From “ghetto” to mainstream: Bollywood in South Africa . HASEENAH EBRAHIM Wits School of Arts University of the Witwatersrand [email protected] Abstract This essay explores two aspects of the Bollywood “phenomenon” as it has played out, in the past decade, in South Africa — a part of the Indian diaspora where the popularity of Hindi-language Indian cinema has an established history. Firstly, the article maps the expansion of Bollywood beyond the Indian diasporic audience to so-called “crossover” audiences, a phenomenon I have labelled the “mainstreaming” of Bollywood in South Africa. Secondly, it examines developments in relation to the expansion of Bollywood — South African film industry co-operation, including Bollywood’s use of South Africa for location shooting. Bollywood is apparently trapped in some sort of in South Africa. Most South Africans coming purgatory of global cultural expectations; at any from Tamil- and Telegu-speaking (i.e. South given time, it’s too “Indian” to be accessible to Indian) backgrounds seem eagerly to consume Western audiences, too north Indian-centric for the %ROO\ZRRG¿OPVDQGPXVLFGHVSLWHDVRPHWLPHV rest of South Asia, too imitative of Hollywood to vocal South Indian dissident view. Any be appreciated as authentic Indian cinema among perceived imitativeness of Hollywood does not North Americans seeking something exotic, too VHHP WR KDYH GHÀHFWHG IURP LWV DSSHDO DPRQJ potent of an imposition of an Indian version of its South African fans; on the contrary, most modernity on other traditional societies, or too low- cite its “wholesomeness” (usually referring to culture to qualify as real art for snobs of all national Bollywood’s lack of explicit sex and excessive origins. (Lal 2004) violence) as being distinctive from Hollywood. North Americans may deem Bollywood an LQVXI¿FLHQWO\ ³DXWKHQWLF ,QGLDQ FLQHPD´ EXW n the list of “too somethings” mentioned %ROO\ZRRG UHPDLQV VXI¿FLHQWO\ H[RWLF IRU I above, South Africa appears to be an most South Africans regardless of so-called exception in several instances. Bollywood is no “authenticity”. In fact, criticisms of Bollywood’s longer “inaccessible” to “Western” audiences lack of “authenticity” appear to reside primarily scrutiny2 13(2) 2008: issues in english studies in southern africa ISSN: Print 1812-5441/Online 1753-5409 DOI: 10.1080/18125440802486035 © Unisa Press pp. 63-76 63 ARTICLES Scrutiny 2-2-5.indd 63 2008/11/14 06:25:31 PM in the argument that its construction of India is to the expansion of Bollywood-South African “unrealistic”; arguably, it is this very lack of ¿OPLQGXVWU\FRRSHUDWLRQ realism that constitutes its primary appeal. To begin, it is necessary to comment on my use When I returned to South Africa in 1999 after of the term “Bollywood”. I use it, as has now a decade-long period of postgraduate study and EHFRPHDFFHSWHGSDUODQFHWRUHIHUVSHFL¿FDOO\ teaching in the United States, I was surprised to the Hindi-language commercial cinema of WR GLVFRYHU WKDW +LQGLODQJXDJH ¿OPV QRZ India based primarily in Mumbai (previously SRSXODUO\ NQRZQ DV ³%ROO\ZRRG ¿OPV´ ZHUH Bombay). Despite common misconceptions, being screened in some “mainstream venues” %ROO\ZRRGLVQRW,QGLD¶VQDWLRQDO¿OPLQGXVWU\ and were subtitled in English. My curiosity as it constitutes only one RI ,QGLD¶V PDQ\ ¿OP D ¿OP VFKRODU ZDV DURXVHG E\ WKH UHVXUJHQFH industries and/or cinemas. These include several LQ SRSXODULW\ RI WKLV ³JHQUH´ RI ¿OPV WKDW , regional commercial cinemas as well as the “art associated with my childhood. They evoked cinema” of India known as “Parallel Cinema” memories of sitting through what seemed like or New (Wave) Indian cinema. Of India’s many LQWHUPLQDEO\ ORQJ ¿OPV ZLWK RYHUO\ HPRWLRQDO cinematic traditions, however, it is Bollywood dialogues in a language I understood only that has attained a global reach and a considerable patchily — all relieved by the song-and- measure of international commercial success.2 dance sequences which left both me and other spectators humming as we left the cinema. 6RPH VFKRODUV DQG ¿OP FRPPHQWDWRUV KDYH Thus began a research interest which has, in characterised the term “Bollywood” as the interim, seen steadily growing scholarly derogatory, arguing that it maintains Hollywood attention and a corpus of academic publications, as its standard of reference and that, by emerging primarily from the United Kingdom implication, it positions Indian cinema as a and the United States. This sudden increase of stepchild of Hollywood. Commonly believed publications about Bollywood has occurred much to have emerged only in about the past decade, to the chagrin of those scholars within India who originating as a term used in some English- have been engaging in academic research of not language Indian trade journals in “a slightly jokey, only Bollywood but also other Indian cinemas. self-deprecating way”, Rajadhyaksha describes Scholarship on Bollywood, emanating from both the term “Bollywood” as having become “an Western scholars and NRI scholars domiciled expression of the outsider’s fascination with a in the West, demonstrates the hegemony of the slightly surreal practice that nevertheless appears :HVW LQ JOREDO ÀRZV RI VFKRODUO\ NQRZOHGJH to possess the claim to be a genuinely popular production and publication.1 art form” (2003:29). It is arguable whether the WHUPUHÀHFWVDQRXWVLGHUSHUVSHFWLYHDQ\ORQJHU This essay explores two aspects of the (even if one accepts that it was ever primarily Bollywood “phenomenon” as it has played out, that), and whether any Bollywood fan would in the past decade, in a particular part of the HYHQDVSLUHWRUHIHUWRD%ROO\ZRRG¿OPDVDQ Indian diaspora where the popularity of Hindi- art form. Regardless of such debates, the term language Indian cinema has an established “Bollywood” has achieved widespread currency history, i.e. in South Africa. Firstly, it maps WR UHIHU WR D VSHFL¿F PRGH RI SURGXFWLRQ RU the expansion of Bollywood beyond the Indian industrial practice and a distinctive aesthetic. diasporic audience to so-called “crossover” The term “Bollywood” connotes a characteristic audiences, a phenomenon I have labelled the set of stylistic conventions, the prominence “mainstreaming” of Bollywood in South Africa. of song-and-dance sequences, recognisable Secondly, it examines developments in relation themes and genre categories, Indian cultural 64 ARTICLES Scrutiny 2-2-5.indd 64 2008/11/14 06:25:31 PM values, and an overall entertainment ethos. VHTXHQFHV DV ¿OP WUDLOHUV LQ WHOHYLVLRQ VKRZV The term also encompasses a particular of live music concerts featuring Bollywood manifestation of the star system that includes stars and/or music, of television talent shows primarily actors but also producers, directors, GUDZLQJ RQ %ROO\ZRRG¿OPLF PXVLF DQG playback singers, lyricists, musical composers/ of print magazines dedicated to Bollywood directors and choreographers. Moreover, both news and gossip. Rajadhyaksha argues that audiences and producers appear to be able to the diffused nature of Bollywood as a cultural reconcile Bollywood’s ideological investment LQGXVWU\ OHDYHV PDQ\ SURGXFHUV RI LWV ¿OPLF in a conservative Hindu nationalism — which narratives bemused, unable to identify how to often positions itself narratively in opposition best exploit or stabilise what appears to be a to Western values and to Muslims — with its lucrative marketing opportunity. paradoxical but ubiquitous appropriation of Western locations and modes of dress and Films are India’s largest cultural export, and dance. Additionally, Bollywood also happily Indian cinema as a whole has produced over 30 counts a half dozen Khans among its major male IHDWXUH¿OPWLWOHVVLQFHWKH¿UVWGRFXPHQWHG Raja harishchandra, was released stars, including Shahrukh Khan, the darling of ,QGLDQ ¿OP in 1913 (Mishra 2002:1). Achal Mehra, editor diasporic audiences, and Aamir Khan of Lagaan of the “Little India” newspaper, contends that fame.3 ³WKH,QGLDQ¿OPLQGXVWU\LVWKHKDUGLHVWVXUYLYRU Rajadhyaksha (2003:27) convincingly asserts of Indian culture among overseas Indian WKDW%ROO\ZRRGLVPRUHWKDQMXVWD¿OPLQGXVWU\ communities globally” — estimated to number arguing that: about 25 million spread among 110 countries (2007:3). Jigna Desai (2004:40) notes that Bollywood admittedly occupies a space “South Asian diasporas are one of the largest analogous to the film industry, but might best be VLWHV RI FRQVXPSWLRQ RI %ROO\ZRRG ¿OPV DQG seen as a more diffuse cultural conglomeration involving a range of distribution and consumption are considered a distribution territory by the activities from websites to music cassettes, from ,QGLDQ¿OPLQGXVWU\´,WLVHVWLPDWHGWKDWWKHVDOH cable to radio. If so, the film industry itself — of overseas distribution rights for a big-budget determined here solely in terms of its box office %ROO\ZRRG¿OPQRZUDNHVLQWZLFHWKHUHYHQXHV turnover and sales of print and music rights, all brought in via the largest domestic market, that actually comes back to the producer — can namely Mumbai (Deshpande 2005:190-191). by definition constitute only a part, and perhaps even an alarmingly small part, of the overall culture industry that is currently being created It must be emphasised, however, that and marketed.4 Bollywood’s appeal outside of the Indian subcontinent is not limited to the Indian diasporic Such “diffuse cultural conglomeration” became populations in the United States, Canada, UK, manifest in the manner in which Bollywood Middle East, southern and East Africa, the took England by storm in the late 1990s when Caribbean and elsewhere. Indian cinema’s