From “ghetto” to mainstream: Bollywood in South Africa ......
HASEENAH EBRAHIM Wits School of Arts University of the Witwatersrand [email protected]
Abstract This essay explores two aspects of the Bollywood “phenomenon” as it has played out, in the past decade, in South Africa — a part of the Indian diaspora where the popularity of Hindi-language Indian cinema has an established history. Firstly, the article maps the expansion of Bollywood beyond the Indian diasporic audience to so-called “crossover” audiences, a phenomenon I have labelled the “mainstreaming” of Bollywood in South Africa. Secondly, it examines developments in relation to the expansion of Bollywood — South African film industry co-operation, including Bollywood’s use of South Africa for location shooting.
Bollywood is apparently trapped in some sort of in South Africa. Most South Africans coming purgatory of global cultural expectations; at any from Tamil- and Telegu-speaking (i.e. South given time, it’s too “Indian” to be accessible to Indian) backgrounds seem eagerly to consume Western audiences, too north Indian-centric for the %ROO\ZRRG¿OPVDQGPXVLFGHVSLWHDVRPHWLPHV rest of South Asia, too imitative of Hollywood to vocal South Indian dissident view. Any be appreciated as authentic Indian cinema among perceived imitativeness of Hollywood does not North Americans seeking something exotic, too VHHP WR KDYH GHÀHFWHG IURP LWV DSSHDO DPRQJ potent of an imposition of an Indian version of its South African fans; on the contrary, most modernity on other traditional societies, or too low- cite its “wholesomeness” (usually referring to culture to qualify as real art for snobs of all national Bollywood’s lack of explicit sex and excessive origins. (Lal 2004) violence) as being distinctive from Hollywood. North Americans may deem Bollywood an LQVXI¿FLHQWO\ ³DXWKHQWLF ,QGLDQ FLQHPD´ EXW n the list of “too somethings” mentioned %ROO\ZRRG UHPDLQV VXI¿FLHQWO\ H[RWLF IRU I above, South Africa appears to be an most South Africans regardless of so-called exception in several instances. Bollywood is no “authenticity”. In fact, criticisms of Bollywood’s longer “inaccessible” to “Western” audiences lack of “authenticity” appear to reside primarily
scrutiny2 13(2) 2008: issues in english studies in southern africa ISSN: Print 1812-5441/Online 1753-5409 DOI: 10.1080/18125440802486035 © Unisa Press pp. 63-76 63 ARTICLES
Scrutiny 2-2-5.indd 63 2008/11/14 06:25:31 PM in the argument that its construction of India is to the expansion of Bollywood-South African “unrealistic”; arguably, it is this very lack of ¿OPLQGXVWU\FRRSHUDWLRQ realism that constitutes its primary appeal. To begin, it is necessary to comment on my use When I returned to South Africa in 1999 after of the term “Bollywood”. I use it, as has now a decade-long period of postgraduate study and EHFRPHDFFHSWHGSDUODQFHWRUHIHUVSHFL¿FDOO\ teaching in the United States, I was surprised to the Hindi-language commercial cinema of WR GLVFRYHU WKDW +LQGLODQJXDJH ¿OPV QRZ India based primarily in Mumbai (previously SRSXODUO\ NQRZQ DV ³%ROO\ZRRG ¿OPV´ ZHUH Bombay). Despite common misconceptions, being screened in some “mainstream venues” %ROO\ZRRGLVQRW,QGLD¶VQDWLRQDO¿OPLQGXVWU\ and were subtitled in English. My curiosity as it constitutes only one RI ,QGLD¶V PDQ\ ¿OP D ¿OP VFKRODU ZDV DURXVHG E\ WKH UHVXUJHQFH industries and/or cinemas. These include several LQ SRSXODULW\ RI WKLV ³JHQUH´ RI ¿OPV WKDW , regional commercial cinemas as well as the “art associated with my childhood. They evoked cinema” of India known as “Parallel Cinema” memories of sitting through what seemed like or New (Wave) Indian cinema. Of India’s many LQWHUPLQDEO\ ORQJ ¿OPV ZLWK RYHUO\ HPRWLRQDO cinematic traditions, however, it is Bollywood dialogues in a language I understood only that has attained a global reach and a considerable patchily — all relieved by the song-and- measure of international commercial success.2 dance sequences which left both me and other spectators humming as we left the cinema. 6RPH VFKRODUV DQG ¿OP FRPPHQWDWRUV KDYH Thus began a research interest which has, in characterised the term “Bollywood” as the interim, seen steadily growing scholarly derogatory, arguing that it maintains Hollywood attention and a corpus of academic publications, as its standard of reference and that, by emerging primarily from the United Kingdom implication, it positions Indian cinema as a and the United States. This sudden increase of stepchild of Hollywood. Commonly believed publications about Bollywood has occurred much to have emerged only in about the past decade, to the chagrin of those scholars within India who originating as a term used in some English- have been engaging in academic research of not language Indian trade journals in “a slightly jokey, only Bollywood but also other Indian cinemas. self-deprecating way”, Rajadhyaksha describes Scholarship on Bollywood, emanating from both the term “Bollywood” as having become “an Western scholars and NRI scholars domiciled expression of the outsider’s fascination with a in the West, demonstrates the hegemony of the slightly surreal practice that nevertheless appears :HVW LQ JOREDO ÀRZV RI VFKRODUO\ NQRZOHGJH to possess the claim to be a genuinely popular production and publication.1 art form” (2003:29). It is arguable whether the WHUPUHÀHFWVDQRXWVLGHUSHUVSHFWLYHDQ\ORQJHU This essay explores two aspects of the (even if one accepts that it was ever primarily Bollywood “phenomenon” as it has played out, that), and whether any Bollywood fan would in the past decade, in a particular part of the HYHQDVSLUHWRUHIHUWRD%ROO\ZRRG¿OPDVDQ Indian diaspora where the popularity of Hindi- art form. Regardless of such debates, the term language Indian cinema has an established “Bollywood” has achieved widespread currency history, i.e. in South Africa. Firstly, it maps WR UHIHU WR D VSHFL¿F PRGH RI SURGXFWLRQ RU the expansion of Bollywood beyond the Indian industrial practice and a distinctive aesthetic. diasporic audience to so-called “crossover” The term “Bollywood” connotes a characteristic audiences, a phenomenon I have labelled the set of stylistic conventions, the prominence “mainstreaming” of Bollywood in South Africa. of song-and-dance sequences, recognisable Secondly, it examines developments in relation themes and genre categories, Indian cultural
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Scrutiny 2-2-5.indd 64 2008/11/14 06:25:31 PM values, and an overall entertainment ethos. VHTXHQFHV DV ¿OP WUDLOHUV LQ WHOHYLVLRQ VKRZV The term also encompasses a particular of live music concerts featuring Bollywood manifestation of the star system that includes stars and/or music, of television talent shows primarily actors but also producers, directors, GUDZLQJ RQ %ROO\ZRRG¿OPLF PXVLF DQG playback singers, lyricists, musical composers/ of print magazines dedicated to Bollywood directors and choreographers. Moreover, both news and gossip. Rajadhyaksha argues that audiences and producers appear to be able to the diffused nature of Bollywood as a cultural reconcile Bollywood’s ideological investment LQGXVWU\ OHDYHV PDQ\ SURGXFHUV RI LWV ¿OPLF in a conservative Hindu nationalism — which narratives bemused, unable to identify how to often positions itself narratively in opposition best exploit or stabilise what appears to be a to Western values and to Muslims — with its lucrative marketing opportunity. paradoxical but ubiquitous appropriation of Western locations and modes of dress and Films are India’s largest cultural export, and dance. Additionally, Bollywood also happily Indian cinema as a whole has produced over 30 counts a half dozen Khans among its major male IHDWXUH¿OPWLWOHVVLQFHWKH¿UVWGRFXPHQWHG Raja harishchandra, was released stars, including Shahrukh Khan, the darling of ,QGLDQ ¿OP in 1913 (Mishra 2002:1). Achal Mehra, editor diasporic audiences, and Aamir Khan of Lagaan of the “Little India” newspaper, contends that fame.3 ³WKH,QGLDQ¿OPLQGXVWU\LVWKHKDUGLHVWVXUYLYRU Rajadhyaksha (2003:27) convincingly asserts of Indian culture among overseas Indian WKDW%ROO\ZRRGLVPRUHWKDQMXVWD¿OPLQGXVWU\ communities globally” — estimated to number arguing that: about 25 million spread among 110 countries (2007:3). Jigna Desai (2004:40) notes that Bollywood admittedly occupies a space “South Asian diasporas are one of the largest analogous to the film industry, but might best be VLWHV RI FRQVXPSWLRQ RI %ROO\ZRRG ¿OPV DQG seen as a more diffuse cultural conglomeration involving a range of distribution and consumption are considered a distribution territory by the activities from websites to music cassettes, from ,QGLDQ¿OPLQGXVWU\´,WLVHVWLPDWHGWKDWWKHVDOH cable to radio. If so, the film industry itself — of overseas distribution rights for a big-budget determined here solely in terms of its box office %ROO\ZRRG¿OPQRZUDNHVLQWZLFHWKHUHYHQXHV turnover and sales of print and music rights, all brought in via the largest domestic market, that actually comes back to the producer — can namely Mumbai (Deshpande 2005:190-191). by definition constitute only a part, and perhaps even an alarmingly small part, of the overall culture industry that is currently being created It must be emphasised, however, that and marketed.4 Bollywood’s appeal outside of the Indian subcontinent is not limited to the Indian diasporic Such “diffuse cultural conglomeration” became populations in the United States, Canada, UK, manifest in the manner in which Bollywood Middle East, southern and East Africa, the took England by storm in the late 1990s when Caribbean and elsewhere. Indian cinema’s Andrew Lloyd Webber produced the musical (primarily Bollywood’s) presence in many “Bombay Dreams” in a co-operative venture African countries is not only a long-established with renowned Bollywood musical director A.R. one, as media anthropologist Brian Larkin (2002, Rehman,5 and when Harrods and Selfridges KDV GRFXPHQWHG LQ KLV VWXGLHV RI ¿OP showcased Bollywood fashion and decor, and audiences in northern Nigeria, but its popularity when henna, yoga and bhangra became the rage has also been consolidated in the absence of an in the UK. One can add to these activities the Indian diasporic population with the importation independent consumption of song-and-dance RI ,QGLDQ ¿OP VW\OHV LQWR 1LJHULDQ +DXVD
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Scrutiny 2-2-5.indd 65 2008/11/14 06:25:31 PM ³YLGHR¿OPV´6 Sudha Rajagopalan (2005) has people of Indian descent predominate (a legacy documented a “taste” for Indian cinema in post- of the spatial/racial segregation policies of 6WDOLQLVW 6RYLHW VRFLHW\ DQG ,QGLDQ ¿OPV DUH the apartheid era). This move was followed said to have something of a cult status in Japan. E\ WKH RWKHU PDMRU ¿OP GLVWULEXWRU 1X0HWUR The October 2006 issue of the North American H[KLELWLQJWHQWRWZHOYH%ROO\ZRRG¿OPVIURP journal South Asian popular culture is dedicated 2003 onwards. While both Ster-Kinekor’s and to the study of Indian cinema’s global reach. Nu Metro’s Bollywood circuits (SK Bollywood Seeking to decentre Hollywood in debates on and Bollywood Unlimited, respectively) are now cinema and globalisation, it includes articles and well established, the rather belated discovery anecdotal accounts of Indian cinema in countries by mainstream exhibitors of the potential of as diverse as Spain, Romania, Bulgaria, Egypt, %ROO\ZRRGDWWKHER[RI¿FHZDVHFOLSVHGE\WKH Greece, Israel, the former Yugoslavia, Italy and migration of Bollywood to television in 2004. Turkey, among others — by non-NRIs. Other FRXQWULHVWRZKLFK,QGLDH[SRUWVLWV¿OPVLQFOXGH Prior to this development, however, Ster- Peru and China. Kinekor’s decision in 2002 to include Indian ¿OPV RQ LWV VFUHHQV QRW RQO\ WHVWL¿HG WR WKH In South Africa, there exists an established VXEVWDQWLDOPDUNHWIRU%ROO\ZRRG¿OPVLQ6RXWK KLVWRU\ RI ,QGLDQ ¿OP H[KLELWLRQ -DJDUQDWK Africa, but also heralded a shift from “ghetto” to (2004:212) notes that “[i]t was not long after mainstream. Especially in Durban, the city with ,QGLDVWDUWHGSURGXFLQJLWVRZQ¿OPVWKDWWKH\ the largest Indian-descent population, Indian made their appearance in South Africa” and that ¿OPV ² PDLQO\ +LQGLODQJXDJH ¿OPV ² ZHUH as early as 1936, the Indian government appealed screened in large grand cinemas with names DJDLQVWWKHKLJKLPSRUWWD[HVRQ¿OPVLPSRVHGE\ such as Shah Jehan (a two-thousand seater), the South African government. The appeal was Isfahan, Raj and Shiraz. Jagarnath (2004:218) XQVXFFHVVIXORQWKHJURXQGVWKDW³,QGLDQ¿OPV GHVFULEHV WKH VXFFHVV RI WKHVH ¿OPV IURP WKH appear to be purely a money-making matter and 1950s to the mid-1970s as “quite phenomenal”. not for the education of the Indian community” Thus the “ghetto” in the title of this essay is (Board of Censors 1939, cited in Jagarnath 2004). XVHGLURQLFDOO\ LWUHÀHFWVDQHWKQLFDOO\ERXQGHG 1HYHUWKHOHVV,QGLDQ¿OPH[KLELWLRQFRQWLQXHG cultural space and practice, but cinema-going by although the segregationist policies of the South Indian South Africans saw women dressing up African government limited its exposure and in their Saturday evening best, and the cinemas appeal beyond the Indian population. becoming “palaces of excess and enjoyment” (Jagarnath 2004:215). Both in name and decor, ,Q WKH ¿OP GLVWULEXWLRQ DQG H[KLELWLRQ they “aimed at linking themselves with an chain Ster-Kinekor hosted a Bollywood Film Indian past of royal dynasties, and Mughal Festival in the cities of Durban, Cape Town and extravagance” (Jagarnath 2004:215). Johannesburg. The festival heralded several new developments in relation to Bollywood in From about the mid-1980s onwards, however, South Africa. These include the establishment 'XUEDQVDZLWVRQFHWKULYLQJ,QGLDQ¿OPVFHQH by Ster-Kinekor of a “Bollywood circuit” in its begin to decline with the advent of video and mainstream cinema complexes. I use the term India’s boycott of South Africa’s apartheid “mainstream” to refer to the previously so- policies. Pirated videos abounded, and many of called “white” areas where many of the popular Durban’s once luxurious Indian cinemas were shopping malls are situated, and in which the shut down.7 Independent (Indian) distributors larger multiplexes are housed, as opposed to fought to revive the industry with chains like residential and/or commercial areas in which Ster-Kinekor only joining forces once the revival
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Scrutiny 2-2-5.indd 66 2008/11/14 06:25:31 PM ZDVDOUHDG\ZHOOXQGHUZD\6KDI¿H0RKDPHG stores in non-Indian areas began stocking Indian Ali, General Manager of Ster-Kinekor in GLDVSRUD¿OPVVXFKDVEast is east, Fire, Bend KwaZulu-Natal, explained the catalyst for Ster- it like Beckham and Monsoon wedding, as Kinekor’s interest in Bollywood as beginning their hybrid mix of Bollywood and Hollywood ZLWKWKH¿OPKuch kuch hota hai, for which Ster- themes, conventions and aesthetics provides Kinekor was offered screening rights in 1998. those audiences unable to accept Bollywood’s Ster-Kinekor warily decided to risk screening varying degrees of realism with something easier WKH ¿OP DQG ZDV VXUSULVHG ZKHQ LW JURVVHG to digest. Some video stores that attempted to PRUH WKDQ VRPH RI WKH :HVWHUQ ¿OPV DJDLQVW SURYLGHDVWRFNRI%ROO\ZRRG¿OPVIRXQGWKLVWR which it was competing. The country’s biggest EHOHVVSUR¿WDEOH8 distributor and exhibition chain saw a marketing opportunity that had long been ignored in the The new-found accessibility of Bollywood context of a racially segregated cinema-going ¿OPVRXWVLGHWKHWUDGLWLRQDOO\,QGLDQUHVLGHQWLDO environment. In 2002, Ster-Kinekor launched commercial areas was given a marketing boost through the hosting of Bollywood festivals, its Bollywood circuit with the Oscar-nominated such as the aforementioned one in 2002, and ¿OPLagaan (Tax 2001), which portrays a battle particularly by the decision of the International RQWKHFULFNHW¿HOGEHWZHHQ,QGLDQYLOODJHUVDQG Indian Film Academy (better known as IIFA) the occupying British colonial forces. to hold both the 2nd (2002, Sun City) and the 4th (2004, Dome at Northgate) International However, while Ster-Kinekor’s statements Indian Film Academy Awards in South Africa. to the media acknowledged the crucial role Testimony to the recognition by Bollywood of RI LQGHSHQGHQW ,QGLDQ ¿OP GLVWULEXWRUV LQ WKH South Africa as an important overseas market VXUYLYDO RI ,QGLDQ ¿OPV LQ WKH 6RXWK $IULFDQ LVWKHIDFWWKDWZLWKLQWKH¿UVW¿YH\HDUVRIWKH market, the company’s public relations existence of the glitzy awards they have already VWUDWHJ\ ZDV FDUHIXO WR SUHVHQW ,QGLDQ ¿OPV been held twice in South Africa.9 By the late as entertainment for all ethnic groups. The 1990s and early 2000s, the commercial potential expansion of the market for Bollywood of Bollywood was increasingly acknowledged ¿OPV WR ³FURVVRYHU DXGLHQFHV´ LQYROYHG E\ SOD\HUV RWKHU WKDQ ¿OP GLVWULEXWRUV ZLWK several strategies. Ster-Kinekor, followed segments of the leisure and entertainment less enthusiastically by Nu-Metro, began by LQGXVWU\ LQFOXGLQJ ¿OP SURGXFHUV EDQNUROOLQJ H[SDQGLQJWKHH[KLELWLRQRI%ROO\ZRRG¿OPVWR local tours by Bollywood actors, musicians, mainstream cinema venues, facilitating access fashion designers and so on. for both Indian-descent audiences now living outside the Indian residential areas (demarcated However, all of the efforts to appeal to a by the previous apartheid regime) and viewers crossover audience and expand the market for of other races. The availability of subtitled Bollywood were eclipsed by an independent YHUVLRQV RI +LQGL ¿OPV KHOSHG VXSSRUW WKH decision by the national public broadcaster, expansion campaign — enabling comprehension SABC, to begin screening — initially often in for both Indian-descent audiences no longer direct competition with theatre distributors — familiar with Indian vernaculars and non-Indian DVHULHVRI%ROO\ZRRG¿OPVRQ6$%&6RXWK audiences. Additionally, expansion to cinemas Africa’s “public commercial” television service, in small towns across the country ensured that on Saturday nights. Starting in April 2004, the even those living outside the major metropolitan ZHHNO\EURDGFDVWRI%ROO\ZRRG¿OPVFDWDSXOWHG centres were able to go to a cinema in order to Bollywood, in one bold move, into the South ZDWFK D %ROO\ZRRG ¿OP 6XEVHTXHQWO\ YLGHR African mainstream. Considering that most
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Scrutiny 2-2-5.indd 67 2008/11/14 06:25:31 PM of the South African population has access to mainstream advertising (cellphones, fast food, only a few free-to-air television channels — etc.). DOWKRXJK PRUH DIÀXHQW YLHZHUV FDQ VXEVFULEH to the satellite network DSTV — and that As a result of the positive audience ratings, South African television channels have national Nepal was able to negotiate a repeat screening coverage, there is nothing more mainstream than time slot. The repeat screenings, which started being on television. The then commissioning in August 2004, on Saturday afternoons (2 p.m.) editor in charge of the Bollywood programming were the result of public demand. The 2 p.m. at the SABC, Anu Nepal, requested the slot became the primary screening time for channel’s “dead slot”, viz. the 10 p.m. slot on ,QGLDQ ¿OPV DV 6$%& FUHDWHG D PDUNHWLQJ Saturday nights, as a way of getting a foot in brand called “Bollywood on 3” which, in fact, WKHGRRUIRUWKHVFUHHQLQJRI%ROO\ZRRG¿OPV increasingly included non-Bollywood Indian Bearing in mind the marketing of Bollywood ¿OPV HVSHFLDOO\ WKRVH LQ WKH 6RXWK ,QGLDQ ¿OPVDVIDPLO\IDUHVFKHGXOLQJWKH¿OPVLQWKH languages of Telegu and Tamil. problematic dead slot to test out the market for Bollywood appears to have been a decidedly One demographic group not mentioned in the ULVN\JDPEOHFRQVLGHULQJWKDW%ROO\ZRRG¿OPV DXGLHQFH UDWLQJV ¿JXUHV LV WKH EODFN$IULFDQ are usually at least three hours long. Amidst a audience. This may be due to the fact that there mixture of condescension and scepticism by exists a common perception among black South colleagues who claimed that Bollywood was Africans that SABC3 is a “white” channel and, “way too Indian” for South African audiences, H[FHSWIRUWKHPRUHHGXFDWHGDIÀXHQWVHJPHQWV especially for the traditionally English-speaking, of the black population, viewership among VRSKLVWLFDWHGDQGDIÀXHQWDXGLHQFHVRI6$%& blacks is concentrated on the SABC’s channels Nepal’s gamble paid off. DQG$SURSRVHGPDUNHWLQJVWUDWHJ\WRÀLJKW ³SURPRV´RI%ROO\ZRRG¿OPVRQWKHVHFKDQQHOV Audience ratings, despite the lateness of the did not materialise.10 time slot, surprised many of Nepal’s colleagues. 7KHVFUHHQLQJRIWKH¿UVWWHQ¿OPVLQFUHDVHGWKH At the time of writing, Bollywood — which channel’s viewership in this time slot as follows: had disappeared from South African television a 700% increase in Indian-descent audiences, a screens for a while — has reappeared as part 115% increase in English-speaking audiences of SABC3’s normal weekend programming of and a 20% increase in Afrikaans-speaking ¿OPV 1R ORQJHU ³JKHWWRLVHG´ DV D GLVWLQFWLYH audiences, a 30% increase in the category called EUDQG %ROO\ZRRG ¿OPV DUH QRZ VLPSO\ All Adults and a 35% increase in All Adults LSM LQFOXGHGLQWKHFKDQQHO¶VIHDWXUH¿OPVFUHHQLQJ DQG ¿QDOO\ D LQFUHDVH LQ &RORXUHG schedule. In addition, references to Bollywood audiences. — in Rajadhyaksha’s sense of it constituting a cultural phenomenon that goes beyond The huge increase in Indian-descent audiences WKH ¿OPV LW SURGXFHV ² FRQWLQXHV RQ 6RXWK is not as unsurprising as it may seem — Indian $IULFDQWHOHYLVLRQLQWKHLQFOXVLRQRI¿OPFOLSV audiences have an extremely high rate of VCR/ and other snippets of Bollywood news and DVD ownership and access to low-cost rentals gossip on the magazine show Eastern mosaic. RUSXUFKDVHVRI,QGLDQ¿OPV,QDGGLWLRQPDQ\ Additionally, Bollywood’s imprint remains in the subscribe to satellite subscription channels such consciousness of most viewers as it is referenced as ZEE TV, B4U and Sony. The “dead slot”, on variety shows and on arts and culture shows previously lacking advertiser support, began WKDWUHÀHFWDZLGHUSKHQRPHQRQRILQFOXVLRQRI to attract substantial advertising, primarily Bollywood-style song and dance in many live
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Scrutiny 2-2-5.indd 68 2008/11/14 06:25:31 PM performances. Thus, while many non-Indian (MOU). The MOU was signed during the viewers (and some Indian South Africans too!) International Film Festival of India held in New may not remember the names of individual Delhi in October 2002 by delegates representing ¿OPV PDQ\ DUH IDPLOLDU ZLWK %ROO\ZRRG DV D South Africa’s NFVF and India’s National Film “genre” and some have been motivated to attend Development Corporation Limited (NFDC). theatrical screenings and even — according to The Memorandum of Understanding makes some DVD retailers — to buy Bollywood titles. provision for Indian-South African co-operation Such retailers also mention that a number of LQ ¿OPUHODWHG LQGXVWU\ PDWWHUV LQ VHYHUDO NH\ their customers are West and East Africans, such areas, including co-production, distribution, as Somali and Nigerian immigrants. festivals and cultural programmes, and information exchange. The MOU’s provisions The shift in the consumption of Bollywood regarding co-production include the facilitation ¿OPV PXVLF FHOHEULW\ JRVVLS IDVKLRQ HWF of joint funding of the development, production in South Africa to one that moves beyond the DQG GLVWULEXWLRQ RI ¿OPV 7KH 028 DOVR Indian South African population to a wider, undertakes to devise strategies to encourage the increasingly more mainstream audience is GLVWULEXWLRQ DQG H[KLELWLRQ RI ¿OPV IURP ERWK paralleled by industry developments with countries. Provisions also cover the exchange UHJDUG WR %ROO\ZRRG ¿OP production. Indian RI ¿OPUHODWHG LQIRUPDWLRQ DERXW FXOWXUDO co-operation with South Africa in relation to programmes in the respective countries, the ¿OPSURGXFWLRQLQYLWHVIXUWKHUH[DPLQDWLRQZLWK exploration of the possibility of organising a UHJDUG WR WZR DVSHFWV ¿UVWO\ 6RXWK $IULFDQ ¿OP ZHHN LQ WKH WZR FRXQWULHV LQ DFFRUGDQFH ,QGLDQ¿OPLQGXVWU\FRRSHUDWLRQDQGVHFRQGO\ with pre-existing provisions for cultural co- Bollywood’s increasing use of South Africa for operation and the exchange of information on location shooting. industry development and promotion within these countries. 6RXWK$IULFDQ,QGLDQ¿OPLQGXVWU\FRRSHUDWLRQ has gained an increased momentum in the past Subsequent co-operation between the two few years. In September 2002, Eddie Mbalo, FRXQWULHV¶ ¿OP LQGXVWULHV KDV EHHQ HUUDWLF EXW CEO of the NFVF (National Film and Video it is beginning to show signs of an increasing Foundation), argued that “[t]he Indian industry dynamism. In September 2004, an entire day has two important lessons for South Africa: of the three-day-long India International Film WKH ¿UVW LV KRZ WR EXLOG D ¿OP LQGXVWU\ LQ D Convention held in New Delhi was dedicated developing country; and the second, how to WR6RXWK$IULFDDQGWKHZKROHH[KLELWLRQÀRRU HQDEOHFRPPHUFLDOO\YLDEOH¿OPVWREHSURGXFHG occupied by the South African delegation. in a multilingual, culturally diverse society”.11 6RXWK $IULFD DOVR VWDUWHG HQWHULQJ VRPH ¿OPV Soon afterwards, Eddie Mbalo and other LQ ,QGLDQ ¿OP IHVWLYDOV ,Q )HEUXDU\ D senior staff from the National Film and Video Bollywood delegation was received in South Foundation visited India to solidify relationships $IULFDWRGLVFXVV%ROO\ZRRG6RXWK$IULFDQ¿OP with the Indian production community, as well industry co-operation. Nevertheless, for several DVWRHVWDEOLVKDQDJUHHPHQWZLWKD¿OPVFKRRO years after the MOU was signed, no co-operative in India that offered placements to South African ¿OPSURGXFWLRQVHHPVWRKDYHWDNHQSODFHXQGHU students. Subsequently, a number of visits and the aegis of the agreement. Tusi Fokane, Senior events have strengthened South Africa’s links Manager for Policy and Research at the NFVF, ZLWKWKH,QGLDQ¿OPLQGXVWU\2QHRIWKHVHLVD notes: formal agreement between the two countries in the form of a Memorandum of Understanding
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Scrutiny 2-2-5.indd 69 2008/11/14 06:25:31 PM Whilst there have been a number of trade Mr Bones was very popular with Indian audiences, delegations to India, the MOU with respect to both in theatres and on TV, and it was dubbed film has not really taken off the ground. One of into Hindi and other local languages. We are the reasons may be the fact that we received thrilled to be doing a film in India which has the information indicating that the NFDC was no largest film industry in the world, making more longer in operation. Furthermore, there has not movies than Hollywood, and which is supported been any subsequent communication from our by a vast audience from a population of more Indian counterparts.12 than a billion people. It makes perfect sense for Mr Bones, a white African sangoma, to end up in A report commissioned by the Western Cape India to continue his journey in an exotic location Department of Economic Development and and to generate his unique brand of chaos. We have also had fruitful discussions with potential 7RXULVP RQ WKH ¿OP LQGXVWU\ VXJJHVWV WKDW co-production partners, among whom are Mohan the MOU should be expanded into a full co- Shetty of AdLabs, Bobby Bedi of Kaleidoskope production treaty: Entertainment and Ronnie Screwvalla of UTV. (“Mr Bones” 2007) Developing the Indian Memorandum of Understanding into a full co-production treaty The article goes on to note that “[t]he sequel to Mr would also provide substantial returns. Although Bones is scheduled to be shot in India later this Indian budgets tend to be a great deal smaller than those of European and American origin, \HDUDQGPDUNVWKH¿UVWWLPHWKDWD6RXWK$IULFD the tourism spin-offs are substantial. Indian India co-production will be shot in both South tourists are renowned for travelling to locations Africa and India. This production is an extension showcased in Indian films. Furthermore, a co- RIWKHVLJQL¿FDQWHFRQRPLFDQGFXOWXUDOWLHVWKDW production treaty could ‘work both ways’. Despite the two countries have developed”. While for the enormous quantity of films produced by the South Africa the potential access to a massive Bollywood Industry each year (over 800 feature films), only 1-2% are distributed internationally.13 ,QGLDQPDUNHWIRU¿OPVLVFOHDUO\DQLQFHQWLYH South Africa can help make Indian films more a mutual sense of the other’s exoticism appears commercially viable and offers a large potential WRLQIRUPPXFKRIWKH,QGLDQ6RXWK$IULFDQ¿OP consumer base for Indian releases. Delegations co-operation agreements. For example, the Sun from both countries have recently made &LW\VHTXHQFHVLQWKH%ROO\ZRRG¿OPHera phiri reciprocal trips to further co-operation. The Indian delegation is concerned about the tax incentive utilise the iconography of colonial nostalgia schemes available, however. With regard to the (a hallmark of much of South Africa’s tourist DTI rebate scheme, they feel that the minimum appeal), African exoticism, etc. budget of R25 million is too large for the majority of Indian films. It has been suggested therefore Another aspect of Bollywood in South Africa that a Special Purpose Vehicle be created is Bollywood’s discovery of South Africa for specifically for Bollywood productions. This would be a potentially useful way to foster further location shooting. The use of South African collaborations. (Tuomi 2005b:6) ORFDWLRQV E\ LQWHUQDWLRQDO ¿OP SURGXFWLRQV ² be it Bollywood, European or North American In March 2007, the South African trade SURGXFWLRQV ² EHQH¿WV WKH FRXQWU\ LQ VHYHUDO publication Screen Africa reported that South ZD\V 7KHVH EHQH¿WV UHVLGH SULPDULO\ LQ WKH $IULFDQ ¿OP SURGXFHU $QDQW 6LQJK KDG SRVLWLRQLQJ RI ¿OP SURGXFWLRQ XQLWV DV ³VXSHU announced at a press conference in Mumbai tourists” because of their extensive use of that the sequel to the hit comedy Mr Bones resources such as airlines, vehicle rental (not will be partly shot at a location on the Indian MXVW FDU KLUH EXW WUXFN EXV ¿UH HQJLQH DQG subcontinent, as a co-production with an Indian ambulance rentals), accommodation, restaurant production company.14 The article further quotes and catering services, and electrical and other Singh: equipment — all of which support a large
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Scrutiny 2-2-5.indd 70 2008/11/14 06:25:31 PM number of auxiliary industries. In addition, there Cape Town (and its environs) is particularly are spin-offs in terms of marketing the country popular with Bollywood producers. For or city as a tourist attraction, the employment H[DPSOH LQ RQO\ RQH %ROO\ZRRG ¿OP of local technical and creative crew members, (Rehnaa hai terre dil mein) was shot in Durban. as well as the use of local actors, mainly as 'XULQJWKDWVDPHSHULRGVHYHQ%ROO\ZRRG¿OPV extras, but also sometimes in more substantial were shot in Cape Town. The entire second VXSSRUWLQJ UROHV )RU IRUHLJQ ¿OP SURGXFHUV half of the melodrama Dil ka rishta (Naresh South Africa offers a favourable exchange Malhotra, 2001), which stars Bollywood rate, good weather conditions, a wide range of superstar Aishwarya Rai, is set in Cape Town. natural landscapes, up-to-date equipment rental More recently, however, Bollywood has begun companies, access to support services and a utilising Durban and other KwaZulu-Natal ZHOOGHYHORSHG ¿OP LQIUDVWUXFWXUH 'RPHVWLF ORFDWLRQVPRUHIUHTXHQWO\2QHVXFK¿OPVKRW DQG LQWHUQDWLRQDO FRPPHUFLDO DQG IHDWXUH ¿OP in Durban as well as at the Sun City holiday production in South Africa currently generates resort, is Hera pheri (Priyadarshan, 2000). A about seven billion rand annually, and revenues comedy revolving around three working-class, are expected to rise substantially as a result unemployed heroes, Hera pheri integrates the thinnest of romantic sub-plots with a set of of the government’s recent launch of a rebate rather gritty, even grimy locations — elements VFKHPHIRUWKH¿OPLQGXVWU\$GGLWLRQDOO\VRPH XQXVXDO IRU D FRQWHPSRUDU\ %ROO\ZRRG ¿OP15 %ROO\ZRRG ¿OP SURGXFHUV KDYH UHSRUWHGO\ However, the locations set in South Africa moved productions from the UK to South Africa function to provide the contrasting glamourised, as a result of the new, less favourable tax system exotic settings necessary for the fantasy song- introduced there, including a “cultural test” for and-dance sequences. Bollywood song-and- Britishness (Bollywood prefers South Africa dance sequences are already famously global, 2006). and Hera pheri uses locations around Durban as a backdrop for a song-and-dance sequence The city of Cape Town and the province of with neither explicit acknowledgement of the Gauteng remain in the forefront as preferred geographical location nor reference to it in ORFDWLRQVIRU¿OPSURGXFWLRQV,WLV&DSH7RZQ the narrative (which is set in Mumbai). This however, which has established itself as the LVQRWXQXVXDOIRUD%ROO\ZRRG¿OPKRZHYHU premier location of choice for international Bollywood conventions do not valorise “realism” ¿OPV 7KH XVH RI WKH FLW\ DV D ¿OP ORFDWLRQ or verisimilitude to the degree that mainstream pumps in hundreds of millions of rand into Western or Hollywood genres do. It is left to the local economy. On a good day, there may those familiar with Durban’s Pavilion shopping be as many as forty shoots in and around Cape mall and its Marine Parade and beachfront area 7RZQ LQFOXGLQJFRPPHUFLDOV,QGLDQ¿OPVDQG to recognise the rickshaws and the landmarks +ROO\ZRRG¿OPV ,QWKHSDVWGHFDGHDQXPEHU around which a female character tries to seduce RI %ROO\ZRRG ¿OPV KDYH EHHQ VKRW LQ 6RXWK one of our hapless heroes. Africa, including Hera pheri, Filhaal, Aankhen, Dil ka rishta, Armaan, Ishq vishq, Andaaz, Khel :KLOHWKH¿OPAndaaz (Raj Kanwar, 2003) not and Dhoom 2. Many of these productions appear only uses South African locations in the song- to be private arrangements between Bollywood and-dance sequences but also in some of the producers and local entrepreneurs, rather than narrative sequences, the narrative itself is not set co-operations forged under the formal aegis of in South Africa. Such geographical substitution intergovernmental agreements. LVFRPPRQSODFHLQ¿OPSURGXFWLRQ9DQFRXYHU
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Scrutiny 2-2-5.indd 71 2008/11/14 06:25:31 PM and Toronto, for example, have frequently Indians in the Caribbean or South Africa left stood in for New York or Los Angeles. Thus, during British colonial rule and the majority in Andaaz, scenes shot in the outskirts of emigrated as indentured labourers.18 Cape Town stand variously for “somewhere in Europe”, and the word “VLIEG” is even visible However, a Bollywood action thriller shot on one of the buildings in the background of in Cape Town in September and October of D ULFK PDQ¶V SULYDWH DLU ÀHHW 6RXWK $IULFDQ 2006, entitled Cash (starring Zayed Khan authorities were reportedly upset about this and Ajay Devgan) and scheduled for release geographical substitution, which deprives South in 2007, apparently has a plot based in Cape $IULFD RI WKH EHQH¿FLDO VSLQRIIV IRU WRXULVP Town in which a Capetonian, with underworld when its locations are passed off as being links, needs to complete his collection of three elsewhere — particularly after the Minister of precious diamonds. If accurately reported Defence agreed to allow the South African Air in the newspapers, this would make it the )RUFHWRGRDÀ\SDVWIRUWKH¿OP16 Similarly, ¿UVW %ROO\ZRRG ¿OP ZLWK D 6RXWK $IULFDQ the recent Bollywood blockbuster Dhoom 2 protagonist. (Sanjay Gadhvi, 2006), a sophisticated action Jigna Desai (2004) notes that until recently, thriller, passes off its locations in Oribi Gorge “diasporas hardly registered in the national on the KwaZulu-Natal South Coast and scenes ¿OPLFLPDJLQDU\ LQRWKHUZRUGVGLDVSRULFOLYHV around Durban as parts of Brazil, with Durban DQGH[SHULHQFHVUDUHO\ZHUHWKHVXEMHFWRI¿OPV substituting for Rio and parts of Mumbai. The This is clearly not the case anymore, because spectacular opening sequence, however, is shot ,QGLDQ ¿OP LQGXVWULHV KDYH µGLVFRYHUHG¶ WKH in the Namib Desert and is acknowledged as diasporas (as lucrative markets)”. Ravinder Kaur such. (2002) notes that “the factors of demand, supply DQG SUR¿WDELOLW\ JXLGH WKH DFWXDO SURGXFWLRQ Despite the increasing use of South Africa for of cultural products”. However, it is the recent location shooting, Bollywood has been slow to wave of emigration to the First World nations, include South African actors or characters in and the consequent establishment of diasporas LWV ¿OPV 7R GDWH RQO\ YHU\ RFFDVLRQDO XVH ZLWKVLJQL¿FDQWO\KLJKGLVSRVDEOHLQFRPHVWKDW has been made of South African actors.17 South has asserted the primacy of diasporic markets. Africans of Indian descent rarely appear as characters LQ %ROO\ZRRG ¿OPV HYHQ DV PLQRU South Africa’s relative invisibility as a source of or secondary characters (with speaking parts). diasporic narratives and characters is reproduced While Bollywood obviously relies on the star in scholarly analyses of Indian cinema’s power of its leading actors to draw audiences, international markets. Despite Bollywood’s %ROO\ZRRG ¿OPV ZLOO RIWHQ characterise them own recognition of South Africa as a lucrative as NRIs from the US, Canada, Australia or the PDUNHW ² DV UHÀHFWHG LQ WKH FKRLFH RI 6RXWK UK. The reluctance to acknowledge, narratively, Africa to host two of the IIFA award ceremonies Indian diasporas in Fiji, Mauritius, Guyana, — Pendakur and Subramanyam (1996), for Trinidad, Surinam, Malaysia, South Africa, Sri example, simply exclude South Africa from their /DQNDDQGWKH0LGGOH(DVWUHÀHFWVWKHFODVVELDV discussion of Indian cinema’s major diasporic of Bollywood. Recent Bollywood blockbusters markets. However, they do acknowledge two have increasingly focused on the lives of high- other African countries, Kenya and Nigeria caste Hindus belonging to the upper, middle or (although the latter hardly counts as a “diasporic” professional classes, many of whose emigration market). Additionally, a pattern emerging in to the West is of relatively recent vintage. scholarly analyses of Bollywood in the diaspora
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Scrutiny 2-2-5.indd 72 2008/11/14 06:25:31 PM reveals a tendency to give lip service to the Indian South African students at Wits about existence of Indian diasporas in many parts of whether they perceived Indian-targeted media the world before proceeding with analyses that as a way of returning to their cultural roots to assume all Indian diasporic subjects reside in the ¿QG WKHLU LGHQWLWLHV LQ D SRVWDSDUWKHLG 6RXWK First World nations of the US, Canada, England Africa, has noted, “to most of the students, the and, sometimes, Australia. cultural worth of Bollywood movies was no different from MTV, markers of fashion trends One analysis of the role of Bollywood in the that one might emulate at a family wedding, construction of diasporic Indian identity in just like replicating a popular Western culture South Africa is Thomas Blom Hansen’s “In fashion trend on campus” (Mistry 2004:34). It search of the diasporic self: Bollywood in South could be argued, then, that via the act of daily Africa” (2005:240). Flawed by the assumption, media consumption in a globalised media PDGH IURP WKH RXWVHW WKDW ³%ROO\ZRRG ¿OPV environment, viewers are “transported” in and KDYH IRU D ORQJ WLPH EHHQ D W\SH RI µPHJD VLJQL¿HU¶ RI ,QGLDQQHVV LQ 6RXWK $IULFD DQG out of alternative worlds and cultural scenarios, elsewhere),” Hansen also pays little attention to resulting in a form of cosmopolitanism I would class, religious and generational differences in describe as “armchair cosmopolitanism”. How WKHUHFHSWLRQRI%ROO\ZRRG¿OPVRULQUHODWLRQ processes of media consumption may be linked to South African Indian subjectivities. Hansen to identity formation is, of course, worthy of uncritically assumes that sources such as the further exploration. Durban-based newspaper The post represent the views of a homogenous and monolithic “Indian Ethnographic audience studies may help community”. Hansen argues that the Bollywood provide some useful insights into the role ¿OP Kuch kuch hota hai (Karan Johar 1998) of Bollywood not only in the South African gave South Africans “a glimpse of being a Indian imaginary, but also in relation to identity PRGHUQ µGLDVSRULF ,QGLDQ¶ LQ FRQWHPSRUDU\ construction among South Africans of different South Africa” (Hansen 2005:257) by providing, races. In particular, ethnographic studies among it seems, “a fantasy India widely held among diasporic Indians may help dispel existing Indians in South Africa” (256), i.e. one devoid of perceptions that the consumption of Bollywood squalor and poverty. Far more interesting would ¿OPV VLJQL¿HV D GHVLUH IRU WKH LGHD RI HLWKHU be an interrogation of Hansen’s argument that, in an “authentic” or a romanticised homeland to fact, for most South Africans, “India is nowhere confused diasporans — a narrative favoured by LQWKHSLFWXUHDVDQREMHFWRILGHQWL¿FDWLRQDQG Bollywood itself. Additionally, ethnographic even less as a destination of emigration” (258). UHVHDUFK LV QHFHVVDU\ WR SURYLGH YHUL¿FDWLRQ of, and insights into, anecdotal accounts of the Anecdotal evidence emerging from my own popularity of Bollywood among many African/ teaching of a brief introduction to Bollywood black domestic workers and nurses, and some LQ DQ XQGHUJUDGXDWH ¿OP VWXGLHV FRXUVH DW WKH University of the Witwatersrand (better known white teenagers, among others. Such studies may locally as “Wits”) suggests that many young well provide evidence that contradicts Hansen’s South Africans — of all races, including those concluding argument that “the deep-running of Indian descent — draw on Bollywood as racialisation of cultural practices in South Africa just one of the global cultural references which means that there are few signs of Indian cinema support their perceptions of themselves as becoming a … medium of entertainment and cosmopolitan, sophisticated and media-savvy. visceral engagement between the city’s Indian As a colleague, who approached a number of and African worlds” (2005:259).
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Scrutiny 2-2-5.indd 73 2008/11/14 06:25:31 PM %ROO\ZRRG¿OPVDUHXQTXHVWLRQDEO\IRUPXODLF Notes their appeal lies not in the uniqueness of plot or characterisation, but in the pleasures of spectacle. 1 The term “Non-Resident Indian” — Neither Bollywood nor Nollywood valorises the commonly abbreviated as NRI — is a term referring to Indian nationals living outside “real” (as is the case with the classical realist India, but is commonly used to refer to the narratives of Hollywood) or the psychological diasporic Indians in general (regardless of (European art cinema). The appeal of Bollywood nationality). Diasporans themselves often ¿OPV LQ GLIIHUHQW FXOWXUDO FRQWH[WV VHHPV WR jokingly argue it means “Not Really Indian”. lie simultaneously in their exoticism and their 2 Another common misconception is that familiarity, their high production values and Bollywood is the most prolific film industry their lowbrow “corn” factor. One South African in the world. While India is, in fact, currently magazine article summed it up thus: “They’re the most prolific film-producing nation in the world, it is the combined output of all of its predictable, they’re over-the-top and they’ve film industries — not of Bollywood alone — got more musical interludes than a Walt Disney that makes it the world’s largest producer of children’s cartoon. And that’s why we love ’em” films. (Good Golly, it’s Bolly! 2005:21). 3 The surname “Khan” is a Muslim surname. Other well-known Bollywood figures with the Within the South African context, Bollywood’s surname “Khan” include male stars Salman shift from “ghetto” to mainstream has occurred Khan, Saif Ali Khan, Zayed Khan and within the domains of both consumption and Fardeen Khan, the late director Mehboob production. Bollywood’s appeal beyond the Khan (whose 1957 film, Mother India, is a classic of Indian cinema) and director/ Indian diasporic audience has, in my opinion, choreographer Farah Khan, among others. UHDFKHGDVWDJHZKHUHLWLVKDVEHFRPHVXI¿FLHQWO\ integrated into the popular consciousness of 4 Owing to rampant piracy of Bollywood films, it is likely that a very small percentage South Africans to justify the argument that of revenues generated from DVD sales Bollywood has become “mainstream” in South actually reaches the producers or official Africa: visible on national television, exhibited distributors, but the sale of DVDs should in cinemas at major shopping malls, and with perhaps be acknowledged as an ancillary live “Bollywood” concerts and performances “industry”! frequently involving organisers and participants, 5 A.R. Rehman’s name is alternatively spelled as well as audiences, of all races. The expansion as “Rahman”. RI %ROO\ZRRG6RXWK$IULFDQ ¿OP LQGXVWU\ FR 6 Additionally, in interviews with this author, operation, whether state-supported or private, several West African filmmakers from is increasingly following the same path as more countries such as Senegal and Burkina Bollywood producers become aware of the Faso have attested to exposure to Indian EHQH¿WV6RXWK$IULFDRIIHUVQRWRQO\LQWHUPVRI films in their youth; neither country has an Indian diaspora population of any note. fresh, new, foreign locales for their (in)famous Despite the immense popularity of Indian song-and-dance sequences, but also in terms of films among African audiences, their the production facilities available in South Africa. prevalence on African screens (together Finally, recent co-operation between South with Hollywood movies and kung fu $IULFDQDQG,QGLDQ¿OPSURGXFHUV²FXUUHQWO\ fare) has long been a bone of contention in the development of Leon Schuster’s sequel to among those filmmakers and film scholars committed to expanding African audiences Mr Bones — promises the beginning of a more for African films. The only home-grown active co-production relationship between South African “industry” to have achieved Africa and India. substantial popular/commercial appeal in
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Scrutiny 2-2-5.indd 74 2008/11/14 06:25:31 PM Africa is Nollywood (i.e. the Nigerian “video reflect the total output of India’s several film” industry). regional (and commercially successful) cinemas, not Bollywood’s alone. 7 For a discussion of the early history of Indian cinema exhibition in Durban, see Jagarnath 14 In an interview on the TV magazine (2004). programme Top billing (aired 26 July 2007) the director of Mr Bones, Leon Schuster, 8 The reasons for this are clear to those familiar described the sequel, entitled Escapades with the manner in which Bollywood films and currently in production, as a South are distributed, marketed and consumed in South Africa. The cost of purchasing a African/Bollywood film project. DVD version of a Bollywood film is not only 15 In recent years, Bollywood films have very low, it is also frequently available while increasingly focused on the lives and loves the film is still on circuit. Additionally, most of the affluent classes, or the “transnational Bollywood fans watch their favourite song- Indian”, with opulent sets, designer clothes, and-dance sequences repeatedly. These etc. factors result in most fans purchasing their own copy of the film for about the same 16 The supposedly European plane clearly price as a single rental from a DVD store in a displays the colours of the South African mainstream/cosmopolitan neighbourhood. flag! However, video rentals in Indian areas are 17 At the time of writing, a film recently released considerably cheaper, and viewers in these in South Africa, Just married (Meghna areas will both patronise video rental stores Gulzar, 2007), does include South African and acquire their own collection of favourite model/actress Tarina Patel in a secondary films. role, and the white South African actress 9 The IIFA awards ceremony is extremely Shannon Esra appears in the recently glamorous, and the major Bollywood stars, released film Salaam-e-ishq (Nikhil Advani, choreographers and costume designers 2007), playing a Canadian woman. pull out all the stops to entertain audiences 18 Many Indians in the Middle East, whose with a number of extravagant song-and- emigration is more recent, appear to be dance performances. included in some other regional cinemas 10 “Promos” refers to promotional inserts of a such as Malayalan cinema. television station’s own programming. Works cited 11 The statement was made during Mbalo’s speech entitled “Towards a KZN Film Office” Bollywood prefers South Africa to UK. 2006. The at the 22nd Durban International Film Festival. Hindu, 25 December. Although looking to Bollywood may provide some lessons for the development of a Desai, J. 2004. Beyond Bollywood: The cultural local film industry in South Africa, it would politics of South Asian diasporic film. New perhaps be more productive for us to look York: Routledge. closer to home — to Nollywood and the Ghanaian video film industry — for models. Deshpande, S. 2005. The consumable hero of South Africa does not share with India a globalised India. In: Kaur, Raminder and large domestic market, a crucial factor in Ajay J. Sinha (eds). Bollyworld: Popular the success of the Indian film industries. Indian cinema through a transnational lens. Film ticket sales in India average 12 million New Delhi: Sage. per day; in South Africa the figure is 26-30 million per year! Good Golly, it’s Bolly! 2005. Club magazine: The 12 Stated in email communication to the author Foschini retail group, February. in April 2006. Hansen, T.B. 2005. In search of the diasporic 13 The figures cited as Bollywood’s output self: Bollywood in South Africa. In: are inaccurate; the figures more accurately Kaur, Raminder and Ajay J. Sinha (eds).
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Scrutiny 2-2-5.indd 75 2008/11/14 06:25:31 PM Bollyworld: popular Indian cinema through Mistry, J. 2004. Beyond homeland nostalgia. The a transnational lens. New Delhi: Sage. Media, September.
Jagarnath, V. 2004. The politics of urban “Mr Bones” sequel to be co-produced in India. segregation and Indian cinema in Durban. 2007. Screen Africa, 14 March.
Kaur, R. 2002. Viewing the West through Pendakur, M. and R. Subramanyam. 1996. Bollywood: A celluloid occident in the Indian cinema beyond national borders. In: making. Contemporary South Asia 11(2):199- Sinclair, J., E. Jacka and S.C. Cunningham 209. (eds). New patterns in global television: peripheral vision. Oxford: Oxford University Lal, P. 2004. Bollywood ain’t world cinema. Press: 67-82.
___. 2003. Itineraries of Indian cinema: African Tuomi, K. 2005a. Micro Economic Development videos, Bollywood, and global media. Strategy (MEDS). Western Cape Depart- In: Shohat, Ella and Robert Stam (eds). ment of Economic Development and Tourism: Film Sector: Paper One.
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