appropriate, to revisit previously addressed issues.

Source: Adapted from T E. Kelly, "Leading Class Discussions of Controversial Issues," Social Education (October 1989): 368-370; Social Science Education Consortium, Science, Technology, Society Training Manual(Boulder, Social Science Education Consortium, 1988). as an express curricular priority and could go a prompt serious rethinking of the purpose and long way toward actualizing thispriority nature of those curriculum areas. Further, how- throughout the school program. ever and whatever social issues are infused into the school curriculum, issue-focused instruction Conclusion requires a sensitivity to the potential volatility of Fertile opportunities for engaging students in certain issues and should be handled using tech- substantive consideration of social issues exist niques that ensure fair and balanced treatment of throughout the secondary curriculum. With rel- conflicting viewpoints. The guidelines suggested atively slight modifications, virtually any subject in Table 3 can be useful in any classroom and/or area can develop student competency in address- co-curriculartreatment of societalissues. ing social issues. Inclusion of social issues in Providing structured opportunities for students non-socialstudiessubjectsmay, however, to reflect systematically on perennial societal

272 Figure 1: Possible subject area contributions to an issue-focused unit on acid rain. Foreign Languages Translate news reports from other English countries for different Language perspectives on the issue. Arts Fine and Performing Arts Foreign Create and perform a dramatic skit Health addressing the issue. Languages Create a mural addressing the issue Social Studies Fine and Map affected areas by regions and Performing nations. Arts Science Evaluate available solutions to the acid rain problem in terms of cost- effectiveness. Explain international political and economic Social implications of the issue. Studies Mathematics Hold a debate on the issue. Conduct a petition drive. Lobby elected officials. Vocational Subjects Vocational Determine the impact of acid rain Subjects on the economy and jobs. Analyze industrial policies regarding the issue. Explain scientific opinions on the issue. Propose a new industrial policy addressing the problem. Evaluate available solutions to the acid rain problem Invent products or services to help solve the problem. in terms of its environmental impact. Mathematics Health Compile and graph statistics on the rate and extent Create a poster representing the affect of acid rain of acreage affected by acid rain. on standards of living. Develop mathematical model(s) extrapolating future English Language Arts damage. Apply reading, writing, and research skills to clarify Science the issue. Conduct a lab demonstrating the effects of acid Access a variety of information sources about the issue. precipitation on plant life. Write a letter to the editor of a newspaper expressing Develop a model demonstrating meteorological factors a position on the issue.

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274 4 Development. New York Macmillan, 1971. Tanner, D. and L. Tanner. Curriculum Development: Theory into Practice. 2nd Edition. New York Macmillan, 1980. Totten, S. "Educating for the Development of Social Consciousness and Social Responsibility" In Social Issues in the English Classroom, by C. M. Hurlbert and S. Totten. Urbana, Ill.: National Council of Teachers of English, 1992: 9-55. Vars, G. F. Interdisciplinary Teaching: Why and How. Columbus, Ohio: National Middle School Association, 1993. Vatter, T "Civic Mathematics: A Real-Life General Mathematics Course." Mathematics Teacher 87, no. 6 (September 1994): 396-401. Wraga, W. G. "The Interdisciplinary Imperative for Citizenship Education." Theory and Research in Social Education 21, no. 3 (Summer 1993): 201-231. . Democracy's High School: The Comprehensive High School and Educational Reform in the United States. Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1994. Wright, G. S. Core Curriculum in Public High Schools Bulletin 1950, no. 5, US. Office of Education. Washington, D.C.: US. Government Printing Office, 1950.

275 2S5 Paa ri: flr ssessrerl

Introduction hu Waller C. Parker

This section of the Handbook is concerned purposes this information can serve. In this with assessing student learning in an issue-introduction, I briefly review these means and oriented curriculum environment. Its two ends, address their political dimensions, and then chapterssuggestthattheboundaries consider assessment as a tool for school reform. between assessment work and curriculum work are not well-defined, as once wasPurposes assumed, but profitably can be blurred to the point Assessment can serve very different masters. at which a discussion of assessment becomesOne prominent classification scheme identifies a discussion of curriculum goals, and visa versa. three main groups of purposes (Resnick and The theme of these two chapters is that Resnick 1991). The first is public accountability assessments do not merely help educators find and program evaluation. Assessment of this type out what and how much students have learned;permits those in elected and appointed positions they also serve as the ends for teaching and learn- to monitor school performance. Here we see ing. Whether or not they are ends worth pursu- especially the phenomenon of standardized testing depends on the kind of thinking, learning, ing, with results being used to compare schools and community life they encourage. Both chap- and states and even nations. The second class of ters are based on work that is underway in publicpurposes is the selection of students for particular schoolsintheauthors'homestatesof schools and programs. These tests provide informa- Washington (Parker) and Michigan (Harris). tion on individuals rather than groups. The In the first chapter, several examples of issue- Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT), introduced in oriented curriculum guidelines are spelled out in 1926, is perhaps the most famous assessment used terms of performance assessment. I argue that it for this purpose. IQtests used to select students is important in this kind of curriculum/assess- for special programs and lesser-known tests used ment work to distinguish between course and pro- for placing students in learning- and behavior- gram planning, and I identify subject matterdisorder programs are included, too. The third both topics of study and intellectual frameworks set of purposes is closer to daily classroom life: for studying these topicsthat ought to drive instructional management and monitoring. Here teaching, learning, and assessment at both levels. assessment is conducted in order to help students In the second chapter, David Harris shows how learn and teachers teach. Sample purposes are: an issue-oriented curriculum target can be clari- a. developing units of instruction fied and made more attainable when assessmentb. deciding how to teach the rest of a unit criteria are carefully developed. The target ofc. judging the depth of student knowledge concern for Harris is competent small-group dis- and the range of their abilities cussion of public issues. This arguably is the cen- d. diagnosing student problems tral civic competency required of citizens in soci-e. motivating students to study eties attempting to be democratic (Parker 1996). f. providing feedback to students on their progress "Assessment" is a broad term that includes all g. judging the appropriateness of performance the different methods teachers employ to gather criteria information in their classrooms and the many h. assigning students to small groups for

2 cooperative work of view before taking a position. Similarly, issue- i. identifying cultural differences so as to oriented teachers can use the interview to inves- provide culturally relevant instruction tigate students' conceptions of issues. Doing this I. achieving a cooperative and thoughtful sanctions and models conversation about issues environment. above and beyond debate on their particulars. Specifically, teachers can ask students how they The two chapters in this section are concernedconceptualize a particular issue, why they think it mainly with this third set of purposesinstruc-became an issue, for whom it is an issue, and tional management and monitoring. whether it is a public or private issue. Also, teachers can ask about historical analogies, and they Methods can move their students toward a multicultural Assessment methods geared toward instruc- understanding of issues by asking about different tional management and monitoring can be divid-perspectives that might be brought to an issue. ed into three approaches: paper and pencil tech- These are difficult questions, to be sure. They niques, observations, and interviews. reflect high standards. Asking these questions Paper and pencil techniques are one major indicates that the teacher has a good understand- way to collect assessment data in the classroom,ing of the nature of issues; similarly, student and these techniques generally take two forms: responses will indicate their understanding. And production and selection(Airasian1994). that is the point. Interviews allow teachers to Production items require students to construct apprehend their students' grasp of a task's perfor- a response to a question, such as when students mance criteria. This is true of any task, whether write a statement clarifying and supporting a writing an analysis of a public problem, framing position they have taken on a foreign policya discussion question, developing a resolution for controversy. Selection items require students toa debate, or researching value conflicts on an choose the best answer from a set of options, as issue. In one-to-one as well as group interviews, when they choose which group of data best teachers can learn what students believe are good refutes a stated conclusion. performances and why, and they can elicit the Observation is another approach used to col- meanings students give to the performance crite- lect assessment data. Teachers have always used ria that teachers are wanting them to learn. observation on an informal basis, and they do so almost continually. For example, they note stu-The Politics of Assessment dents' responses to something they say or to a Distinctions of this kind among purposes and guest speaker's comment. They see a studentmethods of assessment should help bring some squint to see the board, race to be in the seat order to our topic, but still it sprawls. Assessment before the bell rings, or walk slowly into the experts themselves belong to an array of camps classroom and slump into a desk. Teachers use and sects. Some work directly for the federal observation more formally, also, such as whengovernment, others for research centers, universi- they use criteria to judge students making pre-ties, and regional laboratories, and others for sentations to classmates or conducting debates. school systems. Some are disgusted with U.S. Students may be asked to demonstrate their abil-students' achievement record, others are proud of ity to moderate discussions while another studentit, and others believe it is not important. Some observes and scores their performance on several are enamored of particular techniques (e.g., "kid criteria the class has been studying. watching" and "portfolio assessment"), others are Interviews are a third, powerful way teachersmeasurement specialists, and others argue over can gather information (Valencia, McGinley, authority issues (e.g., the role of the federal gov- Pearson 1990). Teachers of writing are increas-ernment vis-a-vis states). ingly conducting "writing conferences" with their The history of assessment practices in the students in which they not only assess a piece ofUnited States and elsewhere reveals that assess- student writing but ask questions to ascertain thement often is not what it appears. While usually thinking behind its productiona student's con- assessment is discussed as though it is a politi- ception of the writing process, for example, what cally and culturally neutral activity, assessment he or she finds most difficult or easy about it, and in fact has been used for political and cultural whether he or she searched for opposing points purposes. For example, assessment has been used

277 287 to conserve the status quo by "naturalizing" it; The size of the "at-risk" group could grow in labels are affixed to children as though they another way, too, by adding to it those students in signified natural ability rather than differences the middle track of the American secondary based on economic and cultural capital (Apple school who are now "making it" simply because 1992). The disproportionate numbers of African assessment activity is inconsequential or focused American children labeled "behaviorally disor- on curriculum standards so low as to require dered" and "learning disabled" is one example, little beyond seat time. while girls'difficulties with mathematics is Both assessment and the provision of support another. require a set of curriculum targets that are dearly Another topic on which the political uses of visible, and such targets generally should be the assessment stand out in sharp relief is delivery assessment tasks themselves (Newmann, Secada, standards (Porter 1993). Delivery standards and Wehlage 1995). The same thing that makes a also known as "opportunities to learn" or, simply, curriculum achievable makes student progress "assistance" or "support"refer to the human assessable and the provision of relevant support and material resources schools offer to students possible: clarified targets for teaching and learning. so that they can learn what is expected of them. A truism in education is that students should Assessment and School Reform not be expected to achieve curriculum objectives What has brought the topic of assessment to without assistance. This is why schools do not the center of educators' attention in recent years? only provide objectives, but also teachers, cur- Two developments stand out: renewed claims of riculum materials, and other resources. It is a school mediocrity in the United States brought well-known fact that these resources are noton initially in 1983 by a government study, always forthcoming and certainly not equitably A Nation at Risk, and the growing realization that distributed (e.g., Kozol 1991). assessment practices were lagging far behind At the most general level, the two most pow- research on thinking and learning. At the inter- erful forms of support schools can provide to section of these two forces, assessment reform students are (a) high-quality curriculum and emerged as a solution to the mediocrity problem. instruction that are relevant to the tasks onTeacher education was not rising to the task, nor which students' performances will be assessed, were teacher hiring and retention practices, and (b) clear expectations, by which I mean clar- increased salaries, site-based management, school ification of the tasks at which students are sup- restructuring, or other promising movements. posed to succeed and the criteria that distinguish The unique promise of assessment as a tool successful from mediocre or unsuccessful perfor- for educational reform is its influence on educa- mances. Both kinds of assistance, in turn, require tors' behavior, which is to say its power to attract suitable physical plants, academic and moral cli- and focus teachers' (and students') attention and mates, relevant materials, and competent, caring efforts (Cohen 1987; Smith 1991). This is partic- faculty. In the words of the New Standards ularly true of high-stakes assessments that are Project, "this means that (students) will be administered for accountability and selection taught a curriculum that will prepare them for purposes, but it is also true of more routine class- the assessments, their teachers will have the room assessments as well. The basic notion here preparation to enable them to teach it well, and is that "you get what you assess" and "you do not there will be an equitable distribution of the get what you do not assess" (Resnick and Resnick resources students and their teachers need to 1991, 60). If assessments are geared toward cur- succeed" (University of Pittsburgh 1992, 15). riculum targets that no one cares much about, This level of support is a tall orderone that then teachers' and students' energies are spent in educators generally were unable to meet even ways that do not matter. The reverse is also true. before the current movement to raise curriculum standards. This is an important point, becauseConclusion increased assessment activity could further Classrooms are complex social landscapes threaten students who already are most at risk of on which many things are occurring, on many school failure. The reason is simple: Increased levels, at once. Assessment, therefore, is not a assessment activity may not be coupled with the simple matter, and it certainly is no magic bullet. necessary support for student learning. The high hopes put before it are unrealistic. But

278 it is a worthy effort that should bear at least Soder. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1996. some fruit, not the least of which is exposing the Porter, Andrew C. "School Delivery Standards." hypocrisy that has allowed educators often to Educational Researcher22, no. 5 (1993): 24-29. preach one thing while teaching and testing Resnick, Lauren B. and Daniel P. Resnick. "Assessing another. the Thinking Curriculum: New Tools for "We have the tests we deserve," Grant Educational Reform." In Changing Assessments: Wiggins observed wryly. Students in the United Alternative Views of Aptitude, Achievement, and States are "the most tested but least examined in Instruction, edited by Bernard R. Gifford and the world" (Wiggins 1993, 3), and the cause is a Mary Catherine O'Conner. Boston: Kluwer persistent failure to appreciate the relationship Academic Publishers, 1991. between curriculum and assessment on the one Smith, Mary Lee. "Put to the Test: The Effects of hand, and assessment and learning on the other. External Testing on Teachers." Educational Researcher We have the tests we deserve, Wiggins contin- 20, no. 5 (1991): 8-11. ues, "because we are wont to reduce 'assessment' University of Pittsburgh, Learning Research and to 'testing' and to see testing as separate from Development Center. The New Standards Project. learningsomething you do expediently, once, 1992 1995:4 Proposal Pittsburgh: Learning after the teaching is over, to see how students Research and Development Center, 1992. did (usually for other people's benefit, not the Valencia, Sheila W., William McGinley, and performer's)." Just how we got ourselves into P. David Pearson. "Assessing Reading and Writing." this predicament is another matter (see Berlak In Reading in the Middle School. 2nd Edition, edited 1992). Getting out of it is the concern here. by Gerald Duffy. Newark, NJ: International Reading The two chapters that follow try to overcome Association, 1990. the disjunctures of curriculum from assessment, Wiggins, Grant P. Assessing Student Performance. and assessment from teaching and learning. They San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1993. deal with only small parcels of the broad land- scape, but they do so in a way that hopefully will suggest lines of reasoning and ways of proceeding that are broadly useful to our readers.

References Airasian, Peter W. Classroom Assessment. 2nd edition. New York McGraw-Hill, 1994. Apple, Michael W. "Do the Standards Go Far Enough? Power, Policy, and Practice in Mathematics Education."Journal of Research in Mathematics Education 23, no. 5 (1992): 412-431. Berlak, Harold. 'The Need for a New Science of Assessment." In Toward a New Science of Educational Testing and Assessment, edited by Harold Berlak, Fred M. Newmann, Elizabeth Adams, et al. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992. Cohen, S. Alan. "Instructional Alignment: Searching for a Magic Bullet." Educational Researcher 16, no, 8 (1987): 16-20. Kozol, Jonathan. Savage Inequalities. New York Crown, 1991. Newmann, Fred M., Walter G. Secada, and Gary G. Wehlage. A Guide to Authentic Instruction and Assessment: Vision, Standards, and Scoring. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1995. Parker, Walter C. "Curriculum for Democracy" In Democracy, Education, and the Schools, edited by Roger

279 289 ASSSSING STUDENT LEARNING OF N ISSUE-ORIENTED CURRICULUM

be Welr C. Parker

1.11 ssessment work is 80 percent curriculum unit of analysisthe long-term, cumulative pur- work, and curriculum work is 80 percent poses of a K through 12 program of study. It asks content selection, more or less. In this a committee to consider, in particular, what prod- chapter on assessment, accordingly, I willucts of learning students might be asked to spend a good portion of the allotted space exchange for a high school diploma. The prod- on curriculum matters, particularly theucts are to be few in number and collected in a problem of deciding which small set of learnings "slim portfolio." If the size of the collection is not is worth assessing. I will draw on the "authentic"limited, choices and rationales become unneces- assessment and issue-oriented curriculum litera- sary and, consequently, the exercise loses power. tures as well as my experience as a curriculum This kind of curriculum/assessment work is a planner, teacher, and researcher. "high-stakes" proposition because students' grad- Assessment means finding out what students uation isat stake. Accordingly, controversies know and are able to do. While not easy, this is abound, and the exercise in Table 1 helps bring also not terribly difficult. What has to be done them to the surface where they can be discussed. generally is the work of imagination and ethnog- The advantage of raising them early, while not raphy: Imagining how learners might demon- trying to solve them early,2 is that the complex strate what they have learned, and observing problem space of curriculum planning is sketched sociocultural life to detect which demonstrations out in a fairly full and rich way. Furthermore, might be most meaningful to the learners them-committee members are actually experiencing selves, their teachers, and their communities. issue-oriented discourse, getting a student's-eye More difficult is the problem of deciding whatview of it. Six issues are central to this planning. knowledge and abilities deserve the concerted effort and persistence of teachers and students CONTENT SELECTION: What subject matters (Parker 1991; Shaver 1977). We will turn to this knowledge and abilitiesshould students learn problem first, conducting a search for the essen- across the K through 12 years and be held tial contentthe central understandings andaccountable for having learned? Why these? abilitiesof an issue-oriented curriculum. Stated differently, and realizing that not everything of value can reasonably be taught in school, Issue-Oriented Curriculum to which small, important sample of learnings Table 1 presents a thought experiment I have should school time be directedteachers', stu- used when working with social studies curricu-dents', and administrators'and based on what lum planning committees in public school dis- rationale? tricts. I present it early in this chapter for the same reasons that I use it early in curriculum MULTIPLE OBJECTIVES: How important is it to planning work. First, the exercise involves com- 2distinguish ability objectives (e.g., weighing mittee members simultaneously in the work of alternatives, persuasive reasoning, perspective tak- content selection and assessment planning. ing) from knowledge objectives (e.g., the concepts Second, it encourages them to think beyond their of democracy and pluralism), and to specify both own courses and grade levels to an encompassing in content selection and assessment work?

f. 290 Table 1: Planning the Social Studies Graduation Portfolio

Imagine the following: For the present -exercise, we are interested only in the t's late May and time for the Twin Peaks High social studies portion of the portfolio. School graduation ceremony. The graduates, We want to look, therefore, at that portion that will wearing caps and gowns, file to the podium, prove to us that powerful social understandings and civic where they shake hands with a representative of competence have been demonstrated. the school board, receive the diploma, move the Brainstorm with others a few items that you would tassel from one side of the hat to the other, and want to see there. They should be performances (exhibi- descend the stairs. That's it. A few minutes remem- tions) that prove, more or less, that the desired social bered for a lifetime. This year, things are different. understandings andciviccompetencies have been The marchers do not approach the podium empty- achieved. They should be worth learning, and most should handed. Instead they carry a slim portfolio contain- require students to use their knowledge in challenging ing a collection of their school work. The collection, ways (e.g., policy analysis and formulation). specified years in advance, has already been judged Ask someone at your table to monitor the brainstorm- adequate for the diploma. (Judging occurred during ing session while participating in it. The monitor makes a the preceding three months.) The key point in thelist of the ideas suggested and keeps the brainstorming ceremony is the moment at which the portfolio is moving rather than dwelling on any one suggestion. exchanged for the diplomaa gesture indicating that the diploma has been earned. NOTE: Be ready to give a progress report in 20 minutes. Try to have 5-10 items on the list by then, and consider it a What should be some of the contents of first draft. Following progress reports, discuss the exercise and the social studies portfolio? some of the issues it raises.

CONCERTED EFFORT ON CORE CURRICULUM: ing-class students be assigned a less challenging 3How much instructional time should convergeand less interesting curriculum? on a common set of critically important learnings, such as the analysis of public issues, and OPPORTUNITIES TO LEARN: What conditions how much should be left to teachers' own (and are necessary and sufficient in schools to sup- often divergent) designs? That is, to what extent port student success on assessment tasks, and what should teachers coordinate their efforts, in theircan be done to establish them? A huge gap sepa- different grade levels and courses, on the same rates moneyed and poor schools; the development subject matter? (I prefer the 60/40 ratio: 60 per- of "world-class standards," consequently, could cent of instructional time is spent on core learn-further disadvantage those students who lack the ings, 40 percent on learnings of a teacher's own institutional support needed to reach them. choosing.) Whether the activity in Table 1 rouses all these controversies or only a few, it invariably ASSESSMENT: How will students, their teach- makes clear the intimate connection between 4ers, and their communities know if, and to assessment work and curriculum planning. This what extent, students have learned these things? is because the items considered for the portfolio What are the different kinds of indicators that are at once performance assessments and curricu- might represent the desired learning? And, what lum goals. will be done about students who do not learn them to the degree deemed sufficient? Course and Program Planning Local curriculum planning occurs mainly on CURRICULUM DIFFERENTIATION: Which stu- two levels: courses and programs. Course plan- dents will be expected to learn these things? ning is common in the United States today and Which students will not, and why? For example, consumes a good portion of the daily profession- will the majority of students in a high schoolal work of elementary and secondary school study a middle-track American history curricu- teachers. Its object is the set(s) of subject matter lum that evades rigorous study of great ideas and and experiences through which a teacher will issues? Will a disproportionate number of work- guide his or her students over an identifiable pefi-

281 291 od of time, such as a year or semester. Elementary Hunt and Metcalf (1968) concentrated on the school teachers guide their students on several study of human conflicts, especially those drawn courses at once, usually drawn from the fourfrom "closed" or taboo areas of societycontro- main fields of study found in schoolssocial versial topics on which careful deliberation is studies, language arts, mathematics, and science. socially or politically discouraged. Oliver and Whether in elementary or secondary educa- Newmann (1967) introduced students to distinction, course-level curricula often are not con- tions among several kinds of issuesdefinition- nected to broader, long-term goals that would al, empirical, ethicalas well as strategies for encompass and to some extent shape course- moving discussions forward, (e.g., clarifying an level planning. Courses frequently are ends in issue, stipulating a definition, and drawing an themselvesisolated studies that have not beenanalogy). Newmann (1975) later advocated a articulated with others toward some planned, "citizen action" approach geared toward exerting cumulative end. This is an old problem, to be influence on public policy. Engle (1960) empha- sure. A scholar writing in the 1930s about cur- sized decision-making, "which is reflective, spec- ricula suitable for democracy complained that ulative, thought provoking, and oriented to the the conventional school curriculum was utterly process of reaching conclusions" (p. 303). without "design," its courses and materials a Multiple Objectives. Whatever the particu- mere "aggregate of parts serving separate, fixed lar subject-matter angle or emphasis, issue- functions," all "held together in a mechanical oriented curriculum visions are united on the way" (Harris 1939, 176). requirement of multiple objectives. Recall that When, on the other hand, courses are coor-the first issue in the list of six above asked not dinated as a system of studies aimed at inte- only about essential knowledgewhat students grated outcomes, we have the second level of should knowbut essential abilitieswhat stu- curriculum development: program planning. dents should be able to do. These are two types of Programs differ from one another by their field, content objectives to which the issue-oriented scope and sequence, and aims. A program maytradition gives equal and concurrent attention. be as broad in scope and sequence as an entire There is no agreement on labels for these paired K through 12 social studies program or smaller,categories. The terms "topics" and "thinking such as a high school social studies or science skills," or "content" and "processes" are often program, a middle school or elementary school used. "Powerful social understandings" (Task mathematics program, or a primary grades inte- Force on Teaching and Learning 1992) and grated program. What defines a program of"higher-order thinking," or "HOT," (Newmann study is not the mechanical joining of fragments 1990a), are precise. In Oliver and Shaver's terms, under one titlee.g., The High School Social content selection involves two major decisions: Studies Program-but a. aims held in common"What topics will one choose as the basis for by the several parts, b. concerted curriculum and selecting specific materials of instruction? What instruction directed toward these common aims, intellectual framework will be used to guide the and, C. ongoing evaluation and revision of aims, teacher and, in turn, the student in handling curriculum, and instruction by teachers, curricu- these materials?" (1974, 59). lum coordinators, and students. This division is necessary because content selection must occur deliberately on both fronts; Content Selection yet, the goal for daily teaching and learning must When planning an issue-oriented programbe an effective synthesis of the two. This synthe- or course, content selection is the central task. sis could be called "knowledge-in-use" (Sizer Advice is plentiful, fortunately; planners do not 1992) or a "thinking curriculum" (Resnick and need to start from scratch. Oliver and ShaverKlopfer 1989). It is a necessary synthesis for (1974) offer the key principle: subject mattereven the most rudimentary forms of learning should be derived from a consideration of the(Resnick and Resnick 1991). demands of citizenship in the modern democratic As for the first category of objectives state. "One cannot discuss the objectives of educa- topicswe saw above that the main topical area tion without considering the objectives of the is public conflict and related policy controversies. society in which education is to operate" (p. 9). Methods and findings from the disciplines are Numerous approaches rest on this principle. included as well, but they enter the problem

202 .'1 4-+ space as tools for deliberating conflict and policy those achievements toward which the curriculum rather than as the central objects of study. Oliver will aim" (Newmann and Archbald 1992, 76). and Shaver (1974) identified several problem For this to occur, the working notion of areas from which controversies might be drawn: assessment needs to change from measures of racial and ethnic conflict; religious and ideologi- student learning that are ill-fitted to valued cur- cal conflict; security and the individual; conflictriculum goals to measures that fit them well. among economic groups; health, education, andWhen the fit is poor, teachers rightly complain welfare; and national security. Each problem area (and students should as well) that the measure is has a perennial and cross-cultural quality; each not a worthy target of teaching or learning. contains potentially many cases across time and space. Careful selection of analogous cases from Performance Assessment different historical eras and cultures but within a When the fit is good, the targets are mean- single problem area should help students under- ingful ("authentic") achievements. They are stand that publics across time and space have had "actual examples of student work that exemplify to deal with many of the same problems. This outcomesspecifiedby contentstandards" could make for an extraordinarily rigorous course (Simmons and Resnick 1993, 11). Such examples or program of courses, richly historical and glob- often, but not always, are "performance assess- al in scope, and centered squarely on real and ments." That is, they require students to perform4 persistent problems of democratic citizenship. on some sort of tasks that is related meaningfully The second category of content objectives, to a valued curriculum goal.6 Because the targets the intellectual framework or higher-order are genuine achievements, they require students thinking (HOT) abilities, is constrained by deci- to become thoughtful judges of their own work. sions made in the first category. Needed are "Theirs is the work of posing questions, making HOT abilities with which this particular sub-judgments, integrating criticisms, reconsidering stantive knowledge is to be formed, elaborated,problems, and investigating new possibilities" and refined. Planners have good reason to select (Zessoules and Gardner 1991, 64). Teachers more a decision-making model, reflective inquiry, or likely will be proud to teach to such targets, and others. Let us for the sake of argument takestudents should be able to see the value in work- Oliver and Shaver's (1974) well-developed ing toward them. This is the vision of authentic "jurisprudential framework," which, to one assessment. degree or another, includes the others. This Examples of such targets in other fields can framework is less concerned with the skills ofbe helpful. Consider, in sports, the gymnastics formal logic than with clarification and analysis, and figure skating competitions in which athletes analogy, weighing alternatives, and predictingall are not pitted against one another, but judged on directed ata.problem areas, b. selected contro- performance criteria known to all. Or consider versies within problem areas, and C. the diverse recitals in music and portfolio exhibitions in points of view and value conflicts they entail. the arts. Performance assessments are methods of testing that require students to demonstrate their Issue-Oriented Assessment abilities and knowledge by creating products The most important thing to be said aboutthat display them. The list below (from Office assessments is that they do not merely help edu- of Technology Assessment 1992, 17) is a contin- cators find out what and how much students have uum of performance formats ranging from con- learned. Rather, assessments set the targets for structed-response questions to the more compre- teaching and learning. When assessments are hensive "exhibitions" and "portfolios." A con- carefully fitted to curriculum goalsby which I structed-response item can be an efficient and mean that they clarify, specify, and qualify them valid means to assess students' knowledge of an the boundaries between assessment and curricu- important concept relevant to issue-centered lum work are effectively blurred. A discussion of study For example, a simple classifying item assessment measures becomes a discussion of cur- might have students produce in writing a riculum goals and visa versa.3 In this sense, both description of a perennial public issue studied in course- and program-level curricula should "teach the course, or of democratic values, citizenship, to the test," and curriculum planning should definitional dispute, analogy, ethical issue, or point- begin with "visions of and criteria for success in of-view. Whatever the concept, students should

283 293 not be asked only to produce an example of it, for collections of a student's work. They furnish a this gives the teacher too little information. The broad portrait of individual performance, assem- student also should be asked to produce a state- bled over time. As students assemble their portfo- ment that explains why it is an examplewhat lios, they must evaluate their own work. (Office of attributes does it have that all examples of the Technology Assessment 1992, 17) concept must have? A classifying task, then, asks both for an example and a supporting argument. Performance Assessment at the Program At the other end of the continuum, students Level. At the program level, assessment concen- might be asked to mount a comprehensive trates on cumulative, long-term targets. Planning exhibition of the issue-oriented work they havecommittees need to imagine performances that produced over a one-semester senior problems students might exhibit as the combined achieve- course: a narrated slide show, for example, dis- ment of an articulated course of study. The case playing several public policy forums in which the in Table 1 had planners decide the performances student has participated, both as moderator andthat students would collect at the end of the discussant. The third format on this continuum, twelfth grade. Issue-oriented performance tar- oral discourse, is featured in the next chapter. gets for this graduation portfolio might include Before proceeding, however, let us look at the those given as samples in Table 2. full continuum of performance formats. The read- The three targets in Table 2 involve the pro- er may wish to brainstorm additional examples ofduction of coherent and informed civic dis- each, taking care that each example involvescourse, both oral and written, which arguably is knowledge and/or abilities that are related to the most fundamental demand made on citizens issue-oriented social studies as defined above. in societies organized under democratic ideals (Parker 1996). This list of targets can serve as a Constructed-response questions require students to one-page curriculum guide for a K through 12 produce an answer to a question rather than to select issue-oriented social studies program, and it from an array of possible answers (as multiple- could double as a specification of performance choice items do). In constructed-response items, assessments toward which the resources of the questions may have just one correct answer or may school district should be directed from kinder- be more open ended, allowing a range of responses. garten through the twelfth grade. This would be The form can also varyfilling in a blank, writing more valuable, in my judgment, than the elabo- short answers, drawing an illustration. rate K through 12 curriculum matrices that have Essays have long been used to assess a student's become conventional in school district curricu- understanding of a subject by having the student lum offices, with their long lists of objectives write a description, analysis, explanation, or sum- that so often are ignored. mary of one or more paragraphs. Essays are used Each target represents a set of integrated, to demonstrate how well a student can use facts in essential learnings. In an experimental high context and structure a coherent discussion. school in Seattle for "at-risk" students, my col- Oral discourse was the earliest form of perfor- leagues and I attempt to accomplish this using a mance assessment. Before paper and pencil, chalk, two-column chart. Targets are listed in column and slate became affordable, school children one and related learnings are specified in column rehearsed their lessons, recited their sums, and two. An example is presented in Table 3. Note rendered their poems and prose aloud. that the example is aimed at the third graduation Exhibitionsare designedas comprehensive portfolio target in Table 2discussion competence. demonstrations of skills or competence. They In column one, note that the target is written as often require students to produce a demonstration a set of general instructions to the student; also or live performance in class or before other audi- note that in the second column both categories of ences. Teachers or trained judges score perfor- learningknowledge and abilitiesare speci- mances against standards of excellence known to fied. Column two was added when a parent all participants ahead of time. Exhibitions require committee read the target, then wanted to know a broad range of competencies, are often interdis- what the individual learnings were that com- ciplinary in focus, and require student initiative posed it. This was a helpful prompt, and it caused and creativity. us to deduce specific learnings from the target, Portfolios are usually files or folders that contain thus specifying them for instruction. The parents

284 234 Table 2: Sample Tasks for Graduation Portfolio

1. Issues Identification Working with three or four other students, you are to only popular but also scholarly opinion. develop a list of public controversies (not private) drawn b. Analogies. Draw two or more historical analogies. from current news media, then group and label them. Because these are enduring issues, earlier and cul- Next, identify the two that best exemplify public conflicts turally diverse cases that are somewhat analogous that stem from differing interpretations of liberty, equali- generally can be found. Find two or more, and eval- ty, justice, and public order/safety. These decisions should uate the extent to which they parallel the present be made using group consensus-reaching procedures. case. Following this work, you will write, relying on "writing- 4. Consequences. Predict the consequences of three process" procedures, an evaluation of the two issues select- or more of the alternatives your research uncovered. ed and a narrative description of your group's consensus- Carefully support the predictions you make. reaching process. 3. Discussion Competence 2. Policy Analysis Collect audio and/or video recordings of your partici- You will be given a list of enduring public issues and pation in discussions of public controversies. These will be asked to develop a conceptual model of one of your choos- small-group discussions in which public conflicts and pol- ing. You will need to incorporate in your model at leasticy alternatives are being interpreted and analyzed, and these things: their consequences predicted. Along with the tapes, sub- a.Diversity. Include an accounting of alternative posi-mit an annotated transcript of a selection of discussion tions on the matter referenced to the research that excerpts displaying these and other competencies you you and others have conducted (e.g., library research, identify: stating and identifying issues, using historical surveys and interviews, popular magazines, art). and social science knowledge, summarizing points of Give evidence that you have included not only cen- agreement and disagreement, inviting contributions from trist positions but marginal views as well, and not others, using strategies to move the discussion forward. were worried, rightly so, that without this speci- Presented in Tables 4 and 5 are excerpts for fication their children would be expected to per- two courses. The first of the two is correlated to form well on the targeted task without having the third graduation portfolio target sketched in been adequately instructed on the component Table 2discussion competence. It is one of sever- knowledge and skills. We have found this two- al targets for an eleventh-grade American studies column format enormously helpful for commu- course. Note that it requires students to do exten- nicating the school's curriculum and assessment sive work with civic discourse. This work must plan in brief and straightforward fashionbothbe done across multiple public issues, thereby to one another and to our constituencies helping students to construct flexible, case-based the school's curriculum and assessment plan. understandings. These cases are drawn from more than one historical era. Furthermore, stu- Performance Assessment at the Course dents are expected to write an analysis of their Level. With a limited number of program-level discussion participation. Clearly, this is an ambi- learning outcomes and performance tasks in place, tious target in most communities, one that would course planning can proceed in a sharply focusedrequire sustained teaching and learning across a way with the identification of course-level targets. significant period of time. The target takes issues At the course level, it is helpful to expand the learning deeply into disciplinary knowledge and chart's design from two to three columns. into the primary practice of democracydiscus- Performance targets again are listed in column sion. Itis an integrated task, too, requiring one, related leanings in column two, and the third students to pull numerous learnings together. column lists key curriculum materials. These three The second of the two excerpts (Table 5) is columns present, in a concise manner, the course correlated to the second graduation portfolio syllabus. This three-column chart may extendtarget in Table 2policy analysisand was over a few pages, because a course typically has designed for a twelfth-grade senior problems a handful of major targets, not just one. course. Note that it is focused on conceptual

Os Table 3: Program-Level Curriculum Guide

PROGRAM TARGETS LEARNINGS 3. Discussion competence Essential Knowledge Collect audio and/or video recordings of your partici- Public controversy/conflict pation in discussions of public controversies. These Enduring problem areas versus current events will be small-group discussions in which public con- Ethical, definitional, and empirical issues flicts and policy alternatives are being interpreted and Liberty, diversity, order, democracy analyzed, and their consequences predicted. AlongEssential Abilities (HOT) with the tapes, submit an annotated transcript of a Reading and writing selection of discussion excerpts displaying your com- Clarifying petencies as both moderator and discussant, including Interpreting these and others you identify: clarifying and analyzing Analyzing issues and alternative courses of action, distinguishing Predicting among kinds of issues, listening as well as talking, Moderating seeking an array of views, and using strategies to move Reasoning dialogically the discussion forward. Listening to and expressing views Seeking alternative views Weighing alternatives Using strategies to move the discussion forward

modeling, which helps students build complextives tailored to the goals of issue-oriented understandings of public issues with an eye education. toward recommending policy. Study booklets Still, we are left with the question: How can from the National Issues Forum have proven to a commendable performance be distinguished be a helpful resource; hence they are listed infrom one that is mediocre or incompetent? column three. Each booklet presents three orA helpful tool isa scoring rubric. Scoring four viewpoints on a particular issue, such asinvolves judging levels of quality displayed in criminal violence. When students study an issue targeted performances; a scoring rubric is the set in this way, working through multiple lenses,of guidelines scorers use to decide the level of reading extensively, and forging shared under- quality in a performance they have observed. standings through discussion, they can build a Developing a reliable rubric for a target is model of the problem rather than only reactingchallenging work that requires a nuanced under- to it with the first opinion that comes to mind. standing of the target (McCollum 1994). The performance target in column one assumes Because it can be difficult, developing a rubric that students have studied five policy questions can function as a roadblock if it is attempted too in this way. The target requires students now to soon. That is, it can prevent work on the more produce such a studya briefing bookletfundamental problem of developing ambitious that others, perhaps younger students or even targets for teaching and learning. I have seen this the city council, can use to develop policy. happen so often that I have come to expect it, and I can assure readers that the consequences Conclusion do not vary: As planning groups become mired The main idea of this chapter is that issue- in scoring, they back away from the identifica- oriented curriculum development and assess- tion of ambitious targets. Because developing ment are, at the higher levels of quality, the same good targets for teaching and learning is the thing. The boundaries between assessing student chief object of curriculum and assessment work, learning and deciding which content is worth it is altogether unwise for teachers and curricu- teaching and learning are blurred as learning is lum supervisors to get sidetracked by scoring conceptualized in performance terms. Accord- problems. Doing so lets the tail wag the dog. ingly, examples of performance assessment are After valued performance targets have been provided, both for programs and individual selected, it becomes necessary to identify grada- courses, and these double as curriculum objections (standards/criteria) of performance quality.

206 (..) c-1, Table 4: 1 1 th Grade: American Studies (excerpt)

COURSE TARGETS LEARNINGS MATERIALS 3.Make audio recordings of your participa- E ssential Knowledge A. Discussion tion in discussions of three public contro- Public controversy Taking a Stand (Oliver & Newmann) versies drawn from three major eras of Knowledge of the issue selected and types B . Issues U.S. history. Select the tape with the of issues (ethical, definitional, empirical) The Federalist Papersand highest-qualitydiscussion andtape Eras of U.S. history Public Issues Series (Social Science record or write an analysis of (a) the Roadblocks in discussions of public issues Education Consortium)or kinds of issues involved, (b) any road- Reasoning with Democratic Values blocks present in the discussion, (c) Essential Abilities (110T) (Lockwood & Harris)or strategies used to move the discussion Reading and writing Evaluating Viewpoints (O'Reilly) forward. Oral expression C. Textbook Strategies for moving discussions forward The U.S. and Its People (King, McRae, Zola)

Table 5: 12th Grade: Senior Problems (excerpt)

COURSE TARGETS LEARNINGS MATERIALS 2.Develop a written and illustrated concep- E ssential Knowledge A. Issues tual model of one of the public issues you Public controversy National Issues Forum booklets examined in this course or a sixth you Viewpoints and history on the issue (Kendall-Hunt); news media, libraries; choose to investigate. Incorporate diverse selected government offices viewpoints and historical analogies and B . Citizen Action weigh the consequences of alternative E ssential Abilities (140T) Civics for Democracy (Isaac) policies. Reading and writing C. Political Theory Conceptual modeling Should We Consent To Be Governed? Finding and representing diverse (Nathanson) perspectives Drawing and evaluating historical analogies Predicting and weighing consequences

Doing so has two effects. First, teachers and par- References ents can find out what students know and are Baron, Joan Boykoff. "Performance Assessment: able to do in relation to these quality levels. Blurring the Edges Among Assessment, Curricu- Second, instruction can be fine-tuned; teachers lum, and Instruction." In Assessment in the Service of can coach students toward performances at high- Instruction, edited by Audrey B. Champagne et al. er levels of quality. The explanation for both Washington, D.C.: American Association for the effects is this: The gradations needed for scoring Advancement of Science, 1990. are needed also for clarifying the target and, Committee on Social Studies, Commission on the therefore, for fine-tuning instruction. Reorganization of Secondary Education of the David Harris'schapter, which follows, National Education Association. The Social Studies in demonstrates the point nicely. He presents a Secondary Education, Bureau of Education Bulletin field-tested scoring rubric for assessing student no. 28. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government performance on a key outcome of issue-oriented Printing Office, 1916. education: competent, small-group discussions Engle, Shirley "Decision Making: The Heart of Social of public issues. The assessment criteria he pro- Studies Instruction." Social Education 24, no. 7 vides define the target in a way that will help (1960): 301-306. teachers teach and students learn.? Griffin, Alan F. Alan F Griffin on Reflective Teaching: A Philosophical Approach to the Subject Matter Preparation of Teachers of History. Washington, D.C.:

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BEST COPY AVAILABLE National Council for the Social Studies, 1992 the Thinking Curriculum: New Tools for Educational (originally published in 1942). Reform." In ChangingAssessments: Alternative Views of Harris, Pickens E. The American School: A Delinquent Aptitude, Achievement, and Instruction, edited by Institution." In Democracy and the Curriculum, edited Bernard R Gifford and Mary Catherine O'Connor. by Harold Rugg. New York Appleton-Century 1939. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1991. Hunt, Maurice P, and Lawrence E. Metcalf. Teaching Resnick, Lauren B., and Leopold E. Klopfer, eds. High School Social Studies: Problems in Reflective Toward the Thinking Curriculum: Current Cognitive Thinking and Social Understanding. 2nd Edition. Research. Alexandria, Va.: Association for Supervision New York Harper and Row, 1968. and Curriculum Development, 1989. Lockwood, Alan L., and David E. Harris. Reasoning Shaver, James P Building Rationales for Citizenship with Democratic Values: Ethical Problems in United Education. Washington, D.C.: National Council for States History. Volumes 1 and 2 and instructor's man- the Social Studies, 1977. ual. New York Teachers College Press, 1985. Simmons, Warren, and Lauren Resnick. "Assessment McCollum, Steven L. Performance Assessment in the Social As the Catalyst of School Reform." Educational Studies Classroom. Joplin, MO: Chalk Dust Press, 1994. Leadership 50, no. 5 (1993): 11-15. Newmann, Fred M. Education for Citizen Action. Sizer, Theodore R. Horace's School. Boston: Houghton Berkeley: McCutchan, 1975. Mifflin, 1992. . "Higher Order Thinking in Teaching Social Task Force on Teaching and Learning, National Studies: A Rationale for the Assessment of Council for the Social Studies.A Vision of Powerful Classroom Thoughtfulness. " ,Journal of Curriculum Teaching and Learning in the Social Studies: Building Studies 22, no. 1 (1990a): 41-56. Social Understanding and Civic Efficacy. Washington, . "A Test of Higher-Order Thinking in Social D.C.: National Council for the Social Studies, 1992. Studies: Persuasive Writing on Constitutional Issues Zessoules, Rieneke, and Howard Gardner. "Authentic Using the NAEP Approach." Social Education 54, Assessment: Beyond the Buzzword and into the no. 6 (1990b): 369-373. Classroom." In Expanding Student Assessment, edited Newmann, Fred M., and Doug A. Archbald. 'The by Vito Perrone. Alexandria, Va: Association for Nature of Authentic Academic Achievement." Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1991. In Toward a New Science of Educational Testing and Assessment, edited by Harold Berlak et al. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992. 1My thanks to Sheila Valencia, Catherine Taylor, and Office of Technology and Assessment, Congress of the Ron Evans for comments on earlier drafts of this chapter. United States. Testing in American Schools: Asking the 2 T W. Roby discusses the rush to pet solutions: Right Questions. Washington, D.C.: Office of "Habits Impeding Deliberation," Journal of Curriculum Technology and Assessment, 1992. Studies 17, no. 1 (1985): 17-35. Oliver, Donald W. 'The Selection of Content in the 3I am grateful to Joan Baron (1990) for conversations Social Sciences." Harvard Educational Review 27, on this idea. no. 4 (1957): 271-300. 4 The vocabulary of assessment lacks agreement. Oliver, Donald W., and Fred M. Newmann. Taking a Tentatively, synonyms for "perform" are construct, create, Stand: A Guide to Clear Discussion of Public Issues. and demonstrate. Middletown, Conn.: Xerox Corporation/American 5 I.e., a project requiring the novel application of Education Publications, 1967. knowledge and ability. Oliver, Donald W., and James P. Shaver. Teaching Public 6 I.e., outcome; curriculum standard; objective. Issues in the High School. Logan: Utah State 7 Newmann (1990b) developed another exemplary University Press, 1974 (originally published in 1966). rubric, this one for assessing persuasive writing/reasoning Parker, Walter C. Renewing the Social Studies on issues involving constitutional rights. Harris's and Curriculum. Alexandria, Va: Association for Newmann's rubrics together make a good study of rubric Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1991. design for issue-oriented outcomes. . "Curriculum for Democracy." In Democracy, Education, and the School, edited by Roger Soder. Chicago: San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1996. Porter, Andrew C. "School Delivery Standards." Educational Researcher 22, no. 5 (1993): 24-29. Resnick, Lauren B., and Daniel P Resnick "Assessing

C 288 4, 4 ASSSSING DISCUSSION OF PUBLIC ISSUES: ASORING GUIDE

allDay Harris

The importance of civic discourse in social issues (Newmann 1990), but there has been studies education has been emphasized in nothing comparable for oral discourse. If we are recent scholarship. There is a call to reded- destined in schools to get what we assess and not icate ourselves to "public talk" as an essen- get what we do not assess (Resnick and Resnick tial element of the curriculum and to assess 1991), then we are unlikely, for the time being, to the quality of oral discourse produced byproduce students who can participate construc- students (Barber 1989; Newman, 1992; Parker tively in group discussions of public issues. 1989). This chapter presents a guide for evaluating The rationale for oral discourse about public students' performance in small group discussions issues is manifold. First, it facilitates the learning of public issues. It integrates the knowledge, of social studies content. The effort to produce skill, and value goals of social studies, is ground- coherent language in response to a question ofed in the theory and practice of teaching public public policy puts knowledge in a meanin issues (Oliver and Shaver 1966/74), and is context, making it more likely to be understooddesigned for convenient use by classroom teach- and remembered. Second, dialogue among stu-ers. Data collected with this tool could be used dents reinforces the development of social per-for improving instruction, for assessing individ- spectives considered fundamental to democraticual student achievement, or as part of larger scale citizenship, especially tolerance or taking the role social studies program evaluations. Field testing of another. This kind of reciprocal thinking, theof the guide has been conducted with social persistent effort to anticipate the perspective ofstudies students and teachers in middle schools another, fosters more than communication; it is and high schools. the essence of moral sensitivity. Third, intelligent conversation promotes reflection crucial to thePerformance Criteria for preservation of democratic values such as consenta Public Issues Discussion of the governed, individual liberty, equality under This scoring guide makes an attempt to law and, more recently, national economic pros- identify a set of valid criteria for evaluating the perity within the world economy. Fourth, when performance of individual students during small thoughtfully engaged in conversations about group discussion of a public issue. These criteria public issues, students are building not only sub- are derived from the tradition of teaching public stantive knowledge but also higher order think- issues dating back nearly three decades to the ing abilities. They use complex language toHarvard Social Studies Project, which empha- express their ideas. They must speak not in single sized classroom discussion of controversial pub- words or short phrases but in sentences and para- lic issues (Oliver and Newmann 1967). The goal graphs; they share ideas that are not scripted orof discussion in this tradition is to engage stu- controlled, as in teacher-led recitation; they mustdents in substantive conversation that enables explain themselves, ask questions, and respondeach of them to make progress toward con- directly to comments of previous speakers. structing a thoughtful position on a question of Significant progress has been made recentlypublic policy. Although the emphasis of this in assessing students' persuasive writing on civicguide is on scoring the performance of individu-

299 BOX A Assessing Discussion of Public Issues: Performance Criteria

SUBSTANTIVE PROCEDURAL Stating and Identifying Issues Positive (+) Using Foundational Knowledge Inviting Contributions from Others Elaborating Statements with Explanations, Acknowledging the Statements of Others Reasons, or Evidence Challenging the Accuracy, Logic, Stipulating Claims or Definitions Relevance, or Clarity of Statements Recognizing Values or Value Conflict Summarizing Points of Agreement and Arguing by Analogy Disagreement Negative (-) Irrelevant Distracting Statements Obstructive Interruption Monopolizing Personal Attack als, those scores could be used collectively to Should homosexuals be allowed to serve in the assess the performance of groups as well. armed forces of the United States? An underlying assumption of the scoring scheme presented here is that students haveSubstantive Criteria extensive opportunity to practice discussion Stating and Identifying Issues. To satisfy before being assessed. Practice would consist of this criterion, a student must either state an issue both whole-class, teacher-led discussions andnot yet raised in the discussion or identify an discussions among small groups of students. In issue that has been implied. An issue is a matter the context of these discussions, students would of dispute or uncertainty posed as an unresolved learn the assessment criteria and work to improve question. Public issue discussions revolve around both their individual and group performance. a central policy issue which often entails three Teachers would model the kinds of statements subordinate types of issues: ethical, definitional, implied by the criteria and highlight them whenand factual. If the policy issue has been stated demonstrated by students. Eventually, small- prior to the discussion, repeating it would not group discussion of a public issue as a learning satisfy this criterion. activity would become indistinguishable from the A policy issue is the overarching focus that assessment activity. guides the entire discussion. The main purpose of The discussion of a public issue has both the discussion is to work collaboratively toward substantive and procedural dimensions. We want resolution of the policy issue. It is a question students to know about the issue and to know about a matter of governance that requires collec- how to discuss it productively with classmates. tive decision making in an arena of citizenship A good performance blends the two. The crite- and subsequent action to advance the decision. It ria in the scoring guide are therefore divided can be local, regional, national, or international in into two categories. The substantive criteria per- scope. In our example the policy issue is: Should tain to students' understanding of the issue, and homosexuals be allowed to serve in the armed the procedural criteria pertain to their ability to services of the United States? engage one another in conversation about it. Discussions of public policy issues usually These criteria are listed as Performance Criteria involve subordinate ethical, factual, and defini- (Box A). tional issues. Productive dialogue cannot occur What follows is a brief description of each if students jump mindlessly from one aspect of criterion with an example to illustrate it. Thean issue to another. In the process of resolving examples are drawn from a hypothetical discus- the broader policy issue, it is necessary, deliber- sion by high school students of a public policy ately and systematically, to consider other issues issue on the national agenda as of this writing: embedded within it. An ethical issue poses a

290 question of right or wrong. It asks for a value want to join the armed services, they should judgment of what ought to be. A definitional change their behavior first. issue poses a question about the meaning of a Cleo: Can they? I don't know if it's possible. term. It serves to clarify ambiguity. A factual Is sexual orientation learned or biological? issue poses a question regarding what is or was. (factual issue) I think we have to resolve that It asks for a claim that can be verified with question before we can determine what kind evidence. The diagram in Box B presents a tax- of behavior to expect of people onomy for discussion of public issues: Using Foundational Knowledge. To satisfy this criterion, a student must demonstrate understanding of significant ideas relevant to the issue under discussion. The ideas would be key facts or concepts from pertinent disciplines. The understanding expressed would be deep rather than shallow and free of obvious inaccuracies or misconceptions. Both of the following statements below present an example of using foundational Ethical knowledge: Issue 1Aretha: If the policy toward homosexuals in the II military is changed, there will be problems with the Uniform Code of Military Justice, which is a separate set of laws that applies only to those in the armed forces. Several The three dialogue excerpts below provide parts of the code would have to be adjusted if examples, respectively, of 1. an ethical, 2. a def- the ban is lifted, like who you can live with, or initional, and 3. a factual issue being stated: what you can do while on duty or wearing a uniform, or who you can claim as dependents. 1Aretha: People really seem to disagree strongly

II about whether gays should serve in the mili- Bob: Not all groups have the same protection tary. lb under current federal law. Congress intended Bob: There have always been gay soldiers and the civil rights acts to protect people from sailors, but most of them have kept quiet discrimination based on race, religion, gen- about it. der, or national origin, but not on sexual Cleo: The question is not whether homosexuals orientation have secretly served in the past. That's not an issue. Everyone agrees they have. The ques- Elaborating Statements with Explanations, tion is whether it is fair to exclude someone Reasons, or Evidence. To satisfy this criterion, a from military service based on sexual orienta- student would have to make a claim and provide tion. Do gays have a right to serve theira basis of support for it. The claim might be country? (ethical) a position on an issue, or a relevant ethical judgment, or a statement of fact. A position on an 3Aretha: Homosexuals might undermine the issue would be supported with an explanation; lb morale of the fighting force. Their deviant an ethical judgment would be supported by rea- behavior could be upsetting to the majority ofsons; and a factual claim would be verified with those serving. evidence. The three dialogue excerpts below pro- Bob: What do you mean by deviant behavior?vide examples of supporting a claim with 1. an (definitional issue) Does deviant mean con- explanation, 2. reasons, and 3. evidence: duct merely different from what most people 1Aretha: We have been reading and talking

do, or does it have to be harmful to others? II about this issue for two days. Is anybody ready to take a stand? TAretha: Being near people of the same sex with Bob: I think the present policy should continue. ki an amorous attraction to you makes many Gays should be banned. I have been thinking heterosexuals uncomfortable. If homosexuals about what was said about equal rights, and

301 291 about the good records of homosexuals who fy this criterion, a student must stipulate a reso- have served with distinction. But, for several lution to an ethical, definitional or factual issue. reasons, I don't think the ban should be lifted.Stipulation means offering a tentative answer to A majority of those currently serving believe be accepted at least temporarily in order to move the change would lower morale. Many saythe discussion forward. Stipulations are usually they will quit the service if gays are allowed. offered when there is no consensus on an issue Some prominent military leaders, includingand the information necessary for resolution is General Schwartzkopf, believe that admitting not readily available. To prevent the discussion gays will undermine the primary mission offrom getting bogged down and for the sake of the armed forcesreadiness to fight. Andargument, a statement can be stipulated to see there is the point about invading privacywhere it leads. The three dialogue excerpts below (explaining a position on the policy issue). present examples, respectively, of stipulating 1. an ethical claim, 2. the definition of a term, 9Aretha: Will the presence of homosexuals and 3. a factual statement: 1U violate the privacy rights of heterosexuals? lAretha: Several times equal rights have been Bob: Not if men and women live in separate 1 mentioned. We keep asking whether hetero- barracks. sexuals and homosexuals should have the Cleo: Separating people by gender would not same rights. ensure privacy. People are packed very tightlyBob: Let's assume, for the time being, that peo- in army barracks and on naval ships. In the ple are entitled to be treated equally regard- shower or in the sleeping quarters of a subma- less of sexual orientation (stipulating an rine there is little privacy. Men or women, even ethical claim). if separated by gender, would still be exposed to the unwelcome glances of gays or lesbians. DAretha: The President and others have argued Aretha: I think admitting homosexuals would 1U that restrictions from the armed forces should violate the privacy rights of heterosexuals. be based on conduct. He says it should be There is no grouping possible to protect pri- what you do, not who you are. vacymen with men, women with women, Bob: What is conduct and what is not? Would men with women, even gays with gays. telling someone you are gay be conduct? When you join the military, you are entitled Would reading a gay magazine? to a reasonable expectation of privacy. No Cleo: This is difficult. I have trouble distinguish- one should be placed in circumstances where ing between thought, expression, and conduct. they are the unwilling object of someone's Aretha: Let's say that conduct means expressed sexual attention (supporting an ethical behavior. It can be spoken or other kinds judgment with reasons). of action, but it can't be merely thoughts or feelings. Also, let's agree for our discussion ezAretha: If the ban on gays is lifted, there will that conduct refers to behavior while on mil- g.11 be more sexual misconduct in the armed itary duty or while off duty but in uniform forces. (stipulating a definition). Bob: Do homosexuals commit sexual assaults more than heterosexuals? 7Aretha: Some people are worried that the mil- Cleo: Not according to a recent Pentagon study d itary will be overwhelmed by homosexuals, cited last month in the federal district court that they will take over and change the cul- decision from California that we read. The ture of the armed forces. rate of such offenses is higher for heterosexu- Bob: That fear exaggerates the number of homo- als than homosexuals in the armed services. sexuals in society. Furthermore, look at what the Tailhook scan- Cleo: How many are there? I keep hearing that dal suggests about male sailors sexually 10% of the population is homosexual. harassing females. The evidence we have does Bob: That figureis based on the Kinsey not support the claim that gays in the military studies of nearly half a century ago. More will cause an increase in sexual misconduct recent studies indicate a much lower percent- (supporting a factual claim with evidence). age. Time magazine reports that a better esti- Stipulating Claims or Definitions. To satis- mate is well under 5%. For purposes of our

21 3,C, 2 discussion, let's assume that between 2% and should be more than a fleeting hint of similarity. 4% of the population is homosexual (stipu-The likeness must be rationally lating a fact). elaborated. Analogies are often made to establish Cleo: O.K., if we use that figure, how does it or challenge the consistency of an ethical argu- affect our thinking about the policy issue? ment. The dialogue excerpt below illustrates this type of analogical reasoning: Recognizing Values or Value Conflict. Aretha: Maybe gays should be banned from the To satisfy this criterion, a student must identify military for their own protection. If they serve a core democratic value that has emerged in the openly, they might become the victims of vio- discussion or a clash between two or more such lent attacks from those who are prejudiced values. Core democratic values are concepts that against them. represent the ethical beliefs underlying a demo- Bob: That sounds like a "heckler's veto" to me. It cratic society, for example: religious liberty, free gives violent bigots control over public policy. expression, equality, fair procedure, property Those who threaten to harm the innocent rights, diversity, limited government, or majority should should be excluded, not their victims. rule. These values serve as criteria when citizens Cleo: That reminds me of President Truman's make judgments about matters of public con- policy of racial integration of the armed cern. Although generally held in common, they forces. There were many prejudiced whites are sometimes a source of conflict. The main who did not want blacks to serve with them. dispute over policy issues often arises from dif- Some threatened to do them harm. If it's ferences in meaning that people attach to these right to ban gays because some dislike their values or from differences in the priority sexual orientation, then it would have been attached to them.The two dialogue excerpts that right to segregate blacks because some hated follow illustrate, respectively, 1. recognition of their race (analogy). a democratic value, and 2. identification of a value conflict: Procedural Criteria (Positive) lAretha: Our main purpose for having military Inviting Contributions from Others. To

11 forces is to defend the country from enemies. satisfy this criterion, a student would have to The issue of the ban on gays should be decid- elicit the thinking of a classmate. The purpose of ed according to its effect on this mission. the invitation would be to draw someone else What effect does the ban have on the readi- into the discussion and to broaden participation. ness of the armed forces to fight? The invitation validates the worth of everyone's Bob: You seem to be saying that the deciding contribution to the discussion. The following factor should be national security (recogniz- dialogue excerpt illustrates such an invitation to ing a value) participate: Aretha: We have been discussing this issue for a 9Aretha: This issue requires us to choose long time. I am still trying to make up my h between values. mind. I'm not sure yet where I stand. I know Bob: Which values? that Bob supports keeping the current ban Cleo: On the one hand we value equality which and that Cleo thinks it should be lifted. Both means all citizens should have an equal of them have presented their reasons, and opportunity to serve their country. We also they know why they disagree. We haven't believe in privacy as a basic liberty which heard from you yet, Dawn. Do you agree with means people have a right to control informa- Bob or Cleo (invitation)? tion about themselves. These two values seem to clash over the issue of homosexuals in the Acknowledging the Statements of Others. military. We have to decide which of theseTo satisfy this criterion, a student must respond values should have priority in this case (iden- to a statement made by another student in a way tifying a value conflict). that builds a consecutive interchange between them. The reply should be responsive to the Arguing by Analogy. To satisfy this criterion, statement and indicate that the student under- a student must draw a parallel between the issue stood it and thought about it. The following dia- under discussion and a similar case. An analogylogue excerpt illustrates this type of response:

3 03293 Aretha: If I were homosexual, I wouldn't want to try. The consensus broke down, however, be part of an organization where I wasn't wel- when Aretha said that national security come. should take precedence over equal rights Bob: That is your personal attitude, Aretha, but because without it there will be no protection how do you think your feelings about rejec- of anyone's rights. We have not yet resolved tion pertain to the policy decision to be made whether or not gays in the military pose a here (acknowledgement and response). threat to national security (summary).

Challenging the Accuracy, Logic, Rele-Procedural Criteria (Negative) vance, or Clarity of Statements. To satisfy this Irrelevant Distracting Statements. This criterion, a student must respond to the state- criterion would be met if a student made a statement of another student by respectfully suggest- ment that obviously did not pertain to the issue ing that it is inaccurate, illogical, irrelevant, or and tended to derail the discussion. It could be unclear. The nature of the challenge should bedeliberately or inadvertently distracting. The stated and an invitation to respond to it should two examples below illustrate such statements: be extended. In the example below, the challenge lAretha: The real problem with the military is is directed at the logic of a statement: II the volunteer army. Do you think there Aretha: Some people support the ban out of fear should be a draft? of AIDS. Frankly, I am sympathetic. The rate 2Bob: Could we talk about something that isn't of AIDS among homosexuals is higher than so boring, like where people are partying after among heterosexuals. the game? Bob: You have a good point. If gays are excluded, AIDS is less likely to spread in the armed Obstructive Interruption. This criterion is forces. met when a student cuts off what another stu- Cleo: Yes, but it's possible to protect men and dent has started to say, preventing the statement women in the service from AIDS withoutfrom being completed and interfering with the banning homosexuals. Blood testing would progress of the discussion. Only obstructive do it. We could exclude those who test HIVinterruptions that rudely seize the floor for positive, whatever their sexual orientation. oneself apply here. Some interruptions, made It doesn't follow that the the ban on gays iscongenially, might be attempts to get a person necessary to prevent the spread of AIDS in to be more relevant or brief and would be con- the armed forces (logical challenge). structive. An obstructive interruption is readily apparent when itoccurs,so no example Summarizing Points of Agreement and is provided here to illustrate. Disagreement. To satisfy this criterion, a student would have to present at least a partial sum- Monopolizing. This criterion is met when mary of points discussed and their disposition inone student repeatedly dominates the discussion the discussion so far. The summary clarifieswith the effect of preventing others from con- where the discussion has been and sets the stage tributing. It would not be the result of a single for it to move forward. The dialogue excerptstatement but rather a pattern of overpowering below illustrates this type of summary: others by not yielding the floor. It becomes evi- Aretha: This can get very confusing. I'm not sure dent when one student does a conspicuously what I believe any more. There are so manydisproportionate share of the talking. Quieter issues and there is so much disagreement. students consequently withdraw or show reluc- Bob: For some time now we have been grappling tance to speak because they have been intimidat- with an ethical issue: Is it fair to treat homo-ed by a more vocal student. No example of sexuals differently than heterosexuals? Wemonopolizing is provided, because itis best agreed that it is an issue involving the value ofdetected through direct observation and is diffi- equality We also agreed that the value of pri- cult to capture in a transcript. vacy seems to conflict with the value of equality, and that we might have to choose between Personal Attack. This criterion is met when them to resolve this issue. We also agreed thata student offensively criticizes another student. everyone has an equal right to serve the coun-This type of personal assault or insult should be

294 3U BOX C Assessing Discussion of Public Issues: Scoring Rubric

The overarching consideration in scoring is the degree to which a student's contribution to the conversation clarifies the policy issue being considered and helps the group make progress toward resolution. Three elements of performance focus the assessment: whether or not the student has a. presented accurate knowledge related to the policy issue, b. employed skills for stating and pursuing related issues, and c. engaged others in constructive dialogue. A student's contribution to the conversation receives one of five scores: UNSATISFACTORY (1 ) issue raised during the discussion and has EXEMPLARY (5) The student has failed to express any relevantpursued an issue by making a statement and The student has accurately expressed relevant foundational knowledge and has neither stat-elaborating the statement with an explana- foundational knowledge pertaining to an ed nor elaborated on any issues. tion, reasons, or evidence. issue raised during the discussion, pursued an issue with an elaborated statement, and MINIMAL (2) EFFECTIVE (4) has used stipulation, valuing, or analogy to The student has stated a relevant factual, The student has accurately expressed relevantadvance the discussion. In addition, the stu- ethical, or definitional issue as a question or foundational knowledge pertaining to an dent has engaged others in the discussion by has accurately expressed relevant foundationalissue raised during the discussion, pursued inviting their comments or acknowledging knowledge pertaining to an issue raised by an issue with at least one elaborated state- their contributions. Further, the student has someone else. ment and, in a civil manner, has built upon built upon a statement made by someone else a statement made by someone else or or thoughtfully challenged its accuracy, clari- ADEQUATE (3) thoughtfully challenged its accuracy, clarity, ty, relevance, or logic. The student has accurately expressed relevantrelevance, or logic. foundational knowledge pertaining to an

distinguished from a legitimate challenge to and the teacher can work with the rest of the someone's argument. The personal attack is abu- class while one or more small group discussions sive and is likely to hurt the feelings of the per- are being recorded, the videotape method might son targeted. Two examples follow: prove more practical (and accurate) than direct Aretha: Bob, you said you were worried about observation. government promoting a homosexual life- Whether the discussion is directly observed style, that it threatens the stability of family or videotaped, the number of students participat- life. That is a stupid idea! There is no suching should be small enough to provide sufficient thing as a homosexual lifestyle. They have asopportunity for all members of the group to many different lifestyles as heterosexuals. I'mexpress their thinking. A group of 5-7 students is sick of your ignorant stereotypes! recommended, with thediscussionlasting approximately 20 minutes. The amount of time Bob: Dawn, you hardly say anything, and when might be shorter for elementary students or lb you do it doesn't make much sense. longer for high school students. Before starting the discussion, students would be presented with Assessing Students' Performance the policy issue in the context of a case study. For The performance of a student can be evaluat- example, the policy issue of gays in the military ed while directly observing a small group discus-could be raised by studying the case of Keith sion or afterward if the discussion is recorded. Meinhold, a homosexual naval officer who filed When direct observation is used, a trained scorer suit in federal court challenging his dismissal silently observes the discussion and recordsfrom the Navy. The case, which serves as a impressions at the close of the discussion. When prompt, could be presented through print, orally, the discussion is videotaped, a trained scoreron video, or in some combination of the three records impressions after viewing the videotape. media. Students would be given ample time to During the videotaping, the teacher need not be assimilate the facts of the case and organize their present and the discussion need not take place in thoughts about the issue it poses before discus- the regular classroom. Because students can besion starts. The case might be presented a short trained to record videotapes of their discussions, time before the scored discussion or, if more

2505 BoxD Assessing Discussion of Public Issues: Scoring Sheet

Enter a student's name and then make a check mark () to indicate the student's score. Student

UNSATISFACTORY (1) MINIMAL (2) ADEQUATE (3) EFFECTIVE (4) EXEMPLARY (5)

Student UNSATISFACTORY (1) MINIMAL (2) ADEQUATE (3) EFFECTIVE (4) EXEMPLARY (5)

preparation time is appropriate, students might score for each student on the Scoring Sheet (Box be given one or more days to prepare. D). When determining their ratings, raters should Whether through direct observation or analy- appeal to the descriptors for performances charac- sis of a videotape, the Scoring Rubric (Box C) is terized as Unsatisfactory, Minimal, Adequate, used to determine a rating for the performance ofEffective, or Exemplary as presented in the each student as a discussion participant. On theScoring Rubric (Box C). When raters disagree Scoring Sheet (Box D), a rater enters a score for about a rating, they should refer to these descrip- each student using the five-point scale presented tors again in an effort to resolve the disagreement. in the rubric: 1 = Unsatisfactory, 2 = Minimal, Reliability. Additional videotapes should be 3 = Adequate, 4 = Effective, and 5 = Exemplary. used as needed for raters to reach agreement in The scoring rubric presented is intended for high their ratings. To help work toward agreement, one school students. The standards of performance or more videotapes, previously rated by experts, could be appropriately lowered for younger stu- could be used to present prototypical perfor- dents while maintaining both the performance mances for the four ratings. As an additional criteria and the five-point rating scale. training aid, the generic descriptions for each Training would be required before a rater rating presented in the Scoring Rubric (Box C) could use the Scoring Rubric (Box C) with con- could be elaborated to include specific examples fidence. The training would begin with an intro- of things students might say when discussing a duction to the Performance Criteria (Box A) particular policy issue. and their definitions as presented in the preced- Agreement among raters is critical for estab- ing section of this scoring guide. After raters are lishing reliability. Are the ratings consistent clear about the meaning of each criterion, they among scorers? Is the rating given by one are introduced to the Scoring Rubric (Box C). teacher the same as that given by another? The Once acquainted with the Performance answers to these questions must be "yes" if we are Criteria (Box A) and Scoring Rubric (Box C), to have confidence that the ratings are reliable. raters being trained are ready to view an actualTeachers must be able to report to students, par- videotape of a student discussion. Two viewingsents, and the public that these ratings are not will be necessary at first; one to get oriented to the arbitrary claims based merely on subjective discussion topic and the students, and a second towhims. Scores of various teachers should be attend carefully to the performance of each stu- periodically compared and the degree of agree- dent. Following the second viewing, raters record a ment should be examined.

296' 3 6 There are various ways to establish reliability. Social Education 54 (October 1990): 369-373. One recommended here is to determine the per- ."The Assessment of Discourse in Social Studies." centage of agreement among raters by simply cal- In Toward a New Science of Educational Testing and culating the percentage of students who receive Assessment, edited by Harold Berlak et al. Albany, the same score from various scorers. There would N.Y.: SUNY press, 1992. be a minimum of two raters, and an expectation Oliver, Donald W., and Fred M. Newmann. Taking that they would agree at least three-fourths of the A Stand A Guide to Clear Discussion of Public Issues. time. Beyond this reliability standard of 75% Middletown, Conn.: Xerox Corporation/American agreement, we might add the requirement that Education Publications, 1967. when raters do disagree, most of the time (per- Oliver, Donald W., and James P. Shaver. Teaching Public haps 75%), the disagreement is no more than one Issues in the High School. Logan, Utah: Utah State point on the four-point rating scale. Once these University Press, 1974 (originally published in 1966). or other standards of reliability have been met, Parker, Walter C. "Participatory Citizenship: Civics in the training of the raters is complete. the Strong Sense." Social Education 53 (October Having been trained, raters are ready to evalu- 1989): 353-354. ate student performance. Individual teachers who Resnick, Lauren B. and Daniel P. Resnick "Assessing have been trained could use the Scoring Sheet the Thinking Curriculum: New Tools for Educa- (Box D) to assess the performance of their own tional Reform." In Changing Assessments: Alternative students. Once a teacher's ratings are established Views of Aptitude, Achievement, and Instruction, edit- as reliable, it becomes unnecessary to have a sec- ed by Bernard R. Gifford and Mary C. O'Connor. ond rater for discussions scored by that teacher. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1991. For larger scale program assessments, where small groups are sampled from the classes of several different teachers, possibly from different schools, three raters would be desirable to enhance reliability. Each rater scores each student independently. If all three ratings were the same, the common rating would be entered (for example, ratings of 2, 2, and 2 would be scored as 2). If two ratings were the same and the third rating discrepant by only one point, the discrepant rating would be eliminated (for example, ratings of 1, 1, and 2 would be scored as 1). If there were ratings of three consecutive points, the middle rating would be entered (for example, ratings of 2, 3, and 4 would be scored as 3). The only remaining possibility would be three different ratings separated by more than two points. In that case, the midpoint between the highest and lowest rating would be entered. Students, teachers, evaluators, and researchers are encouraged to use the authentic assessment tools presented in this guide to promote robust and civil discussion of public issues by young people.

References Barber, Benjamin R. "Public Talk and Civic Action: Education for Participation in a Strong Democracy. " Social Education 53 (October 1989): 355-370. Newmann, Fred M. " A Test of Higher Order Thinking in Social Studies: Persuasive Writing on Constitutional Issues Using the NAEP Approach."

3967 Parl e: Ileacer lioa ervisio

Introduction bq Nano Fichtman On

1part Nine of the Handbook on Teaching Social on professional development. Issues focuses on teacher education and The reader can explore both key components of supervision. The two chapters in this sec- teacher education and supervision in this section: tion explore the initial preparation of issues- initial teacher preparation and continuing teacher centered teachers as well as the supervision education. While the issues surrounding prospec- of practicing issues-centered teachers. tive teacher education and practicing teacher Chapter 32 explores the question, "How can education are sufficiently numerous for each to teacher educators best prepare issues-centered merit its own chapter, the separation is an artificial teachers?" by providing an overview of currentdichotomy. In addition to examining prospective teacher education practices at institutions of high- teacher education and practicing teacher education, er education. Three areas are discussed: generalit is important to consider the benefits of prospec- education coursework, professional education tive and practicing teacher collaboration. Hence, coursework, and field-based experiences. Throughafter reading the two chapters in this section of analysis of prospective teacher experiences in thesethe Handbook, I invite the reader to ponder the three areas, three recommendations are made forquestion: "How can we bring together prospective teacher educators: 1. that they join with arts and teachers, practicing teachers, and teacher educators science faculty to move large lecture survey cours- to discuss, provide, and continually improve es in the social sciences toward courses that focus issues-centered instruction for all children?" on major social problems pursued in depth, 2. that This question may be answered through the they augment the pedagogical practices of current formation of partnerships. Chapter 32 suggests social studies methods courses with the discussion that partnerships be formed between college of of literature and case studies, and 3. that they education faculty and arts and science faculty to make a commitment to locate and develop issues- focus on major social problems. Chapter 33 sug- centered field experiences for prospective teachers. gests that the supervisor and practicing teacher In contrast to the focus on initial teacher edu-become partners in the supervision process. cation in Chapter 32, Chapter 33 turns to thePerhaps what is most needed, however, is the development of practicing teachers, exploring the development of a strong, overarching school-uni- question, "How can supervisors best serve prac- versity collaborative partnership. ticing teachers who use issues-centered instruc- School-university partnerships involve prac- tion?" Jerich argues for issues-centered teachers ticing teachers, university faculty, and undergrad- to take charge of their professional growth byuate students teaching and researching together conducting self-analysis of their teaching withto co-develop and examine curricular changes in the aid of the supervisor. This can be accom- public schools and teacher education programs. plished when clinical supervision (characterized Establishing a school-university collaboration that by collegiality and equal control of agenda centers on providing issues-centered instruction at between teacher and supervisor) replaces bureau- a particular school site may help social studies cratic supervision. Jerich describes the clinical teacher educators and those involved in the educa- supervision process in depth and offers both tion of social studies teachers implement the recom- teachers and teacher educators a new perspective mendations made in this section of the Handbook

308 AN SSUES-CENTERED TEACHER EDUCATION

bn Nanc Fichtman Dana

ssues-centered education incorporatesa based experiences. Respondents were also asked: teaching approach that emphasizes reflective In what ways are preservice elementary, mid- and critical thinking during the study of dle, and high school teachers engaged with issues. The approach does not intend to critical examination of social issues and prac- frame definitive "right answers" but under- tices throughout their coursework? 11scores the need for students to become more What issues-centered literature (text/readings) thoughtful. Anissues-centeredapproach do you use/recommend in your course? engages students in the critical examination of social practices as they study the social implica- Responses to the survey were limited, with tions of persistent issues. This chapter reports information received from only teacher educators data from a survey of social studies teacher edu- atFloridaStateUniversity,PennState cators concerning how they prepare teachers in University, Rutgers University, San Diego State the issues-centered approach, and identifies University, Stanford University, University of some problems and possibilities inherent in such New Orleans, University of Washington, and preparation. It also builds a case for an issues- University of Wisconsin-Madison. Additionally, centered teacher education that underscores the one response was from a high school teacher and need for teachers to become more reflective another was unidentified. about their beliefs regarding social studies teach- The table on page 300 summarizes informa- ing and learning. Similar to the goals of issues- tion about issues-centered courses required centered instruction, an issues-centered teacher of preservice teachers at the responding universi- education creates opportunities for preservice ties. Because Stanford did not cite specific course teachers to engage in critical examination ofofferings, it is not included. Its fifth-year teacher social practices alongside educational practices education program prepares high school teach- and their social implications. ers. While its program is not issues-centered, many of Stanford's education courses and semi- Issues-Centered Teacher Education nars treat problems and issues. Programs The table reveals commonalities among vari- To gain insight into the present scope of ous universities' programs and, thus, insights into issues-centered teacher education, I conducted the preparation of issues-centered teachers. After an informal written survey of members of the researching the literature on issues-centered Issues-Centered Special Interest Group (SIG) instruction, the structure of universities, and of the National Council for the Social Studies. teacher education, I found three general areas, as A questionnaire asked each of the 55 SIG mem- they relate to the preparation of issues-centered bers to identify issues-centered courses for social studies teachers, worthy of discussion: gen- elementary, middle, and high school preservice eral education coursework, professional educa- teachers in the following areas: 1. general edu- tion coursework, and field-based experiences. cation coursework;2.social studies course preparation;3.specialized methods coursework; General Education Coursework 4.other education coursework; and5.field- All but two of the surveyed institutions note

309 GENERAL EDUCATION COURSEWORK Issues-Centered SOCIAL STUDIES COURSE PREPARATION Teacher EducationSPECIALIZED Programming METHODS COURSEWORK OTHER EDUCATION COURSEWORK EXPERIENCESFIELD-BASED TALLAHASSEEUNIVERSITY,FLORIDA STATE AmericanSchooling Society in (E) Liberal Studies (E) ElementarySocial Studies School in the (E) TheSchoolMulticulturalElementary Child in the & Middle SeminarProfessional Course Issues (E) UNIVERSITYPENN STATE PARK UNIVERSITY, Many50 Plus Focus Credits on Issues Studies53 Credits Preparation in Social IssuesTwoSpecifically Courses Tied to Issues (E) ThreeStudentIncluding Placements Teaching 15 Week RUTGERS UNIVERSITY, WorkPhilosophiesStudies6 Ciedits Methods in Social of History Methods and Materials Secondary Education in Student Teaching JERSEYNEW BRUNSWICK, NEW (M, H) in SocialStudiesSeminarsH) Studies Teaching in Social (M, (M, H) America (M, H) (M, H) UNIVERSITY,SAN DIEGO STATE CALIFORNIA EducationSocial(E,Multicultural M, ContextH) (M, Education H)of U.S.(M,EducationSocial H) History Science Methods for (M,EducationSocial H) Science Methods Education(E,MulticulturalSocial M, H) Context (M, Education H) of SeminarsField-Based (Sometimes) Discussion UNIVERSITY OF NEW General Introduction to GlobalTeachers Education (E, M, H) EducationSocial Foundations (M, H) of MulticulturalIntroduction(E, M, H) to Education UNIVERSITYWASHINGTON,ORLEANS, LOUISIANA OF SEATTLE EducationCritical Issues (E, inM, H) (E, M, H) Social Studies Methods One Student Placed ANONYMOUSWISCONSINMADISON UNIVERSITY 20 Credits in Social Methods Courses MethodsCourse (M, Courses H) Two Courses on Issues UnitSchoolPublicEach DevelopmentSemester IssuesClassroom High in a (H) & (H)MajorScience in (E, Social M) Science EducationCriticalRelated Issuesto Multicultural in Teaching (Sometimes) '0 1 I some type of issues-centered experience catego-vice teachers. Engle and Ochoa (1988, 129) rized as general education coursework. The liter- wrote of the social studies curriculum, "If survey ature discloses that a majority of general educa- courses are to exist at all, they must include major tion courses are introductory or survey courses, social problems pursued in depth." Surely, the are quite large in number, and are delivered in a same must be true for the social studies teacher lecture hall. Common (1993, 9) noted: education curriculum. To address this issue, it may be imperative Large classes and lecturing now replace, that those committed to creating an issues-cen- especially at the undergraduate level, semi- tered teacher education program form partner- nars and Socratic conversation as the insti- shipswithartsandsciencesprofessors. tutions' ideas of best practice. It is difficult Mehlinger (1981, 259) discussed the gulf that to argue that a professor standing at a podi- has existed historically between those who teach um with a microphone around her neck and courses associated with the academic disciplines telling a class of six hundred about the caus- and those responsible for courses in professional es of the American War of Independence is education: a scholarly act.... Teaching at the university is linked so much to lecturing that building The separation between Arts and Science designs incorporate large lecture halls as professors and School of Education profes- standard institutional issue. sors that marks the preservice training of teachers is also rather typical of in-service In order to meet general education require- and continuing education of teachers leading ments (such as courses in the social sciences) to advanced degrees. The exception occurs for the purposes of subject-matter preparation, when a college or university has received a preservice social studies teachers may complete grant from a private or government founda- many courses that do not model issues-centered tion to conduct a teacher institute. Then, instruction. Griffin (1992, 13-14) wrote: cooperation between Arts and Science and Education professors tends to be the rule The present writer has been unable to find rather than the exception. It appears that we anyone who will say flatly, "The subject- cooperate if we are bribed to do so. Without matter preparation of history teachers need a financial incentive to tear down the institu- not be guided by a conception of what his- tional barriers, we prefer our isolation. tory teachers are supposed to do with subject-matter." That there is at least some pre- Historically, such partnerships are the result sumptive connection seems so obvious that of outside incentives. One such example might one is somewhat diffident about saying it. be in tenure and promotion criteria. The basis of Yet the casual fashion in which departments the success of professors, particularly at large of education "farm out" students to subject- research institutions, for example, is more com- matter specialists, and the absence from monly based on their research and writing than educational literature of any but the most their teaching. If innovation in teaching were perfunctory allusions to how teacher-con- valued as highly as innovation in research, arts trolled subject matter is supposed to func- and sciences professors and education professors tion within the experience of children, might be more likely to collaborate to develop forces the conclusions that few institutions outstanding teaching models and courses, in have taken the question seriously. particular, the reconceptualization of existing large lecture courses to incorporate the analysis The issues-centered teacher educator must of major social problems. not casually send preservice teachers to other departments for subject-matter preparation. Professional Education Coursework Designers of teacher education programs must As the survey data indicates, of the three look critically at what is occurring in othercoursework categories related to professional coursework, and perhaps join together with fac-educationsocial studies course preparation, ulty across the university to help develop issues- specialized methods coursework, and other centered courses in the social sciences for preser- educationcourseworktheissues-centered

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BEST COPY AVAILABLE approach is more dominant in social studiesCrucible (1953) and Chinua Achebe's novel methods coursework. The survey question con- Things Fall Apart (1959) in her social studies cerning the critical examination of social issues methods courses. According to Adler, the issues and practices in methods coursework presented raised in these novelsindividual freedom, many insights. For discussion's sake, the respons- law and authority, and social conscienceare rel- es are categorized into prefatory knowledge,evant to a consideration of citizenship in a engagement and exploration, and teaching. democracy (The Crucible) and confronting endur- Prefatory knowledge contains activities thating questions about what it means to live in a introduce preservice teachers to the notion of social world (Things Fall Apart). Adler (1991, 81) issues-centered instruction. Respondents sharedasserted that such literature: such examples as simply defining social issues and viewing various steps and models for devel- can be used to raise questions concerning oping and dealing with issues in the classroom. moral commitment and ethical action. Most These activities build preservice teachers' basic social studies textbooks convey seemingly knowledge, and provide readiness for engagement objective facts, with little sense of personal and exploration, the category that drew the largest choices or decisions. The personal, emotive, number of activities within the survey. Through empathetic response to literary works can such activitiesas Socratic seminars, debates, facilitate the discussion of ethical and polit- panel discussions, simulations, group work, and ical issues as they relate to issues and topics classroom discussion, preservice teachers examin social studies. Students can thus be shown ine and explore social issues. Responses that a perspective on social studies knowledge relate to teaching inform about preservice teach- and curriculum which includes questions of ers' planning and presentation of instruction, what is right and good, and why. Such ques- such as identifying issues for a particular unit, tions can be brought to bear, as well, on designing the unit, and developing activities for issues of teaching and schooling. dealing with identified issues. Preservice teachers who are exploring issues- Teacher educators can help their students centered instruction are advised to read works byfurther explore issues of teaching and schooling the leaders in the field, including Nelson,in methods classes through the case-study Carlson, Palonsky, Saxe, Evans, Engle, Shaver, method, an instructional technique in which the Stanley, Aronowitz, Giroux, Apple, Oliver, professor presents in narrative form the major Shaver, Hunt, Metcalf, Massialas, Cox, Fenton, ingredients of a problematic teaching situation Chapin, Gross, Ochoa, Lockwood, Harris, and and preservice teachers engage in problem Zola. To prepare for the study of issues that may solving (Kowalski, Weaver, and Henson, 1990). emerge from student exploration, issues-centered Doyle (1990) and Shulman (1987) were among teacher educators must expand their collection of noted scholars who advocated the infusion of the key readings and literature to assist with class- case study method into preservice teacher educa- room issues analysis. tion coursework. As teacher educators recog- Adler (1991, 79) recommended the use of lit- nized that teaching is a complex, situation- erature in social studies methods classes to help specific, and dilemma-ridden endeavor, interest teacher educators solve the pedagogical problem inthis method resurfaced. According to that faces them, which is: Wassermann (1993, xiii), "cases are not intended to present the 'unhappy' faces of teaching; they finding the stimuli which will open students are meant to provide pictures of life in schools, to asking questions, to taking new perspec- raising issues that beg for enlightened and tives, to examining alternatives. This prob- informed examination." The case-study method lem of teacher education is the problem of is consistent with issues-centered instruction, as liberal education generally: how can we teacher educators may use cases to raise issues emancipate students from mindlessness; central to the teaching of social studies, conse- how can we free them for the difficult task quently leading preservice teachers in the critical of making choices. examination of educational practices and their social implications. Adler has required Arthur Miller's drama The Recently published texts contain appropriate

302 3 cases, e.g., Shulman and Mesa-Bains (1990),cases written by the preservice teachers them- Kowalski,Weaver,andHenson(1990), selves, possibly from a field experience coupled Wassermann (1993), and Silverman, Welty, and with the methods class. Lyons (1992). "The Case of Joan Martin, Marilyn Coe, and Warren Groves" (Silverman et Field-Based Experiences al. 1992, 60) is such an example; it tells the story Field experience is a critical component of the of a child named Donald who has been main-learning-to-teach process. For example, Guyton streamed into a regular classroom for social stud- and McIntyre (1990, 514-34) reported that many ies instruction. In the text of the case, Donaldteachersgraduates of teacher education pro- Garcia is described as: gramsremarked that field experiences are the {{most beneficialsegments of the teacher educa- a 9-year-old, (who) had spent two years in tion program." Even though field-based experi- the self-contained LD class. He was an only ences may be a key component in the education child, living with his mother and father.... of the issues-centered teacher, the survey data The Committee on Special Education indicated that few field experiences were issues- report noted that Donald's mother, whose centered. Two universities did not identify any native language was Spanish, spoke English field-based experience as issues-centered. Of the with some difficulty. Donald understood six remaining institutions, two indicated issues- but did not speak Spanish. centered field-based programs were "sometimes" offered, and one institution noted that only one Conflict arises in this case when Donald does student each semester was placed in an issues- poorly on social studies quizzes and the class- centered classroom. room teacher, the special education teacher, and Issues-centered field experiences may not the elementary school principal hold differentnow be a featured component of preservice views regarding the role of mainstreaming and issues-centered teacher preparation because Donald's performance in the regular classroom. teacher educators may not have identified exem- Preservice teachers may examine these issues in plary issues-centered social studies teachers. relation to this case: social studies instruction forAs institutions confront the logistical difficulties special needs students, mainstreaming, assess- of placing preservice teachers in the field, they ment of social studies learning, dealing withmay not overtly seek issues-centered teachers as diversity, and the practice of labeling children. cooperating teachers. Rather, if preservice teach- (See Dana and Floyd 1993, 1994 for further dis-ers are placed with issues-centered teachers, it cussion of this case within methods instruction.) occurs by chance. To maximize the influence of Cases provide the context from which issuesan issues-centered field experience, seeking may emerge as preservice teachers study each exemplary issues-centered teachers must become problematic situation. Saxe (1994, 111) discussed a priority of teacher educators. the use of issues in the teaching of social studies Of course, there may be an even simpler as "something spontaneous; that is, issues can and explanation for the limited use of issues- do emerge when children are studying or dis-centered field experiencea sufficient number of cussing or making observations about a particu- exemplary issues-centered teachers with which to lar phenomenon." Saxe differentiated betweenplace preservice teachers may not exist. If this is issues raised by children and issues raised bythe case, the teacher educator and school person- adults, and teacher educators are wise to keep thisnel can collaborate to focus on issues-centered difference in mind, remembering that issues they instruction within the field experience. For exam- raise may not be fully understood or have value to ple, the practicing/cooperating teacher may iden- preservice teachers. During case study discus- what topic the preservice teacher should cover sions, preservice teachers may raise issues theyduring the placement. The preservice teacher, feel are key, which may differ from a specific issuewith help from the university supervisor, then the teacher educator had in mind for exploration identifies issues related to that particular topic and discussion. To ensure the exploration of and designs and implements lessons and activities issues important to preservice teachers, teacher for analyzing these issues. In this way preservice educators may supplement commercially pre- teachers are approaching the expected curriculum pared case-study discussion with discussion ofin a way consistent with issues-centered instruc-

303 314 tion. An added bonus to this plan is that preser- Literature." In Issues and Practices in Inquiry-Oriented vice teachers may help practicing teachers under- Teacher Education, edited by B. R. Tabachnich and K. stand and begin to use issues-centered instruction Zeichner, 77-90. London: Farmer Press, 1991. themselves. If interest in issues-centered instruc- Christensen, J. C., and L. S. Tafel, ed. 'Diversity in Today's tion begins to surface in the cooperating schools, Classroom: Teacher Education's Challenge."Action in teacher educators can offer to provide in-service Teacher Education 12, no. 3 (1990): v. programming on issues-centered instruction. Common, D. L. "Toward the Creation of an Educational Culture and the Restructuring of Action Plan for Issues-Centered American Universities." Paper presented at the annual Teacher Educators meeting of the American Educational Research Within this chapter we have explored three Association, Atlanta, Georgia, February 1993. components of an issues-centered teacher educa- Dana, N. F., and D. M. Floyd. "Preparing Preservice tiongeneral education coursework, profession- Teachers for the Multicultural Classroom: A Report al education coursework, and field-based experi- on the Case Study Approach." Paper presented at ences. Recommended actions that teacher educa- the annual meeting of the Association of Teacher tors may take to enhance successful preparation Educators conference, Los Angeles, California, of preservice teachers in issues-centered instruc- February 1993. tion are 1. joining with arts and sciences faculty Dana, N. F., and D. M. Floyd. "When Teacher Educators to move large lecture survey courses in the social Collaboratively Reflect on Their Practices: A Case sciences toward courses that focus on major social Study on Teaching Cases." Paper presented at the problems pursued in depth, 2. augmenting cur- annual meeting of the Association of Teacher Educa- rent social studies methods courses' pedagogical tors conference, Atlanta, Georgia, February 1994. practices with the discussion of literature and Doyle, W. "Case Methods in the Education of case studies, and 3. making a commitment to Teachers." Teacher Education Quarterly 17, no. 1 ensure issues-centered field experiences. (1990): 7-15. While these actions are central to providing Engle, S., and A. Ochoa. Education for Democratic an issues-centered teacher education, a much Citizenship. New York: Teachers College Press, 1988. larger issue looms. Each institution surveyed Grant, C. A., and W. G. Secada. "Preparing Teachers noted in some way that, although issues-centered for Diversity." In Handbook of Research on Teacher coursework was offered, the courses did not exist Education, edited by W. R. Houston, 33-40. independently as issues-centered. The courses New York: Macmillan, 1990. were issues-centered depending upon who was Griffin, A. F. A Philosophical Approach to the Subject- teaching them. Thus, the creation and implemen- Matter Preparation of Teachers of History.1942. tation of an issues-centered teacher education Reprint, Washington, D.C.: National Council for program composed of issues-centered courses, no the Social Studies, 1992. matter how well planned or envisioned, most like- Guyton, E., and D. J. McIntyre. "Student Teaching and ly will not occur until the faculty and instructors School Experiences." In Handbook of Research on for those courses are committed to issues-cen- Teacher Education, edited by W. R. Houston, 514-34. tered instruction. Issues-centered social studies New York Macmillan, 1990. teacher educators, therefore, have a responsibility Howey, K. R., and N. L. Zimpher. Profiles of Preservice to help all educators understand and implement Teacher Education. Albany: State University of New issues-centered instruction, whether it be by shar- York Press, 1989. ing course syllabi with colleagues or writing arti- Kowalski, T. J., R A. Weaver, and K. T. Henson. Case cles about issues-centered instruction for other Studies on Teaching. New York: Longman, 1990. teacher educators. It is in such actions that the Mehlinger, H., and 0. L. Davis Jr., eds. The Social promise of issues-centered teacher education lies. Studies. Eightieth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. Part II. Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press, 1981. References Miller, A. The Crucible. New York: Bantam Books, 1952. Achebe, C. Things Fall Apart. New York: Random Robards, S. "President's Message."Action in Teacher House, 1959. Education 12, no. 3 (1990): Adler, S. "Forming a Critical Pedagogy in the Social Saxe, D. W. Social Studies for the Elementary Teacher. Studies Methods Class: The Use of Imaginative Boston: Allyn-Bacon, 1994.

3M Shulman, L. S. "Toward a Pedagogy of Cases: A Vision for Teacher Education" Audiocassette recording of speech by author. Reston, Va.: Association of Teacher Educators, 1987. Shulman, J., and Mesa-Bains, ed. Teaching Diverse Students: Cases and Commentaries. San Francisco: Far West Laboratory, 1990. Silverman, R., W. M. Welty, and S. Lyon. Case Studies for Teacher Problem Solving. New York McGraw- Hill, Inc., 1992. Wassermann, S. Getting Down to Cases: Learning to Teach with Case Studies. New York Teachers College Press, 1993.

3053i SUP RVISION FOR TEACHER GROWTH IN REF ECTIVE, ISSUES-CENTERED TEACHING- PRACTICE

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enfleeedcteidvefotresachdienngts etnoceonugraaggeesinththee skill ness, and explore alternative strategies."(8) needed Similarly, Gitlin and Price (1992) advocate an 0 analysis and discussion of issues. Its empowerment approach that they call "horizon- principles include identifying a problem, tal evaluation." This approach asks teachers to developing hypotheses, testing hypotheses, explore their insights on how alternative teaching developing conclusions, applying conclu- practices may contribute to the reshaping and sions to new data, facilitating an open classroom improvement of their teaching, and to examine discussion, incorporating empathy and accep-the differences between what they plan for and tance, and establishing and maintaining rapport what really happens in the classroom. with students. To maximize the potential of In what ways can supervising a teacher reflective teaching for issues-centered instruction change instructional practice? Grimmett, Rostad requires appropriate forms of supervision. Just as and Ford (1992) argue that the ways in which reflective teaching can be enhanced by supervi- supervisors try to bring about change in instruc- sion that is designed to promote a thoughtful, tion can either produce a cataclysmic effect on well-informed classroom, it can be obstructed a teacher's morale or produce a collaborative cul- by certain kinds of hierarchical and excessivelyture. In the former case, a teacher often feels programmatic supervision. overwhelmed by high expectations and becomes The supervision of teaching practice should be highly dependent upon and/or resistant to the structured to provide opportunities for teachers supervisor. In the latter, a teacher experiences to reflect upon their teaching, its relationship to a sense of professional empowerment and the learner needs and its contribution to long-term supervisor is seen as an orchestrator enabling the teacher growth. To further these objectives, both teacher to lead students into "new knowledge, teachers and administrators need to address some skills, behavior and dispositions." (186). Accord- fundamental questions. These include: What ing to Grimmett, Rostad and Ford, teacher combination of supervisory practice, teacher development can take place in an environment of growth and teacher evaluation is likely to promote collegiality in which a teacher can reflectively significant and meaningful learning in the reflec- transform the classroom experience. tive, issues-centered classroom? To what extent do One mode of supervision that is generally rec- school leaders view the reflective, issues-centered ognized in the field to be effective is known as clin- classroom as central to a school's mission, curricu- ical supervision, as formulated by Goldhammer lum and essential learning outcomes? And what (1969) and Cogan (1973). Sergiovanni and Starratt does the research on the subject indicate are the (1973), and Sergiovanni (1985) suggest that clini- best approaches to supervision and evaluation? cal supervision should have a broad conceptual Darling-Hammond and Sclan (1992) takebasis. They treat reflection as a central characteris- a position against bureaucratic supervision, as a tic of successful supervisory practice, a position means for the development of teachers. Accord- strongly endorsed by Goldhammer and Cogan ing to them, "evaluation is an ongoing set of(Goldhammer, Anderson and Krajewski 1980). experiences in which teachers examine their own In a setting characterized by this form of supervi- and each others' work, determine its effective- sion, the analysis of instruction incorporates sup-

7 portive methods that are congruent with how objective observational data for instruction. teachers develop and refine their teaching. Holland Eliciting the teacher's inferences, opinions (1989) suggests that this mode of supervision may and feelings about instruction. be used for evaluative purposes only if it is cast in Encouraging the teacher to consider terms of "formative teacher evaluation." Of course, alternative lesson objectives and methods no implementation of one mode of supervision for instruction.2 contrasted to another escapes criticism (Garman, Glickman, Hunter, and Haggerson 1987). Properly For teachers, beginning or experienced, clini- understood and used conceptually, however, clinicalcal supervision may be disquieting in the begin- supervision provides an avenue for teacher growth, ning stages of the supervisory process if all that positive reflection on teacher practices, and creativity in they want the supervisor to do is to directly tell the evaluative process. them what the good and bad features were about McGreal (1983) has also argued that success- their teaching. If the supervisor falls victim to ful teacher evaluation is closely linked to clinical this procedure, then the teacher successfully supervision. In the 1993 American Educational shifts the entire responsibility for the teaching act Research Association Instructional Supervision to the supervisor. Teachers must develop the dis- SpecialInterest Group Keynote Address, position of taking ownership and conducting McGreal argued as well that summative evalua- self-analysis of their teaching with the aid of the tion for teachers should be eliminated and supervisor to realize teacher growth over time. replaced with formative evaluation (1993). This is especially true for beginning teachers. Clinical supervision is more than profession- Bureaucratic supervision needs to be replaced al supervision, which incorporates a collegial by clinical supervision, through which the relationship among professionals, with teachers teacher and supervisor work together to estab- working together in an open fashion. It is also lish goals, consider alternatives, and establish more than instructional supervision, which is mutually decided upon strategies for teacher based on a work setting that focuses on improv- growth (Jerich 1989). Direct supervision strate- ing instruction and curriculum. Clinical supervi- gies should be replaced with collaborative and sion embodies both professional supervision and non-directive supervisory strategies in which instructional supervision, and is seen as being teachers and supervisors interact with each developmentally based. Characteristics of clini- other.3 I would suggest that for clinical supervi- cal supervision include collegiality, equal control sion to be considered effective, supervision must of agenda between teacher and supervisor, an ultimately help teachers reach the goal of engag- objective data base for reflective self-analysis ing their students in high cognitive student about one's teaching, as opposed to the subjec- initiated learningwhere students freely attach tive expression of opinions, and strategies for short- and long-term significance and meaning- the improvement of instruction that are based on fulness to their learning. the misinterpretation of data. The phases of The typical classroom situation at present clinical supervision (pre-conferencing, data col- poses major problems for the reflective teacher lection of teaching, analysis of data from lesson, (Anrig and Lapointe 1989; Prawat 1993; Raths, post-conferencing) are occasions for interaction Harmin and Simon 1986). The research of Berry between teachers and supervisors aimed atand Ginsberg (1990) discovered that all too improving instruction. often classrooms are dominated by prescribed instructional models, strategies, and skills for Clinical supervision includes: teaching that emphasize techniques known as Identifying the reflective, issues-centered "direct instruction." Additionally, Berry and teacher's concerns about instruction. Ginsberg (1990, 169) state: Translating the teacher's concerns into observable behaviors. The challenge for the future, according to Identifying procedures for improving some scholars, is to transform the typical the teacher's instruction. classroom, with a single teacher lecturing to Assisting the teacher in setting self-improve- large numbers of students who are required ment goals for instruction. to do seatwork and use "dumbed-down" Providing the teacher with feedback, using textbooks, to new classrooms, with teams of

307 318 teachers helping students make complex ing social studies in a school system. According to construction of knowledge. In these new this approach, the majority of class time would be classrooms, students would be expected to spent on discussions, gaming situations, and organize and monitor their own learning debates among the students. During the debates, and engage in collaborative and situational perhaps, the students who held strong beliefs specific learning activities.4 about a certain viewpoint would be asked to defend a different position encouraging them to Schmuck and Schmuck (1990), in their consider new viewpoints and values that were dif- analysis of democratic participation in small- ferent from their current beliefs. Students would town schools, observed more than 50 classes andbe engaged in reflective learning geared toward "soared to heights of delight in some and sank to social problem solving. The teacher's role would depths of disappointment in others." (16) Theybe to act as a mediator and initiator with the dis- remarked that they saw some classes that were position that no teacher judgments or statements exciting, captivating and quite imaginative. Also,would influence the students' attitudes toward a they remarked certain answer. A major goal of the teacher, perhaps, would be to develop a student who could We were disappointed, however, more often look at the various facts presented by a problem than we were delighted. Like other educa- and reach some answer by rational thought. tor writers, we witnessed, in 80% of the Can a mental picture be created to construct classes, what Ned Flanders in 1970 called what the reflective, issues-centered teacher and the rule of two thirds; two thirds of class- students would have experienced, that is, seeing room talk is teacher's talk, and two thirds of two different worlds of teaching and learning, that is unidirectional lecturing...With our if they had witnessed the instructional ebb and experience we would modify Flanders' flow over time for these two types of classes? Do means to the rule of three fourths. The some teaching approaches work better with cer- classes were typically teacher centered; we tain kinds of content? What kind of classroom saw teachers standing in front lecturing to microculture would exist in each case? Would rows of students, with only occasional stu- student essays derived from non-reflective, dent talk as a response to teacher questions issues-centered instruction contain a high level (Schmuck and Schmuck, 1990, 17). of citation of facts and particulars, but lack an overall sense of reflection, integrative thought, and creativity? Would student essays derived Dispositions and Instruction fromreflective,issues-centeredinstruction As a point of departure for the examination ofdemonstrate the use of integrative thought and these questions, let us hypothesize, for example, creative expression throughout the essays? To that the use of the Hunter model for lesson plan-what extent would the two groups of students be ning and instruction to evaluate the reflective,able to hypothesize an array of solutions to a issues-centered teacher (Hunter and Russell, problem set forth in the examination? Would 1981) represents the established instructional there be any substantial difference in the level of and evaluation procedure for a school system. reflection and inquiry in the essays between the According to this approach, the teacher would two groups of students? Would there be any sub- begin each class period by announcing the objec- stantialdifferencesinlearningoutcomes tives for the lesson. Primarily, a lecture-based achieved by the two groups of students? teaching approach would be used following the In our hypothetical setting, would the reflec- seven basic steps for instruction as outlined bytive, issues-centered teacher be able to infuse Hunter. According to the expectations estab- appropriate knowledge bases to structure and lished by this school system, the teacher would execute various teaching repertoires for the class? answer student questions and continue with theIn contrast, what kind of knowledge bases would lecture/discussion format. the non-reflective, issues-centered teacher use? Let us hypothesize also that reflective, issues-Could a teacher attribute the use of these types of centered instruction, for example, the Value- knowledge bases to the experience of supervisory Conflict model of instruction (Hunt and Metcalf, conferences? More importantly, can a teacher 1968), represents an established format for teach- make necessary changes in units of instruction as

308 19 a result of supervisory input? Can the quality ofused to interact with reflective, issues-centered a supervision program make an "imprint" on a teachers, they may be overwhelmed by the num- teacher to a degree that it translates into effective ber of suggestions. Reflective, issues-centered teaching and influences the sense students haveteachers, for example, might have the feeling that of a positive learning environment in the class- they can never improve to the degree implied by room? the criticism and that the conference gives them no grounds for improving. The idea of confirm- Strategies for Supervising the ing that teachers either taught extremely well or Reflective, Issues-Centered Teacher that they failed represents a form of bureaucratic In view of the above concerns, effective super- supervision which has for its purpose a certain visors (instructional leaders) should possess a kind of quality control. The agenda is determined professional disposition for using clinical super-by the administrator. vision to improve teaching, as well as strategies In contrast, clinical supervision requires the for supervising the reflective, issues-centered opposite approach. First, clinical supervision is teacher for the improvement of instruction not seen as using a "Laundry List" of superviso- (Garman 1990; Murphy 1990; Rallis 1990). ry techniques in which the supervisor points to all the good and bad acts that occurred in the Supervisory Dispositions chronological order of a lesson. Clinical supervi- As defined by Katz and Raths (1985), the sion is collegial; the reflective, issues-centered term "disposition" is used "to designate actions teacher and supervisor can work together to and characterize their frequency, for example, establish goals, develop evaluation and consider asking higher level questions, rewarding approx- alternatives. It is based on data rather than opin- imations, guiding classroom discussions, encour- ion or impressions. Data are interpreted in terms aging students' creativity, and planning worth- of theory or the wisdom of the profession. The while experiences in the classroom." (303) For teacher takes ownership of problems with open example,effectivesupervisors might have communication. a disposition toward helping teachers to self- Second, clinical supervision is more than a analyze their teaching if they make use of this"checklist" approach for evaluating instruction strategy on frequent occasions in several con- followed by supervisors in dealings with teach- texts. The context for this disposition might ers. Supervisors should be able to distinguish the occur during consultation, for example, during a difference between using a checklist and work- pre-conference or post-conference. ing developmentally with teachers to improve The goals for supervisory treatments ought to teaching. A checklist-style instrument is not include what Darling-Hammond and Sclan well suited to the representation of subtle envi- (1992) viewed as an ongoing set of experiences ronmental factors in teaching and learning. It where teachers take control of the examination cannot distinguish between who is dominating process, and where dispositions are strengthened. the conversation or whether the conversation is What supervisory methods best ensure that the directed toward the goal of teacher improvement reflective, issues-centered teacher will have a dis- or simply a meandering dialogue with no disposition to go on learning after having contactcernible purpose. If the supervisors are too pre- with a supervisor? It is helpful if supervisors scriptive in their dealings with teachers, especial- regard teachers as clients, not as subordinates. ly reflective, issues-centered teachers, they may Issues-centered and reflective teaching and feel intimidated and be resistant to divulging supervision should go hand-in-hand. important concerns. Also, little teacher self- If Hunter's supervision model is used, for analysis takes place if supervisors simply identi- example, the focus of supervision becomes undif- fy crucial issues for teachers and tell them what ferentiated (Garman and Hazi 1988). The frame to do to remedy these concerns. of referenceisexclusively the supervisor's. Third, a reflective, issues-centered teacher's Negative reinforcement dominates the interac- prior dispositions toward supervision for improv- tions of the conference. A checklist approach to ing teaching may be so strong that they may identify the good and bad things that happen inadversely impact the very nature of the goals for the classroom dominates the focus of the class- clinical supervision. A major point is that all room observation analysis. If this approach is humans, students and teachers, grow most when

309 320 BEST COPYAVAILABLE they control their own learning. Reflective teach- supervision, salient features include ers facilitate this in students, and reflective super- supervisor preparation visors facilitate it in teachers. Collaborative effort the presentation of data between educational leaders and the reflective, teacher self-analysis of data issues-centered teacher is needed to promote the relating post-conference conclusions to con- use of clinical supervision instead of the use of cerns identified in the pre-conference interventionism for the improvement of instruc- the promotion of continued growth tion. Reflective, issues-centered teachers should not be subjected to supervisor experiences that Pre-Conference Phase "dumb down" the work of teaching and learning. Let us consider five central features of the Fourth, the mode of supervision plays a direct pre-conference phase of clinical supervision. role in the success of teaching and learning. Atmosphere of the conference. An open colle- Instructional leaders must use clinical supervi- gial atmosphere between the supervisor and the sion to guide reflective, issues-centered teachers reflective, issues-centered teacher is essential for through the developmental stages for teaching.5 the facilitation of maximum teacher growth. To be effective, supervisors must be flexible and There is a delicate balance between supervisor willing to allow teachers the freedom to set thecontrol and teacher control of the pre- and post- course of conferences and be prepared to follow conferences. If the supervisor appears "wishy- any number of these possible courses depending washy" in the eyes of the reflective, issues- on where reflective, issues-centered teachers wish centered teacher, the teacher may question the to go with the discussion. Also, there is a need for supervisor's effectiveness and may attempt to clear direction known to both the supervisor and guide the discussion away from "dangerous" con- teacher throughout the supervisory process. This cerns (that need to be addressed) toward "safer" is especially important for reflective, issues-cen- concerns (that the teacher feels will not jeopar- tered teachers. Effective supervisors clearly dize his/her summative evaluation). There might demonstrate the ability to remain nondirective in even be instances where the teacher does not nature and yet are flexible in providing collabora- know what the supervisor expects and the con- tive opportunities for teachers to reconsiderference degenerates into a situation where important phases of their teaching that may havethe teacher rambles on without purpose and the been overlooked during the conference. supervisor adopts the role of confidant. If, on the Any individual who is placed in the positionother hand, the supervisor is too "heavy-handed" of serving as an instructional supervisor must be in his/her dealings with teachers, especially able to distinguish the differences between non- reflective, issues-centered teachers, they may feel clinical and clinical supervision (Sergiovanniintimidated and be reluctant to divulge impor- 1992; Smyth 1988). Those individuals who aretant concerns. Also, little teacher self-analysis able to identify and incorporate dispositionstakes place if the supervisor identifies the crucial toward clinical supervision into their roles asissues for the teacher and tells him/her what supervisors will be better able to conduct clinical-to do to remedy these concerns. based conferences with the reflective, issues-cen- The supervisor might also adopt the posture tered teacher for the improvement of instruction. of the "distant professional" in which he/she says very little and writes a great deal. It is obvious to Supervisory Strategies the reflective, issues-centered teacher that this The most important aspects of supervision oftype of supervisor is uninvolved and does not have the reflective, issues-centered teacher during the a genuine interest in his/her welfare. Other ways pre-conference phases of clinical supervision in which this type of supervisor can distance him- include self/herself from the teacher are:a.adjusting the the atmosphere of the conference furniture in such a way as to place the supervisor the specification of teacher concerns behind the desk to leave no doubt as to who is the observing behavior authority figure and who is not;b.positioning drawing up strategies his/her seat so that he/she faces away from the goal setting and establishing a timeline teacher (and hence closes himself/herself to a more personal style of interaction); 4. exhibiting a For the post conference phases of clinical"closed" body posture thus resulting in further

310 32 distancing himself/herself from the teacher; andtude is a problem in itself and is often not dealt d. using a rushed/annoyed tone of voice and fre-with by strategic questioning by the supervisor. quently uttering short phrases (such as '11h-huh' or All that is usually necessary in these instances of 'O.K.') while the teacher is speaking and thus giv-absent or inappropriate teacher concerns is that ing the appearance that the supervisor wishes the the supervisor listen closely to what the teacher is teacher to "get on with it" so the conference can saying and, when necessary, guide the teacher's end. In addition, a supervisor who is uncomfort-efforts (by strategic probing and follow-up ques- able when dealing with teachers or who makes a tions) in directions that are believed to be fruitful. superficial attempt at congeniality or warmth will Once the teacher has identified these concerns, do little in the way of convincing the reflective, the supervisor must mirror them back to the issues-centered teacher that he/she sincerely cares teacher to make sure that both parties have a clear about his/her growth as a person or professional.6 idea of what is being scrutinized.

The specification of teacher concerns. 710bservable behaviors. If the supervisor does lb Specification of concerns by the reflective, Jnot know what to look for during the observa- issues-centered teacher fosters self-analysis. It tion phase, it is unlikely that he or she will be able also provides the framework for future discus- to gather the necessary data to address the previ- sions in the remainder of the pre-conference and ously-identified teacher and student concerns. the subsequent post-conference. The impor- The identification of specific behaviors and distance of clearly specifying these concerns cannot positions are often missing entirely or mistaken- be over emphasized. If they are absent in the ly left to the post-conference (when it is too late). pre-conference, subsequent discussions lack focus and the supervisor does not know what to //Strategies. The successful identification of look for during the observation phase of the liappropriate strategies (by the teacher) to deal supervisory cycle. These concerns should be pos- with the identified concern(s) depends on the sible to deal with in the here-and-now rather success of the previous step in the pre-confer- than left for consideration in the vague future. ence. If the formulation of strategies is left to the It is not appropriate for the supervisor to solicitpost-conference (or neglected entirely), there more than a few concerns during the pre-confer- will be no hypothesis to test during the observa- ence. Since it is impossible to simultaneouslytion and post-conference phases other than the give each the attention it deserves, none will be accuracy of the teacher's assessment of the prob- adequately resolved. In addition, addressinglem. What is needed is a clearly formulated plan more than two or three concerns at once may to address teacher concerns before the observa- cause the reflective, issues-centered teacher to tion takes place so that the efficacy of the plan feel overwhelmed. can be evaluated during the post-conference. In There is often confusion on the part of both this way, the reflective, issues-centered teacher teacherandsupervisorconcerninglesson not only gets objective observational data from goals/objectives and teacher concerns. Teachers the supervisor as to the validity of his/her con- often simply state their concerns in terms of what cerns, but also sees how his/her efforts to address aspects of student performance they wish tothese concerns (through positive actions) may address rather than focusing on aspects of theirsucceed or fail. Furthermore, if the supervisor own performance in relationship to the signifi- (rather than the teacher) takes on the burden of cance level of classroom instructional tasks linkeddevising possible strategies to address teacher to student learning outcomes. Unfortunately, theconcerns, the teacher will not take ownership of supervisor all too often accepts only teacher cen- the strategies, and any success or failure will be tered concerns, and does not dig deeper to uncov-perceived as due to the efforts of the supervisor er the appropriate student-centered concerns. and not the teacher. Also, if the teacher devises This unwillingness to "dig" for student concerns the plan, the chances are that he/she will be based on the significance of the instructional tasks more enthusiastic in its implementation, and the sometimes results in the supervisor being satisfiedlikelihood for success is greater. Too often, when when a teacher indicates he/she is totally satisfied the teacher is unable to devise a strategy, the with his/her performance and cannot come upsupervisor steps in with his/her own ideas and with any student concerns at all. This smug atti-shortcircuits the entire process.

311 322 E Goal setting and establishing a timeline. and teacher) throughout the supervisory process. aTeacher /supervisor confusion over exactly what If preparation was lacking in an earlier phase, sub- constitutes an appropriate goal/timeline is often sequent stages will suffer because they are built on encountered in this crucial culminating step of a weak foundation and lack the necessary focus. the preconference phase. As was the case in the "identification of teacher concerns phase" both 9 The presentation of data. Effective progress parties sometimes do not distinguish between Lo toward the resolution of teacher concerns in what the students are expected to do (learningthe post-conference depends not only on the outcomes) and what the teacher is expected to do presence of objective data but on the type of data (goals to be used to remedy teacher concerns). used and when it is introduced. Certain types of Supervisor reactions to stated teacher goals/time- data are more appropriate than others when lines range from unquestioning acceptance of any addressing certain teacher concerns. For example, and all goals to the overly prescriptive behavior ofFlanders's Interaction Analysis might still be the supervisor telling the teacher exactly what is appropriate for addressing concerns such as the to be done and when it must be accomplished. quantity of teacher-talk versus student-talk or Both extremes are at odds with the spirit of clin- how often the teacher follows student responses ical supervision. The "unquestioning acceptance"with praise, but it would not be an appropriate approach does not provide for the development indicator of which students were participating in of teacher self-analysis skills because "Anythinga discussion or of the cognitive level and appro- is O.K. as long as the teacher came up with it." In priateness of the types of questions asked by the addition, it will not allow the teacher to benefitreflective, issues-centered teacher. Jadallah's from the supervisor's experience with other reflective teaching observation instrument is an teachers in similar situations. The "overly-pre-excellent tool for collecting this type of data? scriptive" approach issimilarly at odds withAcheson and Gall (1992) also describe several teacher self-analysis because (as was the case dur- suitable ways to collect observation data for the ing the strategy generating phase) the supervisor classroom. In keeping with the spirit of selfanaly- does all the work and the teacher has no voice in, sis, the prudent supervisor will introduce appro- and hence little ownership of, the decisions beingpriate types of quantitative and/or qualitative made and the eventual outcome. based data at appropriate times during the post- conference. Presenting the data too early will cir- Post-conference phase cumvent efforts by the supervisor to have the Let us consider five central features of theteacher express how he/she felt about the lesson. post-conference phase of clinical supervision. Presenting the data too late will only result in 1Superyisor preparation. Although the mostfrustration and wasted time because there is effective style of clinical supervision is nondirec- nothing (other than opinion and speculation) on tive in nature, this does not imply a lack of prepa-which to base the analysis. ration on the part of the supervisor. In order to be effective, the supervisor must not only be flexible Teacher self-analysis of data. A common ques- and willing to allow the reflective, issues-centered tion asked by teachers during the post-confer- teacher the freedom to set the course of the post- ence is: "How did I do?" At this juncture, it is conference, but he/she must also be prepared to important for the supervisor to reserve comment follow any number of possible courses depending and redirect the question back to the teacher in a on where the teacher wishes to go with the discus- psychoanalyst-like fashion: "How do you think sion. This preparation must include the gatheringyou did?" If the supervisor was to give a positive of objective data, instruments and systems as wellor negative assessment at this time, the teacher as the organization of quantitative and qualitativewould most likely disregard any objective data data to present an impartial picture of what tran- that followed and adopt the assessment of the spired during the lesson being considered. If this supervisor as his/her own. This is antithetical to data is not available or not presented in a meaning- the entire process of self-analysis which the fill manner at the appropriate time, the only "fuel" supervisor hopes to instill in the reflective, issues- left for the post-conference discussion is opinion centered teacher. It will not develop the powers and speculation. As stated earlier, there is a need of unbiased introspection the reflective, issuesfor clear direction (known to both the supervisor centered teacher will need when he/she finds

312 323 himself/herself in the field without immediate mote continued growth in the teacher in prepa- access to the judgments of a supervisor. Theration for the next supervisory cycle as well as supervisor as facilitator should also resist the later stages of the teacher's professional career. temptation to interpret the observational dataAlthough it is always more desirable to have the he/she has gathered when presenting it to thereflective, issues-centered teacher provide ideas reflective, issues-centered teacher. This isthe for his or her future growth, the supervisor responsibility of the reflective, issues-centeredshould have a reservoir of such suggestions avail- teacher. For true selfanalysis to occur, the dataable in the event the reflective, issues-centered must not only be objective but must be presented teacher is unable to generate any of his or her in a value-free manner as well. The data shouldown. Too often, the supervisor is either satisfied speak for itself, and any conclusions drawn by the with the lack of such ideas from the teacher, or is reflective, issues-centered teacher should be solely too eager to accept "safe" goals which the teacher based on this data and not on how the teacherknows will not jeopardize his/her perceived sta- feels the supervisor has interpreted the data. tus with the supervisor and are easy to accomplish. If the supervisor is an attentive listener and Relating post-conference conclusions to con - a skilled classroom observer he/she can often use Tcerns identified in the pre-conference.guiding and follow-up questions to assist the As was the case during the pre-conference, the reflective, issues-centered teacher in devising success of the current step relies on successful long-term goals that are acceptable to both par- completion of previous steps. Usually problems in ties and worthy of future discussion. this phase are of the "all or nothing" variety. If the supervisor and teacher neglected to identify anyConcluding Remarks concerns during the pre-conference, any conclu- The most important indicators of success in sions that might be drawn during the post-con- the clinical supervision process include:a.estab- ference are not anchored to any previously identi-lishing a collegial atmosphere which is conducive fied needs (or strategies devised to meet theseto the formation and sustenance of a healthy needs) and hence there is no continuity betweenworking relationship between supervisors and pre- and post-conferences. Although some mightreflective, issues-centered teachers throughout the argue that all is not lost if the identification ofsupervisory cycle;b.assisting reflective, issues- teacher concerns is left to the post-conference,centered teachers in clearly specifying concerns doing so is akin to closing the barn door after the in an appropriate forum before the classroom horse has escaped: It is too late to intervene andobservation takes place; and c. encouraging self- devise appropriate strategies (at least for the cur-analysis by reflective, issues-centered teachers of rent cycle), since the observation phase has objective observational data as well as assessment already been completed. If, on the other hand, too of their concerns and appropriate short- and many concerns have been identified during thelong-term strategies to address these concerns. pre-conference, the reflective, issues-centered These goals can be accomplished if the supervisor teacher will not only be overwhelmed with the strikes a delicate balance in the narrow region amount of data presented, but it will be very dif- between the two extremes of no supervisory con- ficult for the supervisor to collect and organize trol, on one hand, and being overly prescriptive such a plethora of information. Since conferenceon the other, by taking charge without being time is often limited, it is unrealistic to think thatassertive, and by being open and flexible without anything but a cursory treatment is possible when allowing the reflective, issues-centered teacher to trying to analyze more than two or three issues dominate the process. during supervisory consultation. The supervisor should maintain a reflective posture to provide opportunities for reflective, 2, Continued growth. When the "long view" of issues-centered teachers to discuss their teaching the clinical supervision process is taken, eachstyles without directing prescriptive solutions to cycle of pre-conference, observation, and post- concerns about their teaching performance. This conference represents one step in the continuing "mirror effect" establishes a cooperative atmos- growth of the reflective, issues-centered teacherphere where reflective, issues-centered teachers rather than an end in itself It is the responsibili- can freely express their feelings and concerns about ty of the supervisor to realize this fact and pro- how students can maximize their opportunities for

313 324 learning in- and outside of the classroom. In clin- Curriculum Development, 1992: 7-29. ical supervision, reflective, issues-centered teachers Engle, S. H. and Ochoa, A. Education for Democratic make judgments and evaluations, thus developing Citizenship. New York Teachers College Press, 1988. their ability to do self-assessment rather than Garman, N. "Theories Embedded in the Events of depending upon prescriptive learning provided by Clinical Supervision: A Hermeneutic Approach." the supervisor. Hence, in conjunction with a "mir- Journal of Curriculum and Supervision. 5, no. 3 ror effect," the supervisor serves as a facilitator in a (1990): 201-13. guided discovery process that fosters self-analysis Garman, N. and Hazi, M. "Teachers Ask Is There Life by the reflective, issues-centered teacher. after Madeline Hunter?" Phi Delta Kappan. 69, no. 9 Pre-conferences should be viewed as the (1988): 669-72. opportunity to reinforce the reflective, issues- Garman, N., Glickman, C., Hunter, M., and centered teacher's understandings about teaching Haggerson, N. "Conflicting Conceptions of Clinical models, instructional approaches and student Supervision and the Enhancement of Professional learning. The post-conference plays a critical role Growth and Renewal: Point and Counterpoint." in the supervision of the reflective, issues-cen- Journal of Curriculum and Supervision. 2, no. 2 (1987): tered teacher. The post-conference curricular 152-177. component is inextricably linked to the pre-con- Gitlin, A., and Price, K. 'Teacher Empowerment and ference curricular component in clinical supervi- the Development of Voice." In C. Glickman, ed., sion. A post-conference is not a simple case of Supervision in Transition. 1992 Yearbook of the providing feedback. It is much more than that. Association for Supervision and Curriculum The clinical post-conference takes on the role of Development, 1992: 61-74. providing a composite picture of the reflective, Glickman, C. Supervision of Instruction: A Development issues-centered teacher's performance with the Approach. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1985. goal of further defining or redefining his or her Goldhammer, R., Anderson, R., and Krajewski, R. teaching with a view to maximizing student Clinical Supervision: Special Methods for the learning. Post-conferences should be viewed as Supervision of Teachers (2nd ed.). New York Holt, being cumulative episodes that aid reflective, Rinehart and Winston, 1980. issues-centered teachers to experience where they Goldhammer, R. Clinical Supervision: Special Methods for have been and where they are going in terms of the Supervision of Teachers. New York Rinehart & teaching social issues. Winston, 1969. Grimmett, P. P., Rostad, P. O., and Ford, B. "TheTransformation of Supervision." In C. References Glickman, ed., Supervision in Transition. 1992 Acheson, K., and Gall, M. Techniques in the Clinical Yearbook of the Association for Supervision and Supervision of Teachers: Preservice and Inservice Curriculum Development, 1992: 185-202. Applications (3rd ed.). New York Longman, 1992. Holland, P "Implicit Assumptions about the Anrig. G. R., and Lapointe, A. E. 'What We Know Supervisory Conference: A Review and Analysis of About What Students Don't Know." Educational Literature. " Journal of Curriculum and Supervision 4, Leadership 47, no. 3 (1989), 4-10. no. 4 (1989): 362-79. Berry, B., and Ginsberg, R. "Effective Schools, Hunt, M., and Metcalf, L. Teaching High Social Studies Teachers, and Principals: Today's Evidence, (2nd Ed.) New York Harper and Row, 1968. Tomorrow's Prospects." In B. Mitchell & L. Hunter, M., and Russell, D. "Planning for Effective Cunningham, eds., Educational Leadership and Instruction: Lesson Design." In Increasing your Changing Contexts of Families, Communities, and Teaching Effectiveness. Palo Alto, CA: The Learning Schools. Eighty-ninth Yearbook of the National Society Institute, 1981. for the Study of Education, 1990: 155-183. Jerich, K. F. "Evaluating the Use of Clinical Supervision Blumberg, A. Supervisors and Teachers: A Private Cold during pre- and post- Conferences Associated with War (2nd ed.). Berkeley, CA: McCutchan, 1980. Microteaching Practice in Teacher Education." Cogan, M. Clinical Supervision. Boston, MA: Action in Teacher Education,11, no. 4 (1989) 24-32. Houghton Mifflin, 1973. Katz, L., and Raths, J. "Dispositions as Goals for Darling-Hammond, L. & Sclan, E. "Policy and Super- Teacher Education." Teaching and Teacher Education vision," In C. Glickman, ed., Supervision in Transition, 1, no. 4 (1985): 301-307. 1992 Yearbook of the Association for Supervision and McGreal, T "Teacher-directed Evaluation of Teaching:

314 3 An Empirical Perspective." Paper presented at the 4 Taken from Devancy and Sykes, Making the Case for meeting of the American Educational Research Professionalism." Association, Atlanta, GA, April 1993. 5 See Fuller's work on The Stages of Teacher Concerns. McGreal, T Successful Teacher Evaluation. Alexandria, 6 For a more detailed explanation, see Blumberg's VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Supervisors and Teachers: A Private Cold War (1980). Development, 1983. 7 See Engle & Ochoa (1988), Education for Murphy, J. "Preparing School Administrators for the Democratic Citizenship for a detailed explanation of Twenty-first Century: The Reform Agenda." In Jadallah's observation instrument. B. Mitchell and L. Cunningham, eds., Educational Leadership and Changing Contexts of Families, Communities, and Schools. Eighty-ninth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, 1990: 232-251. Prawat, R. S. "The Value of Ideas: Problems versus Possibilities in Learning." Educational Researcher22, no. 6 (1993): 5-16. Rallis, S. F. "Professional Teachers and Restructured Schools: Leadership Challenges." In B. Mitchell and L. Cunningham, eds., Educational Leadership and Changing Contexts of Families, Communities, and Schools. Eighty-ninth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, 1990: 184-209. Raths, L. E., Hamlin, M., and Simon, S. Values and Teaching: Working with Values in the Classroom. Columbus: Merrill, 1986. Schmuck, P., and Schmuck, R. "Democratic Participation in Small-town Schools."Educational Researcher 19, no. 8 (1990): 14-20. Sergiovanni, T "Landscapes, Mindscapes, and Reflective Practice in Supervision. " Journal of Curriculum and Supervision 1, no. 1 (1985): 5-17. Sergiovanni, T J. "Moral Authority and the Regeneration of Supervision." In C. Glickman, ed., Supervision in Transition. 1992 Yearbook of the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1992: 203-214. Sergiovanni, T and Starratt, R. Emerging Patterns of Supervision: Human Perspectives. New York McGraw Hill, 1973. Smyth, J. (1988). "A 'Critical' Perspective for Clinical Supervision. " Journal of Curriculum and Supervision 3, no. 2 (1988): 136-56.

1 For a detailed explanation of bureaucratic supervision, see the 1992 Yearbook of the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. 2 See Acheson and Gall, Techniques in the Clinical Supervision of Teachers (1992), for complete definitions and descriptions of supervisory strategies. 3 For a detailed explanation of these supervisory strategies, see Glickman's Supervision of Instruction: A Developmental Approach (1985).

315 326 Parl Ell rieledp iSS1Bs-Vlefed Edicalio

Introduction bq James Barth

Educationalreconstructionists,ledby social studies presents us with a spectrum of George Counts and Theodore Brame ld,alternatives representative, on the one hand, of held that the schools could lead societywhere the field has been and, on the other, of the toward a better future. It was not that thefield's potential future directions. Most repre- future was pre-determined but rather that sentative of all is the internationalization of the helping others to know what the futuresocial studies and, by inference, a progressive should be like would contribute to achieving thatmovement toward international citizenship. future. Viewing reconstructionism from the The efforts of Longstreet and Barth are the 1990s, some sixty years since George Countsvery embodiment of the hope that many of us asked: "Dare the schools build a new social still hold for education. While it is true that cyn- order?", there is a sense of naivite about recon- icism and discouragement have become embed- structionists and their Utopian fervor. Who today ded in our educational thinking, it is equally true would suggest that America's schools could lead that cynicism presupposes idealism, and discour- us toward a better societal life? The faith we once agement turns quickly into encouragement with had, not so long ago, in our public schools haseven the faintest hint of success. These two chap- faded and in its place is a growing sense of doubt ters are dedicated to the ideals we hold and the that our schools can even minimally meet encouragement we feel for the future of social the challenges of today, let alone of the future. studies education. Notwithstanding this, many of us continue to pursue curricular reform and new visions for the social studies. It is difficult to imagine anything more relevant to the quality of our lives than an education designed to help us deal with the inevitable conundrums and challenges of a future burdened with a continuing explosion of both knowledge and technology. In this section devoted to future-oriented social studies education, Wilma Longstreet delves into the alternative futures of social studies in American education. The disintegration of our values and of the concepts that once structured our interactions with each other are discussed in terms of the current social studies program and its inadequacies. Alternative curricula are proposed as ways of increasing the relevance and effectiveness of schooling. James Barth explores the development of social studies as a world-wide movement. The array of purposes each nation associates with the RNATIVE FUTURES AND THE SOCIAL STUDIES

S. Longstreet

0.1 lternative futures are at the heart of issues-the issues of the day and our collective, civic centered social studies education. Everyfutures. There are, of course, other probable time we make a decision about an eco- causes for our increasing reluctance to engage nomic, political, or social issue, we are also civically. We are a people brought up on televi- making a judgment, consciously or other-sion and sitcom problems that have clear begin- wise, about the future course of our soci- nings, highly stimulating middles, and neat ety. There are, however, so many issues, so many endings. No matter how complex a problem may judgments to be made, so many uncertainties tobe, it is usually resolved happily in less than confrontand so little reflection on our parts an hour. We are a people that have come to read about the future and the alternatives it poses forless, and despite a tremendous increase in the usthat we are hardly cogent in our decisioninformation available to us, we appear bored making. We seem to veer mindlessly first in one with it all and unwilling to use it in our decision direction, then in another. making. We have, on the whole, come to be apa- While we continue to study primarily histo- thetic toward, and even angry with, the workings ry in the social studies classroom, in the realof our democratic republic. Our newspapers world of politics we rarely use historical studies continually berate Congress for engaging in to deal logically with current issues of gover- extended discussions about the federal budget, nance or to plan our national futures. We appear social programs, defense, or whatever the current to have difficulty in making rational connections conundrum happens to be, as they and we, their (where they do exist) between history, the reali- readers, complain about too much talk and too ties of daily life, and the futures that loom ahead. little action. Scorn is heaped on our legislators Memorizing the salient dates of the Civil War or for being too talkative and apparently unable to understanding the crucial place of the Monroe bring closure to the nation's problems. Never Doctrine in our relations with Latin Americanmind that democracy is about building, often countries have had limited transfer value for our slowly and painfully, compromises that can students and their performances as citizens.somehow take most of us and our needs into There is significant distance between knowing account. One cannot help but wonder what the about the events and relationships of our histor- newspapers of today would have written about ical roots and engaging in the kind of decision the long discussions that went on during the making that is at the heart of any form ofmaking of the Constitution and its troubled democracyand that ought to be at the heartacceptance by the states. We appear to have of the social studies, as Shirley H. Engle (1960) taken the position that long, indecisive discus- noted decades ago. sions even about significant, complex issues are The ground-covering way we pursue the indicative of national weakness and failure. study of history has contributed little to the Our reluctance to be engaged by issues creates development of decision-making skills among the conditions for a self-fulfilling prophecy We the population. Indeed, judging from our votingdo not expect our individual participation to record, it may even be a cause of the detachmentmake a difference in the way the future unfolds, and apathy that many in our society feel toward therefore, we do not participate, and we do not

323 make a difference. The challenge for social studies stancesdevelopwhileremainingcivically educators is to turn this situation around byinvolved and active. There is, in other words, a focusing the attention of young people on key, unique nature to the decision making of citizens often controversial, issues and by helping them to involved in the workings of democracy that is develop attitudes, skills, and conceptual insights somewhat obscured by the wide-ranging conno- conducive to wise decision making about their tations associated with the term. Ongoing tenta- civic lives, i.e., about decisions which inevitablytiveness and the continual revision of what ought affect their individual and collective futures. not to be more than provisional conclusions are This chapter will explore potential curricularessential components to the citizen's decision- revisions of the social studies in terms of an issue- making behavior. To be willing to decide despite centered, futures orientation. In particular, the the ambiguity and seemingly endless debates sur- following topics will be pursued: rounding a problem, and subsequently to be will- 1. the nature of decision making in a democra- ing to change one's mind are behaviors that lie cy and in an era of persistent, continually at the very core of what it means to participate accelerating change; in a democracy and the planning for its future. 2. the adequacy of traditional school subjects (history, the social sciences, and the liberal The Adequacy of Traditional arts) to serve as the foundation for dealing Disciplines in Futures Planning with current issues and future planning; Early in the twentieth century, the sociologist 3. the role of issues in preparing for the future Thomas Jesse Jones proposed redirecting the and the persistence of democracy; and school study of history toward studies that would 4. the future-oriented, issues-centered curriculum. contribute directly to the development of good citizens and the betterment of human life The Nature of Decision Making (Kliebard 1987; U.S. Bureau of Education 1913). in a Democracy Jones introduced into the school's curriculum the In everyday language we allow connotative term, "social studies," which continues to be used terms to float unclearly among their various today. However, as 0. L. Davis Jr. (1992, 20) meanings. We often use such terms in our edu- noted, "The social studies never overthrew school cational jargon. For instance, the term problemhistory from the curriculum." We have persisted solving may be used in one discourse to refer to in our pursuit of factually based history as wit- the finding of solutions to mathematical prob- nessed most recently in the California social lems and in another discourse to dealing with studies framework (California Department of unpredictable, poorly defined social situations, Education 1987), which increased the breadth requiring public relations skills and considerable and depth of studies in history, geography, and flexibility. The important point to note here is thesocialsciences, and inthe National that this widely used term can represent signifi- Commission on Social Studies in the Schools cantly different skills, attitudes, and conceptual (1989) report, which recommended three years of understandings. To say that we want our stu- in-depth studies in world and U.S. history and dents to be problem solvers is not by itself suffi- geography for high school students. Judging from cient guidance for curricular revision. the report, the Commission considered the study The term decision making poses similarof current problems and issues as having only difficulties. Decision making in the context ofperipheral importance. a scientific discipline involves deciding about The idea that the experiences of our past, as specific parameters, i.e., stipulating the definitionrecounted through history, could contribute to of terms, determining the specific methods ofimproved decision making in the present has investigation, limiting the problem to manage- steadily lost validity. Once a reasonable basis able proportions, and so forth. Decision making existed for expecting the patterns of past experi- within democratic citizenship means trying toences to presage current and future patterns. understand the complexities and ambiguities thatWhat we induce from history, we induce on the problems typically exhibit as well as learning to basis of expecting history to, in some way, repeat make decisions in the face of confusion anditself. The fact is we are confronting changes uncertainty. It means being able to be tentative of such magnitude that the inductive uses of his- and willing to modify decisions as new circum- tory to inform us about present and future behav-

310 3 .2 9 for are increasingly irrelevant and indefensible. span of a single generation. Raging technological Even Dewey's (Kliebard 1992) conception ofrevolution has brought us to intragenerational school history as a source of perspective and disjuncture, wherein the upbringing of our child- moral guidance for the present is of questionable hood is largely inoperative for the judgments we viability. must make in our adult lives; and the environ- The past may have some role in helping us to ments we took for granted as children have been understand the future, but hardly in the way or to so modified that the assumptions we persist in the degree that once was true. In the past, major having about themassumptions garnered from societal changes in our beliefs, goals, visions, andthe experiences of our early yearscan mislead behaviors were associated with the generational and confound the decisions we must take as passage of power. The term generation gap hasadults and as citizens (Longstreet and Shane long stood for the differences among generations 1993). Persistent, intragenerational disjunctures arising from the propensity of younger people to have fundamentally altered the potentiality of criticize and evaluate the power brokers of theirchildhood so that childhood no longer offers us a own day, usually their elders, and from the"natural" base from which to view and judge inevitable "distinctiveness of events" (Bingham the directions of our lifelong, social existence. We 1991), which occurs even when the basic modal- are repeatedly confronted with issues the likes of ities of living have hardly changed. Generationwhich have never before challenged humankind gap is reflective of a passage from the old order toand most certainly were not factors in the devel- the new order, which, nevertheless, remains quite opment of our early belief systems. similar to the old order in most of its structures. This century has witnessed a disintegration not In the course of the twentieth century, the gener- so much of our values but rather of our ability to ation gap has continued to be a phenomenon of sustain them. We still acknowledge such basic pre- societal life, but its role in cultural upheavals, cepts as doing unto others as we would have them which have been the central experience of the do unto us and honoring our mothers and fathers, twentieth century, has diminished considerably. but we hardly know how to translate these maxims As Alfred North Whitehead (1967) noted in to apply them to our new realities. For example, if 1929, we can no longer assume "that each gener- an egg fertilized in vitro (i.e., a "test-tube" egg) ation will live in an environment substantiallywere terminated, would that be the equivalent similar to that of the preceding generation." of abortion? What are the ethics involved in hav- We are confronted with more than a cultural ing a child for the purpose of transplanting one gap between generations. Ours is an age domi- of its organs to another human being? What nated by intragenerational disjunctures. does honoring one's father and mother mean ----Significant and quite numerous differ- to the child who has had several stepfathers and ences in our way of life arise within the rarely sees his or her biological father?

)An Example of Intragenerational Disjuncture resident Harry S Truman probably matic decisions he would face in his lifetime. belonged to the first generation ofTruman's most momentous decision, whether Americans to have fully experienced to drop an atomic bomb during World War II intragenerational disjuncture. He that would surely kill thousands of Japanese was born in 1884 well before auto-civilians, was taken with precious little under- mobiles, jet airplanes, motion pictures, radios, standing, even among the experts of the day, of airconditioners, and televisionsets hadradiation poisoning and its long-term fallout become culturally ubiquitous and embedded in (McCullough 1992). What could the study of the very structure of our daily lives; he died in history have told Truman about global villages, 1972 when all of these and more had become nuclear weapons, or artificial intelligence as he entrenched aspects of our daily lives. Theregrew up in Independence, Missouri, in the had been little in the first 16 years of young 1880s and 1890s when none of these were Truman's life and education that in any way even glimmers in the historian's firmament? prepared him for the drastic changes and trau-

319 330 The public arena is full of talk about how toapply to what is experienced civically outside of restore traditional values to society and return our school. Judging from the public's low participa- youth to a sense of responsibility. However, tion in elections and apparent lack of understand- restoration of values is really not the question.ing about the workings of a democratic republic Clearly, we still share a fundamental core of(Bennett 1988; Ravitch and Finn 1987), history, beliefs about what is right, for otherwise the as we have traditionally experienced it, is neces- widespread discomfort about not living up to our sary but not sufficient for the task. values, expressed repeatedly in our mass media, From time to time in the twentieth century, would hardly be a factor in our public discourse. the study of the social sciences has been seen as Nor could any form of democracy survive without providing us with a different and more adequate its members having a shared core of beliefs. It is filter than that of history. In 1937 Edgar Wesley the pursuit of our values through essentially newequated the social sciences with the social stud- and unforeseen circumstances and the often inap-ies (Wesley and Wronski 1958). In the 1960s the propriate match between value(s) and circum- New Social Studies, largely supported by federal stance(s) that results in a sense of continuing frus- grants, undertook to engage social studies stu- tration. The study of historyas most of us have dents in the social sciences as though they were encountered it in schooldoes little to contribute scientists out in the field (Senesch 1965; Bruner to our understanding of issues and circumstances 1974). Though the federally funded projects literally unimaginable in the past. were well financed and largely run by social sci- Hardison (1989) has suggested that we are ence experts, little remains in today's curriculum currently experiencing the disappearance of con- of those efforts. cepts we once took for granted, e.g., nature, real- Nevertheless, the social sciences provide an ity, and even humanity. Certainly, nature in terms important source of theoretical knowledge about of quarks, lightning speeds, and surrealisticour human ways of behaving and our forms of visions of Earth from outer space is a profoundlygovernance (Fraenkel 1973). Their efforts to different experience from the one so idealized approach human behavior from a scientific per- by Rousseau in the 1700s and Wordsworth inspective have led to the valuable accumulation of the 1800s. Increasingly, media control our per- scientifically configured data collected as objec- ceptions of reality, and the distinction betweentively as possible. As input for civic decision reality and virtual reality is becoming progres- making, objective data is extraordinarily useful. sively more difficult for us to make. Learning to achieve objective data as scientists Our conception of the social studies haswould give students an understanding of the become uncomfortably caught between the tradi- desirability of a value-free environment as well as tional duties of the cultural conservator involved expertise in behaving with objectivity in transmitting the accumulated wisdom of our There are, however, drawbacks. Objectivity past to the young and the growing urgency to means, to quote the American Heritage Diction- prepare them to cope with an uncertain, quite dif-ary, that the data collected is "uninfluenced by ferent, highly complex, and not very distant emotion, surmise, or personal prejudice." A cur- future. Unlike in any other period in human his-riculum centered on achieving skills in objectiv- tory the study of the past is of limited relevance ity and social scientific methodology is clearly and questionable usefulness to today's youth in inappropriate for the achievement of objectives helping them to prepare for their futures. It pro- related to good citizenship and the subjective vides important data about how problems were valuing that goes with it. Being a good social solved but not necessarily about how to solvescientist requires skills that may be only periph- today's problems. The challenge that faces those erally related to those needed to be a good citi- of us who qualify as "elders" is to transform ourzen. The decision making of the social scientist knowledge and experience into a curriculum both is essentially different from the decision making relevant and useful to a generation whose lives are of a citizen in a democracy. A quarter of a cen- likely to be profoundly different from our own. tury ago, Shirley H. Engle (1970, 778) made the They will have to contend not only with the gen- point that eration gap but with intragenerational disjunctures. In terms of schooling, the challenge is one To make the social sciences the sole basis of of transfer, i.e., of having what is studied in school citizenship education is to place values and the

320 3 valuing process outside the pale of social edu- Studying Issues cation, since the social sciences are value free. in the Study of Futures Engle and Ochoa (1988) considered the uses In terms of the challenges likely to confront of humanities in social education. As with the youngsters in their not-too-distant future, mak- social sciences, they found the humanities to be ing value judgments about issues that often have valuable resources for citizenship education but no clear resolution and embody multiple value inadequate to the task. The humanities "seek to conflicts must be at the crux of what is studied illuminate the meaning of life" (56), while allow- in the social studies. Like history, the social ing subjectivity and value judgments to influence sciences offer us resources for making decisions, their decisions. However, in their view, taken but they help us only indirectly to learn thealone, the humanities "are a mixture of the processes and attitudes of democratic decision bizarre as well as the substantial" (60). Engle and making. Ochoa believed that the social sciences and the Intragenerational disjunctures require us tohumanities must be viewedassymbiotic reconceptualize the purposes of schooling inresources that, when taken together, can provide general and the social studies in particular. The "future citizens with compelling insights into enculturation process that occurs naturally andsocial issues" (56). The study of issues offers a powerfully in our youngest years, that embeds inway of linking the many different kinds of us our cultural membership and plants ideas thatinsights and understandings acquired from for- guide us throughout life, has also come to be the mal structures of knowledge with the numerous, process that most diminishes our ability to eval- emotion-filled, value-laden civic decisions that uate the quality and desirability of change occur- repeatedly confront us. ring around us. We become encapsulated, i.e., our While the social sciences operationalize ability to reason reflectively about the majordefinitions and converge on specifics,the issues of our times is dominated by "an uncon-humanities deal broadly not only with the issues scious 'gut-level' adherence to an interlockingbut with the human emotions and subjective fabric of ideas, ideals, beliefs, values, assumptions, reactions that so often complicate the resolution and modes of thought that have been implantedof issues. The humanities can explore new ways by cultural forces" (Zais 1976, 218). The encul-of connecting human experience and new turative processes establish in us a multiplicity ofapproaches to the future. They push at the edges unconscious cultural mind-sets that impede ourof the possible and help us intuit what we may ability to go beyond the traditional limits of a sit-later discover or invent. uation or problem. Enculturation and the subse- While the traditional social studies program quent cultural encapsulation of adulthood restrict might support the study of future-oriented our ability to think beyond the traditional limits issues from time to time, it does so at the risk of set by the society of our childhoodlimits com- distorting the study of the disciplines. What is municated to us by parents who could not possi-important to understand about a curriculum bly have known the numbers and kinds of chal-emphasizing disciplines is that each discipline, lenges that we would face as adults. The crisis inwhether it be history, or economics, or geogra- values so often sung in newspapers and journals phy, possesses a structure based on a unique set today is largely a crisis between our early encul- of concepts, facts, generalizations, and processes turation and the array of decisions confronting that must be learned intheir uniqueness us, both personal and societal, for which we have (Morrisett 1967; Broek 1965) or else the disci- almost no preparation. Enculturation allowed topline is not really being studied. In the tradi- continue its own "natural" course of development tional social studies curriculum, the study of directly impedes our ability to deal with the issues could be considered a distracter from the inevitable crises of intragenerational disjunctures, study of disciplines, which, after all, "will be on and with the decisions we must make about thethe test!" In reality, the disciplines serve as dis- direction and nature of our collective futures. tracters interfering with students learning how The school's curriculum must embody ways of to engage actively and effectively as citizens of a helping young people to confront essentially new democracy. issues in terms that help them to move beyond Of course, not all issues are of equal worth in the limits of their own cultural perspectives. terms of preparation for democratic citizenship.

321 332 Studies about the future can be and often have are doing today as we increasingly and ineffectu- been undertaken in terms of broadly conceived ally demand a return to traditional values and to topics without a controversial component. For the traditional family unit. We are caught in the example, a set of scenarios may be utilized to rep- enculturation of our past. resent, in a neutral fashion, daily life in the year 2045. The view embedded in this kind of curric- Future-Oriented, ular approach is that the future is part of theIssues-Centered Curriculum inevitable cultural drift of society; it is, therefore, There are several ways of approaching the in our best interest to understand and prepare fordevelopment of future-oriented curricula. One, our most likely futures. This seeming neutralitydiscussed above, involves a neutral overview of toward the future often leads students to acceptlikely futures. The future is neither good nor bad, the future as though its progression were acceptable nor unacceptable, but merely on its inevitable rather than a result of the choices made way, and we must prepare our young for what it as people and their society traverse a series ofwill bring. The RAND Corporation and the controversial issues. Futures Society often issue reports of this ilk. Among the guidelines for issues-centered For instance, we might find among their reports education put forth by Engle and Ochoa (1988) that the business office of the future will be in our is that topics or episodes that are not proble-home, or that distance education will become matic should not be included in the curriculum. asignificant component of undergraduate This is a crucial curricular position. Learning to instruction, or that virtual reality will be a signif- deal with hotly contested issues is at the very coreicant part of on-the-job training. Alvin Toffler's of whatever capacity youngsters may develop in trilogy (1970, 1980, 1990) dealing with the directing their own futures as citizens of a future also makes predictions of this kind. As an democracy example, Toffler (1990) states: Furthermore, students must experience active involvement in a wide variety of controversial If large numbers can participate in a mass- issues. As John Dewey often noted, no one expe- appeal game show like Jeopardy with a com- rience, no one issue can, by itself, be considered puter tallying their responses, it doesn't take of greatest value to education; it is only in terms too much imagination to see how similar of what an issue moves toward or into that we technology could be adapted to political can judge its value. To quote Dewey (1938, 87), polling or collective decision-makingand we need political organizing of a new kind.

to select those things within the range of It is a matter-of-fact discussion of future direc- existing experience that have the promise tions rooted in our present experience. While and potentiality of presenting new prob- Toffler recognizes the social tensions likely to arise, lems which by stimulating new ways of he does not reflect much on how citizens might observation and judgment will expand the control and redirect their futures. The future is area of further experience. caught in cultural drift and is going to happen.

Dewey believed that if the young rarelyThe Neutral Approach in Curriculum encountered controversy in their studies, they In this neutral approach to futures studies, the would have a fixed and static conception of the futures curriculum is typically based on tradition- ideas involved and would probably not under- al research methodologies linked to scenario stand how they function in the social milieu. activities. The scenario itself is used as a tool to I would further suggest that if the young do notexplore possible futures in an objective fashion. deal with controversial issues of significance forA range of scenarios involving the major activi- the future directions of society, they are likely to ties of society ensures an adequate scope of study. have a conception of the future statically mired in Issues, when dealt with, are rooted in this milieu the experiences of their own childhood; they will, of objectivity. A Delphi technique, which involves in other words, conceive of solutions to the con- surveying expert opinions, may be employed as a troversies of their futures as though their futures way of deciding upon the most likely of scenar- were their past. This is, after all, what we adults ios; discussions might follow along the lines of

322 what must be done to best prepare for the future. The educational conundrum we must face Students may engage in trends analysis, which is how to contend with the enculturative process investigates, usually in terms of demographicsso that schooling can contribute to a coherent and economics, series of related events and their society while not embedding traditions in young- likely persistence in the future. Students mayster's minds that interfere with their ability to learn how to conduct linear projections involving confront their civic problems and participate in descriptive data about current circumstances. the direction of their futures. How do we redirect They may also undertake cross-impact analyses, in enculturation from a process that fixes beliefs and which they pursue the interrelationships of mul- closes the mind to one that opens the mind to tiple changes and the impact each would have on thoughtfulness about not only the past but the the other(s). Another widely used methodology complex issues of the future? Asking the question that students may pursue is environmental scan- from another vantage point, how do we encultur- ning, which involves a continual scanning of sys- ate the willingness to reflect upon new ideas and temic, worldwide events in order to ascertain the new ways of doing things while maintaining a development of new, possibly unexpected trends. respect for the great insights of our past? How do Certainly a futures unit (or even several units)we build those inner intellectual, emotional, and based on research studies or a combination ofattitudinal resources that can help children to see scenario and research studies could be inserted beyond their immediate cultural circumstances? into the traditional social studies curriculum. In How do we make active participation in the comparison to other current curricular activities, decision-making processes of our democracy a this would be a somewhat innovative approach. fundamental result of the school's curriculum? However, little would really change. The objec- It is clear that a controversial approach to tivity of the scientific disciplines would be issues, especially those concerning the future exchanged for a value-free albeit topical approach directions of society, is a necessary revision to to the study of the future. The kinds of perplex- today's social studies curriculum. Children must ing and often frustrating decisions confrontingconsider changing what adults of today may be citizens as well as their need to decide, whilequite satisfied with; and they must deal with remaining tentative and open to other possibili-issues that adults might prefer to ignore. ties, would hardly be developed in this neutral Children must become "transformative intellec- approach to the study of the future. tuals" (Giroux and McLaren 1986), i.e., capable of taking an active role in recasting the values The Controversial Approach and experiences of their heritage into new, albeit in a Futures Curriculum still democratic, forms of governance and social A controversial approach to futures studieslife so as to better suit a future we adults can offers greater potential for developing more hardly conceive. involved and competent citizens. As Engle and The tools of future-oriented studies discussed Ochoa (1988, 105) noted, the study of controver- above astypical components of a neutral sial social issues contributes to the "counterso- approach (the scenario, trends analysis, cross cialization" of children, enabling them to face impact analysis, etc.) are equally important to the issues in an open and creative fashion. controversial approach. However, instead of these The circumstances that have led to intragen- tools being used to describe the likely faces of erational disjuncture require the schools to par- tomorrow, they would be employed in helping ticipate in the enculturative process in a different students to resolve controversial issues. For way and from an essentially new perspective. example, multiple models of the future could be The schools must see themselves as contributors developed for the purpose of comparing and to the unencapsulation of adulthood, i.e., to giv- evaluating their likely outcomes. Students could ing adults greater control over their early cultur- be encouraged to take positions and defend them al development. Instilling a neutral perspective utilizing scenarios and the research tools. of the future does not correspond to the real circumstances of democratic citizenship in either The Core of the Futures Curriculum today's or tomorrow's world. It also does not In reconceptualizing the social studies cur- challenge the values and beliefs acquired in riculum, regardless of whether we pursue a neu- childhood. tral or controversial approach, we must respond

323 334 BEST COPY AVM BLE to the question: What knowledge is most usefulwith uncertainty and, as a correlate, with contro- for helping citizens of a democracy deal with versy. Ideas such as these form fulcrums around issues and give direction to the future? As educa- which major issues would be organized. Specific tors, we must know that the scope of issues dealt issues under 'progress' might include: Einstein's with responds adequately to this question. At general theory of relativity and the upheaval that least six areas of societal endeavor appear most it has brought to our understanding of time and relevant to our future directions and respond to of the nature of the universe; the continuing fail- this key curricular question: ure to find adequate storage for nuclear waste 1. communication and information handling and its possible repercussions for our way of life; 2. uncertainties the hypothetical but not improbable decline in 3. values development reading and the parallel rise in other means of 4. democratic citizenship communicating information. Studying the mul- 5. inquiries; and tiple possibilities in outcomes and repercussions 6. futures (Longstreet 1979). and dealing with the kinds of decisions that Each of the areas holds the potential for help- might have to be made despite uncertainty would ing people to deal more competently with the comprise the real content of this subject. issues confronting them and with the cultural encapsulation that tends to limit their ability to Values development would have little to do confront new issues and to develop new value with the traditional passing on of values from systems. one generation to the next. Rather, it would involve students in the active formation of their 1 Communication and information handlingown values as individuals and as citizens of a II would involve studying the impact of media on democracy. The process of value formation as the meaning and understanding that we hold ofa school study is viewed as being analytical, an issue (McLuhan 1964). It is a subject that critically evaluative, moving toward generality would need to be pursued K-12 and beyond. from a fundamentally subjective base and neces- It would help students to examine for each issue sarily controversial. how they came to know about the issue, what A series of questions would serve to organize effects the communication of the issue has had the subject as well as to ensure an in-depth explo- upon their views, and what questions must be ration of values. Among these would be: What is pursued if a reasonably broad and fair presenta- useful about having values? Should individually tion of the issue is to be achieved. Developing based or societally based values take precedence? communication literacy is especially important Are all values culturally relative or are some val- for redirecting the enculturative process from one ues absolute and culture free? How should we go leading to cultural encapsulation to one building about establishing new values? absolute values? independence of thought. Establishing commu- What comprises a good life? What do I most nication and information handling as a compo- value about my future life? nent of the social studies recognizes the need for people to understand and exercise control over// Democratic citizenship would deal with the the production, uses, and dissemination of infor-if rise and evolution of U.S. democracy and mation. Video literacy is hardly considered in theinclude comparative studies with other democra- current curriculum even though it is widely rec- cies around the world and other forms of gover- ognized that our perceptions of the issues are in nance. In many ways, this would be similar to the many ways controlled by the media. ever-present course in civics that most students currently take. Emphasis, however, would be Uncertainties would involve issues related toplaced on the development of decision-making lb change and the continuing explosion of skills related to the exercise of democratic citizen- knowledge and technology. History and great lit- ship. These involve making decisions in the midst erary works contain many examples of humani- of conflicting values, being willing to confront ty's struggles both against and within uncertain- complexity rather than settling for simplistic solu- ty. An exploration of likely future uncertainties tions, working toward long-term goals as well as would form a significant base of study. Evolution, short-term objectives, making tentative albeit progress and democracy are among the ideas replete firm judgments while remaining willing to revise

324 judgments in the light of new input, and being uncertainties, of course, would contribute to stu- knowledgeable about the realities of the political dents' abilities to envision multiple possibilities; process. This area of study would be closely linked and communication and information handling to values development because the content would would provide the expressive skills needed in the stress political phenomena, governance structures, development of scenarios. With regard to the lat- and the activities of citizens, all of which are heav- ter point, scenarios could be presented, utilizing ily value-oriented. In the last years of high school, the video camera, the computer, written forms, or the social science disciplines could be offered to a combination of these. students for elective study, a considerable reversal The scenarios would be of several types of what usually occurs now when the social stud- ranging from linear projections based on quanti- ies curriculum offers a problems course or partic- tative data to more fanciful predictions of an ideal ipation in a civic experience in the twelfth gradelife. In students' earlier years, scenarios would be while concentrating on the disciplines (in partic- built around small, concrete experiences subject ular, history) in the lower grades. to improvement or change. For example, a sce- Democratic citizenship would also include nario could be developed around ways of improv- active participation in the workings of local anding the neighborhood or the components of an possibly federal government along with studies ofideal school. Subsequently, more advanced significant current issues of governance. As rec-futures studies would become involved in com- ommended by Engle and Ochoa (1988), a full plex plans such as the achievement of a pollu- year, one-day per week citizenship internship tion-free urban environment or colonizing other directed toward some socially useful enterprise planets in our galaxy. would serve as the culmination of students' active The radical changes we have been through involvement. and those still confronting us require educational activismi.e., an aggressive effort to fundamen- Inquiries would involve the study of diverse tally change how we educate. The various revi-

JJEresearch methodologies ranging from classicalsions of curriculum discussed here are barely scientific inquiry to humanistic modes of inquiry more than a beginning effort. The future and the to new, paradigm-breaking forms such as are now exploration of civic issues have long been dis- developing in the science of Chaos, as these are cussed in our educational literature and, for the needed in confronting a variety of controversial most part, ignored by the schools. It is time for us issues. It would include, when appropriate, the to move beyond. future-oriented research methodologies discussed above. Both quantitative and qualitative forms of inquiry would be studied from kinder- References garten through the last grade of high school in an Bennett, W. J. "American Education: Making It Work." effort to increase students' abilities to deal inde- The Chronicle of Higher Education (May 4, 1988): pendently with the significant issues of their 29-41. times by researching the issues they believe are Bingham, M. "A History Based Social Studies central to their understanding of what is involved Curriculum." Paper presented at the annual confer- in making a decision. ence of the National Council for the Social Studies, Washington D.C., November 1991. Futures, as a component of the social studies Broth, J. 0. M. Geography: Its Scope and Spirit. 6curriculum, would serve as the linking "hub" Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill, 1965. for the other five components because it would Bruner, J. S. "Man: A Course of Study." Social Studies utilize the processes, attitudes, and skills learned Curriculum Project. Cambridge, MA: Educational in these to develop scenarios of likely futures. Services, 1974. Research tools such as environmental scanning California Department of Education. History-Social and trends analysis would be drawn from the Science Framework Sacramento, Calif: Department subject of inquiries; analyses pursued in values of Education, 1987. development and insights into the nature ofDavis, 0.L., Jr. "'Your Mother Wears Army Shoes!' The democracy derived from studies in democratic Silly Debate between School History and the Social citizenship would contribute to the quality of Studies." In Citizenship as Social Studies Education. judgments made in laying out desirable futures; Bulletin 4. Munster, Ind.: National Council for the

325

336 Social Studies Special Interest GroupFoundations Toffler, A. Powershifi: Knowledge, Wealth, and Violence at of the Social Studies, 1992. the Edge of the 21st Century. New York Bantam Dewey, J. Experience and Education. New York Teachers Books, 1990. College Press, 1938. U.S. Department of Education. 'Preliminary Statements Engle, Shirley H. "Decision Making: The Heart of by Chairmen of Committees of the Commission of Social Studies Instruction." Social Education the National Education Association on the 24(November 1960): 301-4, 306. Reorganization of Secondary Education." Washington, Engle, S. H. The Future of Social Studies Education and D.C.: US. Bureau of Education Bulletin no. 41,1913. NCSS." Social Education 34 (1970): 778-81, 793. Wesley, E.B., and S. P Wronski. Teaching the Social Studies: Engle, S. H., and A. S. Ochoa. Education for Democratic Theory and Practice. Boston: D. C. Heath, 1958. Citizenship: Decision-Making in the Social Studies. Whitehead, A. N. The Aims ofEducation and Other Essays. New York Teachers College Press, 1988. 1929. Reprint, New York The Free Press, 1967. Fraenkel, Jack R. Helping Students Think and Value. Zais, R S. Curriculum: Principles and Foundations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ.: Prentice Hall, 1973. New York Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 1976. Giroux, H. A., and R McLaren. "Teacher Education and the Politics of Engagement: The Case for Democratic Schooling." Harvard Educational Journal 56(1986): 213-38. Haas, J. The Era of the New Social Studies. Boulder, CO: ERIC Clearinghouse for Social Studies/Social Science Education, 1977. Hardison, 0. B., Jr. Disappearing through the Skylight. Culture and Technology in the Twentieth Century. New York Viking, 1989. Kliebard, H. M. The Struggle for the American Curric- ulum: 1893-1958. New York Routledge, 1987. Kliebard, H.M. Forging the American Curriculum: Essays in Curriculum History and Theory. New York Routledge, 1992. Longstreet, W. S. "Open EducationA Coming to Terms with Uncertainty." In Lifelong Learning: A Human Agenda, edited by N. V. Overly. Alexandria, Va.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1979. Longstreet, W., and H. Shane. Curriculum for a New Millennium. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1993. McCullough, David. Truman. New York Simon and Schuster, 1992. McLuhan, M. Understanding Media. New York Bantam, 1964. Morrisett, I., ed. Concepts and Structures in the New Social Science Curricula. New York Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1967. National Commission on Social Studies in the Schools. Charting a Course: Social Studies for the 21st Century. Washington D. C.: National Council for the Social Studies, 1989. Ravitch, D., and C. Finn. What Do Our 17 Year-Olds Know? New York Harper and Row, 1987. Senesch, L. Our Working World Chicago: Science Research Associates, 1969. Toffier, A. Future Shock New York Random House, 1970. Toffier, A The Third Wave Toronto: William Morrow, 1980.

326 3J; THE LTERNATIVE FUTURES OF TERNATIONAL SOCIAL STUDIES

bq Ja s L. Barth

lmost forty years ago as a new social stud- tive of the social studies is to prepare students for ies teacher, I considered my field as only intelligent membership in society. "It is important to an extension of the American experience note, however, that Wesley and Wronski's is and thus exclusively an American cre- indeed an American perspective. South Korea's ation. International social studiesletvision of preparing students for "intelligent flalone a concept of alternative futures membership" is different: was completely unheard of and, for me, several decades in my future. I had no knowledge that The tendency is one in which the social countries in Europe, Africa, and Asia were studiescourses give students political adopting social studies and also struggling with knowledge and not the political attitudes of the field's definitions, purposes, aims, and goals. democratic citizens ... the most important But then why should I have known about the purpose of political education in schools has struggle? After all, social studies was just some been to maintain the stability of the existing turn-of-the-century reform of U. S. citizenship political system. (Chung 1994, 3) education, discussed in theory but not practiced in my school. On the other hand, in the West African Now in the 1990s, social studies as a school country of The Gambia, progress, peace, and subject has become a recognized field worldwide. prosperity are the aims that constitute the basis This, however, is not to say that all countries havefor their schools' social studies course: adopted social studies as their citizenship education programs, nor have those same countries To implant certain ideals and moral values necessarily chosen the U. S. vision proclaimed by in the minds of the young has always been the National Council for the Social Studies among the many reasons for teaching social (NCSS 1994). The field has become a major studies. This is an essential part of educa- international citizenship educational reform tion. (Ministry of Education, Youth, Sports, movement. If the past forty years are any sugges- and Culture 1980, 1) tion, the twenty-first century will witness many alternative futures for citizenship education as A Nigerian vision would see social studies as: the social studies movement continues to gain international momentum. A place to start imag- the investigation of human activity. It stud- ining such futures is by noting future visions of ies man at home, at work, at worship, in selected countries around the world in light of politics, at play, in the village, in the nation, social studies' past. everywhere engaged in his busy programme of living. (DuBey 1980, 1) Alternative Visions of Social Studies While purposes attributed to the social stud- In addition to intelligent membership, prepa- ies vary from nation to nation, there does appearration for democracy has been a persistent char- to be an underlying, unifying theme captured acteristic of the social studies, as NCSS (1994, well by Wesley and Wronski (1973): The objec- vii) declared in its statement of purpose:

338 The primary purpose of social studies is to toward its traditions and future goals. Countries help young people develop the ability to do, in fact, have objectives for social studies that make informed and reasoned decisions for express a wide range of differing visions, all of the public good as citizens of a culturally which benefit from intelligent participation in diverse, democratic society in an interde- society. pendent world. Is There an International For many U.S. educators, but not necessarily Social Studies? for Nigerians, Gambians, and South Koreans, To even think about alternative futures, one "the most important original intent of [social must first conceive the variety of different defin- studies] education" is "teaching for democraticitions, aims, and purposes that have guided dif- life"(Rolheiser and Glickman 1995, 196). fering visions of social studies. Is there even an Japanese educators may have a slightly different international vision of social studies? Must that vision that would suggest cultivation of a demo- vision be linked to a promotion of capitalism and cratic and peaceful nation but yet: democracy? Alternatively, is social studies always linked with some vision of citizenship education The primary objective of social studies is to as a developed intelligent membership in society? provide pupils with an understanding of Examining the path social studies took as it society, and to support their desirable atti- transformed from a national to an international tudes by establishing a firm foundation for field might help to answer these questions. But a correct moral decisions. (Nagai 1983, 66) thoughtful response to these questions might start with inspecting differing visions of social The Tanzanians have a slightly different studies among Americans, Gambians, Nigerians, vision. The aims of social studies are: South Koreans, Japanese, Tanzanians, Euro- peans, and Zimbabweans. That inspection sug- To equip learners with knowledge, skills gests that social studies is not necessarily linked and attitudes for tackling societal problems. to a concept of capitalism or democracy but is To develop a Tanzanian culture that perpet- usually conceived as some form of citizenship uates the national heritage, individual free- education. dom, responsibility, tolerance and pays The National Council for the Social Studies, respect to elders. To develop in each citizen an organization founded in 1921 in the United an enquiring and open mind clear of bias States, provides an international assembly for and prejudice, and a Ujamaa or socialist educators from around the world. The assembly outlook, particularly the principles of equal- sets forth a guiding vision as a standard on teach- ity and brotherhood which entail a sense of ing and learning that emphasizes integrated and individual and collective responsibility in all interdisciplinary curriculum: areas of activity. (Ministry of Education 1984, 2-3) [Social studies] when taught well, is drawn not only from its most ... foundational dis- In speaking about social studies in Europe, ciplines but also from the arts and humani- Hooghoff (1994, 5) suggested that: ties, mathematics and science, current events and students' own interests and citizenship does not imply a narrow, exclu- experiences. (NCSS 1994, 159) sivist Eurocentric perspective...learning to be a responsible European citizen must This vision of integration, of course, has long involve an appreciation and respect for been established as basic to the development of a other cultures and societies....A good social studies program, and is commonly fol- European citizen is a good world citizen. lowed throughout countries that have adopted social studies. For example, in Lesotho: Did Wesley and Wronski really get it right? In one sense, yes, but only because "intelligent The integrated approach is a more natural membership in society" can be interpreted in method of learning...children do not gen- each country to support desirable attitudes erally think in terms of subjects until they

320 9 become conditioned to doing so. In any case the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, their natural interests and the personal the growth and development of the social science problems they solve from day to day cut movement into disciplinary fields was in full across various subject areas and there is no force; even history for some became a science. reason why our methods of teaching should Soon after the Civil War, the potential of the not take this into account ...especially social sciences was realized through an emphasis when they are in harmony with the inte- on scientific investigation, with the promise of grated approach which is the basis of Social emerging, discrete academic disciplines. History, Studies teaching. (Ministry of Education, not yet assigned to the humanities, along with Sports and Culture 1981, 2) new fields of economics, psychology, sociology, anthropology, and other branches of science, The Japanese, on the other hand, adopted an were to capture the imagination of scholars and integrated social studies as part of the democrati- university liberal arts faculties with a particular zation process required by the Allied occupationattitude toward knowledge that became the forces: foundation for twentieth-century scholarship. Today, arguably, thereisa trend toward Social Studies became a school subject in integrating disciplinary fields, especially in the 1947 through the enforcement regulations sciences, whereas earlier in the century educators of the School Education Law....An inte- were struggling to identify new fields. At the grated social studies curriculum based on same time that the social sciences were attempt- the American pattern was introduced in the ing to identify their own academic boundaries, hope that it would contribute to the democ- the social studies attempted a "counterrevolu- ratization of Japan. (Nagai 1983, 61) tion," structured on integrating the social sciences, history, and, for some, the humanities. Another standard set forth by NCSS's The social science and history community did International Assembly involves the develop- not eagerly receive the idea of social studies as an ment of values: integrated subject to be taught in schools (Earth 1992, 34). In a modern world where academic When taught well, social studies engages reputations are established on research in disci- students in the difficult process of con- plinary fields, a school subject such as social fronting ethical and value-based dilemmas, studies, which calls for a broadly conceived inte- and encourages students to speculate, think gration of the social sciences and humanities, critically, and make personal and civic deci- runs against a popular intellectual trend. sions based on information from multiple The fragmenting of knowledge into ever perspectives. (NCSS 1994, 159) smaller bites within discrete disciplines rather than the integration of knowledge, which has These standards of teaching and learningoccurred during the past hundred years in the tend to find support in many social studies syl-United States, has not been lost on the interna- labi, national curricula, and teacher handbooks intional community. Though social studies as a those countries that have adopted social studies. school subject has substantially spread through- For instance, in Zambia the NCSS vision onout the world, the notion of an integrated school teaching and learning would sound like this: social studies curriculum could be perceived as "[Social studies] aims at inculcating upon thebeing out of step, surely not in harmony with the mind of the learner useful social values such as times. Admittedly, some elementary classrooms social interaction, decision making and extrapo- feature an integrated social studies (illustrated lation" (Ministry of Education 1983, iv). above by the Japanese and Zambians), but, in most cases, secondary social studies remains true Social Studies' Historical Route to the twentieth-century preference for separate It would be fair to say that the social studiessubjects that derive their content from disci- movement promoting integrationprobably plinary fields. An interesting speculation might began at a most inappropriate time, particularlybe, Will the twentieth-century preference for for those who conceived of organizing scientificseparate subjects based on disciplinary fields inquiry into discrete disciplinary fields. Duringcontinue, or will the social studies notion of inte-

329 340 grated content around significant social-personal Social Studies as the Heritage problems emerge? of a Nation The argument in the United States went Obviously social studies has survived, though beyond integration versus separate subjects. The it has not necessarily overcome the problems of Progressive Movement championed U.S. reformperception and application that have plagued the by favoring a perfected democracy that depended field since its inception. In the United States upon an educated citizenry who understood howsocial studies is clearly intended to reinforce its the political system should work. Education was particular heritage of democracy. But, in fact, the the wayand social studies was the answersocial studies field is the heritage of a nation, as to how the citizens would learn their responsibil-illustrated by how other countries view it. For ities (Brady 1994, 25). example, in Sierra Leone social studies is: An earlier social movement called Populism laid a different foundation for the social studies. structured around the student and spirals out The Populists imagined a citizenship education from the family and the local community. that would question the very structure of the Beyond the national level the structure further political system, believing that, given the politi- includes the international community and cal and economic system that existed, democra- related issues. (Institute of Education n.d., 1) cy would never function for the benefit of the people. So it was that social studies emerged not Sudan takes the reinforcement of the Islamic only as counter to the social science movementfaith as the purpose of social studies. The Soviet but also upon the horns of two movements, Union maintained social studies as the way to Populist and Progressive, both calling forreinforce communist ideology. Social studies in reform, yet in conflict with each other over whatJapan, in its early phase of development, was per- changes were needed. ceived as a reinforcement of traditional moral To further complicate the birth of social stud-values. Tanzania adopted social studies as one ies, social scientists who had thoughts about theway to promote socialism. South Korean social dissemination of their knowledge conceived social studies aims at encouraging anticommunism but studies as a direct conduit, perhaps a handmaid- not necessarily democracy. Germany aims at en. Social studies was conceived as that mecha- developing a democratic tradition, yet "a good nism by which the citizens would learn aboutEuropean citizen is a good world citizen." In their societyas perceived by the social scientists short, the field is assigned a purpose in each (Saxe 1991, 2-3). From the social scientists' pointcountry. It could be reinforcing democracy, com- of view, schools would feature a social studies that munism, the Islamic faith, precolonial traditions, was not integrated but was compartmentalizedor the persona of a ruling dictatoras is the case into discrete social sciences and history. If atti-in Malawi and some West African countries tudes of the social scientists were not sufficient to but, in most cases, the attempt is to create a create a stillborn integrated social studies, then national identity, preserve traditions, and pro- factor in the conflict over Populist and Progressive mote social cohesion. In essence, social studies is reform. Be sure to include a lack of consensus perceived as nation building. How that nation on definitions, purposes, aims, and goals, and forbuilding is conceived depends upon the country's teaching social studies. priorities. Tucker (1981, 318) stated: If Americans could not articulate a coherent notion of the field and were thought to be out of Issues that cause social studies to be devel- step with intellectual twentieth-century trends opmental are:(1) different nations or to create discrete social science fields, then is it regions have different reasons for teaching little wonder that those outside the United social studies; (2) social studies more than States found the field hard to understand? other school subjects influences and is Notwithstanding arguments against the devel- influenced by the social, political and eco- opment of social studies, a vision of the social nomic values and institutions of society. studies field as an alternative to other forms of citizenship education did, in fact, emerge in There is an American social studies, but then many countries by the latter part of the twenti- there is also a Spanish social studies, a Russian eth century. social studies, a Namibian social studies, a

330 Nigerian social studies, a South Korean social temporary world" (Becker and Mehlinger 1968, studies, a German social studies, and as many10), social studies is a simple but attractive other differing forms of social studies as there arethought for many modern countries that face countries that have adopted the field as their cit- rapid change and also profess a preference for one izenship education. or more of the following beliefs: freedom of thought, expression of religion, a tolerance and Organizing an International compassion for others, a sense of community, an Social Studies acceptance of pluralism, and the encouragement Though there has been some discussion of individualism. How can a country that experi- about creating an international social studiesences rapid change also effectively profess one or association, as yet most international activitiesall of these preferences? One response has been have been sponsored by regional or nationalto educate students to become thoughtful citi- social studies organizations. The 1990s brought zens. For example, in Nigeria: international social studies conferences, the fourth to be held in Australia in 1997, and the social studies ... is expected to inculcate and International Association for Children's Social strengthen in the child basic socializing and and Economic Education, based in England humanizing responsibilities through the since1994. This professional organization child's acquisition of fundamental concepts, encourages global membership. International understandings, values, attitudes and social publications, such as the International Journal of skills necessary to live in society. (Eheazu Social Education sponsored by the Indiana 1986, 21) Council for the Social Studies and Ball State University, are further evidence of the interna- Nagai (1983, 64) described the Japanese view tionalizing of social studies. One could also pointof citizenship: "In Japan being a good citizen to numerous regional organizations such as themeans being a democratic and world-minded National Institute of Curriculum Development citizen with a relevant, deep traditional identity." (The Netherlands) and the African Social and Preparation for intelligent membership in Environmental Studies Programme (Nairobi, society must account for rapid change because the Kenya) and unilateral programs that have consequences of change affect a citizen's quality encouraged social studies educators to visit other of life. For some, change is what social studies is countriesAmerican Fulbright grantsand all abouthelping citizens control their lives in awards, United States Information Agencya rapidly changing world. John Cogan (1994, (USIA) programs, and Japan's Keizai Koho 338) asked, 'What kinds of knowledge and skills Center fellowships. In fact, countries and corpo-are needed to help us cope with and manage rations sponsor a variety of exchange programschange rather than having it direct us?" If change that internationalize the field. Why this interest?happens very rapidly, as in any highly developed What is it about social studies that has attractedtechnological society, then change can be dislo- international attention? cating. Rapid change is unsettling and can lead to unhappiness, fractured families, identity What Explains the Attraction crises, unemployment, drug abuse, crime, world of Social Studies? wars, economic depression, crises, and chaos. Explaining the widening influence of the Contemporary Russia, the late Yugoslavia, Iraq, social studies movement is complex, but two fac- and numerous countries in Africa and the Middle tors undoubtedly present themselves. One relates East come to mind. Cogan (1994, 338) summa- to the purpose of social studies and the otherrized the argument: "These are difficult times relates to the impact of a historical event. for the global community. The changes taking place in Russia are a microcosm of those taking Social Studies in a Rapidly place across the planet." Changing World Viewed through a Japanese perspective, Whether "preparing students for intelligent change might foster "some undesirable tenden- membership in society" (Wesley and Wronskicies to anti- or non-social attitudes ... such as a 1973, 42) or "to provide students with the skills growing concern with self as compared to the and knowledge required to cope with the con-group, the company, and the nation" (Nagai,

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A 7. 342 1983, 63), which in Japan might encourage aban- decision-making processes, but was to be devel- donment of traditional values, discipline, and a opmental. For example, social studies curriculum moral code of behavior. A social studies unitin the State of Kuwait plays a major role in issued by the African Social Studies Programme, developing the responsible citizen. The curricu- speaking for seventeen African countries, put it lum, grades four through twelve, covers major this way: branches of social studies starting with the community, developing the state of Kuwait, Gulf Changes take place all the time all around States, Arab countries, Islamic countries, and the us, although they may be small and imper- world (Karam 1993, 1). The Department of ceptible. As many planned changes are CurriculumDevelopment and Evaluation associated with progress, people should give (1990, 12) in Botswana cited a practical example proposed changes a chance to succeed... of this way of thinking: but when there arises the need to change, such changes must be carefully explained in Our Social Studies programme is organized order to be acceptable to the people. based on the educational theory of learning (African Social Studies Programme, 34) which we call expanding horizons, or sometimes expanding environments. The theory The arguments urge that the study of change is that as children grow, their view of the ought to be a continuous part of the school cur- world or environment grows and expands as riculum, that the subject matter taught in the well. Also their capabilities develop, and in curriculum should be selected and integrated in consequence they can do different things at such a way that students identify persistent social different Standard levels. So, expanding problems they must consider carefully through- horizons means that children are able to out their lifetimes. Tamakloe (1988, 61) from handle more complex and demanding tasks Ghana elaborated: as they grow older and as they proceed through the [social studies] curriculum. Social studies requires that knowledge be looked upon as a unit and that all disciplines The original notion of a school curriculum must contribute to man's understanding. ... founded on a vision of a changing, interdepen- Integration enables the pupil, at the early dent, and problem-laden society incrisis stages of school life, to look at knowledge in required some systematic rational thought a holistic manner. ... Integration facilitates, process that would be learned in a general edu- for the young student, the analysis and cation course, i.e., social studies. As change and description of contemporary problems. complexity increase in the life of an individual, social studies, which directly proposes to prepare The social sciences, humanities, and other citizens in a formal school setting for intelligent relevant disciplines would provide the content. membership in society, becomes an attractive The curriculum, however, should focus on a alternative. Educators who introduced social country's traditions and skills, those that might studies to seventeen African countries at the his- help a citizen function effectively in society, thus toric 1968 Mombasa Conference summarized continuing the process of self-realization andthe role of social studies in these words: nation building. The philosophy of Liberian social studies education is: African schools will tend to be used in a deliberate way as instruments of social to be truly Liberian, should flow from the change. The main functions of the school in Liberian Cultural Heritagebeliefs, cus- this process will be both to facilitate accep- toms, folklores, arts, crafts, and literature ... tance of change and to foster the notion that new needs and priorities. ... Our teachers individuals have some control over their have therefore to instill these nobler senti- environment; schools should, therefore, ments. (Ministry of Education, R. L. 1979, 3) encourage an inquiring attitude to change rather than passive acceptance. (Report of a The social studies curriculum was not only to Conference of Africa Educators, 6-7) emphasize traditions, social problems, skills, and

332 3 4 3 World War II and Social Studies the traditions of their masters and ignored their as Nation Building own. Sir Seretse Khama (1970), Botswana's first The second factor influencing the interna- president, spoke for all ex-colonial countries and tionalizing of the social studies movement was the laid a foundation for the introduction of social Second World War. The social studies movement studies: gathered momentum after the war. Defeated enemy countries, along with recently freed colo- We were made to believe that we had no nial countries, became fertile ground for social past to speak of, no history to boast of. The studies. The United States, defeated enemies, and past, so far as we were concerned, was just a ex-colonial countries had at least one thing in blank and nothing more. ... We should commonthey were all attempting to form, if write our own history books, to prove that not new countries, then at least national identities we did have a past; and that it was a past that that would fit their growth and development was just as worth writing and learning about in the twentieth century (Barth 1994, 11). Obida as any other. We must do this for the simple and Kobiowu (1988, 49) suggested that: reason that a nation without a past is a lost nation, and a people without a past is a peo- The introduction of social studies into the ple without a soul. Nigerian school curriculum should be understood as part of a general response to The social studies approach was flexible the problems of independence, unification enough to offer each new nation the opportunity and development. to abandon colonial traditions, developing its own programforcitizenshipeducation. The fact that countries have common inter- Botswana is an example: ests in establishing unique identities did not mean that there was agreement on what social Botswana Social Studies is different from studies was, or what the curriculum ought to be. Social Studies in any other country in the It just meant that a concept of social studies as world. Each country that has adopted Social nation building, distinct from other programs of Studies has its own Social Studies curricu- citizenship education, was evolving. Professor lum and materials, because each country is Kajuba (1994, 70), past Vice-Chancellor of somewhat different from, as well as similar Makerere University in Uganda, discussed nation to, all other countries. Admittedly this is a building: bit confusing to some people because they expect, as they do in math and science, the Education, particularly citizenship educa- same subject and content being taught in all tion, has a big role in the process of nation- countries. The content of Botswana's Social building and development. ... It is through Studies conforms to the experience of this constant search for the "ideal of man" Botswana's people. That doesn't mean we that Social Studies education will con- don't study comparative culture or that we tribute most significantly to national inte- don't recognize our responsibilities as global gration and nation-building. citizens; but in fact, we do have our own particular program designed to develop our The move from colony to independent new nation, and that is the reason our citizenship country became a significant event. The social education is called Botswana Social Studies. studies approach tocitizenshipeducation (Department of Curriculum Development offered an alternative to the colonial model. The and Evaluation 1990, 10) United States, along with other excolonial countries, was attempting to imagine educational systems that were supportive of their unique tradi- Preparing Citizens for Nation tions. As colonies, they were required to emulate Building through Social Studies the education system of theircolonizers. Citizenship education in many developing Whatever educational system existed fromcountries has evolved through three phases: preschool through higher education, it was cal- 1. traditional society,2.colonial period, and culated to create colonial citizens who respected 3.the social studies approach to citizenship edu-

Y44 cation. Senior Inspector of Social Studies, enabling the Swazis to read the Bible. With C. M. Mgagula (1988, 2), of the Kingdom of the progress of time, the methods and con- Swaziland, explained citizenship in phase one, tent of the curriculum tended to alienate traditional society: the child from the oral and cultural heritage of his society. History and Geography were Social Studies is not an entirely new field of Eurocentric in that they emphasized heroic study in the Swazi society. As long as deeds of European statesmen and women. Swazis existed, their children have always Pupils were exposed to concepts which had wanted to learn. The Swazi way of learning very little relevance to the needs of the was very similar to the [social studies] that Swazi Nation. Little was drawn from we use today. Young people were groomed the immediate familiar environment of the for adult citizen roles in the Swazi society child. Also the Swazi pupils knew very lit- and those roles enabled them to become tle about the pioneers of the Swazi nation. useful members of the Swazi society. The The curriculum in Geography and History local environment and community were was not consistent with Swazi expectations used as learning vehicles. and background.

In the first phase, much like most societies When independence had been achieved after throughout the world, the entire educationalthe Second World War, the social studies approach aimed at producing an effective mem- approach, the third phase, appeared. In the third ber of society. That society was meant to shape phase in many countries, social studies was mod- and mold a good citizen who would, in turn, eled after the phase-one traditional approach to enjoy the best social, economic, and political good citizenship in that local, regional, and achievements of that society. In other words, national history, culture, and values were inte- education was a communal achievement wheregrated and honored as worthy subjects. In brief, the village raised the child and there was little the field became internationalized because its thought of individual academic achievement. integrated social studies curriculum permitted Citizenship training in the traditional society was a people to honor their traditions by requiring an integration of all the history, culture, values, students in their elementary schools to study and beliefs of the family, community, and ethnic their village, their ethnic group, their history as group. Initiation into adult responsibilities was a a country, all of which was not examined during communal achievement where the good citizen's the colonial period. The concept of social studies goal was to fit into the traditional society became for many countries the educational In some traditional societies, during thereform that freed them finally from foreign colonial period the community elders lost the colonial traditions that were calculated to deny right to instruct and initiate. During the colonial them their identity. Mgagula (1988, 2) explained period, phase two, citizenship education became why social studies was adopted for citizenship a national, formal education that prepared the education in phase three: "native" for an obligation beyond the family, village, ethnic group, and nation. The obligation When Swaziland regained her indepen- was to the colonial empire, because colonial dence in 1968, the Swazi nation started to citizenship was not nation building but empire demand radical changes in the entire [citi- building. Under this citizenship system, the his- zenship] education system, especially to tory government, and economic system of the make the curriculum relevant to the post- colonizer was to be honored, as was individual independence situation. academic achievement. The fact that the content did not reflect the colony was ignored. Mgagula There probably is no mystery as to why social (1988, 12) also explained the second phase, the studies spread rapidly after World War II, colonial period: because it evolved at a time when countries were attempting to find an identity, preserve tradi- In the beginning of the twentieth century tions, and respond to new needs and priorities. missionaries established schools in Social studies evolved from the recommendation Swaziland with the express purpose of of a professional teachers organization at the

334 345 turn of the century to a world movement eighty even though the country may revert to an years later. authoritarian government. The reverse is also true, where a dictatorship has rejected social Is an International Vision of Social studies on the grounds that the field is linked to Studies Possible? democracy and inquiry. Every country that has adopted social studies What might be alternative future visions of is an example of an alternative future because no international social studies? The field, given its two programs are exactly alike. Thus, any visiongeneral purpose to develop intelligent citizen- of the field must account for the fact that social ship, continues to be, in spite of serious problems studies is likely to continue to be the heritage ofof application, a good idea. The same reasoning a nation. Cogan (1982, 9) may be right"Thethat would explain the growth of social studies world today can best be understood as a singular, from a modest beginning after the turn of the albeit complex system." Is an international vision century to an international movement would jus- of social studies possible or desirable? At present, tify the thought that social studies will continue there is no international vision of social studies, to evolve as an international field. As countries simply because social studies is "country specif- become less isolated and more interactive with a ic." However, that does not preclude that citi- world community, thesocialstudiesthat zenship education programs across countries embraces globalism should prosper. An interna- could not agree on some of the following ideas tional social studies organization could well be a in their social studies curricula: consequence of that sense of world community. that social studies includes an integrated cur- The NCSS has now laid a foundation for peri- riculum and is developmental in the sense odic international meetings. Already, inquiries that social studies understandings are based about future international meetings have come upon the mental development of students from social studies educators in such countries as in the form of expanding environment scope India, Spain, The Netherlands, West Indies, and sequence; Canada, Ethiopia, and from countries that have that the content in the form of concepts and not adopted social studies. In short, the field generalizations is derived from the social changes as the interaction between people sciences, humanities, and other appropriate changes. There are those who would claim that fields, with some notion of nation building the twenty-first century will differ from the and preparing students for intelligent twentieth century because the emphasis will be membership in society; on integrating knowledge, a new century that that the curriculum of social studies is intend- places a priority on interpretation and meaning. ed to be a country's school citizenship edu- This is not to suggest that winning new knowl- cation program. The program is flexible in edge, the priority of the twentieth century, will the sense that definitions, purposes, aims, not continue to be important, but it is to suggest and goals may be "country specific." that what will become a priority will not be the However, the content will normally explore identification of discrete disciplines but problems a range of citizenship identities, local, and issues. In short, the social studies model of regional, national, and international. integration of the social sciences and humanities focusing on problems and issues will be much The field is not necessarily linked in countries closer to how content must be organized for with the study of social problems and issues orfuture instruction and less concerned with with a reflective inquiry thought process. In short, boundaries between disciplines. As integration almost all programs attempt to create identity,becomes a popular theme in the twenty-first preserve traditions, and promote social cohesion. century, the social studies, instead of being out of Must a social studies vision be linked to democ- step and harmony with the twentieth century, racy? In many countries it is, but there are a will not only be in harmony but will take a lead- number of instances where social studies is a cit- ership position as an illustration of a century-old izenship education curriculum in a dictatorship. integrated curriculum. Also, it is not unusual for new countries that Social studies is likely to be a more attractive have identified with democracy to adopt social field, if not a better idea, in the twenty-first cen- studies and continue to support social studies tury. The field may very well capture the citizen-

335 346 ship education programs of most countries in the of Elementary School Principals, 1982. world, particularly if the curriculum emphasizes Cogan, J. J. "The Pain of Change." Social Education 58, identity, change, problems and issues, global and no. 6 (October 1994): 335-38. future concepts, all of which may be in harmony Department of Curriculum Development and with needs and interests of the new century. Evaluation. Botswana Social Studies Teaching Methods. A curriculum such as social studies, which was Gaborone, Botswana: Macmillan Botswana conceived in part to account for change in a soci- Publications Ltd., 1990. ety, will become increasingly important as tech- DuBey, D. L. Social Studies Methods for Nigerian nology and other forces bring about more rapid Teachers: Learning Activities. Ibadan, Nigeria: change. As countries continue to develop and University Press Ltd., 1980. evolve, the internationalizing of social studies Eheazu, B. A. "Toward a Social Studies Education will become more significant. Country-specific Programme for Greater Understanding and social studies evolving through an international Cooperation among Africans: A Sociological View." dialogue is the future of citizenship education. African Social Studies Forum 1, no. 2 (December 1986): 18-27. Hooghoff, H. "Reform and Renewal in Social Studies: References International Perspectives." Paper presented at a sym- African Social Studies Programme. Change. African posium of the International Assembly at the annual Social Studies Programme, n.d. (1970s). meeting of the National Council for the Social Barth. J. L. "The Social Studies: A Reform Movement Studies, Phoenix, Arizona, 17 November 1994. for Building Nations and Educating Global Institute of Education. "Sierra Leone Teachers Certificate Citizens." The International Journal of Social Syllabus in Social Studies." Institute of Education, Education 4, no. 2 (Autumn 1989): 7-21. University of Sierra Leone, n.d. Barth, J. L. "Botswana Social Studies Curriculum: Kajubi, W. Senteza. "Reflections of a Social Studies Scope and Sequence."African Social Studies Forum 3, Educator on Past and Emerging Perspectives on no. 3 (March 1990): 46-54. Constitution Making in Africa." In ISSC '94: Report Barth, J. L. "America 2000 Goal 3: A Reactionary on Third International Social Studies Conference, Reform of Citizenship Education." In Citizenship as 63-71. Nairobi, Kenya: 1994. Social Studies Education. Bulletin 4. Munster, Ind.: Kaltsounis, T "Democracy's Challenge as the The Foundations of the Social Studies Special Foundation for Social Studies." Theory and Research Interest Group, National Council for the Social in Social Education 22, no. 2 (Spring 1994): 176-94. Studies, 1992. Karam E. M. "Social Studies Curriculum in Kuwait Barth, J. L. "Social Studies Is the Heritage of a Nation." after Liberation of State of Kuwait." Paper delivered The Future of the Social Studies, edited by M. R. at the annual meeting of the National Council for Nelson, 11-15. Boulder, Colo.: Social Science the Social Studies, Nashville, Tennessee, 19-22 Education Consortium, Inc., 1994. November 1993. Becker, J. M., and H. D. Mehlinger. "Conceptual Lag Khama, Sir Seretse. Speech delivered at the University of and the Study of International Affairs." In Botswana, Lesotho, and Swaziland, Luyengo Campus, International Dimensions in the Social Studies. Swaziland, 19 May 1970. 35th Yearbook, edited by J. M. Becker and H. D. Mgagula, C. M. The African Social Studies Programme. Mehlinger, 1 -11. Washington, D.C.: National Occasional paper. 1988. Council for the Social Studies, 1968. Ministry of Education. "Basic Facts about Education in Brady, H. R. "Is a Democratic Social Studies Possible?" Tanzania." Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: Ministry of Paper presented at the Third International Social Education, 1984. Studies Conference, [National Council for the Social Ministry of Education. "Zambia Basic Education Social Studies] Nairobi, Kenya, 1994. Studies Syllabus." Lusaka, Zambia: Curriculum Chung, In-Yeop. "Effects of Experimental Curriculum Development Centre, 1983. on Political Socialization of Middle School Students Ministry of Education and Culture. "Zimbabwe Social in Korea." Ph.D. diss., Purdue University, 1994. Studies Syllabus for Primary Schools." Ministry of Cogan, J. J. "Global Education: Opening Children's Education and Culture, Primary Educational Eyes to the World." Getting Started in Global Development Unit, 1982. Education, edited by H. T Collins and S. B. Ministry of Education, "Liberian Revised National Zakariya, 8-11. Arlington, Va.: National Association Curriculum." Monrovia, Liberia: Department of

336 347 Instruction, Curriculum and Instructional Materials Development Center, 1979. Ministry of Education, Sports and Culture. Lesotho "Social Studies Syllabus." Maseru, Lesotho: The National Curriculum Development Centre, 1981. Ministry of Education, Youth, Sports and Culture. "Social Studies: Teacher's Handbook and Syllabus." Banjul, The Gambia: Macmillan Education, 1980. Nagai, J. "Educating for Responsible Citizenship." Perspectives on Japan: A Guide for Teachers, edited by J. J. Cogan and D. 0. Schneider, 61-72. NCSS Bulletin 69. Washington, D.C.: National Council for the Social Studies, 1983. National Council for the Social Studies. Expectations of Excellence: Curriculum Standards for Social Studies. NCSS Bulletin 89. Washington, D.C.: National Council for the Social Studies, 1994. National Council for the Social Studies Task Force on Scope and Sequence. 'in Search of a Scope and Sequence for Social Studies." Social Education 48, no. 4 (April 1984): 249-62. Obidi, S. S., and S. V. Kobiowu. "The Origin and Growth of Social Studies in Primary Schools in Nigeria, 1959-1986."African Social Studies Forum 2, no. 1 (March 1988): 45-59. Remy, R. International Education in a Global Age. NCSS Bulletin 47. Washington, D.C: National Council for the Social Studies, 1975. Report of a Conference of African Educators EDC and CREDO on Social Studies. Mombasa, Kenya, 19-30 August 1968. Rolheiser, C., and C. D. Glickman. "Teaching for a Democratic Life." The Educational Forum 59, no. 2 (Winter 1995): 196-206. Saxe, D. W. Social Studies in Schools. Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 1991. Tamakloe, E. K. "Research as a Starting Point toward a Rational Teacher Education Programme for Effective Social Studies Teaching in Ghana."African Social Studies Forum 2, no. 1 (March 1988): 59-68. Tucker, J. L., et al. "Teacher Education in Social Studies." UNESCO Handbook for the Teaching of Social Studies, edited by H. D. Mehlinger, 298-320. London: Croom Helm, Ltd., 1981. Wesley, E.B., and S. P. Wronski. Teaching Secondary Social Studies in a World Society. 6th ed. Lexington, Mass.: D. C. Heath and Co., 1973.

337 348 Part Elevei: Materials andResofces

Introduction ba William H. Fernehes

The range of resources for issues-centered eign policy emphasize study of issues where the role education in the social studies is very broad of U.S. policy-making is central. The chapters on indeed. The resources in this section of the global development, international human rights and Handbook reflect an orientation emphasizing domesticlinternational children's issues place policy- the relationship of issues education to the making within an international dimension, where public good, which is more often than not intergovernmental and international organizations are mediated by the development, implementation prominent. The final two chapters on race, gender and ongoing critique of public policy. Balance was and class and science, technology and society tran- desired in the selection of issues by including pol- scend geopolitical divisions, providing perspectives icy concerns in the domestic and international/on issues-centered study that are critical for the global spheres, as well as those which transcend understanding of contemporary society and the in- such divisions (such as Race, Gender and Class, depth study of policy-making in multiple contexts. as well as Science, Technology andSociety). Chapter authors were asked to select theGeneral Resources and Materials 12-15 most outstanding instructional resources Annual Editions. (Discipline-based anthologies of available to educators for the design, planning issues-centered controversy, updated every two and implementation of issues-centered social years). Guilford, CT: Dushkin Publishing Co. studies programs. Criteria for selection of the Close Up Foundation. (annual). Current Issues: Critical annotated resources included the following: the Issues Confronting the Nation and the World annotated resources should 1. be applicable to a Arlington, VA: Close Up Foundation. broad cross-section of the student population; Contemporary World Issues. Series published by ABC- 2. provide actual material for student and teacher Clio, Santa Barbara, CA. use in the classroom; 3. be readily available in Kidron, M. and R. Segal. The New State of the World print or accessible from major libraries if out of Atlas (rev. ed.). New York: Touchstone, 1993. print; 4. offer versatile applications in a variety ofNational Issues Forum in the Classroom. Issues classroom settings; 5. contain a multicultural Handbooks. (published annually). Dubuque, IA: emphasis in content if possible; 6. embody high Kendall-Hunt Publishing Co. quality instructional design; and 7. have applica- Opposing Viewpoints Series. (Pro-con contemporary bility that is not time-bound to the present. In and historical issues books and pamphlets). large part, the resources in this section meet all of San Diego, CA: Greenhaven Press. these criteria, thus representing an excellent start- Oliver, D. W., and E M. Newmann. Public Awes Series (rev. ing point for the development of issues-centered ed). Boulder CO: Social Science Education Consortium. social studies curriculum planning and instruction. Public Issues Network Newsletter (annual). Boulder, CO: Given limitations of space, additional resources Social Science Education Consortium. minus annotations have been listed at the conclusion Social Issues Resources Series. Available in printed volumes of each chapter which warrant further explora- by topic or on CD-ROM. Boca Raton FL: Social tion.The resources section contains three divisions. Issues Resources Series, Inc. The chapters on domestic economic policy, govern- Taking Sides. (Pro-con books on issues of social contro- ment policy-making and international affairs and for- versy). Guilford, CT: Dushkin Publishing Co. THE RY AND PRACTICE OF SUES-CENTERED EDUCATION bq Will in R. Fernekes

orks on the theory and practice of issues- Concurrent with the neo-conservative critique of centered education in the social studiessocial studies education there emerged a body of proliferated in the period from 1950 to literature highlighting critical curriculum theory 1975. Characterized by strong emphases and its application to schooling practices. A major on the theory and practice of reflective educational philosopher cited by critical curricu- inquiry, decision-making, and the critical lum theorists such as Michael Apple and Henry examination of core values, beliefs, institutionsGiroux isPaolo Freire, whose pedagogical and behaviors in U. S. society, a substantial bodyapproach to empowering learners is discussed of literature emerged to reorient social studies comprehensively in the Shor and Freire volume. education towards the study of social issues andThe implications of Freire's liberation pedagogy public policy at all levels of schooling (see Huntcontrast sharply with neo-conservative recom- and Metcalf, Newmann, Newmann and Oliver, mendations for both curriculum and instruction, Oliver and Shaver, and Taba, et al). This perspec- because Freire's ideas emphasize linkages between tive was prominent in the theory and practice of the experiences of learners and social issues the "new social studies" from 1960 to 1975, when illustrating inequities in wealth, status and power methods texts, curriculum project publications in late twentieth century capitalism. and many classroom instructional materials An interesting development, virtually simul- focused on issues-centered approaches withintaneous with the neo-conservative reaction to existing social studies courses, or as core elements social studies education and the development of of new curricula. For example, the Harvard critical curriculum theory, is the renewed inter- Social Studies Project pamphlets in American est in issues-centered social studies represented History employed the jurisprudential approach by the National Issues Forum in the Classroom of Oliver, Shaver and Newmann as their keyprogram, the Lockwood and Harris work on organizing principle, while textbooks in a varietyethical issues in U. S. History, and the special of subject areas, such as world history, civics and issue of The Social Studies on Issues-Centered government, and economics utilized issues- Education. These works blend concise discus- centered themes to organize content. sions of theory with systematic explanations of Since the late 1970s, publications on the the- instructional practices geared to engaging stu- ory and practice of issues-centered social studiesdents in issues-centered learning within the education have been sporadic. Engle and Ochoa's existing social studies curriculum. They harken Education for Democratic Citizenship is the only back to the pathbreaking work of authors from work since the mid-to-late 1970s to articulate athe period 1950-1975, while attempting to show comprehensive rationale placing issues study atthe centrality of issues-centered learning for the center of social studies education, offering atoday's students and teachers. sharp contrast to the neo-conservative orientation articulated by advocates of a history-geography-Resources civics approach to social education such as Diane Engle, Shirley H. and Anna S. Ochoa. Education for Ravitch, Chester Finn, William Bennett, and the Democratic Citizenship: Decision Making in the Social Bradley Commission on History in the Schools. Studies. NY: Teachers College Press, 1988.

3 50 Following in the spirit of Hunt and Metcalf, with the authors' emphasis on individual and Oliver and Shaver, and Newmann and Oliver,group decision-making, student-centered dis- Engle and Ochoa accept Myrdal's "Americancussion, and developing divergent thinking Creed" as a beginning core for study of essentialprocesses. The appendix provides a unique democratic ideals. They argue citizenship mustteacher evaluation instrument that reorients the be focused on cultivating citizens who "have the supervision process towards the behaviors and facility to make intelligent political judgmentsattitudes the authors believe are paramount in related to controversial issues in our society" (5). a reflective educator. Through the questions it Social studies education's primary purpose isposes, this instrument has important potential thus to educate citizens through dialogue aboutto refocus teacher evaluation by peers, students the nature of society and the common good, inor superiors on long-term professional growth the process helping children and youth to and should be carefully examined for possible "acquire the knowledge and intellectual skills application in school settings. needed to keep the discussion open to enable the Offering a comprehensive justification of young citizen to participate in the process ofsocial studies as issues-centered education, with a improving the society" (8). strong focus on reflective decision-making as the The authors argue that both socializing and core of social studies curriculum and instruction countersocializing influences require emphasis in Engle and Ochoa's work effectively blends ele- educational settings, with the former being pre- ments from many earlier works into a coherent dominant in the early grades (K-5 or 6) and theprogram for K-12 classrooms. latter in the higher grades (6 or 7-12). Countersocialization educates students to Evans, Ronald W., ed. "Defining Issues-Centered Social improve their rational thought processes with the Studies Education." Special Section in The Social aim of becoming effective social critics and polit- Studies, Vol. 83, No. 3 (May/June 1992): 93-119. ical problem-solvers. Social studies programs Evans has assembled an introductory essay, which emphasize socialization (reinforcing exist- five articles, and a resource list that updates the ing cultural norms) fail to move beyond their con- status of issues-centered education in social serving tendencies and thus minimize reforming studies. Evans begins the special section with an tendencies. In contrast, Engle and Ochoa argue overview of efforts to define issues-centered edu- that the only way everyone in a democracy can be cation. The articles range from Shaver's discus- offered their deserved opportunities to develop sion of rationales for issues-centered social studies human potential is through cultivation of criticalto instructional strategy pieces with specific skepticism about truth claims, refinement ofguidelines for classroom instruction. Among the problem-solving skills, and in-depth considera- latter are Oliver, Newmann and Singleton's piece tion of issues emphasizing active student deci- on public issues discussion and Brandhorst's case sion-making. Democratic habits and attitudes study illustrating how to infuse issues in the social should prevail in the classroom at all grades, but studies curriculum, employing the Engle and developing critical reasoning processes must takeOchoa reflective thought model with foreign pol- precedence by early adolescence so that indepen- icy concerns. This compendium helps teachers dent, reflective reasoning is fostered regularly. and supervisors examine the historic continuity of Engle and Ochoa's work provides a veryissues-centered approaches in the social studies helpful update on the work begun by earlierliterature, and argues forcefully for their place- advocates of reflective thought and issues-cen- ment at the center of social studies curriculum tered curricula. and instruction. Available from Heldref Publica- In Chapter 8, a detailed framework for a tions, 1319 Eighteenth Street, NW, Washington model curriculum based upon their philosophi- DC 20036-1802. Single copy cost: $7.50. cal premises is offered, while Chapters 9 and 10 contain strategies for curriculum implementa- Hunt, Maurice P. and Lawrence E. Metcalf. Teaching tion and reflective teaching practices. Very note- High School Social Studies: Problems in Reflective worthy is the inclusion in Chapter 11 of con- Thinking and Social Understanding. 2d ed. New York crete suggestions for assessment focused on Harper and Row, 1968. alternatives to the ubiquitous paper and pencil This book is regularly cited in most issues- test. The assessment strategies are consistent centeredsocialstudiesliteraturethat has

340 (-Z appeared since its initial publication in 1955. study of core democratic values(life, liberty, Hunt and Metcalf's advocacy of reflective property, equality and others) but note that study thought as the core of democratic citizenship is aof core values doesn't preclude conflict or honest theme appearing in the work of Oliver and debate about the courses of citizen action. Shaver (1966), and most notably in that of Engle Rational thought is proposed as a prerequisite and Ochoa (1988). Building upon Dewey, Hunt to taking citizen obligations, rights and respon- and Metcalf argue that the reflective reconstruc- sibilities seriously and to acting responsibly after tion of beliefs helps young people clarify and pre- careful consideration of the ethical dimensions serve the central ideals of democratic life. of problems. Relying heavily on Kohlberg's Reflective thought is engendered when students hierarachy of cognitive-moral development, the are offered opportunities for the critical examina- authors advocate systematic discussion of ethi- tion of "closed areas" in civic life, defined as areas cal problems to improve the quality of student where conflicts between core values and beliefs reasoning. and actual behaviors are illuminated in classroom Values analysisisthecoreinstructional instruction. Through the study of such closed approach framing each case study, and the authors areas (for example, issues related to gender orien- employ a creative "question and answer" approach tation, race and other controversies in society), in the instructor's manual to justify their choice of students encounter cognitive dissonance, pre- values analysis and components of moral educa- senting teachers and students with situations tion as their preferred instructional approach. where deliberation using a hypothetical reason- Values clarification is deemed inadequate due ing model drawn from the social sciences can to its reliance on ethical relativism, while U.S. contribute potential solutions to social problems. History is defended as the context for study of Part I provides a comprehensive discussion ofethical problems given the persistence of ethical the philosophical and psychological foundationsdilemmas from the period of colonization to the of reflective teaching, while Parts II and III pre- present and the centrality of value conflict in the sent detailed examinations of how to teach con- development of government policy. cepts and generalizations, how to employ value The many strengths of this volume include analysis and value clarification strategies, the its systematic approach to instructional activi- reflective teaching of history, and the central role ties. Four activities are used with each case study: of discussion in reflective teaching methodology. seeking historical understanding, reviewing facts Part IV includes application of reflective of the case, analyzing ethical issues, and express- thought strategies to "problematic areas of cul-ing your reasoning. The authors emphasize that ture" in the social studies, and should be updatedall are integral to the development of improved based upon societal trends of the past 25 years. reasoning. The Instructor's Manual also includes Despite its age, this book's discussion of the core sample lesson designs for teaching specific elements of reflective thought makes it essentialethical case studies, with detailed and well-writ- reading for anyone seeking to implement issues- ten discussion formats and careful analyses of centered education in the social studies. differing instructional strategies: large and small group discussions, written dialogues, recorded Lockwood, Allan and David Harris. Reasoning With dialogues, and sociodramas. Democratic Values: Ethical Decision-Making in United Teachers employing this curriculum can States History. New York Teachers College Press, 1985. easily adapt all or part of it within courses in This curriculum emphasizes the promotionU. S. History, moral education, policy studies, of social responsibility among students, and and other subject matter areas (language arts, for includes an instructor's manual and two volumes example). The suggestions for guiding teacher- of case studies drawn from United Statesled discussions in the Instructor's Manual are History. The curriculum rationale, program helpful, but the sections on grading and evalua- goals, and suggested instructional approaches aretion and program evaluation are superficial, lack- discussed in the Instructor's Manual, while ing effective strategies for evaluating the quality Volumes I and II contain the historical case stud- of discussion contributions and student writing. ies and accompanying student analysis questions. Similar to Oliver and Shaver, Newmann and Massialas, Byron G., Nancy F. Sprague, and Joseph B. Oliver, and Engle and Ochoa, the authors stress Hurst. Social Issues Through Inquiry: Coping In An Age of

341 352 Crises. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1975. National Issues Forum in the Classroom. Public Policy The authors believe that the schools must Institute Handbook,1993. Dayton Ohio: National undertake the role of creatively examining and Issues Forums in the Classroom, 1993. reconstructing the culture of the United States. For ordering information contact: Dr. Jon Rye Building upon the work of Hunt and Metcalf, Kinghorn, National Issues Forums in the Classroom, Oliver and Shaver, and advocates of an educa- 100 Commons Road, Dayton OH 45459-2777. tion that is responsive to patterns of social Phone: 1-800-433-7834. change (such as Kenneth Boulding), Massialas, This comprehensive handbook for the devel- Sprague and Hurst believe the goal of citizen- opment of public issues discussion in the schools ship education is to engage students in the con- and citizen deliberation in community forums is tinuous examination of societal ideals and belief employed as a training manual for participants in through active inquiry.and effective politicalthe summer institutes on the National Issues participation. They advocate classroom inquiryForum program co-sponsored by the Kettering into social problems that provides support for Foundation and the National Council for the open-ended discussions and investigations ofSocial Studies. The handbook is divided into societal issues, placing the critical examination eleven "sessions" (sections) correlated with the of values at the center of inquiry. Ultimately, the summer public issues institute teacher training authors contend that students should emergeprograms. Session 1 provides a rationale for from their social studies education with a better broad-based citizen participation in deliberation understanding of human behavior, values and about public issues, drawing upon polling and feelings based upon the discovery, testing and focus group research concerning why the public use of valid concepts and generalizations in the in the U. S. has a low rate of participation in humanities and social sciences. Extensive analy- political life. This session also contains a concise sis of instructional approaches is included inoverview of the forms of deliberation and the Chapters 2 through 6, where the teacher role inskills involved in becoming a more active and the inquiry classroom is contrasted with teacher knowledgeable member of the public, as well as a roles in classrooms emphasizing "expository" precise discussion of the relationship between and "opining" approaches. Many examples social studies goals and the knowledge, skills and drawn from classroom interaction between stu- attitudes promoted in the NIF approach. Session dents and teachersillustrate inquiry strategies, 2 establishes the differing dimensions of political contrasting with strategies emphasizing exposi- activity, emphasizing that not all political behav- tion and opining. ior must be adversarial, competitive or "win-lose" A major strength is the inclusion in Chapters in orientation. It includes activities focusing on 7 through 10 of assessment strategies for issues- how students can examine a broader perspective centered instruction, containing the techniques on public issues geared to developing meaningful and results from one of the few comprehensive solutions in the public interest. studies of social issues instruction in social stud- Sessions 3, 4, and 6 include hands-on activi- ies. Analyses of both teacher behaviors and stu- ties for development by students and educators of dent attitudes towards social issues instructionkey components in the NIF approach: large are included, along with recommendations forgroup forums, issue analysis, and small group the improvement of inquiry approaches to socialforums. High quality student handouts are issues instruction. The final chapter offers sug-provided, with clear instructions and excellent gestions for the further development of a "social examples drawn from classroom practice. issues through inquiry" orientation to social stud- Session 7 offers a very incisive summary of ies, highlighting needs for improved teacher edu- how the NIF approach relates to the achievement cation (both pre-service and in-service), instruc- of citizenship goals in a deliberative democracy. tional materials development and more aggres- Student objectives are clearly identified and their sive advocacy of inquiry-based approaches to relationship to developing public deliberation educational policymakers. This work is a valuable skills and expanding the general knowledge of source for teachers and supervisors who want to students is articulated systematically. better implement and assess inquiry approaches Session 8 contains sample lesson activities to issues-centered education in social studies. related to specific issues in the NIF series, while sessions 9 and 10 focus on assessment strategies

342 and how to help students author their own issues At the same time, Newmann and Oliver note book, respectively. The assessment strategies are that all justifications by students or adults on well-designed and comprehensive, focusing on positions related to issues of public controversy evaluation of deliberative discussion, writing must withstand the tests of rational inquiry, and activities and other forms of "authentic" assess- that public policy disputes, whether they be ment. The suggestions on how to author an issue based upon value conflicts, discord regarding fac- book are intriguing and provide a substantialtual claims, or disagreements over definitional extension activity for students who are well- issues, must be subject to these rational tests. grounded in the processes of issue analysis and Drawing from Gunnar Myrdal's "American deliberative discussion. Creed," the authors posit the core values in the The handbook concludes with an interesting Creed as sufficiently broad to encompass diver- set of handouts consisting of excerpts about the gent political, economic and socio-cultural per- importance of public deliberation in a democra- spectives in the United States. Simultaneously, cy, with authors ranging from Pericles to Thomas they view individual human dignity as the foun- Jefferson and Eleanor Roosevelt. The weak pointdation value for all others in the Creed, the main- of the text is session 5, which seeks to have young tenance of which is the fundamental goal of all people gain ownership of the process of learning democratic societies. By educating students to how to deliberate by "naming and claiming" improve their abilities to engage in rational dis- elements of the approach introduced in sessions cussion of public controversy, educators should one through four. To be convincing, this session be able to help students develop a style of public requires more concrete examples to demonstratejustification for positions reflecting their individ- how this process works in the classroom. uality, rather than simply asking students to copy The NIF approach builds upon the earlier the teacher's position on a value-based conflict. efforts in deliberative discussion of public issuesUse of this "jurisprudential approach" should introduced by Oliver and Shaver, Newmann and help people "develop convictions based on firmer Oliver and others in this chapter. Heavily focusedgrounds than were formerly available" (30) while on practical steps to achieve skill in public delib- avoiding indoctrination of students by the eration, itis a high quality resource for theauthority figure of the classroom teacher. teacher who wants to implement diverse ratio- Newmann and Oliver provide excellent examples nales for issues-centered education. Educatorsof discussion processes drawn from their experi- who desire information about the complete NIFence with the AEP Public Issues Series. classroom program, including the yearly issues Classroom excerpts are analyzed in detail and books and related audiovisual materials, shouldsuggestions for leading discussions related to contact Kendall/Hunt Publishing Co., 4050 value conflicts, factual disputes and definitional Westmark Drive, P. 0. Box 1840, Dubuque Iowa issues are clearly explained. Chapters four 52004-1840 (Phone: 1-800-228-0810.) through eight provide examples of key value commitments and conflicts from illustrative Newmann, Fred J. and Donald W. Oliver. Clarifying cases in the Public Issues Series. Few other Public Controversy: An Approach to Teaching Social books dealing with instructional methodology Studies. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1970. provide such detailed and thoughtful discussions This volume emerged from the Harvard of the problems in teaching about value conflict. Social Studies Project and related work in the Chapters 9 and 10 address problems faced in AEP Public Issues Series. Continuing in the implementing the jurisprudential approach and tradition of Oliver and Shaver's earlier volume, how to teach discussion skills. The section on Teaching Public Issuesinthe High School, classroom techniques and evaluating student Newmann and Oliver strongly advocate supply- competence in chapter 9 has excellent ideas for ing students with an analytic scheme and diverse classroom application, again utilizing detailed viewpoints that they may use to clarify conflict-examples from actual classroom practice. Note- ing value commitments in a democratic society.worthy are the clear criteria for establishing Closely connected to the detailed study of valuerationality of an argument, a core concern of the conflict are the authors' commitments to helping authors and a central tenet of the jurisprudential students develop well-reasoned justifications ofapproach. While chapter 10 offers useful sugges- their positions that can be defended in public. tions for teaching discussion skills, the recom-

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354 mended techniques lack the detail provided in The book is divided into three parts.Part Taba et al. also reviewed in this section. One contains the intellectual rationale summa- For anyone seeking to gain a comprehensiverized previously, as well as a discussion of alter- understanding of issues-centered education, thisnative approaches to value conflict. Part Two volume is a must. Its rationale and discussion ofdevelops a conceptual framework for the teach- the problems and prospects in the study of pub- ing of value conflict and how specific analytic lic issues remain a central contribution to the concepts can be linked to perennial public issues. field of social studies education. Part Three provides very detailed consideration of how to select and organize problem units, dis- Oliver, Donald W. and James P. Shaver. Teaching Public cussion methods and problems, assessment of Issues in the High School. Boston: Houghton Mifflin student competence (both with paper and pencil Company, 1966; Logan: Utah State University tests and content analysis of discussions), and Press, 1974. implications for reform of social studies curricu- Originating from work begun in the 1950s at lum and instruction using the jurisprudential the Harvard Social Studies Project, Oliver and approach. A lengthy appendix includes detailed Shaver's volume provides a comprehensive expla- discussion of the research results from the nation and justification of the jurisprudentialHarvard Social Studies Project work at in a rationale for teaching social studies in thejunior high school in suburban Boston, where schools. Focusing on perennial issues of publicmany of the author's core ideas for curriculum policy, jurisprudential teaching requires that and instruction were implemented, evaluated and teachers and students address ethical, legal, factu- modified over a four-year period. al and definitional questions about legitimate Oliver and Shaver's volume remains the start- solutions to public policy issues, both historic anding point for anyone considering the use of the contemporary. Oliver and Shaver view the funda- jurisprudential approach in the social studies. mental purpose of American society as the The philosophical rationale is compelling while attempt "to promote the dignity and worth ofthe analyses of strategies for instruction and each individual who lives in the society" (10). assessment, particularly those about discussion, This premise connects to the need to defend andoffer many important insights later extended promote real human freedom to make choicesby Newmann and Oliver in ClarOling Public about competing solutions to ethical dilemmas Controversy (1970). and public policy options. The authors maintain that in a pluralistic society, 1. the maintenance of Shor, Ira and Paulo Freire.A PedagogyforLiberation: human dignity and individual freedom can there- Dialogues on Transforming Education. South Hadley: fore only exist when diverse groups recognize Bergin and Garvey Publishers, Inc., 1987. that some problems require everyone to address Shor and Freire have created a volume that them; 2. members of all societal subgroups share is unique in design and content. Consisting of a set of value commitments and a normativeedited conversations over a two-year span, the vocabulary that serve as a framework to deal with authors address "pedagogy for liberation" as a common problems; and 3. this normativeframe- multifaceted endeavor. "Liberation" pedagogy is work includes procedures for mediation of inter- teaching that helps students to develop the criti- personal and intergroup conflict. cal sensibilities to challenge the official curricu- The curricular content and instructional lum, and by implication the societal status quo strategies emphasize the in-depth study of public that perpetuates inequities of wealth, status and issues laden with value conflicts. Oliver and power. For the authors, all inquiry is embedded Shaver draw upon Gunnar Myrdal's "American in political and historical contexts that define the Creed" for the identification of core democratic social relations of the classroom. values, and they recognize the need for students to Teacher-dominated instruction ignoring the address conflicts between competing values in the lived experiences of students can not be liberato- creed (i. e., liberty and equality). While retainingry education. In its place, Shor and Freireview commitments to the maintenance of human dig- the experiences of the students as essential nity as a primordinate societal value, students knowledge open to investigation because student require education in how to resolve value conflicts experience has been shaped by the larger histor- through rational deliberation. ical and social forces of modern capitalism.

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c,..) Thus, liberatory education seeks to reinvent and action to transform society. By assisting students reconstruct society as students learn how to cri- to become more effective critics of their own tique social experience and "illuminate reality" lived experiences, and gradually of their own by linking subject matter content to its econom- society, the authors believe the patterns of class ic and social class origins. conflict and socioeconomic inequality reflected in The authors advocate careful analysis of stu- the selection and organization of knowledge in dent sociocultural backgrounds, which implies schools can be altered, and a more just society detailed study of students' classroom discourse. created. The chapters on methods (4, 6, and 7) Liberatory pedagogy requires that teachers lack the detailed analyses offered in other vol- understand the language of their students, umes cited in this section, but the strengths of engaging them in study of problems that estab- the conversations concerning rationale, student lish relationships between core concepts in a and teacher characteristics, and classroom envi- subject matter field (social sciences, language ronment (Chapters 1, 2, 3, and 5) merit serious arts) and the lived experiences of the students in investigation. the class. Teacher authoritarianism is rejected as contradictory in spirit and purpose to working Taba, Hilda, Mary C. Durkin, Jack R Fraenkel, and with the students to interpret reality. At the Anthony H. McNaughton. A Teacher's Handbook to same time, liberatory pedagogues retain justifi- Elementary Social Studies: An Inductive Approach. able authority in the classroom because they Reading. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1971. have substantial knowledge and expertise in This volume presents a thorough conceptual designing educational experiences which facili- structure and philosophical rationale for the tate student critical reflection about society organization of the elementary social studies Discussion is the preferred core instructional program based upon the work of Hilda Taba. strategy Freire claims "Dialogue is a moment Completed after Taba's death, the book is one of where humans meet to reflect on their reality as the very few social studies handbooks placing they make and remake it" (98), implying that the issues at the center of the elementary social stud- teacher and students engage in a journey with a ies curriculum. "permanent tension in the relation between Core concepts and main and organizing ideas authority and liberty" (102). Discussion is are the basis for the development and organiza- directed by the teacher, but the parameters are tion of knowledge in this program. Employing defined by the interests, experiences and motiva- a spiral structure, the authors divide all instruction of the students, linked to the conceptstional objectives into the areas of 1. thinking, introduced and explained by the teacher as the 2. knowledge, and 3. attitudes, feelings, and dialogue proceeds. values. Grade level instructional objectives are Most importantly, the authors contend thatlinked by the periodic reintroduction of key schooling is only one context among many in the concepts, and main and organizing ideas. struggle for social transformation. Networks of Specific facts are subordinate to the key concepts liberatory pedagogues are necessary to link and main and organizing ideas used to structure teachers in schools with educators in unions, the spiral from grades one through eight, and social movements, community centers, and otherdepth rather than breadth study characterizes the sites. Both authors recognize that substantiveprogram. The authors note that by encountering social change can't be the sole responsibility ofa main and organizing idea at different grade mass public schooling, because the efforts tolevels, key concepts such as interdependence make education "liberatory" face strong resis-become "more abstract, more complex and more tance, often embedded in the cultural back- powerful"(37).Facilitating development of grounds of students and the efforts by conserva- increasing conceptual complexity for the growing tive policy-makers to limit widespread access tochild is the use of comparison and contrast in higher education. content section. As an example, the interdepen- This volume's significance rests in its justifi- dence of humans and the physicallsocial environ- cation of linking all subject matter knowledge to ment is studied by examining diverse cases issues that are meaningful to the lived experi- around the world, ranging across both historical ences of the students, with the aim of educatingand contemporary time dimensions. In doing so, students as effective social critics who can take flexibility of curricular organization is enhanced

r° ro 345 and reintroduction of the concept at increasing levels of complexity is facilitated. The greatest strength of this book rests in Chapters 4 through 8, where detailed and well- defined examples of these topics are found: selection and organization of learning activities, teaching strategies and procedures, the key role of questioning, the development of skills and evaluation of student progress. Chapters 5 and 6 contain some of the best discussions of teaching strategies and questioning in the social studies literature. Relevant examples are linked to precise suggestions for the improvement of student reasoning and the development of independent student thought, emphasizing an inductive approach. This volume also includes a thorough discussion of how to evaluate student progress, with usable exercises, procedures and materials that are easily adaptable to a variety of classroom settings. Although designed for the elementary and middle grades, much of this volume is clearly applicable to any level of social studies education. It is a very useful alternative to the traditional "expanding environments" approach employed in many elementary level social studies programs.

Additional Resources Berman, Sheldon and Phyllis La Farge, editors. Promising Practices in Teaching Social Responsibility. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993. Fraenkel, Jack. Helping Students Think and Value. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1973. Freire, Paolo. Pedagogy of the Oppressed New York Continuum, 1970. Hyman, Ronald T Improving Discussion Leadership. New York Teachers College Press, 1980. Lee, John. Teaching Social Studies in the Elementary School. New York Free Press, 1974. Massialas, Byron G. and Fred Cox. Inquiry in Social Studies. New York McGraw-Hill, 1966.

346 GOVERNMENT POLICY-MAKING RESOURCES bq Jame H Dalq

Arbetman, Lee P., Edward T McMahon, and Edward Croddy, Marshall, ed. Streets, the Courts, and the L. O'Brien. Street Law. A Course in Practical Law. Community. Constitutional Rights Foundation, Fifth Edition. A Publication of the National Chicago, Illinois. 1992, 63 pp. $17.50. Institute for Citizen Education in the Law. West The ten lessons in this book examine the Publishing Company, St. Paul, Minnesota. 1994, 647 juvenile justice system, civil and criminal law, and pp. $24.96 softcover, $28.96 hardcover. conflict management. The step by step instruc- This is the fifth edition of the popular texttor's procedures facilitate effective use of the first published in 1975. The objective remains interactive strategies used to promote interest the same: to address law in everyday life.and participation. The book is designed for at- Strategies include role playing, mock trials, arbi- risk or special needs students, but will be effective tration hearings, and simulations. The lessonswhen infused into existing courses where the provide knowledge and skills for analyzing, eval- objectives include helping students to understand uating and resolving legal conflicts. This edition how criminal and justice systems work. I/M S features new text and problems dealing with gangs, guns and substance abuse as well as inter- Croddy, Marshall, and Coral Suter, Of Codes and Crowns. national law. Designed as the text for a law The Development of Law. Constitutional Rights course, lessons are easily infused into classes Foundation, Los Angeles, CA. 1992, 65 pp. $6.50. examining policy-making or law enforcement. Teachers of World History and World Effective use requires competence in interactive Civilization courses seeking to analyze rules and strategies including the skillful use of outside laws in different regions will find this book valu- resource persons. S able. The interdisciplinary approach has students using various methods of investigation, including Brady, Sheila, Carolyn Pereira, and Diana Hess. Its those from archeology and anthropology. Stu- Yours: The Bill of Rights. Steck-Vaughn, Austin, dents examine conflicts and problems of ancient Texas. 1993, 111 pp. $7.50. civilizations both in establishing and setting lim- The eight units on U.S. Government and the its on legal authority. Interactive strategies Bill of Rights in this book include the origins ofencourage students to reflect on how social and rights, expression, religion, privacy, equal protection cultural influences pivotal to ancient and diverse and civic participation. Each lesson integrates a settings continue to influence current societies. variety of strategies including cooperative learning, Many lessons need multiple class sessions, and role play, simulations and case studies. Designed to require attention to time management. S meet the needs of students studying English as a Second Language, the simply written text develops Eyes on the Prize. PBS, available through Social Studies higher order thinking skills as students increase School Service, Culver City, CA., 1987, 60 min. English language proficiency. The book would be each. Set 1 (1954-65) videocassettes-$119.95 valuable in U.S. History, Civics or law classes, and PF150VAP4 or laserdiscs-$129.95 PF150L-AP4; for any students with below average reading skills. Set 2 (1965-85) videocassettes-$99.95 PF170V-AP4 I/M S or laserdiscs-$149.95. Two sets of 10 videocassettes (or 7 laserdiscs) Keys: P=Primary, I/M=Intermediate/Middle Grades, S=Secondary 358 cover the struggle for equality and justice duringthis new portfolio of primary source materials in the years 1954-85. Textbook events become realwhich the extraordinary challenge to the consti- as the news footage and interviews bring power- tutional system of checks and balances in a ful personal perspectives to major issues of today. threatening and dangerous time is explored. These packages are valuable as supplements for Racism and cultural diversity can be effectively U.S. history and for law courses. ) /M S addressed as well as the consequences of prejudice and discrimination. The material is easily Gallagher, Arlene F. Living Together Under the Law. An infused into U.S. History or World History Elementary Education Law Guide. Prepared by the courses and can be used for case studies, for Law, Youth and Citizenship Program of the New debates and as the basis of role plays. S York State Bar Association and the New York State Education Department. New York State Bar Isaac, Katherine. Civics for Democracy. A Journey for Association, Albany, NY. 1988., 162 pp. $8.00. Teachers and Students. A Project of The Center for This is a useful resource for teachers in the Study of Responsive Law and Essential Information. elementary school. The book provides lessons Essential Books, Wash. DC, 1992, 390 pp. $17.50. and activities in which students analyze their One glance at the table of contents quickly own behavior and that of others while develop- reveals why this book isan indispensible ing tolerance of differences. The ten themes that resource. The first Section presents profiles of are examined include: laws are essential; the citizenactionactivitiesinvolving students nature of change; settling disputes; and the rela- throughout the country. A history of citizen tionship between the values and the laws of amovements is followed by a review of social society. Each of the themes includes motivation- change brought about by citizen activists in many al and learning activities. The easy to use case fieldsincludingCivilRights, Labor, and studies, simulations, and conflict resolutionWomen's Rights. Useful for that alone, Isaac's activities can be used within existing elementary book then provides a focus on the "how to" of cit- social studies classes, or integrated with language izen action with techniques for individual and arts/reading programs. P/I/M group participation. Activities to engage students in using the described strategies and skills are fol- Goldman, Roger, Linda Riekes, and Sharon Slane, lowed by an extensive resource list. S Teaching About the Bill of Rights in Elementary and Middle School Classrooms. A Resource Guide for Keller, Clair W. and Denny L. Schillings, eds. Teaching Lawyers, Law Students and Classroom Teachers. About the Constitution. (National Council for the Social Phi Alpha Delta Public Service Center, Bethesda, Studies Bulletin No. 80) Washington, DC. National MD 1991, 112 pp. $10.00. Council for the Social Studies, 1987, 122pp. $9.95. Lessons on the Bill of Rights and the In the five chapters of this book the editors Fourteenth Amendment are presented in this present a list of teaching activities involving an book with a focus on rights and responsibilities. analysis of the Constitution. Interactive strate- Case studies are used by the authors to examine gies are suggested for examining topics that issues relating to sports, gender and discrimina- include the consequences of ratification for tion in both school and community settings. African Americans and for women. Selected Included are useful strategies for effectively court cases are analyzed. The lessons would be using resource persons in designing and pre- effective and easy to infuse into any study of the senting lessons, for preparing mock courtroom Constitution. S simulations and for analyzing case studies. The book supplements existing K-8 social studies Laughlin, Margaret A., H. Michael Hartoonian and materials. P/I/M Norris M. Sanders, eds. From Information to Decision Making. New Challenges for Effective Citizenship. Hiraoka, Leona, and Ken Masugi.Japanese-American (National Council for the Social Studies Bulletin Internment: The Bill of Rights in Crisis, Portfolio No. 83). Washington, DC.: National Council for the #N61. Jackdaw/Golden Owl Publishing, Amawalk, Social Studies, 1989, 115 pp. $11.95. NY. 1994, 14 documents, timeline and 6 essays. The editors have prepared 12 chapters by $27.95, with study guide $35.00. various authors designed to help teachers to deal Teachers familiar with Jackdaws will welcome effectively with the explosion of information

340 359 characteristic of current times. Primarily for ine both the historical developments leading to teachers, the book provides strategies and lessons the Bill of Rights and an analysis of the current easy to use in both elementary and secondary nature of those rights. Particularly useful are classes. Guidelines for integrating the computer, lessons dealing with the expansion of constitu- databases and mathematics in problem solving tional protections focusing on the experiences of and decision making will be appreciated byAfrican Americans. First Amendment freedoms teachers seeking to actively engage students in and due process of law are well covered. Critical studying issues concerning citizenship. I/M S thinking skills are refined through exercises presented throughout each of the lessons. The McMahon, Edward T., and Judith A. Zimmer, National lessons can be easily integrated into current U.S. Institute for Citizen Education in the Law, and History, World History or Civics classes. I/M S Terence W. Modglin and Jean F. O'Neil, National Crime Prevention Council. Teens, Crime and the Additional resources: Community. Education and Action for Safer Schools and Neighborhoods. West Publishing Company, St. Paul, Video cassettes/videodiscs: Minnesota. 1992, 201 pp. $14.96. ABC News Interactive's Powers of the U.S. Government This book is a timely resource that confronts Videodisc Series. Prentice Hall School Division, students with issues relating to crime and crime Upper Saddle River, NJ. Powers of the President, prevention. Topics include gang violence, rape, Powers of Congress, Powers of the Supreme Court. sexual harassment, handgun use, and child and $495 each, $1185 for all three. l/M S substance abuse. Problem-solving and decision- making activities make use of case studies, role Point of View 2.0: An Overview of U.S. History Struggles plays, and community resource persons to for Justice Videodisc (Vol.1); Struggles for Justice encourage students to examine facts, statistics Videodisc (Vol. 2), $195 each. l/M S and conflicting views. Community projects provide research and service opportunities. The A Cause for Celebration. Insight Media, NY, NY. 1991, lessons can be infused into U.S. History, Civics, 17 min. $189. Video showing students addressing Law or government classes. I/M S sexism, racism and classism. S

We the People. The Constitutional Rights Foundation, American Voices: 200 Years of Speaking Out. National Chicago, IL 60605. 1991 Reprinted by Department of Archives, available through Social Studies School Education Grant #S123A00058., 1991, 70 pp. $12.50. Service, Culver City, CA. 1989, ZF308V-AP4. 29 This book includes fifteen lessons that exam- min. $65. Primary source materials dealing with ine law and citizenship. Suggestions for teachers petitions to the government. S provide clear guidelines for actively involving students in a variety of activities including designing Kids and Crime. Films for the Humanities and Sciences, and conducting surveys, peer teaching, examining Princeton, NJ. 1994, 28 min. $89.95 case studies and simulating court proceedings. Donahue "talk show" featuring 15-year-olds Procedures helpful in using controversial materi- talking about their criminal activity. S als and topics are provided and include establishing rules for dealing with controversy, identifying We the People. Insight Media, NY NY 1992, 23 min. $129. the nature of the disagreements, and guidelines Video of student perspectives on the stereo- for organizing ideas. Topics include lawmaking typing of Native Americans. S and special interest groups, regulations and the power of government, juvenile law, and policeOther books procedures. The book is designed for infusion Harrison, Maureen and Steve Gilbert (Eds.) Landmark into Civics, Law and U.S. History classes. l/M S Decisions of the U.S. Supreme Court. Excellent Books, available from Social Studies School Service, Culver City, CA., 1991, EXB100AP4. $45.50 With Liberty and Justice for All. The Story of the Bill of Set of three books covering background, opin- Rights. The Center for Civic Education, Calabasas, ions and legal terms surrounding important cases. S CA 1992, 197 pp. $6.00. Takaki, Ronald.A Different Mirror: A History of This book presents fifteen lessons that exam- Multicultural America. Little, Brown, New York

3798 0 1993. 508pp, $27.95. Examines diverse experiences with American Primary source materials: constitutional and legal systems. S The Constitution. Evolution of a Government. National Archives and SIRS, Inc., Boca Raton, Florida. $40.00 The Bill of Rights. More Than Mere Parchment. Law, Excellent collection of primary source docu- Youth and Citizenship Program of the New York ments relating the development and interpreta- State Bar Association and the New York State tion of the Constitution. I/M S Education Department, New York State Bar Association, Albany, New York. 1991. 136 pp. Useful information and activities for integrating into any course addressing our fundamental freedoms. S

When Justice Is Up to You. Celebrating America's Guarantee of Trial By Jury. Association of Trial Lawyers of America, National Institute for Citizen Action in the Law, and DC Street Law Project. Association of Trial Lawyers of America, Washington, DC. 1992. 104 pp. Excellent information on juries, historical as well as current, with simulation activities. S

Working Together: Lessons in Justice. Law-Related Lessons for Teaching the U.S. Constitution. Constitutional Rights Foundation, Chicago, 1994, 54pp. Effective and easy-to-infuse lessons focused on the concept of Justice. I/M S

Zimmer, Judith A. We Can Work It Out! Problem Solving through Mediation. National Institute for Citizen Education in the Law and the National Crime Prevention Council. Social Studies School Service, Culver City, California, 1993. 132 pp. $40. Indispensable strategies for conflict resolution in the class, the school and beyond. I/M S

Computer software: Creating the U.S. Constitution. Educational Archives. Available through Zenger Media, Culver City, CA. Apple 5.25" disc, IBM 5.25" disc or IBM 3.5" disc, $65. Useful program for analyzing and designing the Constitution. I/M S

Simulations: Johnson, Cicilia and Ann McMahon. We the People. Social Studies School Service, Culver City, CA. $35. Simulation of the Constitutional Conven- tion. I/M S

Police Patrok A Simulation for the Classroom. Constitutional Rights Foundation, Los Angeles, CA. $17.50. Excellent activity for use with local police persons. S

350 3 G 31 INTENATIONAL RELATIONS/FOREIGN POLICY TEANINO RESOURCES

bq MarE. Soleq

After The Cold War: The U.S. Role in Europe's Transition, High School A project of the Center for Foreign Policy Richard K. Betts, editor. Conflict After the Cold War: Development, Brown University, Box 1948, Arguments on Causes of War and Peace. Macmillan Providence, RI, 02912; (401) 863-3155. Copyright Publishing Company, 866 Third Avenue, New York, 1993, 103 pages, $8.00. Permission is granted to NY, 10022. Copyright 1994, 519 pages, $29.00. duplicate for classroom use. Conflict After the Cold War is a college text. It After the World War: The U.S. Role in Europe's is designed to help students sort out the main Transition is one of ten reproducible curriculumdebates about whether war is likely to remain a units developed by the 21st Century Educationmajor problem in international life. The collec- Project at Brown University. Major concepts tion of writing presents contrasting arguments include: isolationism; internationalism; commu- about the future of the post-Cold War world and nism; fascism; containment; the Cold War; puts them in philosophical and historical context. national and regional security; revolution; eco- A sample of the thirty-nine topics and their nomic integration; and change. The educational authors includes: "The End of History?" by goal is to "introduce students to the historical FrancisFukuyama;"PerpetualPeace,"by antecedents, current issues, and deeply felt values Immanuel Kant; "Liberalism and World Politics" that have entered into the national debate onby Michael Doyle; "The Spread of Nuclear U.S. policy toward Europe" (page iii). Weapons: More May Be Better" by Kenneth The unit is divided into student text (threeWaltz; "Islamic Fundamentalism" by Graham background readings, descriptions of four U.S.Fuller; and "America's Changing Strategic foreign policy options, and a summary reading on Interest" by Samuel Huntington. Europe's uncertain future), a ten-day lesson plan This book provides a overview of the major and student activities, supplementary documents ideas needed to teach about war and peace. Its for the teacher, and suggested readings. Thestrengths include the diversity of perspectives unit's greatest strengths include well developed presented and the compilation of both historic and clearly written readings, the use of a wideand current essays which influence the develop- variety of presentation formats (cartoons, quotes, ment of theory and practice today. The only charts and graphs, pictures and maps), student drawback is the level of difficulty and sophistica- activities that promote analysis of differing per-tion. Still, it is recommended for anyone prepar- spectives and values, and engaging decision-ing to teach a course in current world affairs. making activities. It does an excellent job in both presenting various U.S. foreign policy optionsTeacher Education, Undergraduate toward Europe and helping students understand Adrian Chan and the staff of the Soviet Union and the perspectives and values in each. Eastern Europe Project and the Western Europe The activities rely heavily on students' read- Project. When Iron Crumbles: Berlin and the Wall. ing abilities. While the materials are well written, Stanford Program on International and Cross- they are conceptually dense and teachers will Cultural Education (SPICE), Stanford University, need to make special efforts to clarify major ideas Littlefield Center, Room 14, 300 Lasuen St., and define terminology. Stanford, CA 94305-5013; (415) 725-1480 or 723-

362 1114. Copyright 1991, 13 pages, $29.95. Permission The essays cover such topics as: Alternatives is given to educators to reproduce copies of student to War in History; Peace as a Reform Move- handouts for classroom use. A twenty-minute video ment; The Domestic Side of Foreign Policy; tape is also available at a cost of $19.95. Peace and Women's Issues in U.S. History; and When Iron Crumbles is only one of the many Peace History: The Field and the Sources. Each curriculum units developed by SPICE. In allessay provides major and minor historical con- cases, the compatible relationship betweencepts, a sample of different perspectives on the Stanford's scholars and educators makes for events and conditions at the time, and a bibliog- exceptionally high-quality instructional materi- raphy of books and other resources to expand als. The interdisciplinary nature of the publica- one's understanding of the topic. tions also adds to their appeal. The lesson plans are titled: Quakers and Major concepts and themes include: the his- Indians in Colonial America; Opposition to the torical context of World War II, the division ofMexican War of 1946; The League of Nations Germany, and the building of the Berlin Wall; and U.S. World Roles; Nonviolence in the Civil the Cold War; conflicts over differing political, Rights Movement; and Conscientious Objection social and economic ideologies; and the signifi- to the Vietnam War. The essays and lessons are cance of the fall of the Berlin Wall and German appropriate for middle, high school, and under- unification. Instructional strategies includegraduate courses. While these materials are activities to develop mapping, writing, and par- intended especially for U.S. history teachers, they ticipation skills; learning how to use a variety ofwould make an important contribution to any primary sources; analysis skills through the use international relations/U.S. foreign policy course. of Germany and the Berlin War as a case study; The overarching perspective put forth in the journal assignments; and a unique teaching publication is the value of teaching about peace strategy entitled "readers' theater." Using role and efforts to make peace in American history. plays, students create and perform scripts that The idea of resolving conflicts without resort to involve important events and multiple voices.violence is a value to study and possibly even Comprehensive instructions are given for using promote. On the surface, who could object to readers' theater, as well as many other instruc- teaching about peace? Still, without careful plan- tional strategies. Additional special features ning and thought, students (and teachers) could include: maps, pictures and cartoons; homeworkbe caught in a simplistic debate with the just use assignments and evaluation techniques; refer-of force on the one hand, and the pacifist ences for student handouts; and a glossary and approach on the other. The issues are extremely bibliography. Each of the seven lessons can becomplex and should be explored in an open and integrated separately into the curriculum where reflective manner. Teaching about peace is con- appropriate or the unit can be taught in its troversial. entirety. Middle and High School, High School and Undergraduate and Undergraduate Charles Chatfield, editor. Magazine of History, James E. Davis and James S. Eckenrod, Instructional "Peacemaking in American History." Organization Design Associates, and the United States Institute of American Historians, Vol. 8, No. 3, Spring 1994. of Peace, developers. Managing World Conflict: OAH Magazine of History, 112 N. Bryan Street, A Resource Unit for High Schools. United States Bloomington, IN, 47408-4199; (812) 855-7311. Institute of Peace, 1550 M Street, NW, Suite 700, Copyright 1994, 96 pages, $5.00. Permission is Washington, DC, 20005; (202) 429-3844. granted to duplicate for classroom use. Copyright 1994, 110 pages, free. Permission is "Peacemaking in American History" contains granted to duplicate for classroom use. five concise well-written essays, a supplement for Managing World Conflict contains seven the 1995 National History Day topic entitled lessons (with a total of 74 pages of student hand- Conflict and Compromise, five lesson plans withouts) for teaching about the causes of interna- student handouts, and information on three dif-tional and intra-state conflict and the approach- ferent teaching resources. The piece provides aes to peace. It is designed for use with high practical, yet intellectually stimulating primer for school social studies and language arts classes, anyone beginning to teach about peace. especially those interested in participating in the

352 3 Institute-sponsoredNationalPeaceEssay class time needed, materials, and procedures) Contest. Selected features of the unit include: a student handouts, and additional resources. Units simulation on an international whaling commis- could be integrated separately into the curriculum sion conference; activities to diagnose conflicts or used sequentially as a global studies course. and explore successful and thus-far failed efforts The book's greatest strengths include the pre- to make peace; uses of literature for learning sentation of significant world issues in ways that about the personal impact of war; writing assign- middle and high school students can compre- ments to promote the development of stronghend. The resources for students and activity essays; and the examination of political cartoons ideas promote active learning and higher order from around the world to enhance students' abil-thinking. Many of them actually sound like fun! ities to recognize and understand a variety of per- There are numerous handouts and, with students spectives. The case studies include: Haiti; Sudan; working in groups, there are great opportunities Former Yugoslavia; Korean Peninsula; Tajikistan; for cooperation. Charts, graphs, maps, and time- and the Middle East. The Unit also contains lines are common features. a glossary, resource bibliography, resource list, As is the case when teaching any current issue, and clear and concise overviews of each lesson. teachers need to take the initiative to constantly The greatest strength of the unit is that itupdate the information presented in this book. focuses in-depth on two major ideas (the causesA wide variety of news sources and perspectives of conflict and the approaches to peace) in waysmust be sought and the teaching strategies will that present the complexities of the issues, while require modification to one's particular classroom at the same time providing practical teachingsituation. While summarizing activitiesare strategies to help students "unpack" the many included, few specific evaluation criteria or instru- components of war and peace. All student activ- ments are provided to assess students' work. ities have built-in assessment tools and a variety of instructional methods are employed. TheHigh School greatest weakness is time. While lessons can be Great Decisions 1995 and Great Decisions 1995 Activity used separately and infused into existing curricu- Book by the Foreign Policy Association, 729 Seventh lum where appropriate, the best approach is to Avenue, New York, NY, 10019; (212) 764-4050 or teach the entire unit, which could take from 1-800-628-5754. Copyright Foreign Policy approximately 12 to 20 days. Association. Great Decisions 1995, 96 Pages, $11.00. Great Decisions 1995 Activity Book, 40 Pages, $11.95. Middle and High School Permission is not granted to duplicate Great Decisions Jonathan Fore and Heidi Hursh, Global Studies for 1995. Permission is granted to duplicate the Great the 90s. Co-published by the Center for Teaching Decisions 1995 Activity Book. International Relations (CTIR), Graduate School of Available each January, the Great Decisions International Studies, University of Denver, Denver, briefing book analyzes eight vital U.S. foreign CO, 80208-0269, (303) 871-3106 and the Social policy issues. Each 10-12 page article provides Science Education Consortium, 3300 Mitchell background (including historical context), policy Lane, Suite 240, Boulder, CO, 80301-2272; (303) options for the U.S., recommended readings, 492-8154. Distributed by CTIR. Copyright 1993, discussion questions, and pictures, charts, graphs, 149 pages, $26.95. Permission is granted to duplicate maps, and cartoons. Topics for Great Decisions for classroom use. 1995 include: Russia and Its Neighbors; Nuclear CTIR has developed and published supple-Proliferation; United Nations at 50; Global mental curriculum materialsfor preschool Finance; China, Taiwan, Hong Kong; Immigra- through adult groups since 1968. This booktion; and Democratization. A world map is emphasizes selected global issues that draw upon provided. history, as well as all the social science disciplines, The strengths of Great Decisions are the time- and provides a context for studying such pressing liness and balanced presentation of the topics, as post-Cold War issues such as democratization,well as the well-written synthesis of the major the environment, economic interdependence, questions and issues to be discussed. While some and development. parts of the articles may be conceptually dense The book contains ten units; each includes and therefore difficult for students to understand 1-3 lessons (an introduction, student objectives,without additional background, the wide range

353 364 of global issues and geographic regions covered organizations. This simulation is an excellent make for a solid course in current international introductory activity to a unit on U.S. foreign affairs. Graphs, charts, pictures, political car- policy decision-making. toons and quotes can contribute to students' abilities to comprehend the current and complex Middle and High School U.S. foreign policy issues presented. Another Mary Lord and Martha L. McCoy, editors. In Harm's strong point is the Activity Book. For each topic, Way: When Should We Risk American Lives in World it contains activity instructions (major questions, Conflicts?. A joint publication of the Study Circle article summary, activity overviews, objectives, Resource Center and ACCESS: A Security materials, time required, and procedures), stu- Information Service. Study Circles Resource Center, dent handouts, and glossaries. PO Box 203, Pomfret, CT, 06258; (203) 928-2616. Copyright 1994, 29 pages plus four one-page High School and Undergraduate ACCESS Resource Briefs, $5.00. Permission is Karen Heller. U.S. Response - The Making of U.S. Foreign granted to duplicate for classroom use. Policy: A Simulation. Close Up Publishing, 44 Canal In Harm's Way is designed primarily for adult Center Plaza, Alexandria, VA, 22314; (1- 800 -765- discussion groups known asstudycircles. 3131). Copyright 1990, $21.95 includes the three- However, the booklet is of such high quality that day simulation with Teacher's Guide, role cards, it is recommended for use in middle and high team cards and situation cards. school classrooms. The format can be adapted eas- Accommodating up to 30 high school partic- ily. What makes this piece so special is the timeli- ipants, students formulate foreign policy in ness and timelessness of the question: When response to one of six crisis situations (drug traf- should we risk American lives in world conflicts? ficking, global pollution, hostage crisis, nuclearThis is a central public policy issue that is at the disarmament, and territorial aggression). Stu- heart of U.S. foreign policy decision making. dents role-play in teams the perspectives of U.S. The booklet contains four major questions, government officials, ambassadors to the U.S. each with accompanying readings (including from the countries involved in the situation, and different perspectives or positions), discussion journalists. Instruction emphasizes the abilities to questions, and bibliography. Question one focus- understand multiple perspectives, analyze con- es on the ethical and value questions that arise flicting facts, values, needs, and objectives, andwhen a nation considers military action. It asks, make decisions. Major concepts include: nation-"Are there reasonable grounds for using military al interests (security interests, economic interests, force?" The next two questions are: "When and ideologicalinterests);geopolitics; and should we place American lives in harm's way?" national resolve. and "Current cases: Are these conflicts our busi- Given that the simulation is relatively simpleness?" The four case studies presented allow and straightforward, its greatest use is as anstudents an opportunity to test the principles awareness building activity. While the crisis situ-and ideas that emerged in the previous sessions ations are fictitious, they are fashioned after rec-against real-life situations. The four cases, ognizable events in the past, are interesting, and (Bosnia, Haiti, Korean Peninsula, and Somalia) contain major issues involved in U.S. foreign pol- are excellent examples because each has a differ- icy decision-making. ent level of military involvement and risk, and However, these same strengths constitute aeach involves a different set of U.S. goals. An weakness. Since a simulation is not reality, and in ACCESS Resource Brief is provided for each of reality foreign policy is a far more complex and the conflicts. Question four asks, "Who is difficult process than depicted here, it is up to theresponsible for dealing with conflicts around the teacher to conduct extensive debriefing. For globe?" The purpose of this session is to broad- example, only three types of actors are included en the conversation to include the larger world. in the simulation (U.S. government officials, A strength of the booklet and format is that ambassadors to the U.S. and journalists). In real- the cases used to "test" students' views can be ity, foreign policy decision-making involves manychanged or updated as new international and others, such as members of the business commu- intra-state conflicts arise. The only drawback to nity, lobbyists, educators, public interest groups, In Harm's Way is the absence of student learning and bi-lateral, multi-lateral, and internationalobjectives, student activities, and assessment

354 tools. However, there are many good decision contemporary international environment" (page making models available and most, if not all, 1). Where many scholars, educators, and practi- could be used with these materials. tioners in international relations view peace and world order studies as an idealistic approach that Middle and High School seeks to replace conflict in the international sys- Merry Merryfield and Richard C. Remy, editors. tem with cooperation, negotiation, and peaceful Teaching About International Conflict and Peace. change, the major conception put forth in this Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995. volume is that, even with the end of the Cold The initial goal of this project was to developWar, security studies (national, international, a practical resource for undergraduate and grad- and regional security) will continue to be uate pre-service social studies methods courses. extremely important. However, the final product has turned out to be The book contains twelve chapters, each one so much more: an extremely valuable resource for on a different aspect of security studies. The for- any social studies educator who thinks criticallymat for each chapter is unique, beginning with a about what is important to teach, what values twenty to twenty-five page essay on the topic by and assumptions these selections represent, and a leading scholar (examples of the topics include: what teaching methods are most compatible. Causes, Conduct, and Termination of War; The The book is divided into two major sections:Defense Decision-Making Process; Nuclear "Linking Content, Methods, and EducationalWeapons: Doctrine, Proliferation, and Arms Goals," and "Essays in International ConflictControl; Low-Intensity Conflict; Multilateral Management and Peace." The first section exam- Collective Security Arrangements; and Environ- ines how to connect international conflict and ment and Security); there follow a syllabus iden- peace content to teaching methodologies andtifying concepts and readings and one to three also to the education goals and outcomes identi- discussion pieces carefully critiquing the author's fied as the most essential knowledge and skills ofassumptions and decisions on what to include. a unit. A case study, which provides a model of The greatest strength of this book is the con- the process of creating, implementing, andcise presentation of past and present thinking assessing a unit of instruction, demonstrates the about the field of security studies. One can step-by-step process of planning and teaching. acquire a solid overview (and recognize the many The second section includes seven essays on different perspectives) simply by reading the international conflict and peace concepts. They are: twelve essays. While these are very complex top- Building Peace: A Global Learning Process; Theics not generally covered in any depth until the Use and Control of Military Power; Diplomacy,graduate level, resources of this kind can assist Negotiation, and Peaceful Settlement, Economicteachers in their own understanding of interna- Cooperation; Human Rights in Internationaltional relations and promote more careful consid- Perspectives, Self-Determination; and Resolving eration about the development of their own cur- Conflict Over the Global Environment. Alsoriculum and the major concepts they will teach. included is a list of resource organizations, chapter glossaries, and a bibliography. Undergraduate and Graduate Teacher Education Undergraduate and Graduate Daniel C. Thomas and Michael T Klare, editors, Teacher Education Peace and World Order Studies: A Curriculum Guide. Richard Shultz, Roy Godson and Ted Greenwood, Five College Program in Peace and World Security editors. Security Studies for the 1990s. Brassey's: a Studies. Fifth Edition published by Westview Press, Maxwell Macmillan Publishing Company. Orders Inc., 5500 Central Avenue, Boulder, CO, 80301; to Brassey's Order Dept., Macmillan Publishing Co., Copyright Westview Press 1989, 666 Pages, $17.95 100 Front Street, Box 500, Riverside, NJ, 08075. paperback. Copyright 1993. 423 Pages, $50 hardback. The fifth edition of the Peace and World Order This book was written to "provide instructors Studies Curriculum Guide presents eleven essays and curriculum planners of security studies pro- on "perspectives on the curricular agenda" and grams with a model curriculum and model ninety-threeundergraduatecoursesyllabi. courses that address traditional shortcomings Recognizing the dynamic nature of the fields of and take account of the dramatic changes in the peace and world order studies, the essays and syl-

3 6145s labi for the Guide represent many different perspectives regarding the content to be taught as well as the diverse value orientations that exist. The ninety-three syllabi were selected from over 1,000 submitted for review. The list of authors for the essays, as well as the syllabi, reads like a Who's Who of peace and world order studies (Elise Boulding, Betty Reardon, Chad Alger, Joseph Nye, Anthony Lake, and Gene Sharp are some examples). Few other resources provide equivalent breadth as well as depth on the current thinking in teaching about these topics. While it would be a rare high school that could devote an entire semester to a course on "social movements and revolution," the Guide provides a much needed tool for one's own professional growth. In addition to the reading lists provided for each of the ninety-three syllabi, the illumination of the concepts in each course is a very useful road map for teachers who require understanding of the larger picture before selecting ideas and simpli- fying them for student use. The Guide is not suitable for high school students. The eleven essays include such topics as: differing approaches to peace studies; the research agenda; the evolution of peace studies; pedagogical issues and the interdisciplinary challenge of the field. Selected course syllabi include: intro- ductions to peace and world order studies; global security, arms control, and disarmament; world political economy and economic justice; human rights and social justice; regional conflicts; conflict resolution; ecological balance; women and world order; religious and ethical perspectives; literary and media perspectives; and world order education and teacher training.

356 30 7 DO ESTIC ECONOMIC POLICY

ba RonalR. Banaszah

De Koster, Katie, and Bruno Leone, eds. Poverty: based on an experiential learning approach. Opposing Viewpoints. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 1994. $17.95 hardcover (order number 066-2), $9.95 Kourilsky, Marilyn. Mini-Society: Experiencing Real- paperback (order number 065-4). World Economics in the Elementary School Classroom. Recently revised, this book contains up- Menlo Park, CA: Addison-Wesley Publishing to-date comments of experts with differing Company, 1983. $18.00. opinions about the causes of and solutions to This simulation of an economic system in the poverty, including the benefits and detriments ofclassroom is an experience-based approach to government policies. The many pro and con teaching about economic systems and basic eco- statements by experts encourage debate, analysis nomic concepts. Though it does not deal directly of arguments and other critical thinking skills with policy making and is challenging to imple- which are detailed in a brief teacher guide. This ment, it is an engaging simulation for middle book is useful for any high school course dealing level students. with the issue of poverty, especially government and economics. National Issues Forum Institute Staff. The $4 Trillion Debt: Tough Choices about Soaring Federal Deficits. Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City. Federal Reserve Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Publishing System. Kansas City MO: Federal Reserve Bank of Company, 1993. Student booklet costs $2.95 and the Kansas City 1994. Available free, one per school. teacher guide costs $15.00. These four videos and print lessons describe After an introductory essay, a pro/con presen- the operation of the Federal Reserve System. The tation of three policy options causes students to third video challenges students to make policy seek public policy that will solve or improve the decisions. After students decide, the materials problem. The intent is to inform students about give answers from past and present Federal the topic, but, more importantly, to teach them a Reserve leaders. Lesson 10 involves students in a deliberative process for dealing with controversial game that deals with distinguishing between facts issues. This brief booklet does not overwhelm and myths. This publication is useful primarily for students and is useful in any high school course high school economics and government classes. dealing with the federal deficit. Additional titles, following the same format, are produced annual- Kourilsky, Marilyn. Kindereconomy. New York National ly and are listed later. Council on Economic Education, 1989. $19.95. This teacher resource manual contains a Schug, Mark, ed. Senior Economist. New York National series of lessons that lead primary level students Council on Economic Education. Four issues per to understand the working of our economy year for $16.95. through reflection on their everyday experiences. Each issue of this periodical focuses on a con- These activities do not deal with policy, but do temporary economic policy issue such as health help students experience the economy and the care reform, free trade with Mexico, or immi- consequences of economic decisions. The lessons grants in the economy. A prominent economist are well-described, easily implemented and are writes a background essay on each topic and

368 three to five complete lesson plans that featurecontent of business, economics, English, math, involvement activities and economic reasoning science, government and U.S. history courses. follow. This newsletter is very current and usefulThe reading level limits this periodical for use for any high school course dealing with contem- with high school juniors or seniors. porary economic issues. Other Resources Sid Meiers Railroad Tycoon Hunt Valley, MD: Microprose, Balancing the Budget. Decisions, Decisions Computer 1993. $69.95 (often discounted at computer stores). Simulation Series. Watertown, MA: Tom Snyder This computer game is a powerful interactive Productions, Inc., 1991. simulation involving a number of decisions. The Buchholz, Todd G. New Ideas from Dead Economists. goal is to build a large railroad network. Students New York Plume, 1990. manage the railroad for forty or more years and Cox, Carol G., and Alice M. Rivlin. Understanding computer generated reports detail the conse- Economic Polity: A Citizen's Handbook. Washington, quences of their decisions. This game is not D.C.: League of Women Voters of U. S., 1990. designed for classroom instruction, but for indi- Heilbroner, Robert L. The Worldly Philosophers: vidual use. There is no teacher guide. Yet it is very The Lives, Times and Ideas of the Great Economic intriguing and effective at sparking discussions Thinkers. New York Touchstone, 1986. with middle school and high school students Leone, Bruce, ed. Capitalism: Opposing Viewpoints. enrolled in U.S. or world history, economics or San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 1986. business courses. MacNeil/Lehrer Economic Reports. The Deficit Game: A High School Struggles to Balance the U.S. Budget. SimCity Orinda, CA: Maxis, 1993. Available at soft- Videocassette, simulation and guide. New York ware stores. $39.95 (often available for less) Cambridge Studios, 1993. In this computer simulation, students man- National Issues Forum Institute Staff. The Poverty Puzzle: age and build a city. They choose to manage one What Should Be Done to Help the Poor? Dubuque, of eight cities and make numerous policy deci- Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company, 1993. sions to improve living conditions. This game is The Health Care Cost Explosion: Why Its So Serious, What a complex multi-tasking piece of software that Should Be Done. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt calculates the results of interaction among many Publishing Company, 1993. decisions. SimCity can be used in virtually any Prescription for ProsIvrity: Four Paths to Eamomic Renewal social studies course from grades 6 through 12, Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company, 1992. but it was not designed for classroom instruc- The Health Care Crisis: Containing Costs, Expanding tion. No teacher guide is provided, but the com- Coverage. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Publishing puter manual has sections on strategy and urban Company, 1992. planning that are content rich. Remedies for Racial Inequality: Why Progress Has Stalled, What Should Be Done. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt The Wall Street Journal Classroom Edition Chicopee, Publishing Company, 1993. MA: Classroom Edition, The Wall Street Journal. Health Caiv for tlx Elda251: Mom! Dilemmas Mortal Choices This tabloid-sized newspaper is published Dubuque, Iowa.. KendalVHunt Publishing Company, 1993. monthly, September through May and is avail- Regaining the Competitive Edge: Are We Up to the Job? able in classroom sets of 30 copies for $150 (nine Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Publishing issues) or $90 (five issues). Also included is a Company, 1992. monthly video of news stories on economic O'Neill, Terry, and Karin Swisher, eds. Economics inAmerica events and posters with lesson plans. Articles are OpposingViewpoints. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 1992. taken from the Wall Street Journal and have its Schumacher, E.F. Small Is Beautiful. Economics as if editorial perspective, but are very timely. The People Mattered New York Perennial Library, 1989. excellent teacher guide provides a variety of activ- Swartz, Thomas R., and Frank J. Bonello. Taking Sides: ities related to the stories. These include vocabu- Clashing Views on Controversial Economic Issues. lary, factual recall questions, thought provoking Guilford, CT: Dushkin Publishing, 1993. discussion questions, individual projects, cooper- Wekesser, Carol, ed. Health Care in America: Opposing ative learning activities and writing projects. Viewpoints. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, 1994. The teacher guide also has a matrix display- Wekesser, Carol, and Karen Swisher, eds. SocialJustic Was- ing the curricular connections of each story to the ingViewpoints. San Diego: Greenhaven Bess, 1990.

350 r BIBL OGRAPHY ON SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AN SOCIETY

hq Sa el Totten and Jon E. Pedersen

Cheek, D.W. (1992). Thinking Constructively about California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720.) Science, Technology, and Society Education. Albany, NY: Based on the STS model of incorporating State University of New York Press. 262pp (616.95). science, technology and key societal issues into (Available from State University of New York Press, an integrated study, this booklet delineates how State University Plaza, Albany, NY 12246.) teachers in grades six through ten can imple- This volume synthesizes the major historicalment a unit on the subject of acid rain. In a and conceptual movements in Science, Techno- cogent and detailed fashion, the authors provide logy, and Society (STS) education. The major an introduction to the unit, discuss the time focus of the volume is on the current thinking frame needed to conduct a thorough study, pro- and research surrounding STS and the applica- vide explicit directions and discussions of the tion of these ideas to STS curriculum develop-eight sessions that comprise the unit, suggest ment in science and social studies classrooms.ways of extending the unit further, and provide This resource will be invaluable to educators who a short but useful annotated resource list. In a are in the incipient stage of developing their ownhelpful section entitled "Behind the Scenes," the philosophy of using STS concepts and STS cur-authors provide a discussion about acids, bases, riculum development. This is especially true ofbuffers, acid rain and the problems it causes, as Chapter 5, which presents a conceptual frame-well as proposed solutions. work for STS teaching and a constructivist framework for STS education. It concludes with Hungerford, H.R., Litherland, R.A., Peyton, R.B., an extensive and useful bibliography. Ramsey, J.M. and Volk, T.L. (1988). Investigating and Evaluating Environmental Issues and Actions Skill Hickman, Faith M., Patrick, John J., and Bybee, Rodger Development Modules. Champaign, IL: STIPES W. (1987). Science, Technology, Society: A Framework Publishing Co. 169pp. (Available from STIPES for Curriculum Reform in Secondary School Science and Publishing Co., 10-12 Chester St., Champaign, IL Social Studies. Boulder, CO: Social Science Education 61820.) Consortium, Inc. Subtitled"A CurriculumDevelopment An excellent resource for teachers in gradesProject Developed to Teach Students How to 7-12 that provides an overview of the STS theo- Investigate and Evaluate Science-Related Social ry, a discussion of decision making and cognitiveIssues," this booklet is comprised of six learning process skills that can be incorporated into STS modules on key environmental issues for use with studies, and a discussion as to how teachers can middle level and junior high school students. combine social studies and science in order toThe titles of the six modules are: "Environmental fashion aninterdisciplinary approach in theProblem Solving," "Getting Started on Issue classroom. Investigation," "Using Surveys, Questionnaires, and Opinionnaires in Environmental Investiga-. Hocking, C., Barber, J., and Coonrod, J. (1990).Acid tions," "Interpreting Data from Investigations," Rain: Teacher's Guide. Berkeley, CA: Lawrence Hall "Investigating an Environmental Issue," and of Science GEMS Project. 159pp. (Available from "Environmental Action Strategies." Each module GEMS, Lawrence Hall of Science, University of is comprised of an introduction, objectives, key pieces of information (articles and essays) for the social studies teachers. What is particularly valu- student, learning activities, and worksheets. This able about this resource is that it provides the is one of the best environmental curriculum pro- means for teachers to move from basic lessons to grams available. the more advanced.

Lewis, B.A. (1991). The Kid's Guide to Social Action: Ramsey, J.M, Hungerford, H.R., and Volk, T.L. (1980). How to Solve the Social Problems You Choose A Science-Technology-Society Case Study: Municipal and Turn Creative Thinking into Positive Action. Waste. Champaign, IL: STIPES Publishing Co. Minneapolis, MN: Free Spirit Publishing. 184pp 129pp. (Available from STIPES Publishing Co., ($14.95). (Available from the National Science 10-12 Chester St., Champaign, IL 61820.) Teachers Association, 1742 Connecticut Avenue This volume, which was designed for use by NW, Washington, DC 20009.) middle and secondary level students, is com- In this book the author discusses the skills prised of three main sections: I. "Teacher Notes," necessary to enable students and teachers to take which clearly delineates the four main goals of action on science-technology-society issues. the unit of study (1. Science Foundations, 2. Issue Lewis includes examples of projects that have Awareness, 3. Issue Investigation, and 4. Citizen- been initiated by students as well as guides and ship Action) and provides direction for the materials for taking social action. The book is teacher; II. "Student Materials and Activities"; comprised of five parts: I. "Life Beyond Theand a glossary. A major portion of Part II is Classroom" examines successful projects and designed so that the teacher can reproduce the provides insights as to how students can create handouts (overviews of the issues, key articles, similar projects in their own community; II. research questions, sample questionnaires and "Power Skills" provides the teacher and students surveys) for student use. The major strength of with the social action skills needed to accom-this resource is that itis structured to assist plish their projects; III. "Initiating Or Changing students to glean a solid base of knowledge, to Laws" examines the process of changing laws or use that knowledge for in-depth investigation, initiating new laws; IV. "Resources" provides the and then to take action by addressing the issue. names and addresses of important social action groups, agencies that award money and scholar- Mier, H.D. (1989) Chemical Education for Public ships to students for social action, and books Understanding (CEPUP). Berkeley, CA: Lawrence that provide insights about government, citizen- Hall of Science. (Note: This program consists of ship, the environment and problem solving; and, twelve modules, and each module comes with writ- V. "Tools" provides blackline masters of peti- ten support material. Each is approximately 130pp.) tions, proclamations, releases, and resolutions. (Available from Sargent-Welch Scientific Company, This book is an excellent resource for teachers 7300 North Linder Avenue, Skokie, IL 60077.) in teaching grades 5-12. Chemical Education for Public Understand- ing (CEPUP) is a curriculum project developed Pearson, J. V. (1988). Science, Technology, Society: Model by the University of California at Berkeley's Lessons For Secondary Science Classes. Boulder, CO: Lawrence Hall of Science emphasizing the Social Science Education Consortium, Inc. 216pp. development of students' understanding of ($17.95). (Available from the Social Science Education chemicals and chemical issuesinsociety. Consortium, 855 Broadway, Boulder, CO 80302.) Modules range from $145.00 to $225.00 and This resource has four main components. include topics such as "Chemical Survey and Part one includes an introduction to Science, Solutions and Pollution," "Investigation Ground Technology, Society study and its importance. Water: Toxic Waste: A Teaching Simulation," In part two, Pearson provides matrixes for use in "Plastics in Our Lives," "Chemicals in Foods: planning the lessons as well as a matrix of theAdditives,"and"InvestigatingHazardous teaching strategies used. Part three provides ten Materials," among others. All are appropriate for 'introductory lessons that teachers can use to grades 6-9. CEPUP is an outstanding curricu- focus students on STS matters in their classes.lum that provides students opportunities to do Part four outlines twenty-four more sophisticat- in-depth investigations on pertinent key envi- ed and complex lessons. This is an excellentronmental and social issues. This curriculum is resource for secondary (grades 7-12) science andunique in three major ways: 1. each module

360 371 comes complete with all of the equipment and Yager, R.E. (Ed.) (1992). International Council of chemicals necessary for the experiments; 2. the Associations For Science Education: ICASE written materials provide accurate and in-depth Yearbook, 1992, The Status of Science-Technology- information, both of which are imperative if stu- Society Reform Efforts Around the World Petersfield, dents are going to gain a deep understanding of UK International Council of Associations for scientific concepts; and 3. it is interdisciplinary Science Education 138pp. ($9.95). (Available in nature (combining political, social and scien- through Dennis Chisman, International Council tific concepts and issues). of Associations for Science Education Honorary Treasurer, Knapp Hill, South Harting, Petersfield Thirunarayanan, M.O. (Ed.) (1992). Think and Act. GU31 5LR, UK.) Make an Impact! Handbook of Science, Technology and This yearbook is the effort of the top scholars Society. Volume II. STS in Action in the Classroom. in Science, Technology, Society (STS) around Tempe, AZ: STS Project-FEE. 323pp. (Available the world. This volume is particularly strong and from STS Project-FEE, Arizona State University, useful to teachers in that it provides a compre- College of Education, Tempe, AZ 85287-0911). hensive view of the STS process. More specifi- This volume is comprised of 33 lessons on an cally, it provides a definition and rationale for eclectic array of topics, including but not limited STS, examples of STS initiatives, and an evalua- to the following: biodiversity, energy, hunger, life tion of STS efforts. science, designing and using satellites, school gardens, earthquake waves, the cost of space Programs: exploration, key environmental issues (acid rain, National Issues Forums in the Classroom air and water pollution, endangered species, the (100 Commons Rd., Dayton, OH 45459-2777). greenhouse effect, the ozone hole), energy con- "National Issues Forums in the Classroom seeks servation, social action, weather and the waterto help students discover, through public discus- cycle, and wind erosion. While a vast majoritysion, their common ground on complex domestic of the lessons are geared to the middle levelissues. The program's goal is to enhance the qual- (various combinations of grades 5-8), there areity of civic life by expanding the opportunities others that are aimed at grades K-6, 3-7, 4-6, 4-for students to discuss and be more informed 8, 6-12, 7-12. A unique quality of this curriculum about specific public issues." The program pack- is that it is informed by the actual experiences ofage includes issue books, a teacher's guide, an middle level educators who work with early ado- implementation guide, and an instructor outline. lescents on a daily basis; the curriculum wasAmong the topics germane to STS that have been exclusively written by middle level educators. addressed by the National Issues Forums are: "The Farm Crisis; Who's in Trouble, How to Yager, R.E. (Ed.) (1993). The Science, Technology, Society Respond," "Energy Options: Finding a Solution Movement. Washington, D.C.: National Science to the Power Predicament," "Coping with AIDS: Teachers Association. 177pp. (Available from NSTA, The Public Response to the Epidemic," and "The 1742 Connecticut Ave., NW, Washington, D.C. Environment at Risk: Responding to Growing 20009.) Dangers." This monograph, which constitutes volume seven of the NSTA "What Research Says to the Other Pertinent Resources: Science Teacher" series, is comprised of four main Asimov, Isaac (1991).Asimovs Chronology of the World. parts and a total of twenty-three essays: Part I. What The History of the World from the Big Bang to Modern STS Means; Part II. The Need for STS; Part III. Times. New York HarperCollins. STS in Broader Perspectives; and Part IV. Results Bender, David L., and Leone, Bruno (Eds.) Opposing of STS. Among the many fascinating essays herein Viewpoints Series/Juniors. San Diego, CA: are: 'Teacher Strategies Used by Exemplary STS Greenhaven Press. Teachers," "STS in Social Studies Research and Among the volumes germane to STS at the Practice," "Coordination of STS and Communitymiddle level in this series are: Pollution, Animal Goals," and "An Issue as an Organizer: A Case Rights, Endangered Species, The Environment, Study." This volume not only provides the theory Forests, Garbage, Nuclear Power, Smoking, and behind and the research-base for STS, but it also Toxic Wastes. provides practical suggestions for the teacher. Goldfarb, Theodore D. (1993). Taking Sides: Clashing

361 372 BEST COPY AVAILABLE Views on Controversial Environmental Issues. Guilford, CT: The Dushkin Publishing Group, Inc. Laughlin, Margaret A., Hartoonian, H. Michael, and Sanders, Norris M. (Eds.) (1989). From Information to Decision Making: New Challenges to Effective Citizenship. Washington, D.C.: National Council for the Social Studies. Miller, J.D., Suchner, R. W., and Voelker, A. (1985). Citizenship in an Age of Science. Elmsford, NY: Pergamon Press. Newton, David E. (1992). Science and Social Issues. Portland, ME: J. Weston Walch. National Council for the Social Studies (1983). Guidelines for Teaching Science-Related Social Issues. Social Education, 47(4), 258-261. Patrick, J. J., and Remy, R. C. (1984). Connecting Science, Technology, and Society in the Education of Citizens. Boulder, CO: ERIC Clearinghouse for Social Studies/Science Education and Social Science Education Consortium. Tofller, A. (1980). The Third Wave. New York Random House.

a..s 362 RO MAPS FOR MULTICULTURALISMS: RESURCES FOR DIVERSE STUDENT POPULATIONS

bn Ja Bernard Powers

Anthologies/Edited Collections 1992. ISBN 0-936758-32-5H, A American Eyes, New Asian-American Short Stories for This issues oriented guide for student citizen Young Adults edited by Lori M. Carlson. New York action is introduced by Ralph Nader and Henry Holt and Company, (1994). ISBNO-8050- includes an impressive list of reviewers from a 3544-3J, H, A wide range of organizations involved in citizen Coming of age, the meaning of home and theaction including Greenpeace, Citizens Clearing meaning of difference are themes in this collec-House for Hazardous Waste, Disability Rights tion of short stories authored by Asian AmericanEducation and Defense Fund and Youth Service writers. "How can a home be safe and secure in aAmerica. The text isa well organized road homeland that is dangerous because it rejects you map for student action projects that begins with for your difference, or because it invites you to be histories of the civil rights movement labor like everyone else? Is home the place that keepsmovement, women rights movements, consumer the ways of another, more ancient homeland, or is movement andenvironmental movement. it where new replaces old?" These questions are Student activities, resource organizations and posed by the editor to frame the elusive andreferences are included. changeable significance of home to Asian Ameri- can young people. (xi) The close-to-the-bone Cool Salsa, Bilingual Poems on Growing Up Latino in the quality of these voices speaking about being United States. Edited by Lori M. Carlson New York American in a country that is so ambivalent about Henry Holt and Company ISBN 0-8050-3135-9 J, difference makes the collection "an Asian fire." S, A Speaking two languages and walking the Bridges and Borders, Diversity in America. The editors of bridges between two cultures is part of the fabric Time Magazine New York Warner Books, 1994. of growing up Latino in the United States. This ISBN 0-446-67131-2.J, H, A collection of poems byfirst, second and third This is an anthology of critical issues editori- generation Latinos conveys the vibrancy of alized or featured in Time magazines for the past Latino presence and heritage along with the eight decades. "Essays by writers such as Tonipains of "struggling to survive." In two lan- Morrison and Barbara Ehrenreich, news stories guages, Spanish and English, topics such as dat- covering major historical events and feature sto- ing, finding respect, hot dogs, orange trees and ries on demographic trends" are part of this mul- the future are explored and shared in traditional ticulturedcompendium.Articlesinclude, lyrical forms and in street language by this "Hunger Stalks the 'Hogan" from the 1940's, impressive group of poets. "The Meaning of Little Rock," from the 1950's, "Marching for Justice" in the 1960's and "Raid at A Different Mirror, A History of Multicultural America Wounded Knee" are typical of the issues Ronald Takaki. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, addressed in this valuable resource. 1993.ISBN 0-3116-83112-3S, A Ronald Takaki's book is a history of the inter- Civics for Democracy, A Journey for Teachers and Students action of select ethnic groups in American history. Katherine Isaac Washington D.C.: Essential Books, It is a very readable sharing of stories that encour-

Keys: Er-Elementary, J=Junior High, HAIigh School Sr-Secondary, A=Young Adult

374 ages the readers "to see ourselves in a different the public schools, and faced violence and death. mirror." The Triangle Shirtwaist Fire, PictureThe book includes a chronology of the civil Brides, Gold Mountain and El Norte are some ofrights movement, and information on the con- the topics that feature in the narratives of Japanesetributors' current lives. Americans, Chinese Americans, Chicanas and Chicanos, Native Americans, African Americans, Hearing us Out, Voices From the Gay and Lesbian Jewish Americans and Irish Americans. This Community. Roger Sutton. New York Little Brown Revisionist mural of history which includes and Company, (1994). J,H, A class and gender issues will be useful for both ele- This book tells the stories of nineteen gay and mentary and secondary teachers who are interest-lesbian youth and adults. The stories that make ed in deepening and reshaping their understand-up the book, based on interviews and edited tran- ing of American History. The volume includesscripts by the author, are answers to the question, some pictures and extensive notes. "what does it mean to be gay?" The author's intent was to address, through personal stories, The Education Feminism Reader. Edited by Lynda Stone the serious discrimination and critical health with the assistance of Gail Masuchika Bo ldt. New concerns that face gay and lesbian teens today. York Rout ledge, (1994) ISBN 0-415-90793-4 A Humiliation, ostracism, AIDS, the military, This reader on feminism and education fea- gay parenting and an actively hostile adversary in tures the theorizing of twenty-two well-known the religious right are among the specific issues scholars and researchers on the subjects of girls, facing the population of young people today. women, schooling, sources of inequality, ways of"The voices in the book {should} help everyone knowing and curricula in educational domains. see the gay and lesbian community as a proud The meaning of difference, separate spheres, and diverse group of people with their own his- critiques of white feminism, moral education, tory, stories and future." and the connections between multiculturalism and feminism are among the topics included in Ordinary Americans, U S. History Through the Eyes of the this dense reader, which is organized in five sec- Everyday People. Edited by Linda Monk Alexandria, tions; I, Self and Identity; II, Education and Va: Close Up Publishing, 1994. ISBN 0- 932765 -47- Schooling; III, Knowledge Curriculum and 5 al,H,A Instructional Arrangements; IV, Teaching and This anthology of readings is a collection of Pedagogy; and V, Diversity and Multiculturalism. 200 first-person accounts of U. S. History featur- Contributors speak from different racial, class,ing the voices of Native Americans, African and ethnic perspectives. Americans, Hispanic Americans, Asian Ameri- cans and European Americans describing notable Freedom's Children, Young Civil Rights Activists Tell and everyday events. For example, the section on Their Own Stories. Edited by Ellen Levine New "The Plantation South" includes " A Slave Child's York: Avon Books, (1993). ISBNO-380-72114-7 View of Plantation Life," by Jacob Stroyer, "A J, H Cruel Mistress," by Angelina Grimke Weld, and The Civil rights movement of the 1950's and "Santa Claus Brought Me These New Clothes" by 1960's was an African American drive for free- Harriet Jacobs. Among the other voices in the dom that marshalled support from the young compendium are those of a former slave, Olaudah people of southern communities. This book tells Equiano, who describes the passage from Africa to the stories of thirty young African Americans America, Jessie Lopez de la Cruz, who organized who were children and teenagers during the her comrades in the fieldsfor the United human rights struggles of the 1950's and 60's. Farmworkers, and Cheyenne tribeswoman, Kat These young people were drawn into the civil Bighead. Complete references are included. rights movement by virtue of their parents' human rights activism. Many of them were in the The Power in Our Hands, A Curriculum on the History of initial voter registration drives, protests and Work and Workers in the United States. William school integration efforts. They were the young Bigelow and Norman Diamond. New York people who sat in all white restaurants and Monthly Review Press, 1988. S, A demanded to be served, who refused to give up This is a sixteen-lesson unit on the history of their seats at the front of the bus, who integrated work and organized labor in the United States.

364 3 7 5 This teacher written curriculum encourages stu-book is divided into four parts that address four dents to reflect on "their own power" and "ability major domains; theoretical contexts, voices from to remake society" (17) The lessons are organized teachers, perspectives on the new canon, and for student participation through role play, simu- power structures in schooling that support multi- lation and imaginative writing that makes stu- culturalism writ large. dent's "lives become an 'additional text' within the lessons." Union maids, plant closings, racial con- Unequal Sisters, A Mzdticultural Reader in US. Women's flict and cooperation in tenant farming are History. Ellen Carol DuBois and Vicki L. Ruiz. New among the lesson topics included. Student hand- York Routledge, 1990. ISBN 0-415-90272-X H, A outs and suggested further reading are included. This multicultural reader in women's history provides both teachers and students with an array Race Identity and Representation in Education. Cameron of narratives or stories that illuminate the differ- McCarthy and Warren Crichlow (Eds.) New York ences and connections in women's lives and Rout ledge, 1993. ISBN 0-415-90558 A experiences across time and geographic space. This recently published collection of articles It is centered in the Western United States where on multiculturalisms is suggested for teachers there was and is a "confluence of many cultures who are reaching for theoretical perspectives that and races" including Native American, Mexican, clarify race, class, ethnic and gender issues/iden- Asian, Black, and European-American women. tities in education institutions and classroomThe volume explores issues of relations between life. One of the centerpieces of the collection is groups of women, and the place of family, and McCarthy's essay entitled, "After the Canon: politics, in the creation of a tentative narrative of Knowledge and Ideological Representation in U.S. History. Selected bibliographies of African- the Multicultural Discourse on Curriculum American Women, Asian-American Women, Reform." His critique and analysis of multicul- Latinas and Native American Women are tural education is thorough, incisive and rich in included in this work. examples of curriculum and studentlife. Christine Sleeter, Elizabeth Ellsworth, MichaelBooks, Individually Authored Apple, Cornet West and Fazal Rizvi are among Chinese Women of America, A Pictorial History. Judy the contributing authors. Notes and an Index are Yung. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1986. provided. ISBN 0-295-96358. J, H, A This carefully researched and documented book Tales of Courage, Tales"Dreams: A Multictdtural Reader, tells the stories and identifies central issues John Mundahl Menlo Park, CA: Addison Wesley, in the lives of Chinese American women in the 1993. ISBN 0-201-53962-4. J, H, A (Grades 5-12) United States. The book is organized chronologi- This multicultural reader for students who cally into three central periods, 1834-1900, 1900- speak English as a second language tells stories 1945 and 1945-1985. Sexist images of Chinese from many cultures including Mexican, Puerto American women as exotic curios and racist Rico, Native American, Jamaican, Laotian, descriptions in popular media are identified in this Lebanese and African American. The reader is well organized photographic history. Economic divided into eight sections based on themes suchroles and discrimination, social reformers, media as "Tales of Prejudice," "Tales of Courage," "Tales images, education and intergenerational tension of Triumph," and "Tales of Dreams." Selections are among the topics Yung documents. include vocabulary study, and the author makes recommendations for use the of the materials A Day's Work. Eve Bunting. New York Clarion Books, with students. The book is indexed. 1994 ISBN 0-395-67321-6E This beautifully illustrated book is about a Teaching in the Multicultural Classroom, Freedom's Plow. grandson and his newly immigrated Mexican Theresa Perry and James W. Fraser (Editors). New grandfather who seek work at one of the daily York Roudedge, 1993.ISBN 0-415-90700-4. A labor pick-up stations in Los Angeles. The con- In the words of the editors, multicultural edu- text and content of the story address economic cation is the "fundamental question to beopportunity for day laborers, language barriers, addressed if schools are to be agents of democra- and the sustaining value of integrity in work. cy in an increasingly diverse United States. " The Contains realistic illustrations.

365 376 I Hadn't Meant To Tell You This. Jacqueline Woodson. significant book for a critical issues curriculum. New York Delacorte Press, (1994) ISBN 0 -385- 32031-0 J, H Night Flying Woman, An Ojibway Narrative. Ignatia Interracial friendship and class based discrim- Broker. St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, ination are subthemes in this short fictional (1983). ISBN 0-87351-167-0 J and S novel about an adolescent girl who is being sex- As the introduction to this book proclaims, ually abused by her father. The main character, "Night Flying Woman is a story in the tradition Marie, an African-American, befriends Lena, of the Ojibway people." (ix) It is also the story who is from "the wrong side" of the river in of culture contact with strangers which alters Chauncey, Ohio. Through the evolution of their the ancient way of life. The tension and alien- friendship, Marie discovers that Lena, who lives ation from the land experienced by successive with her younger sister and her father, has been generations of Ojibway, known as Anishinabe in sexually abused for a number of years. Lena'stheir own language, is chronicled by an elder poignant self-hate, her protectiveness toward her and story teller who lived in both urban and sister and the pains of lossissues for young reservation communities. Accurate and detailed women who experience abuseare sensitivelyaccounts of the impact of the lumber industry handled in this important book. on Ni-bo-wi-se-gwe and her family is a primary focus of this narrative which also celebrates a An Illustrated History of the Chinese in America. value system based on conservation of the land Ruthanne Lum McCunn. San Francisco, CA: and ancient ways. Design Enterprises of San Francisco, (1979) P. 0. Box 27677, SF CA 94127 Library of Congress No Big Deal. Ellen Jaffe McClain. New York: Lodestar Catalog Number, 79-50144. J, H, A Books, 1994 ISBNO-525-67483-7 J, H Photographs, graphic illustrations, maps and This fiction book written by a high school newspaper clippings are among the data sources teacher from Los Angeles is about a young used to depict the lives of Chinese-Americans inwoman named Janice Green and her social stud- the United States. Chapters in this illustrated iesteacher, Mr. Podovano, who is gay. When history include "Angel Island," the west coast thesocial studies teacher's sexual identity is equivalent to Ellis Island, "Exclusion Laws," made public, he is made the target of homopho- New Immigration Laws," and the "Anti-Chinese bia. His car is vandalized, he is harassed at a Movement." While the bulk of materials andschool dance and Janice's mother threatens to commentary are oriented to San Francisco, lobby for dismissal. Issues that face gay and les- which had the largest population of Chinese- bian teachers and the conflicts experienced by Americans in the United States, there are repre- those who accept and defend difference are the sentations of life in New York, Idaho, Wyoming focus of this fictional story of a divided school and other communities. Ethnic discrimination community. and exclusion are major themes in this work. The Other Side, How Kids Live in a California Latino My Brother Has AIDS. Deborah Davis. New York: Neighborhood Kathleen Krill. New York Lodestar, Atheneum Press, (1994) ISBNO-689-31922-3 J, H (1994). ISBN 0-525-67439-1 E, J (Middle School) This fictionalized account of a young adoles- This books portrays the lifestyle of three cent and her family experiencing the final stages young Mexican Americans who live close to the of AIDS with a much loved brother provides border between the United States and Mexico in a clear eyed and compassionate picture of the a community called Chula Vista. Bilingualism, emotional and logistic complexities posed by language and culture maintenance, and adapta- the disease. Lacy's life is profoundly changed by tion are among the issues that face first genera- the return of her older brother, who has been in tion Americans such as Cynthia Guzman and law practice in Colorado. Her father's ambiva- Francisco and Pedro Tapia. This book is rich lence about her brother's sexuality coupled with with the photographs of David Hautzig, who his guilt and sorrow, the logistic problems and documents significant locations in these young pain associated with a young man's death from peoples' lives. Text includes vocabulary, suggest- AIDS, and the anger that Lacy feels about being ed readings and an index. helpless and deserted make this a particularly

366 r.) Q This Little Light of Mine, The Life of Fannie Lou Hamm: ulary notes. There is a separate activity guide. Kay Mills. New York Plume Books, (1993). ISBN 0-452-27052-9 S, A Mixed Media This biography of one of the most courageous "Fires in the Mirror" by Anna Deavere Smith and significant freedom fighters in our country's produced by Public Television Playhouse, Inc, history addresses race, class and gender issues in (1993). Available through PBS Video. ISBN 0- the context of Hamer's campaign for voting 793601001-X 1-80-344-3337 H, A rights. Hamer was an important voice at the Anna Deavere Smith's one-woman play pre- 1962 Democratic National Convention wheresents compelling perspectives on urban racial she challenged the credentials committee, saying and class conflict. The play, acted out in mono- that if the Mississippi Freedom Democratic logues, presents the views of various players in Party challengers were not seated, "'I questionthe Crown Heights, Brooklyn racial turmoil. America." Hamer was a founding member of the Smith assumes the personalities of thirty people National Women's Political Caucus where she who were caught up in the demonstrations voiced her strong opinions on feminism, includ- following the death of an African American ing, "If white women there think they have prob- child who was killed in an auto accident, and the lems, 'then they should be black and insubsequent slaying of a Hassidic rabbinical Mississippi for a spell.'" (276) student. The play eloquently communicates the intense emotion and complex opinions that Thousand Pieces of Gold Ruthanne Lum McCunn. attend urban race relations. San Francisco: Design Enterprises of San Francisco, (1981) ISBN 0-932538007-X J, H, A "School Colors." (Video) Co-production by Center for LaLu Nathoy, a young Chinese woman who Investigative Reporting and Telesis International for was "raised in a peasant village ravaged by pover- PBS Frontline. Order through CIR, 568 Howard ty and drought," sold into slavery by Bandits and Street, 5th floor, SF CA 94105-3008 For informa- shipped to America where she was auctioned tion call 415-543-1200 or 800-733-0015. H, S off to a saloon owner in Idaho is the subject of This video production examines the state of this biographical novel by McCunn, a Chinese- race and ethnic relations at Berkeley High American writer. Racism and gender discrimi- School in Berkeley, California. The controversial nation interract in this story about an exception-video focuses on how integration has worked at al pioneer woman, also known as Polly Bemis, Berkeley High School in the last three decades. who came to Idaho as a virtual slave in a mining Faculty relationships with each other and with camp, ran her own boarding house, homestead- students, parent involvement, ethnic studies, ed twenty acres, and died at eighty on her farm student home life and ethnic group and inter- in Idaho, having survived and thrived in a fron- group relations are the focus of this video pro- tier environment. duction filmed on site at the school.

Who Belongs Here? An American Story. Margy Burns 'Through Innocent Eyes, Life in Poston Arizona Knight Gardiner. Maine: Tilbury House, Publishers, Internment Camp 1942-1943" (1990) Los Angeles: (1993) ISBN 0-88448-110-7 E Keiro Services (P.O. Box 33819, L.A.,CA 90033- This story is about a young Cambodian boy, 0819) ISBN 1-878385-00-3 E, S Nary, and his family, who flee from "the brutali- This audio tape is a collection of poetry and ty of Pol Pot and the Khmer Rouge" and come to stories written by second generation Japanese- the U.S. in hopes of creating a better life. ForAmerican students (Nisei) confined to intern- some Americans, Nary is an unwanted alien, ament camps during World War II. The poignant "Gook," who should "Go back home where you stories and poems are read by third generation belong." This beautifully illustrated book pro- (Sansei) and fourth generation students (Yonsei) vides a simple and straightforward look at issues and are accompanied by a theme song composed of immigration and discrimination that confrontfor this tape. The tape and accompanying guide young people in schools. The ideas are complex are taken from a high school scrapbook project and the language elegantly simple in this award that resurfaced forty-five years after the intern- winning book, which is dedicated to the E.S. L. ment experience. They effectively speak to the teachers of Maine. An appendix provides vocab-importance of carefully drawn context, the

367 378 power of student voices in framing and communicating about critical social issues, and the force of imagination. Periodical Publications Teaching Tolerance. Biannual publication of the Southern Poverty Law Center 400 Washington Avenue. Montgomery, AL 36104. No charge to educators E, J, H, A Dream Makers, Dream Breakers: The World of Justice Thurgood Marshall by Carl T. Rowan, and SkippingStones: A MulticulturalChildren's Quarterly are a small sampling of resources for K-12classrooms identified and described in this biannual publication. This classroom-oriented publication has a small and impressive advisory boardthatincludesRobert Coles, Mary Hatwood Futrell, Maxine Green, Maya Lin, and Moyra Contreras. Gang violence, homelessness, interracial friendship and case studies of classrooms and teachers are topics explored in the Fall1993issue of this extraordinary publication. Teaching Tolerance is especially strong in resources for elementary classrooms. It includes phone numbers and addresses.

The Women's History Network News The quarterly newsletter of The Women's History Network, 7738 Bell Road, Windsor,CA 95492s E, J, H, A There is a vast array of resources for critical multicultural teaching featured in this newsletter and in the Network's catalogue. Scholarly books, biographies, exhibits such as "Nuestras Mujeres, Hispanas in New Mexico,1582- 1992,"conferences and school based efforts to create curriculum change are regularly featured in this teacher resource. Back issues on special topics are available and resource lists on "Black, Asian, Hispanic, and American Indian Women" are printed in "Women's History Resources" available through the catalog. This resource is particularly strong in book recommendations for elementary classrooms and biographies. The project's commitment to multicultural teaching is evident in the selections.

368 3f-99 GLO AL DEVELOPMENT /ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES bq Jeffr q L. Brown

Balrm, Amy et al. Trash Conflicts: A Science and Social As noted by a reviewer for the magazine Studies Curriculum on the Ethics of Disposal. Educators Green Teacher, emphasis has been placed on con- for Social Responsibility, 23 Garden Street, ceptually-oriented teaching as opposed to Cambridge, MA 02138, 1993. 220 pages. $25.00. chronologically-oriented history, and the twelve The content focus of this book is on solidlessons are effective with students. Twelve infu- waste disposal, hazardous waste, and the issue ofsion methods, e.g., "Replace the course text- environmental racism and classism. Curricularbook's framework with the Analytical Frame- applications include U.S. history, civics, geogra-work for Sustainable Development," are helpful phy, and interdisciplinary science and social stud- for teachers planning to integrate global con- ies. Although this teacher resource book contains cepts within existing curricula. There is an lessons that focus on the student's immediate sur- extensive list of resources, an international col- roundings, it merits inclusion within this sectionlection of children's artwork, and suggestions for as immensely helpful regarding basic issues ofstudent participation beyond the classroom. global sustainability. Students investigate, calcu- Some significant resources that were omitted late and role play numerous examples of complexinclude the New Internationalist, Signs of Hope, decision-making in which economic, environ- and the Red Cross. mental and equity values must be evaluated. TheRecommended Levens) for Use in section on "Taking Action" is a textbook example Classroom Instruction: S,H of comprehensive and responsible strategic planning and social action. Background readings and Byrnes, Ronald S. Exploring the Developing World: Life handouts represent multiple perspectives and pro- in Africa and Latin America. Center for Teaching vide adequate information for informed decision- International Relations, University of Denver, making. Lessons may be selected and infused or Denver, CO 80208-0269, 1993. 137 pages, $26.95. taught together as a semester course. This book's The content focus of this book is the regions quality would have been enhanced if many of the and representative countries of Africa and Latin handouts had been re-typed instead of photo- America, set within a global context. Curricular copied. applications include regional studies, world his- Recommended Level(s) for Use in tory, cultures or geography, and global studies. Classroom Instruction: I/M Multiple perspectives and counterstereotyping are fostered. A variety of countries is represent- Brown, Jeffrey L., Paula Gotsch et al.A Sustainable ed, and important issues are addressed. Varied Development Curriculum Framework for World History activities, including role playing, engage students and Cultures. Global Learning, Inc., 1018 Stuyvesant of differing academic abilities. Sufficient infor- Avenue, Union, NJ 07083, 1991. 272 pages. $20.00. mation allows substantive treatment of particu- The content focus of this book is the rela-lar topics, such as the role of women in African tionship between the environment, economic/society or population growth in Mexico City. social development and equity. Curricular appli- Lessons have reader-friendly handouts, exten- cations include world history/cultures/geogra-sion activities and suggestions for evaluation. phy, global studies and international relations. A lesson on UN Peacekeeping could have

Keys: PL-Primary, 1=Intermediate, M=Middle, S=Secondary, liAligh School

330 included some conflict resolution substance. major writers or organizations, e.g., Paul Ehrlich The survey of gender roles on p. 55 could use an and the National Cattlemen's Association, there- additional category of "equal," and studentby exposing students to excellent primary handout 3.23 on "Trying Times in Cuba" could resources and representative spokespersons on use more background information. this major issue. Each chapter contains a practi- Recommended Level(s) for Use in cal critical thinking activity, such as distinguish- Classroom Instruction: S, H ing bias from reason. Although the six essays on any particular chapter question will provide a Crews, Kimberly A. and Patricia Canceler, eds. variety of views on that chapter's topic, each CONNECTIONS: Linking Population and the viewpoint is paired with its opposite, e.g., the Environment. Population Reference Bureau, Inc., greenhouse effect is real vs. exaggerated. This 1875 Connecticut Avenue, N.W., Suite 520, pairing may have the unintended result of rein- Washington, DC 20009-5728, 1991. Teacher's forcing students' tendency toward either-or Guide, 80 pages; Student Resource Book 96 pages. thinking. Three to five perspectives on any one of Teacher's kit $13 includes both books plus World these issues would help students develop more Population Data Sheet and World Environment sophisticated abilities in taking multiple perspec- Data Sheer, additional Student Resources Books cost tives. $8, but bulk rates are available. Four introductory and one concluding lesson Greenberg, Hazel Sara. Teaching about Global Issues: focus on a world overview of population and Population, Health, Hunger, Culture, Environment. environmental concerns, while 8 lessons focus on American Forum for Global Education, 120 Wall Africa, 5 on Asia and 4 on Latin America. Street, Suite 2600, New York, NY 10005. 99 pages, Curricular applications include area, global, and $25.00. population studies. The extended newspaper This revision of lessons from earlier publica- articles in the student book are varied and inter- tions by this organization contains one lesson esting and represent a unique source of primaryeach for a global issues overview, population, source materials written from "Third World" culture, and economic development, and four perspectives. Selected print and A/V resourceseach on hunger and on the environment. are listed for each section. There is plentiful useCurricular applications include area and global of pictures, tables, graphs, maps, quotations andstudies, and world cultures. A sophisticated level extension activities. The global problems, howev-of analysis is applied to the causes of world er, receive so much more detail than do alterna- hunger, and options for social participation are tive solutions that students may feel problem-offered. The cultural strengths of the people solving is futile. It would be helpful if an explicit studied are noted despite their current hard- problem-solving process were applied several ships. Urban life is well represented to counter times in lessons. Individual lessons would beits omission in most textbooksespecially strengthened if they included more ways thatregarding Africa. Local-global connections North American students are connected to thewith which students can identify are made. The specific problem or world region through a local-layout is teacher-friendly, but the typeface of global connection. student readings is small and uninviting. The Recommended Level(s) for Use in lessons on hunger tend to favor the scarcity issue Classroom Instruction: I/M, S, H as hunger's major cause instead of addressing the more politically difficult issue of distribution. Global Resources: Opposing Viewpoints Series. San Diego, The concluding activity may raise the ire of CA: Greenhaven Press, Inc., 1991. 260 pages. $9.95. Africanists because of the inclusion of the exot- The contents of this work focus on the issues ic Pygmies. The second-hand descriptions by of resource scarcity and conservation, the green-European writers might have been replaced by house effect, population and resource use, rain first hand sources, such as Ibn Battuta. forests, and sustainable agriculture. CurricularRecommended Levels) for Use in applications include global studies, geography, Classroom Instruction: I/M, S world and U.S. history. Six chapters organized by a key question, e.g., "Are global resources becom- Murphy, Carol E. What Have You Got to Lose? New ing more scarce?" each contain six essays by World Tropical Rainforests. SPICEStanford

370 3s1 Program on International and Cross-Cultural Recommended Levels for Use in Education, Littlefield Center, Room 14, 300 Lasuen Classroom Instruction: P St., Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305-5013. 128 pages, 24 slides with script, & a poster. Also Sheldon, Janet E. IMPACT! How Everything We Do available in Spanish. $44.95. Affects Everything And Everyone: Environmental The focus of this work is rainforest, biodiver- Activities With An International Perspective. sity, economic development, and prejudice reduc- Environmental Literacy Group, 33770 Woodland tion. Curricular applications are interdisciplinary. Dr., Evergreen, CO 80439, n.d. 133 pages. This is a comprehensive unit, with scientific Content focus includes toxic waste on land background and engaging interactive lessons and sea, energy, vegetation, recycling, biodiversi- structured to help teachers work with cooperative ty, and human diversity. Curricular applications groups. It contains complex decision-makinginclude science, social studies, and language arts. activities, cultural bias and awareness lessons, To avoid scaring young children with the world's examples of students' connections with the rain- woes, these materials emphasize students' mak- forest, and an exploration of sophisticated poten- ing an active contribution to a solution to a prob- tial solutions to problems raised. Many lessonslem, and thus to a better world. Teachers do not contain very sophisticated reading levels andneed extensive background knowledge in science concepts that make them appropriate for theor technology. A broad variety of fun activities upper middle grades and even secondary stu-will engage young children in active learning. dents, even though the author indicates theseNow that the Asceptic Packaging Council materials are for grades 3-8, while the 3-6 week (NYC) is promoting recycling, the lesson on time frame may be a limitation for some. composite food wrappers is somewhat dated. Recommended Levels for Use in Recommended Level(s) for Use in Classroom Instruction: I/M, S Classroom Instruction: P

See Me, Share My World. Understanding the Third World Snow, Roberta and Richard Golden. Global Warming through Children's Art. Plan International USA, 155 Activities for High School Social Studies. Climate Plan Way, Warwick RI 02886, 1989. 28 page Teaching Protection Institute, 5833 Balmoral Drive, Oakland, Guide, 48 reproducible activity sheets, 8 color chil- CA 94619, 1991. 32 pages. $9.85. dren's drawings, 8 B&W photos & training video. $59. The climate change focus includes its rela- Six themes of daily lifehome, food, educa- tionship to energy, deforestation and recycling tion, health, work, funare explored on a "trip"wastes. Curricular applications include econom- to 6 countries: Colombia, Honduras, India, ics,geography, history,civics, international Indonesia, Sierra Leone and Thailand. Curricu-relations, and global studies. The three-page lar applications are multidisciplinary: social stud- review of the issue is clear and concise. Engaging ies, language arts, art, music, science, health, and activities will motivate students of varying acad- physical education. The original children's artemic abilities to feel they can do something about from around the world invites elementary stu- this global issue. Some of the lessons could be dents into a counterpart's daily life while theused when studying the industrial revolution in activities focus effectively on comparing similari- U.S. or world history. The conflict resolution ties and differences and making personal connec- concept of win/win is applied in a game regard- tions. Adequate teacher background is provideding the commons, and clear diagrams of "the for both the art work and its topic as well as the problem" are provided for presentation to stu- economic development issues addressed. The dents. Sample questionnaires would have been problem of traditional development terminologyuseful for the community survey. Insufficient is also addressed. The work unit counters the background is provided in the lesson on Chico stereotype that poor people are lazy. A uniqueMendes' murder in Brazil for students to make feature involves the possibility of leasing a large decisions on much more than their initial biases. museum-quality display of children's art to tie in Recommended Level(s) for Use in with the two week unit. Teachers may want toClassroom Instruction: I/M, S restructure some of the individualistic learning activities into small group cooperative learning Snyder, Sarah. Teacher's Guide to World Resources: formats. Comprehensive Coursework on the Global Environment. World Resources Institute, 1709 New York Avenue, and summaries, however, lack the human face of N.W., Washington, DC 20006. 173 pages, $6.95. human interest stories. The official U.S. positions Three units focus on the environmental of the Bush Administration need updating. The impacts of automobiles, women, equity and sus- teacher may want to create more interactive tainable development, and a comparison of classroom activities to use with these resources. India'sandChina'ssustainabilityissues. Recommended Level(s) for Use in Curricular applications include geography, his- Classroom Instruction: S, H tory, and political science, as well as mathematics and science. These units consciously link the Wasserman, Pamela and Andrea Doyle. EARTH related topics of the environment and economic Matters: Studies for Our Global Future. Zero Population development. Each unit contains enough infor- Growth, 1400 Sixteenth Street, N.W., Suite 320, mation to teach one to several classes on the Washington, DC 20036. $19.95. 176 pages. topic, although additional print and audiovisual Topics include population dynamics, climate resources are listed for further extension lessons. change, air pollution, water resources, defores- The data are current and comprehensive, and tation, food and hunger, waste disposal, wildlife significant attention is given to possible solu- endangerment, energy issues, rich and poor, tions to problems. The first two units start withpopulation and economics, the world's women, activities involving U.S. or Canadian secondary findingsolutions.Curricularapplications students and the third unit begins with a brain- include social studies, economics, global studies, storm of what students already know, or think and interdisciplinary studies. Informative three- they know, about India and China. Many tables page articles on each topic are followed by two to and graphs can be used with students of all read- three activities that should engage students, ing levels, although many of the student reading along with extension activities. A good mix of materials are at a fairly high level and may be a global data and examples facilitates student-gen- challenge to some students. At the end of theerated comparisons. Answers are provided for third unit, brief quotations from individuals orworksheets. The common thread of population agencies from each country are included so stu- concerns connecting all lessons avoids specific dents have access to some non-U.S. perspectives. population control strategies. The challenge to This unit would have benefited from some liter-the "growth = good" assumption and the raising ary voices to provide a more human-centeredof ethics within economics are succinct door perspective on this highly analytical material. openers for economics teachers. The "dilemma" Recommended Level(s) for Use in cards in the ethics lesson, however, seem too Classroom Instruction: S, H transparent. It would be more teacher-friendly if such items as role cards and student instructions Tooke, Moyra, ed. EDIT #19: EARTH SUMMIT IN could just be duplicated for student use. REVIEW. Common Heritage Programme, 200 Recommended Level(s) for Use in Isabella Street, Suite 300, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada Classroom Instruction: S K1S 1V7, 77 pages plus 5 B&W photographs. C$30. Twenty-four readings on the results of the Additional Resources: June 1992 Earth Summit include numerous The 1994 Information Please Environmental Almanac. environmental-development issues. Curricular Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1994. applications include global studies and interna- Brown, Jeffrey L., Paula Gotsch et al. Sustaining the tional relations. Readings and discussion ques- Future: Activities for Environmental Education in US tions provide primary source materials from the History. Global Learning, Inc., 1018 Stuyvesant UN system, national governments, and news Avenue, Union, NJ 07083, 1995. media. They would be especially useful in a Brown, Lester R. et al. State of the World (Annual). Model UN based on the Earth Summit. New York W.W. Norton & Co., 1994. Multiple perspectives are provided, especially Brown, Lester R. et al. Vital Signs 1994: The Trends That from Canadian and "Third World" viewpoints. Are Shaping Our Future. New York W.W. Norton & The issue of poverty reduction receives strong Co., 1994. emphasis within the context of sustainable devel- Children and the Environment: The State of the opment. Positive outcomes within a complex Environment-1990. UNICEF House, 3 United global system are included. Official documents Nations Plaza, New York, NY 10017.

372 Choices: The Human Development Magazine. United Nations Development Programme, One United Nations Plaza, New York, NY 10017. Corson, Walter H. ed. The Global Ecology Handbook What You Can Do about the Environmental Crisis. Boston: Beacon Press, 1990. Danant, Jo, ed. Who's Doing What? A Directory of U.S. Organizations & Institutions Educating About Development and Other Global Issues. American Forum for Global Education, 120 Wall Street, Suite 2600, New York, NY 10005, 1991. The Environmental Crisis: Opposing Viewpoints Series. San Diego, CA: Greenhaven Press, Inc., 1991. The Environmental Data Book A Guide to Statistics on the Environment and Development. Washington, DC: The World Bank, 1993. Great Decisions (Annual Publication). Foreign Policy Associ- ation, 729 Seventh Avenue, New York, NY 10019. Goudie, Andrew. The Human Impact on the Natural Environment. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 1993. Kennedy, Moorhead & Martha Keys. Death of a Dissident: Simulation. American Forum for Global Education, 120 Wall Street, Suite 2600, New York, NY 10005. Kennedy, Moorhead & Martha Keys. Fire in the Forest: Simulation. American Forum for Global Education, 120 Wall Street, Suite 2600, New York, NY 10005. Lanier-Graham, Susan D. The Ecology of War: Environmental Impacts of Weaponry and Warfare. New York Walker and Co., 1993. Luderer, William, ed. Making Global Connections in the Middle School: Lessons on the Environment, Develop- ment & Equity. Global Learning, Inc., 1018 Stuyvesant Avenue, Union, NJ 07083, 1994. Hunger 1992: Second Annual Report on the State of World Hunger. Bread for the World Institute on Hunger & Development, 802 Rhode Island Avenue, NE, Washington, DC 20018, 1991. Seager, Joni, ed. The State of the Earth Atlas. New York, Simon & Schuster Inc., 1990. Simmons, I.G. Environmental History: A Concise Intro- duction. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 1993. The State of the World's Children (UNICEF's Annual Report). New York Oxford University Press, 1994. Third World Resources: A Quarterly Review. Third World Resources, 464 19th Street, Oakland, CA 94612- 2297. World Game Simulation. World Game Institute, 3508 Market Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104. World Resources 1994-95: A Guide to the Global Environ- ment. New York Oxford University Press, 1994.

373

'J 8 TEA HING ABOUT INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS: AN NNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

bq Na q Flowers

There has recently been a burgeoning inter- such as police, military personnel, health profes- est in the field of teaching about interna- sionals and journalists, it also offers many useful tional human rights, as teachers recognize ideas and teaching strategies for classroom teach- that understanding human rights is essen- ers. Of particular interest are the chapters on pro- tial to world citizenship in the twenty-first fessional training for teachers in human rights, century. which include classroom activities for all grade levels, and on street law for teenagers. Amnesty International Human Rights for Children Committee. Human Rights for Children, A Craig, Ann Armstrong. The Refugee Experience: Teaching Curriculum for Teaching Human Rights to Children Guide. New York Women's Commission for Aged 3-12. Alameda, CA: Hunter House, Inc., Refugee Women and Children, 122 E. 42nd St., Box 2914, Alameda, CA, 94501-0914, 1992. New York, NY 10016, 1994. Written by a group of Amnesty International This packet, which includes a teaching educators, this resource book for teachers is guide, maps, selected readings, and a video, pro- structured around ten fundamental principlesvides everything a teacher of intermediate or derived from the 1959 UN Declaration on the high school needs to teach a unit on refugees. Rights of the Child. Each principle is presented The topics covered include how people become with a teaching strategy that interprets it forrefugees, life in refugee camps, who cares for classroom use and a series of activities that give refugees, repatriation, asylum, and the human life and meaning to the strategy. These creative rights of refugees. Carefully balanced both polit- activities include a variety of subject areas (geog- ically and geographically, the text focuses on a raphy, mathematics, language arts, social studies, few specific areas as illustrations of a global art, music, and physical education) and are crisis: Afghanistan, Cambodia, Mozambique. divided into three different developmental lev- Activities include the examination of current els: the pre-school child, the primary child, and media, role playing, and community involve- the upper-elementary school child. Following ment. Also included are a directory of organiza- each section is a useful annotated bibliography tions working on behalf of refugees and an of additional resources. annotated bibliography.

Claude, Richard Pierre, ed. Human Rights Education Donahue, David and Nancy Flowers. Uprooted, Refugees Handbook Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania and the United States. Alameda. CA: Hunter House, Press, 1994. Inc., Box 2914, Alameda. CA, 94501-0914, 1994. This collection of essays draws together both Most people in the United States cannot dis- theoretical and practical insights on teachingtinguish between a refugee and an immigrant. human rights, as well as illuminating case studiesThrough classroom activities for many subject of on-going projects in Asia, Africa, Latin areas (U.S. History, government, world history, America and Central and Western Europe. geography, English, and art), this resource cur- Although this book defines human rights educa- riculum addresses the history of refugees in the tion very broadly, including training for adultsU.S.A., international legal standards and prac-

9 P..) C..".) tices, and current refugee issues. The final chapter, dignity. Hers is the only book that takes a devel- "Refugees in Your Community?" leads students to opmental approach to the subject, with each investigate their own towns and encourages com-chapter discussing the social and developmental munity service. The appendices contain useful purposes for teaching human rights at a particu- bibliographies and filmographies, a directory oflar age level; the activities that follow model refugee organizations, and the text of internation- those suggestions. The authors of the individual al human rights declarations and conventions. lessons provide a rich variety of styles and creative ideas. One chapter offers lists of resource McQuoid-Mason, David, et al. Human Rights for All. agencies and curriculum materials. Education towards a Rights Culture. St. Paul, MN: West Educational Publishing, 1994. Selby, David. Human Rights. Cambridge, England: A joint project between Lawyers for Human Cambridge University Press, 1988. Rights (South Africa) and the National Institute The strength of this text is its examination of for Citizen Education in the Law (USA), this different conceptions of human rights and the innovative curriculum was initially written to conflicts that necessarily arise, such as between prepare young South Africans for participation the right to security and to liberty. Case studies in democracy. The text has now been edited for from East Timor, the former Soviet Union, Latin publication in the U.S.A., where the issues it America, Western Europe and North America addresses are no less relevant. Students are askedserve to illustrate these conflicts. Although to grapple with hard questions: how to createsomewhat dated, the book takes a more global a new country and determine its bill of rights, perspective than many U.S. publications, which how to balance national security against individ- tend to define rights in terms of the U.S. Bill of ual liberties, and how to resolve conflicts non- Rights. The work of the UN and international violently, among others. Unlike many U.S. cur- human rights groups is also discussed. The book riculums, which emphasize civil and political contains illustrations, an index, photographs, and rights, Human Rights for All gives equal impor- a resource guide. tance to social and economic rights. Shiman, David. Teaching Human Rights. Denver: CTIR Merkling, Melissa and Patricia M. Mische, eds. Publications, University of Denver, 1993. "Human Rights," Breakthrough 10 (winter/spring This collection of classroom activities offers 1989). New York: Global Education Associates, 475 innovative ways of teaching about some familiar Riverside Drive, Suite 1848, New York, NY 10115. themes. Initial lessons introduce students to the This issue of Breakthrough, the publication ofUniversal Declaration of Human Rights and Global Education Associates, focuses on human ask them to compare its provisions with those in rights and reflects the organization's goal to the U.S. Bill of Rights and the African Charter "advance world peace and security, cooperative on Human and People's Rights. Drawing on economic development, human rights, and eco- examples from Chile, the People's Republic of logical sustainability" through education. Indi-China, Kenya, South Africa, and the former vidual articles provide a history of human rights, Soviet Union, the activities encourage students an overview of human rights systems and docu- to make cross-cultural comparisons and examine ments, examination of specific issues such as their own society and experiences. Students are women's rights and economic rights, and a verycontinually challenged to think independently original section on human rights and religions,and to clarify their views on difficult topics: with articles from members of different worldAre human rights truly universal, or are they faiths. Throughout the text are poetry and quota- subject to cultural relativism? What is the relations from distinguished writers. Back issues oftion between political freedom and the quality of this volume are available. life in a country? Teaching Human Rights has broad application across the curriculum, includ- Reardon, Betty. Educating for Human Dignity. ing a collection of poetry, a crossword puzzle, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1994. and a range of activities that require research and Drawing on her many years as a peace edu- written expression well suited to many courses. cator, Betty Reardon has compiled a sampler of the best lessons for teaching human rights and

375 Starkey, Hugh, ed. The Challenge of Human Rights Educa- excluding, however, the Conventions on the tion. London: Cassell Educational Limited, 1991. Rights of the Child and the Women's Conven- As one of its major purposes, the Council oftion, which were ratified by the UN after the Europe strives to "uphold the principles of parlia- handbook's publication date. mentary democracy and human rights." Published by the Council, this compilation of essays provides Literature and Personal Narratives the most comprehensive overview available on Stories of individuals, from both fiction and teaching human rights. Its approach as well as its the testimony of witnesses, give immediacy, authorship, which includes both Canadian and authenticity, and a human face to rights issues. U.S. educators, is international. Most chapters Argueta, Manlio. One Day of Life. New York Vintage, focus on what and how to teach in different levels 1983. and institutional settings, as well as on specific A lyrical first-person novel relating a day of both issues such as multiculturalism, women's rights, terror and hope in the life of a Salvadoran peasant and global studies. Many essays also contain sug- during the civil war. gestions for classroom activities. Also included is Atwood, Margaret. The Handmaid's Tale. New York the text of the Council's Recommendations on Faucett, 1986. Teaching and Learning Human Rights and Following a nuclear war, militant Christian funda- insightful discussion on its implementation. mentalists control society, including reproduction. Burgos-Debray, Elisabeth. I Ri goberta Menchu: An United Nations. ABC, Teaching Human Rights: Practical Indian Woman in Guatemala. New York Verso, 1990. Activities for Primary and Secondary Schools. New Autobiography of the Nobel Peace Prize winner, York United Nations, 1989. a Guatemalan Indian who has struggled for her For the teacher just beginning to teach people's rights. human rights, this booklet provides the ideal Cheng, Nien. Life and Death in Shanghai. New York starting point. Available in English, French, and Viking Penguin, 1988. Spanish (the official languages of the UN), its Despite persecution by the Red Guards and long activities and teaching strategies are intended to imprisonment, Nien Cheng refused to collaborate be effective in any cultural setting and to cover with the forces of violent change in her country. thespectrum of rightsincludedinthe Coetzee, J.M. Waiting for the Barbarians. New York International Bill of Rights. It offers a rationale Penguin, 1982. for teaching human rights and recommends A modern parable by one of South Africa's finest methodologies that model fundamental concepts writers: the commander of a garrison at the edge such as inclusiveness, equality, and tolerance of of "civilization" must weigh his duty against his differences. Sample activities for elementary age humanity. students stress respect for self and others; inter- Forche, Carolyn, ed. Against Forgetting: Twentieth mediate and secondary lessons deal with such Century Poetry of Witness. New York W.W. Norton themes as peace and the right to life, develop- & Co., 1993. ment and the environment, freedoms of con- This splendid anthology serves as a compass of the science and expression, and discrimination based human tragedies of the century, which are orga- on qualities such as race, gender, or disability. nized by topics such as World War I, the Indo- Pakistani Wars, and African Repression and Whalen, Lucille. Human Rights: a Reference Handbook. Apartheid. Containing works from more than one Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, Inc., 1990. hundred and forty poets from five continents, the The ideal resource for any course on human collection necessarily unites many cultures through rights, this handbook offers a history of human the common experience of suffering. rights in the twentieth century, biographical Solzhenitsyn, Alexander. One Day in the Life of Ivan sketches of human rights heroes, and thoroughly Denisovitch. New York Penguin, 1977. annotated listings of human rights organizations, Through the experience of a single prisoner in a books, periodicals, and films, as well as electron- Soviet gulag, Solzhenitsyn captures both the brutal- ic information sources such as computer net- ity of the system and the dignity of the individual. works and databases. The final section provides Wiesel, Elie. Night. New York Viking Penguin, 1982. the texts of the most significant international The memoir of a young boy who survives human rights declarations and conventions, Auschwitz with his life but not his faith.

376

_ 38 7 CHILREN'S RIGHTS

bq Beverq C. Edmonds

Amnesty International Human Rights for Children A thorough presentation of children's rights, Committee. Human Rights for Children: A Curriculum geared for ages 813. The Teacher's Handbook for Teaching Human Rights to Children Ages 3 -12. offers a clear explanation of the CRC and its Alameda, California: Hunter House, 1992, 68pp. rights, the history of children's rights and two (Obtain from Hunter House, Inc., P.O. Box 2914, mind maps explaining how the rights are related. Alameda, CA 94501-0451 or Amnesty International). Emphasizing active learning, each booklet offers Human Rights for Children takes ten princi- a variety of stories, activities, worksheets, pictures ples asserting the child's right to be protected and cartoon sequences, to engage children in and provided for from an early United Nations learning about their own rights and to appreciate proclamation, the Declaration on the Rights the rights of all children. The content is multi- of the Child (1959) and develops activities to cultural and appeals to children with all levels of explain them to the young child, the primary skills, facilitating individual country studies and child and the upper elementary child. For each current events investigations as well as an principle, the authors explain the meaning, offeremphasis on global issues. The provision and active teaching strategies (such as drawing, mea- protection rights are rooted in real-world situa- suring, discussing, visiting, and group awareness tions, offering children a variety of action strate- exercises), and suggest content areas, materials, gies which range from learning about problems activities and children's books to which theyto writing letters and publicizing their con- relate. The focus is on the child's general devel- cerns.A small drawback is that the book is writ- opment: identity, toleration for others, family ten for schools in the United Kingdom, but the and community awareness, providing curriculum lessons are fully applicable in the USA. for pre-secondary education. The curriculum is imaginative, clearly organized and laid out, and Nurkse, Dennis and Kay Castelle. In the Spirit of Peace; appropriate for the grade levels suggested. A Global Introduction to Children's Rights. New York: In spite of the curriculum's emphasis on active Defense for Children International, 1990, 64 pp. learning, the principles and the activities empha- [Obtain through Defense for Children size others protecting and providing for the International-USA, 30 Irving Place, 9th Floor, child, rather than children exercising rights New York, New York 1003] The CRC is examined themselves. through 23 principles (i.e., freedom from discrimination, refugee children, juvenile justice, rehabilitative UNICEF-UK and Save the Children. TeachingAbout care, protection of privacy). the [United Nations] Convention on the Rights of the Each topic is a 5-10 paragraph (or cartoon Child (CRC). London: UNICEF, 1993. [Obtain from sequence) presentation of a children's rights vio- UNICEF, UNICEF House, 3 United Nations Plaza, lation and the background of the country in New York, New York 10017]. Teacher's Handbook, which it occurred; a map is often included. The 40 pp.: (with the CRC text); Book 1, 54 pages: authors provide discussion questions and activi- The Whole Child (the participation articles); Book 2, ties for each story, as well as an unofficial sum- 78 pp.: It's Our Right (the provision rights), and mary of articles of the CRC and its full text. book 3: Keep us Safe, 76 pp.: (the protection rights). Based on the New York Board of Regents' guidelines, the booklet is illustrated by young people This special section of Social Education intro- and excellent for late middle school and highduces and gives a history of the United Nations school world history classes, civics and currentConvention on the Rights of the Child to U.S. events. The activities suggest investigation of the teachers and provides a rationale for its inclusion issues, examination of the community and in the curriculum. Lesson plans, suggestions for the world, and ways to take action on behalf ofteachers, and information on the state of chil- children. The content is mature in nature, butdren's rights teaching around the world are presented in such a way that students will appre-included; the emphasis is on teaching World and ciate that they have some control over their envi-U.S. History, Current Issues, and International ronment; it celebrates those who stand up forRelations. The articles by governmental and children's rights, and has several examples fromnon-governmental organization representatives the United States. about the drafting of the document give an insider's look at the treaty's meaning and Children Hungeringfor Justice. Denver, Colorado: Center potential for ameliorating the condition of chil- for Teaching International Relations, 1992. dren. The international teaching section is the Three 20-page curricula are provided on the weakest component since the convention had topics of justice, street children, the right to food,just been adopted by the U.N. when the special the role of the United Nations and the Conven- section was written. Since 1992, UNICEF and tion on the Rights of the Child. The curriculumnon-governmental organizations have been treats the same themes with increasingly matureinstrumental in getting the Convention includ- activities and discussions for grades K-4, 5-8 and ed in national and local curricula. 9-12. There is good teacher background information and grade-appropriate lessons, with 'The Rights of the Child." New York UNICEF, 1992. charts, diagrams and tables. Underwritten by the A strong, high school/ adult-oriented video Church World Service, the presentations avoid on the problems which the world's children ideology and facilitate teacher-student discus- face, beginning with the problem and ending sions about what is fair and just for the world'swith UNICEF programs which have alleviated children. Teachers of Geography, World and U.S. their suffering. Footage from the five major history and Current Issues will appreciate these UN world areasis graphic and immediate. pamphlets, which can be purchased separately. The framework for the video is the Convention The resource is highly selective of children'son the Rights of the Child, but UNICEF has rights, but in doing so, it is effective in clarifying created a fourth "P,""Prevention," which repre- issues and possible solutions. sents its primary UN mandate. Issues of protection and provision are stressed, nearly omitting UNICEF, The State of the World's Children. New York the child's rights of participation. The video Oxford University Press, 1995. lasts 23 minutes. Offering a new edition each year, this summary is the basic source of information (facts and 'The Universal Declaration of Human Rights,"(U.N. statistics) for high school students or for teachers Department of Publications, United Nations, New who want to make up their own units on chil- York 10017) dren's rights. Categories include literacy, poverty, This video is narrated by young people and health status, etc. Bill Fernekes and David concentrates on the rights of children even Shiman have suggested ways to use this resource though the topic is general human rights. It is in a special section on the Rights of the Child for appropriate for grades 7 and 8 and high school, Social Education (see below). The State of the but once again, does not emphasize participatory World's Children is the only place where the mostrights. recent information can be obtained inexpensive- ly by U.S. teachers. For use in Geography, World Edmonds, Beverly C. and William R. Fernekes. and U.S. History and Current Issues classes. Contemporary World Issues: Children's Rights. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-Clio, 1996. 300 pages. Edmonds, Beverly C. and William R. Femekes, eds., ISBN 0-87436-764-6. $39.00. 'The Rights of the Child," Social Education. v. 56, This reference book introduces readers to the No. 4, ApriVMay, 1992. history and practice of children's rights in the

378 UnitedStates and internationallyinthe English-speaking world. It is appropriate for readers in secondary schools and higher education. The book includes a history of children's rights, a chronology of significant events in their emergence, biographies of pathbreakers in children's rights and an extensive collection of documents, statistics and summaries of U.S. Supreme Court decisions chronicling the development of children's rights in the twentieth century. Other chapters include a list of organizations that advocate children's rights and publish materials on the contemporary status of children. An extensive listing of print and non- print resources is provided, which includes many Internet World Wide Web and Gopher sites on children's rights and related issues.

379 390 ll ord bh James P. Shaver

THE PROSPECTS FOR Why the Scarcity of ISSUES-CENTERED EDUCATION Issues-Centered Teaching? The paucity of issues-centered education is To serve with Shirley Engle as a bookend for undoubtedly due to a number of factors, dis- a collection of writings on issues-centered cussed in greater detail elsewhere (Evans 1989; education is a special privilege. Shirley was Gross 1989; Oliver and Shaver 1966/1974; surely among the more articulate and vocalShaver 1989; also see Onosko 1991). First and advocates for a social studies curriculumforemost are the demands that issues-centered based on the examination of significantinstruction places on teachers. Although the social problems. He was without peer in his availability of issues-structured materials makes unflagging passion for changing the curriculuman issues-centered curriculum more feasible, from a predominantly unengaging survey ofthe heart of such an approach is the teacher's dis- oversimplified content to one that challengescourse with his or her students. As Oliver and students to become thoughtful, committed indi- I (1966/1974) noted in regard to one variation of viduals as they mature into their democraticissues-centered education, the jurisprudential citizenship roles. approach, the teacher must be In writing the foreword to this handbook, Shirley was, as usual, on the mark in his assess- open to the exploration of ideas, ... able to ment of the inert, unreflective nature of much of think in other than categorical terms and to what passes for social studies and in his appraisal tolerate the conflict of ideas and ideals,... of the inappropriateness of such instruction for haveatentative-probabilistic view of citizenship education. His call for teaching that knowledge,...[have] an intelligent, open, addresses the "uncertain and the controversial" in inquiring and imaginative mind... ,[value] "a continued conversation between students and positively [students'] ways of interpreting their mentors while they search together for bet- reality and approaching the solution of ter ways of doing things" set well the agenda for problems...,[and] be willing to interact this handbook, as well as for all of those con- freely with his [or her] students, accepting cerned with citizenship education as an essential their contributions as valuable and worth- obligation of public education. while to build on. (p. 240) But what are the prospects for widespread change from textbook coverage to issues-cen- In addition, an issues-oriented social studies tered instruction? The answer to that questionteacher must have an adequately broad base of must be framed in the context of another query: knowledge in history and the social sciences, a What circumstances maintain a social studies sound understanding of the nature of values and curriculum that students too frequently see astheir role in the creation and resolution of politi- irrelevant and uninteresting, and impede teach-cal-ethical controversies, and thorough compre- ing that would more effectively enhance students' hension of the analytic skills that students need decision-making power? to learn to handle the language and factual vaguenesses and disagreements that foster con-

31 troversy and must be addressed for productive A teacher who doesn't attend to the traditional decision-making. curriculum may be seen as ineffective, as well as Such a set of teacher characteristics is no potentially involving his colleagues in communi- small order, and will not result from a directive ty dissatisfaction. by someone elsewhether a district curriculum In any event, content coverage is often coordinator or a university professor in a meth-deemed to be critical, because of the belief that ods courseto teach from an issues/problem issues should not be discussed without first estab- perspective. To what extent such teachers are lishing a solid base of information. From that born or made is not clear. The answer is clouded perspective, issue discussions are not seen as by the fact that prospective teachers have experi- springboards to learning, but as culminating enced so little issues-centered instruction in activities. However, the discussions rarely occur, their own K-12 schooling and at the higher- because surveying the prerequisite information education level. That lack of practicing models base is so compellingly time-consuming, and the on which teachers can pattern issues-centered assumed need for the superficial coverage of sur- teaching behavior is to some degree a function vey courses goes largely unquestioned. The study of institutional constraints. material, textbooks for the most part, is informa- Schools are not in general innovative institution focused. Testing emphasizes getting the tions, and teachers who want to use nontradi-"correct" answer, stated in the textbook and tional patterns of teaching that might induceknown by the teacher, to be repeated back by the lively, even heated, classroom discussions oftenstudent, not constructed through the student's do not find a great deal of support. Principalsproblem-centered engagement with the content. tend to be concerned with maintaining an order- The constraining institutional culture is, of ly school that projects an image of stability to the course, usually congruent with the teacher's own community; curricula that emphasize controver-educational background. He or she is likely to sy and dialectic discourse are troublesome fromhave had grades awarded for knowing content, that perspective. Moreover, in their hesitancynot for being reflective about it, except within the about active student inquiry, principals typicallya priori essay-exam parameters established arbi- are in accord with the communities their schools trarily by a teacher/professor. Teacher education serve. Schools are expected to teach knowledge courses, too, tend to focus on how-to-do-it, rather i.e., factsnot engage children, or even the than on analysis leading to decisions about what young adults of high school age, in the discussion to do; educational philosophy too often is some- of controversial issues, past or present, especiallything to be studied, not something to be done. if they might be led to question, or worse, chal- In all fairness, however, the best efforts of lenge, parental views. Issues-centered teaching teacher educators to produce teachers who will focused on contemporary issues is not the only engage students in learning to be thoughtful threat. The consideration of issues in not-recent citizens, or in the construction rather than mem- U.S. history might evoke negative communityorization of knowledge, often founder on the reactions, especially if the discussions stimulate community-school culturethat prospective students to reflect on modern issues, such as the teachers so often encounter during practice extent of present-day personal and societal teaching and as neophyte professionals. They responsibility for the effects of slavery in early learn from their teaching colleagues not only America. the expectations in regard to textbook coverage Not only principals, but teachers for the most and quiet classrooms, but that content can and part reflect the views of the local community, or should be used for student control (e.g., assigning they would not have been hired in the first place. extra reading or papers to noisy or unprepared So, the new teacher eager to initiate issues-cen- students, or threatening an unruly class with a tered teaching, or the experienced teacher who test) and that assignments are often best negoti- might want to do so, may face a nonsupportive, ifated with the students so that neither they nor not antagonistic, peer culture. Other teachers will the teacher is inundated with work. Little won- be worried about textbook coverage; that the req- der that Goodlad (1983) found the general uisite chapters are read, discussed, and tested is emphasis on information recall in social studies often considered more important than what the that Shirley Engle lamented in his foreword. students learned or felt about the content area.

381 3 '12 What, Then, Are the Prospects? I The survey nature of textbooks is often It is easy to sketch a gloomy picture of school- lamented as a major dulling effect on social stud- ing when viewed through an issues-centered lens. ies instruction. As noted earlier, however, the Although valid in its general dimensions, thatteacher's orientation is much more important portrayal should not be allowed to dictatethan the students' reading material. Teachers despondency about efforts to promote or conduct conscious of the possibilities can have issues-cen- issues-centered education. After reviewing the tered discourse in their classes, even with con- National Science Foundation's studies of the sta- ventional textbooks. Nothing in the material, for tus of social studies in the late 1970s, I, O.L. example, stops a U.S. history teacher from posing Davis, and Suzanne Helburn (1980) concluded for his or her students the quandary of the that, despite the evidence that pointed to socialincompatibility of the principles of the Declara- studies curricula dominated by textbook-basedtion of Independence with the contemporaneous recitation, there were instances of exciting, even institution of slavery, as a sample item in the brilliant, teaching. Based on her review of theNational Standards for United States History NSF studies, Hazel Hertzberg (1981) concludedsuggests (National Center [1994], p. 75). that although the basic picture sketched out by If the teacher deems that materials other than me, Davis, and Helburn, was correct, there was the textbook are needed, they can be located or evidence of more discussion of controversialconstructed. Most of the materials of the issues than we had recognized. Harvard Project were selected from accessible Issues-centered education does happen, asmedia, including the information for the case each of us can probably confirm by our experi- studies we prepared. I have often told teachers ences as parents or as professional visitors inwho cite the lack of materials as a barrier to schools. I think of my son's sociology teacher in issues-centered, especially public-issues, teaching a rural, conservative, northern Utah communitynot to be overwhelmed by the task of develop- in the 1970s, who involved his classes in the ing an entire issues-centered curriculum such as consideration of issuesascontroversial as that of the Harvard Project (which, as presented whether abortion should be an option available in Oliver and Shaver 1966/1974, along with the to women. And, more recently, another son discussion of selection and arrangement issues, struggled with a world geography class that still provides an excellent model for incorporat- involved largely the completion of worksheets ing public issues within a conventional history and map coloring, while the deployment of ourcurriculum). The task becomes manageable if troops in Desert Storm went unmentioned, onlyapproached a unit at a time. A teacher who to move down the hallway the next semester to a develops one new 4- to 6-week unit a year to teacher who saw world geography as a means to supplement or supplant the textbook, revising help students understand and reflect about prob- each as it is used, will in five to six years have lems such as global conflict, acid rain, and the basically installed a new curriculum. spread of AIDS. Fortunately, there is no longer a dearth of In short, although there islittle hope ofissues-centered materials and assistance in the widespread systemic change from the traditional, educational literature as was the case in the 1960s content-centered social studies curriculum to an and 1970s. Popular magazines, such as Newsweek issues-centered curriculum, that is not reason for and The Atlantic Monthly, have become even total despair. As the NSF studies of curricular more issue oriented in recent years. Perhaps more status, especially the case studies, made clear, the important, issues-oriented materials can be teacher is the key to what happens in the class- found in publishers' displays at professional room. Whatever curricular decisions are made ormeetings, including the updated Public Issues avoided at the national, state, or school districtSeries from the Harvard Project, published by level, the teacher's day-by-day contacts with stu- the Social Science Education Consortium. dents determine the curriculum that they actual- Another example, for those interested in issues- ly experience. Individual teachers can and do centered teaching in U.S. history, is the Ford depart from the conventional curriculum, even Foundation-sponsored American Social History within discouraging, restrictive cultural contexts. Project at the City University of New York. The And there are schools in which issues-centered project staff have been producing materials and teaching is supported. propagating teaching to encourage the examina-

382 tion of historical conflicts, especially at the level select teacher-education applicants and/or to of common people rather than political and mil- influence the thinking and attitudes of school itary leaders (Quinn 1993). administrators, teachers, and parents and other Materials developed earlier should not be school patrons. ignored. For teachers interested in an explication A more modest approach could, however, of public-issues-related analytic concepts and yield substantial, even if not widespread, effects skills, and suggestions for teaching them, to sup- in both arenas. It is the encouragement of philo- plement the Harvard Project conceptual struc- sophical thinking, that is, the explication and ture, many educational archives still contain the examination of assumptions, their relationships Analysis of Public Issues Program materials that and implications, by prospective and practicing I and Larkins (1973) developed in cooperation teachers. with a team of teachers from Roy High School A prime proponent of problem-centered (Roy, UT). For teachersof history,the teaching, John Dewey (1964b), no mean Lockwood and Harris (1985a,b) materials for philosopher himself, regarded educational phi- introducing ethical issues in U.S. history will still losophy as "ultimately the most significant phase provide excellent assistance in infiltrating the of philosophy" (p. 16). And Dewey did not con- curriculum, despite some shortcomings that ceive of such philosophy as an esoteric activity teachers should address (Shaver 1986). carried out by academicians isolated on universi- Yet, once again it is crucial to keep in mind ty campuses. He emphasized that philosophy that, when all is said and done, materials are not was not just a subject to be studied prior to the central consideration. As Oliver and I notedbecoming a teacher, but an activity in which (1966/1974), "while appropriate materials will be ofpracticing teachers and administrators should assistance..., the essence ofjurisprudential teaching is be continuously engaged to "test and develop the nature of the discourse the teacher chooses to have [ideas] in their actual work so that through the with his [or her] students," (239). Shirley Engle's union of theory and practice, the philosophy of recounting in the foreword to this book of his education will be a living, growing thing" (p. 16). experience in Frederick Paxon's History of the Otherwise, Dewey cautioned, teaching not West class at the University of Wisconsin inbased on a "well-thought-out philosophy" is 1936 illustrates the point well: It is the teacher's likely to be "conducted blindly, under the control attitude and orientation, and ability to translate of customs and traditions that have not been those into teaching behavior, that count. examined or in response to immediate social For that reason, based on the reasonable pressures" (p. 17). Dewey's admonition over 50 assumption that teaching behavior is not totallyyears ago is an accurate assessment of a major genetically determined or set by early adulthood, attribute of current educationthoughtlessness teacher educators have a potentially powerful role that perpetuates textbook recitation and impedes in shaping the prospects for issues-centered issues-centered teaching. education. They may be able to counter the past Dewey's call for the intertwining of work and experiences of individual prospective and practic- thought derives from his view of how thinking ing teachers and help them to mitigate theand, consequently, learning, occur. It would potentially stifling effects of a community-school behoove teacher educators, prospective teachers, culture not attuned to controversy as an appro- and practicing teachers interested in issues- priate or essential instructional focus. centered teaching to read and then return occa- It is tempting to recommend that only those sionally to Dewey's works, especially How We who possess the essential traits for issues-cen-Think (1933) and Democracy and Education tered teaching noted earlier be admitted to (1916/1961), and to contemplate their applica- teacher education programs, but such a proposalbility not only to children but to adults. would be blatantly unrealistic. Similarly, to urge a Dewey was not only issues-centered (if an massive effort by teacher educators to revolution-issue is, as seems logical, considered to be a ize the institutional-cultural context of schoolingproblem posed correctly), but a constructivist. to facilitate, if not encourage, issues-centeredHe emphasized that learning occurs as each instruction would be hopelessly utopian. Bothindividual constructs his or her reality in the are, nevertheless, actions worth pursuing locallyprocess of dealing with problemsquandaries, by individuals in positions to encourage andperplexities, dissonancesthat have personal

383

394 meaning. He noted that if schooling were not so tion for his or her teaching decisionsthat is, scholasticfocused on "listening, reading, and Dewey's philosophy of education. The philoso- the reproduction of what is told and read"but, phizing that goes into the development of a rather, based on situations like those that inter- coherent, defensible rationale entails more than est and engage children in their nonschool lives, examining assumptions about how we learn. we might counter the tendency for children, Other considerations, especially for issues-cen- especially as they move through the grades, to be tered social studies teachers, include the essence "so full of questions outside of school...[but to of a democratic society and the implications for have a] conspicuous absence of display of curios- the characterization of citizenship, including the ity about the subject matter of school lessons" role of pluralism, the nature of values, and the (1916/1961, p. 155). Indeed, rather than having consequent roles of both in societal conflict. to force students to read textbooks and go to To be defensible, issues-centered teaching encyclopedias for writing assignments, withmust be based on more than the assertion that problems as the basis for learning, Dewey sug- controversy is good for its own sake or that it gested, there would then be a need for greater keeps students interested, as important as the lat- student access to reading and other resources. ter is. The ability to articulate a well-founded Dewey's call for active engagement in learn- basis for engaging students in the examination of ing applies to adults as well as children. issues is crucial to garnering support from one's Problems/issues-centered instruction is needed fellow teachers and from administrators, parents, in teacher education as well as in public educa- and the community. The importance of a careful- tion, not only to provide teaching role models ly constructed rationale was verified for me per- but to stimulate critical thought about current sonally during the development of the Analysis practice and the rationale for issues-centered of Public Issues Program as Larkins and I taught instruction. Lack of student interest in social as part of a team with our teacher-collaborators. studies is a concern faced by many prospective The occasional inquiries by parents, who certain- and practicing teachers. It is a real problem ly were within their rights in questioning the because of its consequences for teacher well- challenges we were providing their progeny, were being. If posed correctly, contemplation of the deflected by a principal who understood well possible reasons for lack of student interest canwhat we were doing and in conversations I had result in the productive examination of assump-with parents in which we discussed the rationale tions about the purposes of schooling and about for our issues-centered curriculum. A carefully how people learn, integral elements of a sound justified rationale is essential to teaching about rationale from which to teach (e.g., Newmann controversy without becoming controversial. 1977; Shaver and Berlak 1968). The engagement of prospective and practic- Conclusion ing teachers in rationale-building has implica- As noted earlier, broad systemic change from tions not only for their willingness and ability the traditional curriculum is not likely. However, to teach from an issues stance within the infor- the coincidental publication of standards for cur- mation-centered school and community climate, ricula in social studies and related areas makes but for their professional survival while doing so. this a propitious time for this handbook and for Years ago (in 1977, to be exact), I was invited to issues-centered education. Curriculum standards give a luncheon address to the New Mexico from the National Council for the Social Studies Council for the Social Studies on the topic, (1994) would be expected to evince concern for "How to Deal with Controversial Issues in theissues, especially public issues, and they doin Classroom Without Becoming Controversial in discussing what social studies is and the applica- the Community." My emphasis that day came tion of knowledge, skills, and values as citizens from a deep continuing conviction that I have (pp. 3-12), as well as in numerous examples of stated elsewhere (e.g., Shaver 1977; Shaver and classroom activities to meet the standards. The Strong 1982), based on my earlier work with National Standards for Civics and Government, Donald Oliver (1966/1974). It is that the most developed by the Center for Civic Education fundamental activity in which a teacher can (1994), also has a strong issues orientation. As is engage isrationale-building, the continuing particularly appropriate, the civics-government development of a sound philosophical founda- standards are permeated with a focus on issues

384 that involve disagreements over basic democratic which the political knowledge, skill, and values and principles and, specifically, conflicts attitude goals of citizenship education are over rights (e.g., p. xii). not being achieved ... suggests that much Not as expected, and therefore even more of what is being taught is inappropriate. encouraging, are the sections in the U.S. history What should be taught and how are critical and world history standards (National Center decisions to be made specifically by individ- [1994], 1994) on "historical issues-analysis and ual social studies teachers whose separate decision-making," including "value-laden issues" choices have a collective impact of major in historical and contemporary contexts ([1994], importance to the society (p. 133). pp. 31-33; 1994, pp. 32-34), and the occasional inclusion of such issues in the examples of stu- It is in the accumulative power of individual dent achievement appropriate to the standards.teachers' decisions that the future of issues-cen- For example, in the standard on racial and gender tered education lies.This handbook enhances equity and civil liberties, the question is posed, the prospect for optimism about the outcome. "Was Eisenhower justified in sending troops to Little Rock, Arkansas?" ([1994], p. 221). Unfortunately, it is not clear what effects the References standards will have. Will, for example, their Center for Civic Education. National Standards for impacts on textbooks be sufficient to moderate Civics and Government. Calabasas, CA: CCE, the stultifying content-survey curriculum? The August 19, 1994. vocal opposition to the history standards from Dewey, John. How we Think: A Restatement of the persons such as Lynne Cheney, former head of Relation of Reflective Thinking to the Educative Process. the National Endowment for the Humanities, Boston: D.C. Heath, 1933. who see the U.S. history standards as "the sad Dewey, John. Democracy and Education: An Introduction and the bad," a too critical and gloomy portrayal to the Philosophy of Education. New York Macmillan, of our heritage (Hancock and Biddle 1994), sug- 1961. (Original work published 1916) gests that optimism about widespread effects Dewey, John. "My Pedagogic C\reed." In John Dewey on may be premature. Education: Selected Writings, edited by Reginald D. In the meantime, the prospects for issues- Archambault. New York Random House, 1964a. centered education continue to rest with individ- (Original work published 1897) ual teachers. This handbook should be an Dewey, John. "The Relation of Science and Philosophy invaluable source for those who want to under- as a Basis for Education." In John Dewey on stand the justifications for issues-centered edu- Education: Selected Writings, edited by Reginald D. cation, consider its varying manifestations and Archambault. New York Random House, 1964b. its applications in different content areas, learn (Original work published 1938) about the resources available, and be helped to Evans, Ronald W. "A Dream Unrealized: A Brief Look think about the implementation of issues-cen- at the History of Issues-Centered Approaches." The tered teaching practices. Readers will find the Social Studies 80 (September/October 1989): 178184. handbook useful as a resource in the develop- Goodlad, John I. A Place Called School: Prospects for the ment of their own rationales, one to which they Future. New York McGrawHill, 1983. will return on occasion in the "continuing recon- Gross, Richard E. "Reasons for the Limited Acceptance struction of experience" (Dewey 1964a, p. 434) of the Problems Approach." The Social Studies 80 that is crucial as the issues-centered teacher con- (1989): 185186. fronts the issues that underlie and arise from his Hancock, LynNell and Nina A. Biddle. "Red, White or her instructional decisions. and Blue. Education: Conflict Over a New History Those reflections and the resultant actions by Curriculum." Newsweek (November 1994): 54. individual teachers are at the heart of the poten- Hertzberg, Hazel W. Social Studies Reform: 1880-1980. tial for issues-centered education. In concluding Boulder, CO: Social Science Education Consortium, a chapter in another handbook for educators 1981. (Shaver 1987), I noted that Lockwood, Alan L. and David E. Harris. Reasoning with Democratic Values: Ethical Problems in United the evidence as to the lack of student inter- States History, Volume 1: 16071876. New York est [in social studies] and the extent to Teachers College Press, 1985a

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ABLE BEST COPYNM Lockwood, Alan L. and David E. Harris. Reasoning Precollege Science, Mathematics, and Social Science with Democratic Values: Ethical Problems in United Education? Views fivm the Field Washington, DC: States History, Volume 2: 1877 to the Present. National Science Foundation (Publication SE80), New York Teachers College Press, 1985b. 1980. National Center for History in the Schools. National Shaver, James P. and A. Guy Larkins. The Analysis of Standards for United States History: Exploring the Public Issues Program. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1973. American Experience. Los Angeles: University of Shaver, James P. and William Strong. Facing Value California, Los Angeles, [1994]. Decisions: Rationale-Building for Teachers. 2d ed., National Center for History in the Schools. National New York Teachers College Press, 1982. Standards for World History: Exploring Paths to the Present. Los Angeles: University of California, Los Angeles, 1994. National Council for the Social Studies. Expectations of Excellence: Curriculum Standards for Social Studies. Washington, DC: NCSS, 1994. Newmann, Fred M. "Building a Rationale for Civic Education." In Building Rationales for Citizenship Education, edited by James P. Shaver. Washington, DC: National Council for the Social Studies, 1977. Oliver, Donald W and James P Shaver. Teaching Public Issues in the High School. Logan, UT Utah State University Press, 1974. (Original work published 1966) Onosko, Joseph J. "Barriers to the Promotion of Higher Order Thinking." Theory and Research in Social Education 19 (Fall 1991): 341-366. Quinn, Thomas. "History as Contested Turf: Teaching the Story of America in a New Way." Ford Foundation Report24 (1993): 22-25. Shaver, James P. "The Task of Rationale-Building for Citizenship Education." In Building Rationales for Citizenship Education, edited by James P. Shaver. Washington, DC: National Council for the Social Studies, 1977. Shaver, James P. Review of Reasoning with Democratic Values: Ethical Problems in United States History, Volume 1: 1607-1876; Volume II: 1877 to the Present, Instructor's Manual; by Alan L. Lockwood and David E. Harris. Moral Education Forum 11 (1986): 1116. Shaver, James P "Implications from Research: What Should be Taught in Social Studies?" In Educators' Handbook A Research Perspective, edited by Virginia RichardsonKoehler. New York Longman, 1987. Shaver, James P "Lessons From the Past: The Future of an Issues-Centered Social Studies Curriculum." The Social Studies 80 (September/October 1989): 192-196. Shaver, James P. and Harold Berlak. Democracy, Pluralism, and the Social Studies: Readings and Commentary. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1968. Shaver, James P., 0. L. Davis, Jr., and Suzanne W. Helburn. "An Interpretive Report on the Status of Precollege Social Studies Education Based on Three NSF-Funded Studies." In What are the Needs in

386 30.2 Authors cited in bibliographic references in American Historical Association, 14 the articles of this book are only included in this American Nazi Party, 60 index if they are mentioned in the text of the arti- American Psychological Association, 220, 222, 226 cle as well as in a citation. The references to American Schools and the World Project, 34 authors and their works that appear in the American Sociological Association, 220, 226 resource sections that comprise the final part ofAMIDEAST, 185 this book are not included in this index. Anderson, Charlotte C., 119 Antheil, 268 Anthropology conventional study in schools, 221 Absolute truth, 22 definition, 220-221 Achebe, Chinua, 302 issues-centered Acheson, K., and Gall, M. 312 instructional model Ada, A.F., 117 analysis, 223-224 Adams, Abigail, 235 application, 225 Adams, John, 90, 235 clarification, 224 Adler, Mortimer J., 10, 302 classification, 224 Adolescents evaluation, 225 social problems, 237 Outreach Office, Smithsonian Aesthetics, 79 Institution, 226 Africa (see also Global education, Global issues) reflection, 224 history, 136-137 selection and presentation, 223 teachings, 16-17 interdisciplinary, 221 Africa Outreach Program, 137 resources, 226 African American students (see also teacher education curriculum, 221 Multiculturalism), 31, 34, 104 Anti-Defamation League, 58 African Social and Environmental Studies Apple, Michael W., 155, 302 Programme (Kenya), 331-332 Aristarchus of Samos, 16 Agency for Instructional Technology, 172 Armento, Beverly J., Rushing, Francis W., and Alquist, Alberta, 3 Cook, Wayne A., 36n Alger, Horatio, 156 Armstrong, P.M., 33n Alien and Sedition Acts, 135 Ashworth, K.H., 223 American Anthropological Association, 226 Asia (see also Global education, Global issues) American Association of University Women, 105 teachings, 16-17 American Civil Liberties Union, 33 Assessment American Educational Research Association, 307 course level, 285-286, 287 American Federation of Teachers, 10-11 curriculum planning American Forum of Global Education, 185 content selection, 282 American Fulbright grants, 331 course and program planning, 281-282

398 issues, 280-281 standards, 127-128 multiple objectives support for students, 278 higher-order thinking (HOT) testing vs. assessment, 278-279 abilities, 283 Austin, J. L., 76 knowledge-in-use, 282 public conflict issues, 283 definition, 280 K delivery standards, 278 Backler, Alan, and Hanvey, Robert, 181 goals Bacon, Francis, 16 targets for teaching and learning, 283 BaFa BaFa, 183 history, 277-278 Bain, L.L., 268 methods Baker, Ella, 199 interviews, 277 Baldwin, James, 103 observation, 277 Banks, James, 101-102, 107, 112 paper and pencil techniques, 27 Baranga, 183 oral discourse assessment Barber, Benjamin, 59 assessment Bateson, Gregory, 19 direct observation, 295 Baughman, J.E., 32 raters, 296-297 Beane, James A., 238-239, 242 reliability, 296-297 Beard, Charles, 14, 20, 155 scoring rubric, 295-296 Bell, Debbie, 241 scoring sheet, 296 Bender, D.L., and Leone, B., 226 videotaped observation, 295 Bennett, William J., 143 criteria Bensman, Jim, 189 assumptions, 290 Berger, Peter 221 dimensions, 290 Berman, Sheldon, 239 procedural criteria, 291 Berry, B., and Ginsberg, R., 307 negative Beveridge, Alfred, 137 interrupting, 294 Bickmore, Kathy, 27, 36 monopolizing, 294 Bilal, Zakiyah, 240 personal attack, 294 Biographies, 10 positive Black Panthers, 184 challenging statements, 293-294 Blanchard, Amy, 242 inviting contributions, 293 Blankenship, Glen, 34, 34n summarizing points, 294 Bloom, B.S., Davis, A., and Hess, R. 104 substantive criteria, 291 Bloom, Howard, 143 arguing by analogy, 293 Bly, Nelly, 138 elaborating statements, 291-292 Bogardus, Emory S., 183 recognizing values, 292-293 Bonello, F.J., 217-218 stating and identifying issues, 290-291 Bonhoffer, Dietrich, 138 stipulating claims or definitions, 292 Botswana Department of Curriculum Development using foundational knowledge, 291 and Evaluation, 332 rationale, 289 Bottomore, TB., 15 performance assessment Bower, B., Lobdell, J., and Swenson, L., 93 direct observation, 295 Boyer, Ernest, 177 exhibitions, 283-284 Branch Davidian, 95-96 portfolios, 283-284, 285 Bridges, David, 35 scoring rubric, 286, 295-296 Britannica Global Geography System (BGGS), 171, 173n videotaped observation, 295 Brodkey, Jerry, 8 politics, 277-278 Broudy, R.A., 33 program level, 284-285, 286 Brown, Lester, 190 purposes, 276-277 Bulosan, Carlos, 103 school reform, 278 Butts, R. Freeman, 16

388 political power, 203 reflective deliberation, 206-207 Campbell, Joseph, 17 role of government, 202 Career choices, 46 national standards, 201 Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development, 238 Q-analysis, 206 Carnegie Foundation, 237 textbooks, 200 Carretero, M., and Voss, James F., 36 Clarity, 77 Center for Foreign Policy Development, 185 Clark, K.B., and Clark, M.P., 102 Center for Teaching International Relations, 186 Classroom Central Park East Secondary School, 106-107 climate, 11, 26, 31-32, 34-37, 63-65, 82 Cheney, Lynne, 385 community, 52 Cherryholmes, Cleo H., 75, 155 criticism, 78 Chief Seattle, 196 discussion Children's Defense Fund, 102 agenda, 64 Church World Service, 181, 186 background knowledge, 83 Cisneros, Sandra, 107 concluding discussion, 86-87 Citizenship (see also Democracy) controversy, 83 constitutional principles, 32-33, 60 definition, 81 definition, 6 disequilibration, 82 democratic principles, 6, 9-11, 27-28, 35, 52- disrespectful behavior, 82 53, 143, 145-146, 149, 164 environment, 34 education, 52-53, 66, 202, 205-206, 317-325, 330 format styles multiculturalism (see also Multiculturalism), 121 council, 85 participatory, 27, 30 fishbowl, 85 preparation, 6, 10, 317-325 debate, 85 proactive, 9 mock trial, 86 procedural ideals, 59 panel discussion, 85 public debate, 59-65 Quaker, 85 reflective decision-making abilities, 9, 46, 50 role playing debate, 85 role, 9 role playing for social values, 85-86 skills, 59 simulation, 86 Civics and Government (see also Nationalism) Socratic, 85 citizenship variations, 86 behavior, 206 higher-level thinking, 84 civic republicanism, 205 large-group, 85 conceptions, 207 moderating, 82 contractual, 205 perennial puzzlers, 83 defining, 206 reflection, 65 education, 202, 205-206 roadblocks, 65 perspectives, 206 rules, 82 conflict and controversy, 200-201, 322 sensitivity, 64 conventional, 199-200, 207 skills, 64 goals, 200 small-group, 85 human rights and trade, 203-205 social issues, 81-82 issues-centered stating the issue, 64 cooperative learning, 208-209 student reaction to questions, 84 inserting into conventional curriculum, 207 subsequent courses of action, 87 lesson plan, 208 teacher's role (see Teachers' Roles) rationale, 200 topics, 82 topics transitions, 64-65 citizenship, 205-206 wait time, 84 civic culture, 202-203 inquiry-based, 67-68, 73, 174 international issues, 203-204 Clinton, Bill, 76, 143, 184, 196

389 400 BEST COPY AVAILABLE Cocurricular activities, 271-272 Cottrol, Robert 128 Cogan, John, 306, 331, 335 Countersocialization, 9-10, 53 Cognitive ambiguity, 4 Cox, Benjamin, 5, 29, 29n, 49, 66, 66n, 67-68, 302 Cohen, Elizabeth, 85 Crane, Stephen, 54 Coles, Robert, 183 Critical pedagogy, 75-79 College Board, 102 Critical thinking, 28-29, 124, 174 Commission on History, 19 Critics of dogmatic teaching, 16-17 Columbus, Christopher, vi, vii, 149 Culture Commager, 154 dominant, 66 Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary inconsistencies, 44 Education (1918), 265 problematic areas used for discussion, 48 Common, D.L., 301 progressive reconstruction, 66 Communication, 77-78 role of schools, 66 Communicative competence, 78 Cummins, J., 112, 115, 117-118 Community context, 4, 7 Curiosity of learners, 10 Compartmentalized thinking, 19, 21 Curriculum (see also Content, Issues-centered Conflictual pedagogy, 27, 36-37 education, Lesson plans and models) Conover, P. J., and Searing, D.D., 205 cases and simulations, 126 Consciousness, 2 core knowledge, 126 conscientization, 2 hidden curriculum, 44-45 perspective consciousness, 2 infusion approach, 48 Conservative educational reforms, 21 interdisciplinary curriculum, 270-271 Constitutional principles, 32-33 issues-centered Constructivism, 247-248 controversial approach, 323 Content (see also Curriculum) future challenging, 3 communication and information selection, 4, 45-48 handling, 324 action, 46-47, 50 democratic citizenship, 324-325 availability of materials, 60 futures, 325 depth of understanding, 47-48, 50 inquiries, 325 importance, 60 uncertainties, 324 practicality, 47, 50 values development, 324 reflection, 46, 50 neutral approach relevance, 45-46, 49-50, 60 cross-impact analysis, 323 social action, 49-50 Delphi technique, 322-323 social issues, 9, 26-27, 33, 35-37, 44-50, 52, 59-65 environmental scanning, 323 Contextual understanding, 3 linear projections, 323 Controversial questions and issues, 6, 27-30, 32, 35- scenario, 322 36, 48-50, 53, 59-65, 66-67, 83, 322, 381-82 trends analysis, 323 Conventional social studies, 6-8, 10-12, 14-15, 18-22, reform, 123 26, 35, 44-45, 48, 53, 76, 188, 247-248, 254, 320- relevance, 46, 49-50 321, 330 structures, 3-5, 19, 54-56 Convergent and divergent questions, 173 value-free, 10 Cook, Wayne H., 36n Curti, Merle, 17 Cooperative inquiry, 51-52 Copernican Revolution, 18 Copernicus, 16, 18 Copley, 266 Dada movement, 267 Coplin and O'Leary, 188 Darling-Hammond, L., and Sclan, E., 306, 309 Core knowledge, 126 Darwin, Charles, 16, 18 Cornwallis, 235 Daumier, 267 Cortes, C.E., 113-114 Davidson, Donald, 79 Cortes, C.E., and Fleming, D.B., 114 Davis, A., 104

390 Davis, Jr., 0.L., 318, 382 supply and demand analysis, 212 Definitional issues definition, 211 stipulation, 62 dimensions use of authoritative source, 62 objective, 212 Democracy (see also Citizenship) subjective, 212 apathy, 317-318 issues-centered Bill of Rights, 32, 59, 137, 143 culture of thinking, 214 civic values and culture, 52, 55, 59 data, 214 civil liberties, 32-33, 60 interdisciplinary, 214 common good, 7 pedagogy, 214 decision-making, 318 theoretical and empirical work, 214 education, 15, 52 lesson plan expansion, 15 age of students, 216-217 liberal democracy, 143-144, 149 outline, 215 models, 82 topics for discussion, 216-217 participatory, 35 philosophies pragmatism, 79 free market, 212 principles, 6, 9-11, 35, 52-53, 164 managed market, 213 problem-solving, 317 radical, 213 scholarly liberalism, 143-144 Education value dilemmas, 60-62 democratic, 15 Depth of understanding, 3, 47-48, 50 global (see Global education) Dewey, John, 5, 12, 20-21, 25, 28, 45, 53, 55, 75, 79, nationalistic (see also Nationalism), 10, 17, 22,152 146, 267-269, 319, 322, 383-84 new sociology, 75 Dialectical thinking, 36, 124 reconceptualist movement, 75 Dialogical reasoning, 123-124 Educational Policies Commission (1938), 265, 271 Diaz, S.L., Moll, L.C., and Mehan, H., 115, 117 Ehman, Lee H., 31 Dickens, Charles, 266 Elementary education Dillingham, C.K., Kelly, C.A., and Strauss, J., 271 issues-centered Discipline-based structure, 3 coping and problem-solving skills, 230 Discussion (see Classroom) curriculum Disequilibration, 82 selection of issues, 231 Disinger, J.F., 190 lesson plan Dissent American revolution, 233-235 knowledge and education, 16-18, 22 rationale, 230-231 political (tolerance), 32-33, 35 suitability, 230-231 Dog, Mary Crow, 103, 107 topics Dogmatism, 16-17 primary Donnelly, J., 204 communities, 232 Doonesbury, 122 environment, 232 Dorros, Arthur, 231 homes, 231-232 Doyle, W., 302 upper elementary DuBois, W.E.B., 105 cultural change, 232-233 Dunn, Ross, 178 local issues, 233 Durkheim, Emile, 220 revolution, 233 slavery, 233 Emancipatory Rationality, 53 E Enculturation, 321, 323 Economics Engle, Shirley H., 53, 231, 282, 302, 317, 320, 380, 383 decision-making Engle, Shirley H., and Ochoa, Anna S., 5, 7-10, 13, criteria, 213 48, 52-57, 256, 301-302, 321-323, 325 opportunity cost, 211-212 English production possibility analysis, 212 issues-centered

391

A.I. Ill 9 communication of meaning, 266 goals, 267 diversifying reading lists, 267 painting, 267 doublespeak and propaganda, 265-266 performing arts, 267-268 literature, 266 photography, 267 Eno la Gay Exhibit, 147 popular music, 268 Environmental issues Fish, Stanley, 143 clarification of questions, 188 Fisher, Sydney, 18 conservationism vs. environmentalism, 191 Flanders, Ned, 308, 312 conventional curriculum, 188 Fleming, D.B., 114 deep ecology, 190-191, 195-196 Ford, B., 306 ecological imperialism, 192 Foreign languages environmentalism, 165 issues-centered, 268 ethics and values, 190 Foreign Policy Association, 186 identification of student assumptions, 188 Foxfire, 108 lesson plan Frank, Anne, 241 water pollution, 192-195 Freire, Paulo, 112, 117-118, 155 natural rights, 190-191 French, W., 265 pace of change, 192 Freud, Sigmund, 93 policy impact, 165 Friedan, Betty 143 politics, 190 Frost, Robert, 51 resources for teachers, 189 Futures Society, 232 science citizenship, 195 role in environmental issues, 191-192 J Sierra Club, 189-190 Galilei, Galileo, 16 supplement to regular classroom activities, 192 Gall, M., 312 sustainable development, 165, 190, 195 Gandhi, Mahatma, 138 value for students, 165 Garcia, Jesus, and Pugh, Sharon L., 119 value-laden information, 188-189 Gardner, W., 138 Erdrich, Louise, 107 Garrison, William Lloyd, 54 Essentialism, 11 Geller, L.R., 271 Ethics Generations ethical issues in education, 62-63 generation gap, 319 foundation for relationships, 2 intergenerational disjuncture, 319, 321, 323 universal principles, 34 Gentzler, Y.S., 269-270 European American students (see also Geography Multiculturalism), 31, 34 Activities and Readings in the Geography of Evans, Ronald W., 7-8, 13, 302 the United States, 175, 175n, 176 Evans, Ronald W., and Brodkey, Jerry, 8 efficacy vs. pessimism, 174 fundamental themes, 172 Geographic Inquiry into Global Issues (GIGI) F Project, 171-175 Fact-explanation issues global perspective, 172 definition, 61 Global Studies in Geography Project, 33n supporting claims Global Studies Project, 33n common sense, 61 graduate research, 167-168 personal observations, 61 High School Geography Project (HSGP), 168- reference to authoritative source, 61-62 169, 172, 175 Feiner, S.F., 217 inquiry learning techniques, 168 Ferguson, P., 139 issues-based, 173-174 Fillmore, L.W., and Valadez, C., 115 local issues, 174 Fine and performing arts Kashmir, 173 issues-centered school districting examples, 168-170

392 4 0 3 spatial aspects of issues, 167 Gross, Richard E., 302 standards, 168, 172 Gross, Richard E., and Muessig, Robert H., 5 teachers' role, 172 Grove, R.H., 191 textbooks, 172 Gudmundsdottir, S., 28 value, 165 Guinier, Lani, 143 Giles, H.H., McCutchen, S.P., and Zechiel, A.N., 271 Guttman, A., 200 Gilligan, C., 83 Guyton, E., and McIntyre, DJ., 303 Gingrich, Newt, 143 Giroux, Henry, 20, 53, 75, 115, 155, 257, 302 Gitlin, A., and Price, K., 306 Ii Glazer, Nathan, 123 Habermas, Jurgen, 78-79 Global education Hackney, Sheldon, 143 definition, 177-179 Hahn, Carole L., 8, 12 electronic communication, 182, 187 Hamer, Fannie Lou, 107 global interdependence, 181 Hammurabi's Code, 132 immigration, 179-180 Hanvey, Robert, 181 lesson plan, 179 Hardison, Jr., 0.B., 320 malnutrition, 180-181 Harriet Tubman Elementary School, 108 objectives Harris, David, 287, 287n, 302 build foundation, 180 Hartoonian, Michael, 8 develop perspective, 180-181 Harvard Social Studies Project, 29-30, 48, 59, 289, 382 link issues, 181-182 Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 266 plan authentic experiences, 182-183 Hayes, L., 269 plan reflection time, 183-184 Health (see Physical education and health) relevance to students, 182-183 Heehs, Peter, 18 simulations, 183 Helburn, Suzanne, 382 teachers' role Hemingway, Ernest, 266 build skills, 178, 181-182 Henson, K.T., 303 develop global perspective, 178-179 Hernandez, F., 118 integrate interdisciplinary material, 178 Herrnstein, Richard J., and Murray, Charles, 143 plan inquiry, 178 Hertz-Lazarowitz, R.A., 138 provide historical context, 178 Hertzberg, Hazel, 382 select issues, 177 Hess, R., 104 terrorism, 183 Heterogeneous group organization, 243 Global issues (see also Social studies), 136, 166 Hezbollah, 184 Global Thinking Project, 218 Hidden curriculum, 44-45 Goals 2000, 108, 127 Higher order thinking (HOT), 29, 36, 136, 283 Goldenson, A.R., 32-33 Hill, A. David, 173 Goldhammer, R., 306 Hilliard III, Asa, 123 Goodlad, J.I., v, 265 History Gorbachev, Mikhail, 134 American history Gorder, C., 103 abolition movement, 146 Gordon, Edmund, 123 agrarian movement, 51-52 Government (see Civics and Government) aim in teaching, 152 Gray, RS., 221 American Revolution, 233-235 Great Books Bleeding Kansas, 146 Argument, 10-11 civil rights movement, 199 Foundation, 10-11 colonies, 16 Greenpeace, 202 conventional, 142, 320 Grice, H.R, 77 critical approach Grice's Cooperative Principle, 77 alternative historical voices, 153 Griffin, Alan, 5, 301 dialogue, 153 Grimmett, P.P., Rostad, P.O., and Ford, B., 306 implementation, 153

393

404 interdisciplinary, 154 selection of topics, 155 objectivity and emotion, 154 significance for students, 155 Declaration of Independence, 59, 143, 233-235 social studies and history, 145-146, 152 democratic documents, 59, 143 student participation democratic principles, 149 maturity, 142 Fugitive Slave Law, 60, 126 pessimism, 139 governmental authority, 135-136 reductionist thinking, 139 issues-oriented topics teacher's role gender and sexuality, 157 curricular decision-making, 147-148, 150 ideology and social theory, 159-160 experiential learning, 147 imperialism, 158 inquiry and skepticism, 148-149 industry and technology, 158 predetermined teacher-selected issues, 146 knowledge and power, 159 structured approach, 135-136 labor and business, 157-158 traditional importance of, 19 power, 158-159 world history race and ethnicity, 155-156, 244-245 Africa, 136-137 King Cotton, 146 Congress of Vienna, 138 labor, 48 conventional, 161 Ludlow Massacre, 157 Holocaust, 137, 242 Marshall Plan, 147-148 Japan, 139 nationalism, 152 new approaches New Deal, 91, 135 case studies, 162 new left history, 154 flashback organization, 162 Pullman Strike, 135 postholing, 161 role of federal government, 135 problems of humanity/continuing TeaPot Dome Scandal, 145 issues, 163 Whiskey Rebellion, 135 thematic organization, 162 conventional, 142, 144, 152, 320 timeperiods, 162 decision-making, 317 universal concepts, 162 democratic citizenship, 143-146, 317-319, 321, 325 Nuremburg Trials, 147 depth vs. breadth, 145 Russia, 133-135 goals in studying, 163 two-year course, 161 governmental authority case study, 135-136 Hitchen, Christopher, 136-137 historical perspective, 144-145, 317 Hitler, Adolf, 138 interdisciplinary, 163 Ho Chi Minh, 90 issues-centered Hofstadter, Richard and Beatrice, 137 biographies, 137-138 Holland, P., 307 considerations, 144 Home economics cooperative learning techniques conventional, 269 group investigation, 138-139 issues-centered jigsaw, 139 goals, 269-270 structured controversy, 139 Homer, 17 global issues, 136, 166 Hooghoff, H., 328 local issues, 136 Hopper, Edward, 267 preconditions, 144 Hughes, Langston, 241 problem solving, 137 Hughes, Susan 240 procedure for students, 132-133 Humanities resources for teaching, 138 issues-centered selection of issues, 136 democratic citizenship, 321, 325 simulations, 138 problem-solving, 321 New History, 130 social sciences, 321 outcome-based education, 145 Hunt, Maurice P., and Metcalf; Lawrence E., 5, 8, preconditions to study of, 144 25, 44-45, 48-49, 155, 220, 255-256, 302

394 41 1'1t.tx:,- Hunter, M., 308-309 goals, 66-67, 238 Hurst, J.B., 26 heterogeneous group organization, 243 historical imperative, 14-24 inquiry, 25-26, 66, 73 interdisciplinary curriculum, 270-271 Ichilov, Orit, 206 IPSO (Issues, Position, Support, Outcome), Ideas 124-125 dynamic nature, 21 jurisprudential approach, 26, 30, 59 Immigration, 47-48, 60-61 learning environment, 8 Impartiality (see Teachers' Roles) lesson plans (see Lesson Plans and Models) Indiana Council for the Social Studies, 331 objectives, 272 Indiana Experiments in Inquiry 29 pedagogy, 26-27, 35 Indigenous peoples, 69 public issues model, 59-65 Indoctrination, 81 qualities engendered in students, 238 Information technology and resources, 121-122, 182, 187 rationales, 6-12, 19, 25, 237 Inquiry planning model, 173 reflective inquiry, 25, 28-29, 46, 50, 53, 66-67, Inquiry process 73, 146 classroom subject areas, 265 characteristics, 67 teacher education programs, 300 cooperative, 52 teachers' role, 272 extradisciplinary, 3 reflective, 28-29, 46, 50, 53, 66-67, 146 social studies, 66-68, 73, 77 systematic, 26 Jackson, Andrew, 8, 90, 135 Institute for Global Communications, 187 James, William, 79 Intercultural Press, 186 Jefferies, Leonard, 143 International Association for Children's Social and Jefferson, Thomas, 62, 144, 149, 235 Economic Johnson Administration, 90 Education, 331 Johnson, D.S., Johnson, R.T., and Smith, K.A., 204 International social studies (see Social studies) Jones, Jim, 96 Irgun, 184 Jones, Thomas Jesse, 318 Irish Republican Army, 134 Jonestown Massacre, 95-96 Irvine, J., 102 Journal writing, 87 Issues-centered education (see also Assessment, Joyce, Bruce R., 230 Content, Curriculum, Lesson plans and models, Joyce, Bruce R., and Weilz, M., 12 specific disciplines) Jung, Carl, 93, 95 Teacher education benefits, 25-37 climate, 26, 31-32, 34-37, 63-64 cocurricular activities, 271-272 Kammen, Michael, 154 content, 26-27, 255 Katz, L., and Raths, J., 309 core knowledge, 126 Kehoe, J., 33 critical thinking, 124, 174 Keizai Koho Center, 331 criticisms, 10 Kelly, C.A., 271 curricula, 3-5, 6, 30, 32, 44-50, 54-56, 317-325 Kelly, T.E., 81-82 definition, 6, 25, 254-255 Kennedy, Paul, 136, 178 definitional issues, 62 Kepner, Tyler, 19 democratic philosophy, 149 Khama, Seretse, 333 differing experiences, 36 Kickbusch, Kenneth, 75 effects, 28-30 King, Jr., Martin Luther, 136-137, 177, 199 elements, 125 King, Larry, 143 ethical issues, 62-63 King, Rodney, 103 fact explanation issues, 61-62 Kingston, Maxine Hong, 103, 107 Klinzing, H.G., and Klinzing-Eurich, G., 84 High School Geography Project, 169 Kowalski, T.K., Weaver, R.A., and Henson, K.T., 303 immigration, 179 Krogh, S.L., 83 issues-centered framework for grades 9-12 Ku Klux Klan, 184 criticisms and potential problems, 262-263 Kuhn, Thomas, 189n grade 9 (introduction), 260-261 grade 12 (capstone course), 262 overview, 260-261 J strengths, 262 La Escuela Fratney, 108 language-minority students, 115-116 Lange, Dorothea, 267 Ponytail Lesson Language definition phase, 71 definition, 76 evidencing phase, 71 descriptionist view, 76 exploration phase, 71 extended language, 4 generalization phase, 71-72 statements, 76 hypothesis phase, 71 values, 76 inquiry process, 72 Language-minority students orientation phase, 69 acculturation, 113 Social Studies Inquiry Model, 74 classroom climate, 113 unit plan critical literacy, 117 backbone, 89 curriculum central issue definition, 90-91 frame of reference, 114 criteria for selection of issues perspective, 114-115 controversy, 91 social issues, 114, 117-118 ease of research, 92 definition, 111-112 importance, 91 empowerment interest, 92 strategies, 118-119 culminating projects issues-centered education, 112 definition, 95 language development, 115 student thinking, 95 lesson plan, 115-116 ethical dimension, 92 personal interpretative phase, 117 focus, 89-90 primary language in classroom, 115 grabber, 92-93 self-esteem, 113 instructional suggestions, 94 student performance, 44, 46, 113 issue-based unit, 91 students' experiences, 112 opening lessons, 93 teachers' role, 112-113, 119 phrasing the issue, 92 Lappe, Francis Moore, 181 question approach, 90 LaRue, Jr., Robert D., 182 rationale, 89-90 Lasch, Christopher, 59 richly detailed source material, 94-95 Laski, Harold, 19 structure of curriculum Leakey, Richard, and Lewin, R., 15, 22 competing arguments, 93 Lee, S., 101 identification of sub-issues, 94 Leinhart, G., 133n key concepts, 93 Leming, James, 33 traditional topical approach, 89-91 Leone, B., 226 Vietnam War example, 90 Lesko, Nancy, 75 Sweeney-Parsons Controversial Social Issues Model Lessing, Doris, 19 analysis, 223-224 Lesson plans and models (see also Content, Curriculum) application, 225 acid rain, 273 classification, 224 American revolution, 233-235 clarification, 224 Bosnia, 125 evaluation, 225 cults, 96-97 reflection, 224 hate crimes, 58 selection and presentation, 223

396 40 Vietnam, 90 Middle level education water pollution, 192-195 conventional Lewin, R., 15, 22 junior high, 238 Limbaugh, Rush 143 subject-centered, 238, 242-243 Lincoln, Abraham, 9, 144 heterogeneous group organization, 243 Linden McKinley High School, 182 issues-centered Linton, Ralph, 181 curriculum Lobdell, J., 93 theoretical framework, 239 Locke, John, 149 incorporation into conventional curriculum Lomotey, Kofi, and Staley, J., 104 drama, 241 Long, S., and Long, R., 32 literature, 240-241 Lowry, Lois, 241 music, 241 Lynd, Robert, 18 oral history, 241 interdisciplinary, 241-243 qualities engendered in students, 238 M selection of issues Macdonald, J.B., 222 involving students, 240 Madison, James, 149 issues of interest and importance, Magnet schools, 105 239-240 Mahopa, 138 lesson plan Malcolm X Academy, 108 U.S. racism, 244-245 Manifest Destiny, 146, 192 Mill, John Stuart, 149 Marker, P.M., 110 Miller, Arthur, 266, 270, 302 Marquez, Gabriel Garcia, 107 Mills, C.W., 220 Marshall, Thurgood, 202 Mobutu Sese Seko, 136 Martin Luther King, Jr., Academy, 108 Moll, L.C., 115, 117 Mason, M., 28 Molly Maguires, 184 Massachusetts School Law (1647), 16 Mombasa Conference (1968), 332-333 Massialas, Byron G., 8, 36n, 302 Morgan, J.P., 146 Massialas, Byron G., and Cox, Benjamin, 5, 29, 29n, Morris, Ann, 231 49, 66-68, 66n, 302 Morrison, Toni, 102-103, 107 Massialas, Byron G., Sprague, N.F., and Hurst, J.B., 26 Mother Jones, 202 Mathematics (see Science and Mathematics) Muessig, Robert H., 5 Mayer, F., 16 Multiculturalism (see also African-American McAlvin, D.W., 33n Students, Language-minority students) McCutchen, S.P., 271 citizenship, 121 McDonald, Forrest, 132 class McDonald, J., and Czerniak, C., 271 American attitudes, 103 McGreal, T., 307 American history, 104 McIntosh, P., 107 magnet schools, 105 McIntyre, DJ., 303 statistics, 103-104 McKenna, Barbara, 127 student performance, 35, 37, 104, 109 McLeod, A., 117 tracking, 104-105, 122 McLuhan, Marshall, 122 classroom organization McWilliams, Wilson Cary, 52 critical paradigm, 106 Mega-queries, 54 interpretivist paradigm, 106 Mehan, H., 115, 117 rationalist-positivist paradigm, 106 Meinhold, Keith, 295 definitions, 101 Mershon Center, 186 examples, 107-108 Metcalf, Lawrence, 5, 8, 25, 44-45, 48-49, 133n, gender 155, 220, 255-256, 302, 302 student performance, 34, 37, 44, 78, 105, 109 Metzger, Devon J., and Marker, P.M., 110 teachers, 105 Mgagula, C.M., 334 global multiculturalism (see also Global

397 408 Education) Nature of learners, 7, 13 definition, 122 Nature of society, 7, 13 environmental concerns, 122 Nature of teachers, 7, 13 teacher preparation, 128 Nelson, Jack L., 8, 256-257, 302 youth, 122 Neo-nazis, 184 information technology and resources, 121-122, New sociology of education, 75 182, 187 New York State Social Studies Review and issues-centered education, 121 Development Committee, 123 Los Angeles riots/rebellion, 103 Newmann, Fred M., 5, 8, 36, 125-126, 282, 287n perspectives in the classroom, 3, 33-34, 37 Newmann, Fred M., and Oliver, Donald W., 5, 91n, 94 race Nonverbal cues, 35 classroom discussion, 101-102 Normative mode, 31 demography of school, 101-102 North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), 123 impact on education, 102 Nuremberg Trials, 147 inequality in education, 102 resources, 103 student performance, 37, 44-46, 49, 78, 0 102, 109 O'Leary, 188 tracking, 104-105, 122 Oakes, Jeannie, 104 traditional studies, 102 Obida, S.S., 333 teaching Objectivity, 320 insufficient preparation, 127-128 Ochoa, Anna S., 5, 7-10, 13, 48, 52-57, 256, 301-302, suggestions, 107-108 321-323, 325 Munch, Edvard, 267 Ohlone School, 241 Murray, Charles, 143 Oliver, Donald W., 91n, 94, 302 Myths, 17-18, 22 Oliver, Donald W., and Newmann, Fred M., 282 Oliver, Donald W., and Shaver , James P., 5, 59-60, 155, 255-257, 282-283, 383-84 Omi, M., and Winant H., 101 Nagai, J., 331 Open classroom climate, 31-32, 34-37 Nash, Roderick F., 190-192 "Opining" classrooms, 26, 36 National Association for Gifted Children, 243 Oregon Proficiency-Based Admissions Standards National Association for the Advancement of System, 127 Colored People, 199, 245 Organization of American Historians, 138 National Commission on Social Studies in the Outcome-based education, 145 Schools, 21, 318 National Council for Teachers of English, 265 National Council for the Social Studies, 19, 21, 119, 208, 299, 327-329, 335, 384 Pacific Rim, 138 National Education and Standards Improvement Paine, Thomas, 235, 266 Council, 127 Palestinian Liberation Organization, 184 National Education Association Commission on the Palestinian-Israeli conflict, 27 Social Studies, 14 Parisi, Lynn S., and LaRue, Jr., Robert D., 182 National Institute of Curriculum Development Parker, Walter, 36, 75 (Netherlands), 331 Parsons, J.B., 223-225 National Issues Forum, 208, 286 Paul, Richard, 123 National Middle School Association, 238, 243 Paxson, Frederick, vii, viii, 383 National Skills Standards Board, 127 Peace Corps, 186 National standards, 127 Pearl Jam, 241 Nationalism Peirce, Charles Sanders, 79 education, 10, 17, 22, 46, 152, 209, 330-331 People for the American Way, 200 Natoli, Salvatore J., 167n Performing arts (see Fine and performing arts) Nature of knowledge, 7, 13 Perry, Admiral, 9

390 Perspectives Quadrivium, 16 consciousness, 4 Questioning multiple, 2, 35 definition, 55 Physical education and health evidential, 55 issues-centered, 268 speculative, 55 Picasso, Pablo, 267 policy, 56 Political behavior of students, 32 value, 55-57 Political socialization, 30, 32-33 Political Tolerance Scale, 33, 33n Ponytail Lesson fi definition phase, 71 Race (see Multiculturalism) evidencing phase, 71 RaFa RaFa, 183 exploration phase, 71 Rainbow Coalition, 245 generalization phase, 71-72 Raths, J., 309 hypothesis phase, 71 Ravitch, Diane, 143 inquiry process, 72 Reagan, Ronald, 184 orientation phase, 69 Recitation (see Conventional social studies) Pope, Carl, 190 Reconceptualist movement, 75 Popkewitz, Thomas, 75 Redirecting, 35 Populism, 159, 330 Reflective decision-making abilities, 9, 25, 46, 50, Power, 77 53, 66-67, 146 Pragmatism, 79 Reilly, Kevin, 178 Price, K., 306 Relativistic ideas, 2 Problem area Religion identification, 55 education, 16-17 orientation, 55, 57 Richard-Amato, P.A., and Snow, M.A., 112 Problematic questions and scenarios, 2, 4-5, 8, 10 Riesman, David, 267 Productive issues-centered curriculum, 4 Rigid formalism, 14 Proficient performance Riis, Jacob, 267 models, 4 The Road Game, 183 Progressivism, 159, 330 Roberts' Rules of Order, 82 Project ICONS, 186 Roberts, Francis, 123 Psychology Robertson, Pat, 143 definition, 222 Roby, T.W., 36, 83, 280n instructional model Roosevelt, Franklin D., 135 analysis, 223-224 Rorty, Richard, 79 application, 225 Rosen, Michael J., 231 clarification, 224 Rosenshine, B., 136 classification, 224 Rosenthal, A.M., 204 evaluation, 225 Rostad, P.O., 306 reflection, 224 Roth, Kathleen, 126 selection and presentation, 223 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 320 issues-centered, 222 Rozak, Theodore, 191 resources, 226 Rugg, Charles, 75 Psychologically-safe environment, 4 Rugg, Harold 0., 5, 19, 255-256 Public Issues Analysis Test, 30 Rushing, Francis W., 36n Public issues model, 59-65 Ruskin, John, 20 Pugh, Sharon L., 119 Russell, Bertrand, 18, 22 Puritan work-ethic, 192

S 0 Sadker, Myra, and Sadker, David, 105 Q-analysis, 206 Safety in schools, 46

399

4 1 0 Sagan, Carl, 143 Social conflict, 75 Salt-n-Pepa, 241 Social consensus, 75 Saxe, David W., 14, 302-303 Social Issues Analysis Test (SLAT), 30, 30n Scaffolding principle, 36 Social Science Education Consortium, (SSEC), Schlesinger, Jr., Arthur, 123 186, 382 Schmuck, P., and Schmuck, R., 308 Social studies Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT), 102 conventional, 254, 259, 320-321, 330 Scholasticism, 17-18 curriculum School context, 4, 7, 11 controversial approach, 323 Schuncke, G.M., and Krogh, S.L., 83 future Schwartzkopf, General, 291 communication and information Science and Mathematics handling, 324 constructivism, 247-248 democratic citizenship, 324-325 conventional, 247, 252 futures, 325 issues-centered inquiries, 325 examples uncertainties, 324 airport, 250 values development, 324 recycling, 251 neutral approach roadsides, 251-252 cross-impact analysis, 323 statistics, 250-251 delphi technique, 322-323 goals, 247 environmental scanning, 323 Science/Technology/Society approach linear projections, 323 definition, 248 scenario, 322 goal, 248, 252 trends analysis, 323 school science vs. real science, 249 democratic citizenship, 317-320, 325 steps, 248-249 enculturation, 321, 323 student empowerment, 249 historical development, 329-330 teachers' role, 248, 252 human behavior, 320 Sclan, E., 306, 309 intergenerational disjuncture, 319, 321, 323 Searing, D.D., 205 international Seattle General Strike, 157 alternative visions of social studies, 327- Separatist curriculum, 19 328, 335 Sergiovanni, T.J., 306 decolonization, 333-334 Sergiovanni, T.J., and Staratt R., 306 definition, 328 Sharan, Sh lomo, 57, 139 democracy and democratization, 329, 335 Sharan and Hertz-Lazarowitz, R.A., 138 developing countries, 334 Shaver, James P., 5, 6-8, 13, 47, 59-60, 155, 255- development of values, 329 257, 292, 382, 384 goals, 331-332 Shining Path, 184 integration, 328-329 Shoemaker, Nancy, 17 interdisciplinary, 329-330 Shulman, Lee, 28, 302 nationalism, 330-331 Sierra Club, 189-190 organizing, 331 Silko, Leslie Marmon, 107 possibility, 335-336 Simile II, 186 rationale, 331-332 Single-subject approaches, 18-19 Second World War (impact), 333 Skepticism, 9, 11, 19, 22, 53, 149 issues-centered Slater, Frances, 173-174 alternative models Slavin, Robert, 57 The American Problem, 255 Smith, Gary, 181 closed areas of culture, 255, 256 Smith, Hedrick, 134 Framework for the Curriculum, 256, 258 Smith, K.A., 204 General Problem Areas, 255-256, 257 Smith, V.A., 33n Social Education for Social Snow, M.A., 112 Transformation, 256-257, 259

400 American foreign policy model, 259 Statehood, 138 controversial issues, 322 Steinbeck, John, 266 curriculum, 257-258 Stern gang, 184 definition, 257 Sting, 241 democratic citizenship, 317-318 Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 54 framework for grades 9-12 Strauss, J., 271 criticisms and potential problems, Stravianos, L.S., 178 262-263 Structure of issues presented, 3 grade 9 (introduction), 260-261 Student grooming, 73 grade 12 (capstone course), 262 Student Non-violent Coordinating Committee, 199 overview, 260-261 Students' roles strengths, 262 dependable generalizations, 67-68 nationalism, 330-331 participant and discoverer, 67 objectivity, 320 Sweeney-Parsons Controversial Social Issues Model, origins, 318 222-223, 225 Social Studies Inquiry Model, 68-74 Sweeney, J.A.C., and Parsons, J.B., 223, 225 lesson overview, 74 Swenson, L., 93 Social studies theory, 5 Sylvester, Paul, 104 Socialism, 159 Symbolic art and graphics, 4 Socialization, 9-10 Socio-economic status differences in student learning, 35, 44 Sociology Tailhook, 292 definition, 221 Tamakloe, E.K., 332 instructional model Tanner, D., 266 analysis, 223-224 Tanner, D., and Tanner, L., 271 application, 225 Teacher education clarification, 224 issues-centered classification, 224 action plan, 304 evaluation, 225 field-based experiences reflection, 224 benefits, 303 selection and presentation, 223 limited use, 303-304 issues-centered, 222 general education coursework new sociology, 75 introductory courses, 301 resources, 226 partnerships with arts, science Solzhenitsyn, Alexander, 177 professors, 301 Sommers, Christina, 143 subject matter preparation, 301 Sons of Liberty, 184 professional education coursework Southern Christian Leadership Conference, 199 case study method, 302-303 Southern Middle School, 242 literature, 302 Southern Poverty Law Center, 108 prefatory knowledge, 302 Sowell, Thomas, 143 programming at selected universities, 300 Sprague, N.F., 26 Teachers' roles (see also individual disciplines) Springboarding, 29, 46, 48, 55, 148 authoritative, 11 Staley, J.,.104 defensible partisanship, 49, 67 Stanford Program on International and Cross- devil's advocate, 83 Cultural Education (SPICE), 186 impartiality, 81-82 Stanford Social Education Project, 28, 29n interjection, 84 Stanley, William B., 75, 155, 302 language-minority students (see Language- Stanley, William B., and Nelson, Jack L., 8, 256-257 minority students) Staratt, R., 306 leadership of discussion, 83 Starpower, 183 mediator, 83 State of the Union address, 137 moderator, 83

401

etq 9 ownership of the answer, 82-83 Truth, Sojourner, 107 promotion of clarity, 77 Tucker, J.L., 330 proponent, 83 Twain, Mark, 266 stewards of truth, 150 supporting date, 84 supportive, 11 N./ Teaching Underground Railroad, 126 practice, 4 United Farmworkers of America, 202 reflective, 306 United Nations, 34, 186 strategies, 34 United States Constitution, 59, 137, 143, 192, 235, 263 supervision United States Information Agency (USIA), 331 bureaucratic, 306-307 United States Institute of Peace (USIP), 187 clinical Units aspects, 307, 309 conceptual, 3 classes, 307-308 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 34 definition, 307 Upanishads, 16 teacher self-analysis, 307 Hunter model, 308-309 indicators of success, 313-314 leads to change in instructional practice, 306 Valadez, C., 115 goals, 306 Value assumptions post-conference stage identification, 56-57 continued growth, 313 social, 76-77 presentation of data, 312 Value issues, 62-63, 320 relation to pre-conference stage, 313 Vars, G.F., 271 supervisor preparation, 312 Vocational subjects teacher self-analysis, 312-313 conventional, 268 pre-conference stage issues-centered atmosphere, 310-311 goals, 268-269 goal setting and timeline, 311-312 subjects, 269 observable behaviors, 311 workers' education, 269 specification of teacher concerns, 311 Voss, James F., 36 strategies, 311 Vygotsky, 117 supervisory dispositions definition, 309 goals, 309 mode, 310 Walker, Alice, 103 teachers', 309-310 Warren Commission Report, 146 supervisory strategies, 310 Washington Park High School, 52-53, 56 Terkel, Studs, 102 Washington, George, 90, 235 Textbooks Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal, 29, 29n publishers, 53 We the People, 33, 33n traditional, 8, 94 Weathermen, 184 values, 76 Weber, Max, 220 Theiss-Morse, Elizabeth, 206 Weilz, M.,12 Thelen, Herbert, 57, 138 Weiss, L., 105 Thomas, Clarence, 143 Wells, Ida B., 107 Thoreau, 266 Wesley, Edgar, 320 Toepfer, Jr., Conrad F., 238 Wesley, E.B., and Wronski, S.P., 327-328 Toffler, Alvin, 322 West, Cornel, 79, 102 Tolerance, 32-33, 35 Western civilization, 15-16 Torney-Purta, J. 36 Whitehead, Alfred North, v, vi, 20-21, 319 Truman, Harry S., 138, 147, 293, 319 Whitson, Tony, 75

402 4. a Wilen, W.W., and White, J., 35, 81 Williams, Walter, 143 Wilson, William Julius, 103 Winant, H., 101 Wineburg, S., and Wilson, S.M., 28, 138 Wordsworth, William, 320 World Bank, 187 World Eagle, 181, 187 World Game Institute, 187 World Trade Center, bombing of, 183 Worldwatch Institute, 181, 187 Woyach, Robert, 181 Wraga, 19 Wright, G.S., 271 Wright, Richard, 103, 107 Wronski, S.P., 327-328

y Yocum, M.J., 34

Zeichel, A.N., 271 Zinn, Howard, 105, 154

403 414 Pors

Rodney F. Allen is Professor of Social StudiesJames K. Daly is an Associate Professor in the EducationatFloridaStateUniversity, College of Education and Human Resources, Tallahassee. Seton Hall University, South Orange, New Jersey. Beverly J. Armento is Research Professor and Chair of the Middle/Secondary EducationNancy Fichtman Dana is Assistant Professor of and Instructional Technology Department at Education at Pennsylvania State University Georgia State University. University Park, Pennsylvania.

Patricia G. Avery is Associate Professor ofBeverly C. Edmonds is an advisor to Amnesty Curriculum and Instruction at the University International Children's Action Network. of Minnesota. Shirley Engle was a public school teacher, profes- James L. Barth is Professor of Social Studies sor and national leader of social studies for Education in the Department of Curriculum more than forty years. He inspired two gener- and Instruction at Purdue University. ations of social studies teachers to bring issues into American classrooms. Ronald A. Banaszak isDirector of Youth Education Programs at the American Bar Ronald W. Evans is an Associate Professor in the Association, Chicago. School of Teacher Education at San Diego State University. Jerry Brodkey teaches at Menlo-Atherton High School, California. Patrick Ferguson is Professor and Head of the Department of Secondary Education at Jeffrey L. Brown is Executive Director of Global Arkansas Tech, Russellville, Arkansas. Learning, Inc. William R. Fernekes is Supervisor of Social Cleo Cherryholmes is Professor of Political Studies at Hunterdon Central Regional High Science at Michigan State University, East School, Flemington, New Jersey. Lansing, Michigan. Stephen C. Fleury is Associate Dean in the George Chilcoat isAssociate Professor of School of Education at the State University of Elementary Education at Brigham Young New York at Oswego. University. Nancy Flowers is Curriculum Coordinator for Wayne A. Cook is a high school teacher of eco- Amnesty International USA. nomics and social studies in Fulton County, Georgia.

4 .t: Stuart Foster is Assistant Professor of Social Byron G. Massialas is Professor of Social Science Science Education at the University of EducationatFloridaStateUniversity, Georgia, Athens. Tallahassee.

Jesus Garcia is Professor of Social Studies Merry Merryfield is Associate Professor of Education at the University of Illinois at Social Studies Education at Ohio State Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, Illinois. University, Columbus, Ohio.

James R. Giese is Executive Director of theDevon Metzger is Professor of Education at Social Science Educational Consortium, California State University, Chico. Boulder, CO Salvatore J. Natoli was Director of Publications Richard E. Gross is Professor Emeritus of at National Council for the Social Studies Education at Stanford University. prior to his retirement in 1993.

Carole L. Halm is Professor of Social StudiesJack L. Nelson isProfessor of Education at Education at Emory University. Rutgers University.

David Harris isSocialStudies Education Fred M. Newmann is Professor of Curriculum Consultant with Oakland Schools, Waterford, andInstructionattheUniversityof Michigan. Wisconsin at Madison.

Hilda Hernandez is Associate Professor ofAnna S. Ochoa-Becker is Professor of Education Curriculum and Instruction at California at Indiana University, Bloomington. State University, Chico. Joseph J. Onosko is Associate Professor of A. David Hill is Professor of Geography at the EducationattheUniversityof New University of Colorado. He was the head of Hampshire. the Geography Inquiry into Global Issues project supported by the National Science Walter C. Parker is an Associate Professor in the Foundation. College of Education at the University of Washington, Seattle. Kenneth F. Jerich is Associate Professor of Curriculum and Instruction in the College ofJeff Passe is an Associate Professor in the EducationatIllinoisStateUniversity, Department of Curriculum and Instruction at Normal, Illinois. the University of North Carolina at Charlotte.

Gloria Ladson-Billings is Associate Professor ofJon PedersenisAssociateProfessorof Curriculum and Instruction at the University Curriculum and Instruction at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. of Arkansas, Fayetteville.

Jerry Ligon is a Professor in the Department ofJane Bernard Powers is Associate Professor of InterdisciplinaryStudies, National-Louis Elementary Education at San Francisco State University, St. Louis, Missouri. University

Wilma Longstreet is Professor of Curriculum Sharon L. Pugh isAssociate Professor of and Instruction at the University of New Language Education in the School of Educa- Orleans. tion, Indiana University, Bloomington.

Martha V. Lutz is a Research Associate at the Francis W. Rushing is Professor and Chair of the Science Education Center of the University of Economics Department and Director of the Iowa. Center for Economic Education at Georgia State University, Atlanta.

40S 416 Stephen Sandell is Director of the HumphreyWilliam G. Wraga is Assistant Professor in the Forum at the University of Minnesota. Department of Educational Leadership at the University of Georgia, Athens. David Warren Saxe is Associate Professor of Education at Pennsylvania State University RobertYager is Professor of Science Education at University Park, Pennsylvania. the University of Iowa. James P. Shaver is Dean of the School of Graduate Studies and Professor of Secondary Education at Utah State University.

Adam Sheldon is a teacher at T. Aaron Levy Middle School, Syracuse, and a doctoral can- didate at Syracuse University

Laurel R. Singleton is Associate Director of the Social Science Educational Consortium, Boulder, Colorado.

Dorothy Skeel is Professor of Social Studies Education at Vanderbilt University

Elizabeth S. Smith is a graduate assistant in the Department of Political Science, University of Minnesota.

Mary Soley is Deputy Director of ACCESS, an international affairs information service in Washington, DC.

John L. Sullivan is a Professor of Political Science at the University of Minnesota.

JoAnn Cutler Sweeney is Chair of the Depart- ment of Curriculum and Instruction in the College of Education at the University of Texas at Austin.

Lee Swenson is Social Studies Department Chair atAragon HighSchool,San Mateo, California.

Josiah Tlou is Associate Professor of Curriculum and Instruction at Virginia Institute of Technology, Blacksburg, Virginia..

Samuel Totten is Professor of Curriculum and Instruction at the University of Arkansas, Fayetteville.

Connie S. White teaches social studies, global history and government at Linden McKinley High School, Columbus, Ohio.

406 ons

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