To Miss the Forest for the Trees? a Green Criminological Perspective on the Politics of Palm Oil Harm

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To Miss the Forest for the Trees? a Green Criminological Perspective on the Politics of Palm Oil Harm TO MISS THE FOREST FOR THE TREES? A GREEN CRIMINOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE ON THE POLITICS OF PALM OIL HARM DOOR DE BOMEN HET BOS NIET MEER ZIEN? EEN GROEN CRIMINOLOGISCH PERSPECTIEF OP DE POLITIEK VAN PALM OLIE SCHADE (met een samenvatting in het Nederlands) Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan de Universiteit Utrecht op gezag van de rector magnificus, prof.dr. G.J. van der Zwaan, ingevolge het besluit van het college voor promoties in het openbaar te verdedigen op vrijdag 2 oktober 2015 des middags te 4.15 uur door Hanneke Heleen Mol geboren op 30 april 1983 te Dordrecht Promotoren: Prof.dr. D. Siegel Prof.dr. R. Matthews Copromotoren: Dr. D. Zaitch Dr. P. Carney Dit proefschrift werd (mede) mogelijk gemaakt met financiële steun van de University of Kent ii ABSTRACT Globally, the palm oil industry has been linked to practices that fit the most conventional definitions and perceptions of crime as well as the types of social and environmental harm that do not fit strictly legalistic definitions and understandings of crime. This thesis examines both the perceptions and realities of harm in the context of palm oil production in Colombia’s Pacific coast region, attending to the perspectives of corporate executives, public officials, industry representatives, small growers of oil palm, local palm oil critics, and NGOs with a critical stance towards agroindustrial palm oil production. The theoretical and analytical approach put forward to this end redirects the harm debate from a central concern with the academic contestation of harm within criminology, toward a focus on the on-the-ground contestedness of harm. The central research question that underpins the study is: “How are perceptions, practices, and realities of harm linked to palm oil production in the Colombian Pacific coast region contested, and what are the implications of this for debates on harm within green criminology?” Via a rich field-based account of the constructions, practices, and the lived and perceived realities of harm related to palm oil production, and the interrogation of the mechanisms and relations of power that thereby invest practices and discourses of harm, the study contributes empirically and theoretically to the green criminological analysis of the extractive industries, encouraging green criminology to engage with the notion of harm in more complex and nuanced ways. This approach enhances criminological understanding of the power dynamics that draw and keep in place the boundaries between legal harm, tolerated illegal harm, and non-tolerated illegal harm, and the hegemonic notions and practices of legality that thus operate to reproduce the status quo in ways that generate harm to human beings and the natural environment. *** iii iv SAMENVATTING (DUTCH SUMMARY) De palmolie industrie wordt wereldwijd in verband gebracht met, enerzijds, gedragingen en praktijken die zonder meer passen binnen de meest conventionele opvattingen en definities van criminaliteit, en, anderzijds, vormen van sociale en milieugerelateerde schade die strikt genomen niet binnen juridische definities en opvattingen van criminaliteit vallen. Dit sluit aan bij discussie rondom het legitieme object van criminologische studie, welk heeft geleid tot een langslepend debat aangaande de vraag of criminologen hun onderzoeksfocus moeten uitbreiden naar legale vormen van schade, en, zo ja, hoe ver de grenzen van de discipline opgerekt kunnen worden voor een criminologisch relevante conceptualisering van schade. Dit proefschrift onderzoekt percepties en realiteiten van ‘schade’ in de context van palmolie productie in de Pacifische kustregio van Colombia, zich daarbij richtend op de perspectieven van vertegenwoordigers van de palmolie industrie, staf van palmolie bedrijven, ambtenaren, kleine palmolie boeren binnen de lokale bevolking, lokale critici van de palmolie industrie, en NGOs met een kritische houding ten aanzien van agro-industriële palmolie productie. De theoretische en analytische benadering die wordt aangedragen en uiteengezet heroriënteert het criminologisch debat aangaande de contestatie rondom het concept ‘schade’, door het focus – dat zich tot dusver vooral heeft gericht op de academische contestatie rondom ‘schade’ binnen de criminologie – te verplaatsen naar de wijze waarop vormen van schade onderhevig zijn aan contestatie in de dagelijkse praktijk en de interacties tussen betrokken actoren en overige belanghebbenden binnen een specifieke context (ik verwijs hiernaar als de ‘on-the-ground contestedness of harm’). Via de inzichten die dit focus biedt draagt deze studie bij aan het debat over het concept van schade binnen de criminologie. De centrale onderzoeksvraag luidt: “Hoe worden percepties, praktijken, en realiteiten van schade met betrekking tot palmolie productie in Colombia’s Pacifische kustregio betwist, en wat betekent dit voor debat over schade binnen de groene criminologie?” Door middel van een omvattend veldonderzoek naar de constructies, praktijken, en de geleefde en subjectief ervaren realiteiten in de context van palmolie gerelateerde schade, en de examinatie van de machtsrelaties en -mechanismen die nauw verbonden zijn met praktijken en discoursen van schade, draagt deze studie zowel empirisch als theoretisch bij aan de groen criminologische analyse van de extractieve industrieën. Dit proefschrift stelt zich daarbij ten doel de groene criminologie ertoe te bewegen zich op een meer complexe en genuanceerde wijze met het concept van schade bezig te houden. Dit resulteert onder meer in een veelzijdiger inzicht in de machts-dynamieken die ten grondslag liggen aan het trekken en instandhouden van de scheidslijnen tussen (i) wettelijk toelaatbare schade, (ii) getolereerde bij wet strafbare schade, en (iii) niet-getolereerde bij wet strafbare schade, en de hegemonische opvattingen v en praktijken van legaliteit die de status quo herproduceren op wijzen die schade toe brengen aan mens en natuur. Hoofdstuk 1 gaat bij wijze van inleiding kort in op het onderwerp van deze studie, legt uit hoe de gekozen benadering tot dit onderwerp tot stand is gekomen, en hoe deze studie daarmee bijdraagt aan de groen criminologische analyse van de schade en criminaliteit gerelateerd aan palmolie productie. Na de presentatie van de onderzoeksvragen volgt een uiteenzetting (op basis van literatuurstudie) van de argumenten voor en tegen de palmolie industrie. Uit deze controverse blijkt hoe contentieus de palmolie industrie is en dat voor een goed begrip van de consequenties en de onrechtvaardigheden die samenhangen met deze industrie een criminologisch focus op schade noodzakelijk is. Ter introductie op wat in detail aan bod komt in hoofdstuk 2, wordt tot slot kort ingegaan op discussies rondom het legitieme object van criminologische studie, en op de verdiepende dimensie die de groene criminologie aan deze discussies geeft. Hoofdstuk 2 zet het theoretisch kader van dit proefschrift uiteen. Als een onderzoek dat (a) vertrekt vanuit een groen criminologisch perspectief en (b) als doel heeft bij te dragen aan dit vakgebied, worden eerst de (voor dit onderzoek) meest relevante aspecten van de groene criminologie besproken. Hierna volgt een gedetailleerde discussie van het criminologisch debat ten aanzien van het concept ‘schade’, en hoe dit debat zich door de decennia heen heeft ontwikkeld. Op basis hiervan kaart ik de noodzaak aan om dit debat in nieuwe banen te leiden door, zoals hierboven al aangegeven, het focus te verleggen van aandacht voor de academische contestatie rondom schade binnen de criminologie, naar een expliciet focus op de on-the-ground contestedness of harm. Hierbij wordt het standpunt vooruitgeschoven dat de examinatie van de ‘politiek van schade’ in de context van palmolie productie vraagt om een benadering die de veelzijdigheid van macht (a multiple view of power) in aanmerking neemt. Het startpunt van het verklarend kader voor de wijze waarop macht opereert in deze politiek van schade wordt gevormd door het theoretische perspectief dat leidend is binnen de groen criminologische studie van de extractieve industrieën; vanuit een macro-structurele optiek, en voortbouwend op het gedachtengoed van Marx, wordt de politieke economie van groene criminaliteit en schade geanalyseerd. Een centraal argument in dit proefschrift is dat dit kader onontbeerlijk is, maar dat een dergelijke benadering op zichzelf te kort schiet voor een diepgaand begrip van de wijze waarop macht opereert in de bestudeerde context. Het restant van het hoofdstuk gaat vervolgens in op enkele van de aspecten die van belang zijn voor een volledigere en meer genuanceerde theoretische onderbouwing van schade, macht, en legaliteit in de context van palmolie productie in Colombia. Hoofdstuk 3 geeft inzicht in de methodologische benadering die ten grondslag ligt aan deze vi studie, de onderzoeksmethodes die zijn gebruikt, en de wijze waarop de onderzoeksdata zijn geanalyseerd. Vanuit een overwegend interview-gebaseerde etnografische benadering is in de periode tussen juli 2012 en maart 2013 veldwerk in Colombia verricht. Het grootste deel hiervan heeft plaatsgevonden in Tumaco (gelegen in Colombia’s meest zuidwestelijke provincie Nariño) en Bogotá (de hoofdstad van Colombia, in de provincie Cundinamarca). Het hoofdstuk omvat uitvoerige reflectie op het verloop van dit veldwerk, moeilijkheden en bijzonderheden die hierbij ondervonden werden, en kaart enkele aandachtspunten aan waar onderzoekers zich bewust van dienen te zijn. Tot slot wordt kort stilgestaan bij vraagstukken van objectiveit
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