THE POLITICS OF ANTI-AUSTERITY IN LIVERPOOL: A MORE-THAN-CUTS APPROACH THESIS SUBMITTED IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF LIVERPOOL FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR IN PHILOSOPHY BY JOSHUA BLAMIRE OCTOBER 2017 Department of Geography and Planning School of Environmental Science University of Liverpool ABSTRACT This thesis examines the politics of anti-austerity in Liverpool, UK. Through a politically- engaged activist ethnography, interviews with anti-austerity activists and city councillors, and content analysis, the research explores how both grassroots actors and Liverpool City Council conceptualise and politicise austerity, as well as how they imagine, or begin to enact, political alternatives to austerity. In response to growing calls from geographers to interrogate the situatedness of anti-austerity politics, this thesis adopts an explicitly spatial reading of the organic evolution of anti-austerity resistance. Through so doing, it illustrates how a crisis that was initially sparked by mortgage defaults in the US has resulted, a decade later, in the contested reshaping of what a Liverpudlian political identity is, or should be. Accordingly, this thesis critiques dominant structuralist accounts that depict people and place as passive victims in the roll-out of austerity politics, which lead to politically disempowering analyses. The research considers what the potentialities and limits are to the conduct of anti-austerity politics at the municipal scale, and reveals that Liverpool City Council’s strategy of austerity-inspired urban entrepreneurialism, coupled with more nuanced strategies to pursue social justice within a competitive neoliberal environment, was dominant. The voices of grassroots activists were unheard in public political debate, and their politics was constrained by a number of structural and strategic dysfunctions. The thesis advances a ´more-than-cuts’ framework which views both institutional and grassroots actors as conscious agents in the mediation and contestation of anti-austerity politics within the locale. Liverpool City Council pursued a rhetorically antagonistic/strategically cooperative relationship with successive Conservative-led central governments, through which austerity was embraced as the transformative catalyst for institutional change. Central to this was the council’s mobilising of a vision of Liverpool’s historic entrepreneurial spirit as part of an aggressive strategy to construct new relational political identities vis-à-vis national and international politics. Likewise, resistance by grassroots activists – envisioned as an assemblage – cannot be read as merely reactive, localised or defensive, despite seemingly failing to advance credible political alternatives. Although their original demands were not realised, they were able to contest the political landscape. The spatial examination that this study undertakes demonstrates how grassroots conceptions of anti-austerity were constitutive of new political identities and solidarities, and discusses how these were produced at the intersection of different trajectories of resistance, both past and present. Conceptually, the more-than-cuts framework shows how anti-austerity politics involves the articulation of wider political imaginaries. Empirically, this thesis suggests that, although the period of research i represented a relatively dormant period for radical politics in the city, struggles over austerity reshaped existing local political networks, and contributed to the elaboration of a broader (national) anti-austerity politics. The assemblage helped pave the way for the election of Jeremy Corbyn as leader of the Labour Party in September 2015. As a result, there is newfound potential for radical challenges to neoliberalism at the local and national scales. The research consequently identifies possibilities for the articulation of new forms of progressive localism through which political alternatives might flourish. Given the rise of both regional devolution and Brexit, which are set to impact upon Liverpool and elsewhere, this is a pressing task that must be addressed if the pursuit of social justice is to be realised. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS All academic enterprises involve collaboration with many people and this thesis is no exception. In the first instance, I would like to extend my immense gratitude to all those involved in struggling against austerity, in all the various campaigns. I shall refrain from naming particular individuals in order to respect anonymity, but I would like to give a special thanks to all those members of Liverpool against the Cuts which, during the research period, was the organisation with which I was most involved. We shared many competing political perspectives and the debate was always rigorous, in true Liverpool fashion, but was always bound by a healthy dose of respect from each side. I hope this thesis makes a positive contribution to fighting against austerity. There are too many individuals to whom this thesis owes thanks – many of whom became great friends, others who have since gone their separate ways, and some I knew only by name or by face – but your knowledge, expertise, warmth, passion, and strong sense of social justice permeates this thesis, and inspired me throughout the course of the project. Secondly, I also owe a debt of gratitude to Dr Andy Davies and Dr Pete North, who have been invaluable in the development of this research. You have cultivated in me an ability to see the world in wholly different ways, and your insight, support and encouragement has motivated me and my ideas throughout the PhD process. Andy, you have been a source of inspiration throughout my time at the University of Liverpool, and I owe you more than words can do justice here. Pete, your advice continually opened up new avenues for my thinking, and pushed me to reason critically every step of the way. What happens in Singapore, stays in Singapore. To both: without your help, unrivalled patience, and utmost belief in me, I may not have made it to the end; thank you. I should also thank the staff and postgraduates in the Department of Geography & Planning, who made this a thoroughly enjoyable place to study over the past few years. In particular, Madeleine, Dan, Leo, Cat, Craig, Kush, John, Pete, Marton, Lena, Becca, and Matt W, have each contributed to making the Roxby Building a warm, vibrant and friendly place to be. Special mention to Bertie Dockerill for his last minute heroics in getting the thesis looking snazzy – and for ‘writing history’ in the Herdman Lecture Series. Beyond Geography, there are too many PhD colleagues to mention, but all those within the football milieu are responsible for distracting me from the task at hand. This thesis was only possible with the love and support of my family, too. Mum, you were there every step of the way, and always believed I would make it. Being the only person from iii the family to attend university has certainly brought its challenges, particularly when having to explain repeatedly why, after eight years, I still ‘haven’t got a job yet’! To Grandad, your politics started this journey for me, and our trips to Anfield will live long in my memory. I hope this thesis makes you all proud. Kati, better late than never. You have truly endured the whole spectrum of emotions that have accompanied the write-up of this thesis, but it would not have happened without your endless love, care, and attention. In the end, just thinking of what is to come has pushed me over the line. Finally, this is a thesis about place. So, to Liverpool. iv CONTENTS ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................... i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................................................................... iii CONTENTS.......................................................................................................................... v List of Figures ................................................................................................................ viii List of Tables .................................................................................................................... ix 1 Introduction............................................................................................................... 1-11 1.1 Austerity Imposition in the UK ............................................................................ 1 1.2 Localising Austerity: The Case of Liverpool ........................................................ 3 1.3 Making Sense of Austerity: The Lacuna ............................................................... 6 1.4 Research Aim and Themes ................................................................................... 7 1.5 Thesis Structure ................................................................................................... 8 2 ‘Militant Liverpool’ and the Politics of Place ......................................................... 12-42 2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................12 2.2 From a Sleepy Village ........................................................................................13 2.3 The Growing Left (1945-1970) ...........................................................................16 2.4 Merseyside in Crisis (1970s) ...............................................................................18 2.5 Liverpool