A Report on School Desegregation in Nine Communities

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 074 178 130 013 368

TITLE The Diminishing Barrier: A Report on School Desegregation in Nine Communities. INSTITUTION commission on Civil Rights, Washington, D.C. PUB CATE Dec 72 NOTE 68p.; Clearinghouse publication 40 AVAILABLE FROMSuperintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing office, Washington, D.C. 20402,(SN0500-0087, $1.25)

EDRS PRICE MF-4;0.65 HC-$3.29 DESCRIPTORS *Community Attitudes; *integration Effects; *Integration Methods; Integration Plans; *Parent Reaction; Racial Integration; *School Integration; Student Attitudes; Teacher Attitudes; Transfer Programs IDENTIFIERS Florida; IllinoisNorth Carolina; Ohio; Pennsylvania

ABSTRACT The main purpose of this study is to present documented facts concerning the operation of school desegregation in communities which are engaged in-the process. The purpose of the Commission on Civil Rights is to idehtify problems which recur in school. districts undergoing desegregation, and to describe how they have been met. Specifically, the Commission has been interested in, . learning how students of all races react to one another when they sit. side by side in schools for the first time in their lives. It has also sought to learn how teachers react to students of otherraces and socioeconomic backgrounds as well as to teachers-0f otherraces. Why and-to what extent does "white flight" occur? How have some school districts prepared for desegregation? What, ifanyproblems are created by busing? Of the nine communities investigated here, some are in the South and some in the North. Some are rural and others are heavily urban. Some are central cities and some-suburbs. Some have been forced to desegregate by court or the threat of fund termination by the Department-of Health, Education, and Welfare. Others have undertaken to eliminate the dual school system On their own before being required to do so. Still others have sought to desegregate their schools simply because they felt itwas the right thing to do. (Author /.IM) THE DIMINISHING BARRIER: A Report on School Desegregation In Nine Communities U.S. Commission on Civil Rights December 1972

SCOPE OF INTEREST NOTICE The ERIC Facility hat assigned tfu_this document for massing In nut judgement, this document is also of interest to the clearing- houses noted to the right. Index- ing should reflect their uncial ;virtu of -view,

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH. EDUCATION a WELFARE OFFICE OF EDUCATION THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRO- DUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM THE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIG- [MATING IT. POINTS OF VIEW OR OPIN- IONS STATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OF EDU- CATION POSITION OR POLICY.

Clearinghouse Publication No 40 U.S. COMMISSION ON CIVIL RIGHTS

The U.S Commission on Civil Rights is a temporary, independent, b part san Agency established by Congress in 1957 and directed tc, Investigate complaints alleging that citizens are being deprived of their rights to vote by reason of their race, color, religion, or national origin, or by reason of fraudulent practices; Study and collect information concerning legal developments constitutinga denial of equal protection of the laws under the Constitution because of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin; Appraise. Federal laws and policies with respect to equal protection of the laws because of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin; Seti,e as a national clearinghouse for information in respect to denials of equal protection of the Jaws because of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. Submit reports, fir wings, and recommendations to the President and the Congress. Members of the Commission: Rev. Theodore M. Hesburgh, C.S.0Chair Stephen Horn, Vice Chairman Frankie M. 7reeman Maurice B. Mitchell Robert S. Rankin Manuel Ruiz, Jr. John A. Buggs, Staff Director ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The Corinnission is indebted to the following staff members and former staff members who participated in the preparation of this report under the direction of Caroline F. Davis, Chief, Education Division, Office of Civil Rights Program and Policy: *Mary F. J. Abdalla Ruby T. Daniels Mary E. Bibb *Lelia Findley Lucille L. Boston Cynthia A. Freeman Mary M. Byerman James J. Lyons -Rodney J. Cash Nadine Price Doris Chambers Betty K. Stradford Patricia A. Cheatham Beatrice W. Tootle Gail S. Clark Patsy Washington *Joseph R. Cooney *Janie V. Young es Corey The report was prepared under the overall supervision of Martin E. Sloane, Assistant Staff Director, Office of Civil Rights Program and Policy. *No longer member of Commission staff.

the Sup rinteudent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing °Mee Washington, P. C. 20402 - Price $1.23 Stock Number 0300-00087 Table of Contents Page Introduction Alachua County, Florida 4 Escambia County, Florida_ 10 Evanston, Illinois 6

Harrisburg, Pennsylvania== = 23 Hoke County, North Carolina 29 Jefferson Township, Ohio 37 Leon County, Florida- = Moore County, North Carolina_ 50 Volusia County, Florida 58

iii INTRODUCTION

Nearly two decades have passed since the Supreme liv the overwhelmingly white majority, laid:tlt,, Court of the United States, in Brown v, Board of Edu- attend white schools. cation of Topeka,' ruled that publicly enforced school Despite further Supreme Court rulings to the of- segregation violated the Constitution. "Separate edu- feet that racial discrimination must be eliminated cational facilities," the Court declared,are inher- "root and branch" and that token desegregation re- ently unequal," sulting from freedoin-of-choice plans did not comply The Brown decision was not the end, but rather the with constitutional recittiretnehts, those who had op- beginning of judicial efforts to eliminate dual school posed the concept of nondiscriminatory education systems. For the next 18 years, the Federal courts were continued dilatory or obstructionist tactics. School at- to wrestle with school integration. tendance lines which had the effect of keeping minor- Brown had little immediate impact, although the ity children confined to racially segregated schools Supreme Court issued a second ruling in 1955 that in racially segregated neighborhoods, predictions of school desegregation efforts must be made with "all likely disorder or even administrative collapse of deliberate speed." Efforts in the next decades yew de- school systems should integration occur, complaints liberate to be sure, but not speedy, Following enact- that unreasonable costs would preclude any integra- mem of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, many southern tionall were offered in public and in the courtroom school districts adopted so-called freedom-of-choice as obstacles to effective school desegregation plans. plans which produced little integration, White pupils By 1969, however, 15 ),ears after the Brown case, the seldom, if ever, chose to attend majority black schools, pace of &segregation had accelerated. During the and black children, perhaps apprehensive of hostility 1969-70 school year, large numbers of school districts Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 U.S. 483 desegregated, both under court order and voluntarily. (1954). Brawn held that separate education is inherently In the 1970-71 school year, nationwide, the number unequal. of black students in majority white schools was 33 Freedom-of-choice and geographic zoning plans occur percent, an increase of 10 percent from the preceding throughout this report. They are two principal techniques year. While this figure shows considerable progress, widely used by school districts as means of achieving school desegregation. it also demonstrates that much of the job of giving Freedom-of-choice is a method of School assignment which every child equal educational opportunity remains to allows a pupil or his parent to choose the public school which be done, he wants to attend. The integration of some school systems cvas accom- Geographic zoning is a method of assignment of all stu- panied by a great public outcry. Stories were heard of dents to schools on the basis of a single set of geographic attendance zones. Pairing or grouping of grades, feeder -pat- fights on buses and in the schools, of upset parents, terns, and magnet schools are means sometimes used within disrupted schools, curtailed learning, and of other dam- geographic zoning as aids to desegregation. age to the communities' school life, The actual situa- School desegregation by pairing or grouping of grades tion in most distrie5 stood in strong contrast to the is achieved when the attendance areas of two or more near- newspaper headlines and television 4ewscasts. Most by schools are merged so that eac,. scltool serves different grade levels for a new, larger attendancearea. pz-ents did not block school entrances, most teachers Feeder patterns determine wltich junior and senior high did not resign in droves, and few student, engaged in schools students will attend after finishing elementary school- disorders. ing. They may be designed to expedite desegregation. Nevertheless, today the courts are under attack A magnet school is one which ranges from full-time schools with special academic programs to centers wit1-. programs and represented as imposing unreasonable require- which' supplement the ba.sic academic skills taught in the ments to integrate the schools. Legislation and con- ' child's regular school. stitutional amendments thit would severely under-

1 mine the foundation of the Brown decisionnow are Specifically, the Commission has being urged in Congress. been interested in learning how students of allraces react to one another Above all, many Arneric black and whiteare when they sit side by side in schoolsfor the first time losing faith in desegregation as a workable, worthwhile in their lives. How well dothey get along is the cafe- means of achieving equal opportunity and are begin- terias, the corridors, inextracurricular activities, and ning to wonder if the turmoil andcontroversy,it has at dances? It also his sought to learnhow teachers engendered is more than it is worth. They have be- react to students of otherraces and socioeconomic come confused about the real facts concerning deseg- backgrounds as well as to teachersof other races. Why regation and uncertain whether theproblems in- and to what extent does "whiteflight" occur? How volved can be successfullyovercome. have some school districtsprepared for desegregation? Many communities throughout the country, whose What, if any problemsare created by busing? Does schools were once rigidly segregated, now are in var- violence or crime oftenaccompany school desegrega- ious stages of the desegregation process. There is much tion, especially in inner-cityareas? How is discipline that we can learn from their experience and many ques- administered in newly desegregatedschools? What tions can be answered by examining howdesegregation happens to PTAs after desegregation? has worked in fact. These are among the importantquestions that these Earlier this year, the Commission investigated school 'tine communities have hadto face. In sonic, the fears desegregation in five representativecommunities across that were anticipatedlowerquality education, vio- the country,Charlotte, North Carolina; Tampa, Flor- lence and crime, lengthy busrideshave been proven ida; Pontiac,Michigan; Winston-Salem,North Caro- to be groundless. In others, the fears, lina; and Pasadena, Californiaand at least in part, issued a rep_ ort have been substantiated. Thus insome communities a on the basis of these investigati- ns. number of white parents withdrew theirchildren from In its current study, the Commissionhas investigated the public schools and eithermoved to a different the course of school desegregation in nine additional school district or enrolled themin newly created pri- communities. Some are in he South and some in the vate academies. Although the situation has tendedto North. Some are rural and others are heavily urban. become stabilized, the problem of"white flight" has SOme are central cities and some are suburbs. Some by no means been entirely resolved.Still other prob- have been forced to desegregateby court order or the lems that arose, suchas black objections to school threat of fund termination by theDepartment of desegregation which was accomplishedby busing only Health, Education, and Welfare(HEW). Others have black children, frequentlywere not anticipated. undertaken to eliminate the dual school system on their In short, the Commission's investigationof these own before being required to do so. Still others have nine communities does indeed demonstratethat the sought to desegregate their schools simplybecause they process of change from segregated to desegregated felt it was the right thingto do. schools often creates difficulties and placesgreat bur- The main purpose of this study,as with the previous dens and responsibilitieson all concernedschool ad- one, isto present documented facts concerningthe ministrators, teachers, students,parents, city officials, operation of school desegregation incommunities which 1..ews media, and community leaders. are actively engaged in the process. The Commission Among the problems common to these communities is convinced that onlyon the basis of objective fact are those experienced by teachers in adjustingto de- and experience can the Nation bein a position to make segregated classes, the displacement of black schoolof- sound judgmentson this vital issue. The study is not ficials from positions of responsibility in thewake of intended to paint a glowing pictureof uniform success. desegregation, the resegregation of students within schools caused by homogeneous ability grouping, real The Commission has not searchedout individual "suc- or imagined unfairness in student discipline, and cess" stories, where achievementsmight be impressive community anxiety which can quickly be transformed into but so unique as to be meaninglessto other communities. Rather, the Commission's panic caused by the smallest incident. Of all of these, purpose has been to the least serious problem has been the students identify problems which them- recur in school districts under-. selves. In most cases, they have adjusted quickly going desegregation and and to describe how they have smoothly to the new school environment, often despite been met. fears and anxieties of their parents. 2 The communities visited by the Commission reflect desegregation plan and to doso firmly and unswerv- varying stages of desegregation, varying attitudes to- ingly. Another has been thesupport of the news media, ward it by the community, and varying problems ac- local officials, and civic leaders. A thirdhas been the cornpartying the process. None of these desegregation steps taken to assure that responsibility fordesegrega- efforts can yet be labeled a total success. In many there tion does not fall disproportionatelyon one part of the have been disappointinerts and setbacks, and the out- community, but that all share it equally. A fourthhas zorne remains in doubt. Nevertheless, from an analysis materialized by closely involvingparents as active par- of the kinds of problem! these communities have en- ticipants in desegregation, by keeping themthorougaly countered and the steps they have taken in an effort informed,land by actively soliciting their views andsug- to meet themoften on a trial-and-error basiswe ustions. A fifth has been the developmentof proce- all can learn and find many of our fears dissolved. This dures to ..-2gure firm but fair and impartialdiscipline isparticularly true of our fear of the unknown. of all students, and their full participation inschool Commission investigations also have found that activities. A sixth has been the efforts madeto improve these communities have not stood by idly permitting the quality of education being offered while desegrega- the problems to overwhelm them, but have taken action is in process. tionoften vigorous and creative actionto head them off. To a large extent, the problems that have None of these elements, either singlyor in combina- arisen and the action necessary to meet them have been tion, is a guarantee of success, and certainlynot of unique, depending on the particular history, tradition, instant success. The long &edition of racial separation, and attitudes of the area. However, several elements, and the fears and misunderstandings that this had common to most of the school systems visited, offer a bred, cannot realistically be shaken off so quickly. But

1 key to such progress as has been made. the experience in these nine communities strongly sug- One vital element in a smooth transition from seg- gests that through patience, thoughtfulness, and a com- regation to desegregation has been the determination mon sense of fairness, equal educational opportunity of the school board and administration to carry out the for all the Nation's children can finally be achieved. PUBLIC SCHOOL DESEGREGATIONIN ALACHUA COUNTY, GAINESVILLE,FLA. Background desegregation was achieved by zoning, and if blacks Alachua County occupies 916 square miles in north wanted an education, they moved. Those who didn't, stayed in black schools." central Florida. Its total population in 1970was 104,- 764 of which 21,563 is black. Gainesville, thelargest 1968-69, Alachua County had 27 schools. After city in Alachua County, hasa population of approxi- 5 years of freedom -of- choice eight all-black and three mately 64,510, of which 12,041is black. It is the all-white schools remained.` Gainesville Senior High county seat and the home of the University of Florida. School, grades 10-12, had 145 black students inthe Other employment is provided by the Veterans Ad- total enrollment of 2,329. According toa central office ministration Hospital, the local, State, and Federal school official, these black studentswere the leaders governments, and industry. The main industries in from the all-black school, Lincoln, which housed Alachua are lumber (manufacturers of wood products glades 7-12. and furniture) and farming, particularlypeanuts, to- In October 1969 the Supreme Court of the United bacco, and corn. States ruled in Alexandria v. Holmes 3 that continued In the opinion of a local administrator,one of the operation of racially segregated schools underthe standard of "all deliberate speed" major problems facing Alachua County isunderem- was no longer con- ployment. "[It] is a problem for all, particularlythe stitutionally permissible and that school districtsmust black population." immediately (emphasis added) terminate dual school Alachua has a median family income of $8,329, systems based on race and operate only unitary school systems. Justice Black, speaking for the full Court, compared with $8,267 for the State.Approximately wrote: 15.3 percent of the populationearns less than the offi- cially defined poverty level but 17.6percent earn more . [T]here are no longer any justiciable issues in the than $15,000.' question of making effective not only promptly butat once noworders sufficient to vindicate the rights ofany pupil in The university community is consideredmoderate the United States who is effectively excluded froma public to liberal in its social and political views,and its fac- school because of his race or color, ulty and student bodyappear active and interested And, further, that in the community. ...It has -been 15 years since we declaied in thetwo Brown cases that a law which preventsa child from going to The History of School Desegregationin Alachua a public school because of his color violates the Equal Pro- County, Fla. tection Clause. As this record conclusively shows, thereare many places still in this country where the schools Alachua County schools operated under are either a court- 'white' or 'Negro' and not just schools for all childrenas the ordered freedom-of-choice-plan betweenthe years 1964 and 1969. Suit had beers instituted in 1964 by One of the eight black schools had three white students the NAACP Legal Defense alio Educational Fund on and one had two white students. One of the all-white schools behalf of Lavon Wright, daughter ofa former presi- had eight black students and one had one black student. dent of the NAACP Branch inGinesville. At the time, HEW/OCR Directory of Public Elementary and Secondary there had been 11 all-black schoolsin the district. A Schools in Selected Districts: Enrollment by Racial/Ethnic white parent observed that "under freedomof choice, Group, Fall 1968. (Hereinafter referred to as HEW statistics, Fall 1968 and HEW statistics, Fall 1970.) 1 1970 Census of General Social andEconomic Character- 3 Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education, 396 istics. Florida: Table 44. U.S. 19 (1969). 4 Constitution requires. In my opinion there is no reason why of the :ornmi tt cc was to be alternatelya blacknd a such a wholesale deprivation of constitutional rights should white member.' be tolerated another minute, The biracial committee was to function as an aid to Following the Alexander decision, Alachua and the school board in reviewing school site selection, about 15 other district desegregation cases were heard zoning, and student assignments to assure that a uni. in December 1969 en bane by the United States Court taty system resulted.' of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit because of similarities W. S. Talbot, Superintendent of Alachua County in law and of fact.' The court of appeals ruled in part Schools at that time, felt that desegregation of certain that a two-step merger plan would be implemented; schools would result in resegregation because of white one step, including merger of faculties and staff, trans- flight, and initially refused to provide the committee portation, services, athletics, and extracurricular activi- with copies of the desegregation plans prepared by ties was to be completed by February 1, 1970; the other the school board. After he released them to the corn. step, including student body merger; was to be accom- mime, it was found that desegregation had been plished by the fall term of 1970. planned only for schools in the eastern section of the In complying with Alexander and the interpretation city where the majority of blacks lived. As one commit- of Alexander made by the 5th Circuit Court of Appeals, tee representative stated: "No integration to speak of the Federal district judge, David L. Middlebrooks, Jr., was planned for the right, white side of towm" ° oil December 19, 1969 ordered the two-step plan into One of the biracial committee members held a meet- effect. The additional time granted permitted planning ing with the white community affected by the desegre. and consultation for arrangement of student transfers gation plans at which more than 700 parents were in with the University of Miami Desegregation Ctuiter.' The Supreme Court of the United States granted attendance. After the school borod plan had been ex- certiorari in Carter et al. v. West Feliciana School plained, the people who lived on the east side became Board et al.° This appeal challenged the delay granted upset, protesting that the "east side was not under by the court of appeals of student desegregation until court order, but rather all of Alachua County was September 1970. In a per curialn decision, the Supreme under court orde."" Court held: The committee decided upon a 70-30 white to black Insofar as the Court of Appeals authorized deferral of racial distribution throughout the county and devised student desegregation beyond February 1,1970, that court a plan to make it workable, including clustering in misconstrued our holding in Alexander v. Holmes County four quadrants of Alachua County, 'zoning, and cross- Board of Education. busing, The school board refused to accept the plan The Court accordingly reversed the court of appealS or forward it to Judge Middlebrook far consideration, decision delaying student desegregation until Septem- and the committee finally did so itself. The resultant ber 1970. effect was an order from Judge Middlebrook to cluster Judge Middlebrooks also stipulated the establish ment of a biracial committee of 10 members, five of 'Charles Che:tnut, a black mortician, was chairman of whom were to be black and five white. The chairman the committee in 1970-71 and in 197172 Mrs. Frances C. Lundsford, a white assistant principalof an elementary 'Singleton v. Jackson Municipal Separate School District school, became chairman of the committee. In 1971-72 two in which Wright etal. v. Board of Public Instruction of vacancies existed on the committee, one each for a black and Alachua County, Florida et aL was consolidated, 419 F.2d a white memberAs yet they have not been filled. 1211. 8 A biracial committee member stated that the board as a The Desegregation Center at the University of Miami is whole was very conservative and has cooperated very reluc- funded under Title IV of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 by tantly with the biracial committee. The board withheld sup- the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, port from W. S. Talbot, former superintendent when he Office of Education, Division of Equal Educational Opportu- presented the 1969 Foster plan to the biracial committee and nity. the public. The plan provided for clustering [pairing] of ° Certiorari granted in Carter et al. v. West Feliciana Parish schools primarily in a section having the largest number of School Board et al. 396 U.S. 290 (1970). Together with No. blacks. 972, Singleton et al. v. Jackson Municipal Separate School ° Interview with Hebron Self, member, Biracial School District et al., also on petition for writ of certiorari to the Committee, Alachua County, Fla., May 4,1972. same court. 1" Ibid.

4Ta-77 72 2 the schools in Alachua County from east tc west in all Two black schools that had been closedwere utilized quadrants of the county rather than ina particular as student and teacher centers. A. Quinn Jones Ele- section. mentary School became an elementary reading andre- DesegregationCurrent Plan source center providing the most up-to-date techniques, equipment, and supplies to promote better reading Six elementary schools were affected by the desegre- ability. But as the school remained all-black, it gation plan." These schools was were discontinued as kin- ordered closed and the children sent to schools within dergarten through sixth grade schools; three predomi. their attendance zones. Lincoln, the all-black junior- nantly white and one newly constructed school were senior high, was leased to Santa Fe Junior College for utilized as kindergarten through fourth grade schools; vocational and technicalinstruction and two predominantly black schools for students were converted throughout Alachua wild were bused to the school to 5-6 grade centers. Three elenic-ntary schools_ de- during their vocational education period. The clared obsolete by the State department of court education found this method of training ineffective and ordered survey team were closed,' as was Lincoln, an all-black re productive use of the facility. In the fall of school serving grades 7-12. The enrollmentat Lincoln 1972-73 Lincoln was toreopen as the Lincoln Center was assigned to Westwood and Howard Bishop Junior for Human and Mechanical Arts with High Schools (grades 7-9), Eastside an extensive and Buchholz vocational-technical curriculum. High Schools (grades 7-11), and Gainesville Senior In the opinion of one community leader, Lincoln High School (grades 10-12)." A biracial committee was not in the original desegregation efforts because member informed the Commission staff that, despite the former superintendent had committed himself the committee's espousal of the 70-30 ratio and to its closing black schools rather than sending white objection to the disproportionate ratios achieved stu- by dents to them. He also favored the construction ofa the board's clustering plan,14 a compromise had been new facility rather than converting Lincoln into a v ica- reached and the committee agreed toa 5 percentvar.- tional school." ance. Transportation See the following table: Prior to total desegregation in 1970, about 9,358stu- 1968 1970 Schools dents were bused in Alachua. County." All ofthese Black White Black White students lived beyond the 2-mile distance that qualifies students to be bused in accordance with standardsset Littlewood 0 1, 067 289 501 by the State. The longest ridewas approximately 29 Terwilliger __._ .not constructed 215 547 Williams 736 2 256 397 miles and took about 1 hour and 15 minutes.'' The Duval 673 0 194 279 average ride took about 65 minutes and the average Metcalfe__. 25 901 171 430 Foster 41 786 237 457 distance bused was 14,5's miles. After schoolswere desegregated, 10,575 eligible studentswere bused an is These schools were Alachua Elementary School,a pre- average of 16.6 miles which took about 26 minutes. dominantly white school, Archer Elementary,an all-white school, and Douglass Elementary, an all-black school.County The longest distance was 27.5 miles aridthe Public Schools: A Report to the Superintendent and &hootBoard by ride took one hour and twenty minutes. the Florida Desegregation Consulting Center. April 1969. There have been no major disruptions Is See the following table: or incidents of vandalism on buses either before or after desegrega- 1968 1970 tion. After desegregation five requestswere made and Schools honored for transportation of ineligible studentsbe- Black White Black White cause of busy or dangerous streets.Inone case, 140 Westwood. 42 1, 356 197 844 Howard Bisly, 272 1, 175 336 832 " Interview withCharles Chestnut, Member, Biracial Eastside...._____not constructed 562 536 School Committee, Alachua County, Fla., May 4, 1972. Buchholz.. _.__._ not constructed 207 969 "Dhta prepared by Tommy Tomlinson, Associate Super- Gainsville 145 2. 156 717 1,862 intendent, Alachua County. " Ibid. 14 As a result of the clustering plar,, Eastsidewas more than 50 percent black, Buchholz was 18 percent black,Westwood "This figure was based on computation of 84 buses making was 22 percent black, and Howard Bishop was 39 percent black. a total of 137 trips. 6 black: cle :nentary school children asked to be bused several students were badly beaten in the ensuing in order to avoid whites who allegedly set their dogs melee. Police arrived on campus and arrested one on than as they walked to and from school through white student. One black student was expelled, and white neighborhoods. The school board granted this Gainesville High was closed for several days." He also request. observed that despite the tension, the school holds in- One administrator declared: "Desegregation has terracial dances where a black band plays both white caused more busing, but formerly there were black and soul music. A student biracial committee and a

buses and white buses, . . .buses now serve white black student union have been organized. One stu- and black students together." dent commented: "Although people were edgy this White and black parents serve as bus monitors, ride year [1971] things are better now." to designated schools, and serve as aides, providing A former administrator of Gainesville Highre- assistance to teachers and staff. They are paid with counted that in 1970 there had been 32 policemen at funds provided by the Emergency School Assistance the prom to maintain order, In 1971 there were only Program," two and this year none was required. He is convinced "that the key to successful desegregation is objectivity Disruptions and fair leadmhip on the part of school authorities. When desegregation was implemented in February There must be flexibility and it is crucial that black 1970, Lincoln, the all -black high school (grades 7-12) students be treated equally, particularly in disciplinary in East Gainesville, was closed and its enrollment moved matters." to Gainesville_Senior High (10-12), Westwood, and Discipline Bishop Junior High Schools (grades 7.-9), predominantly white schools in the clistrict.20 After the disturbances at Gainesville High, adminis- An administrator noted that few racial disturbances trators doubted their ability to handle such problems have occurred throughout Alachua County. Most have :aid instituted a public security program and a social taken place at Gainesville Senior High School. A num- adjustment program. Teachers now receive regular ber of alder students there were unhappy because Lin- instruction in the control of students during a disorder coln High School, the distrct's black high school from or disruption. , which they would normally have graduated, had been A social adjustment program was initiated at Moun- closed. tain Top School in the fall of 1970 with one classroom A white Gainesville High School student reported for high school students. Mountain Top has two cate- that fighting erupt :d between tnilital,t white and black gories of students, in attendance: "Students from the factions of the student body several times. On one oc- juvenile shelter and students referred by [their regu- casion in the fall of 1971, he said: "A Ku Klux Klan la school principals]. Referral students are accepted poster with the inscription Niggers go home,' was from grades 6-12. They come for 30 to 60 days on tacked up in, the teachers' lounge. A teacher and formal assignment as an alternative to suspension or expulsion." 21 " The Emergency School Assistance Program (ESAP) is a Federal program to aid local education agencies in bringing A black parent observed that it is a school "primarily about racial desegregation of their public school systems. for social adjustment, and to look at it, blacks need "See following table: more social adjustment than whites." He added that "punishment of the black student is often severe and 1968-69 1970-71 Schools unwarranted." 2' Black White Black White The average time spent at Mountain Top by 109 students sent there in 1970-71 was 34 days. Accord- Lincoln 1, 505 0 Closed Gainesville High 145 2, 156 717 1, 862 Westwood jr. Russell W. Ramsey, Ph. D., Social Adjustment Educa- 42 1, 356 197 844 Howard Bishop tion in the Alachua County, Fla., Public Schools, February Jr. High 272 1, 175 336 832 1972. Charles Chestnut, Member, Biracial School committee, Note: HEW statistics, Fa1968 and Fall 1970. Alachua County, Fla., May 4, 1972. ing to a school administrator, in that year 70 percent The assistant superintendent reported thatabout of the students "1,000 whites left the system [when desegregationwas went directly back to their regular schools and finished the decreed], but most whites today donot want to go year even thoughsome,were beyond the age of compulsory back to the dual system of the past." attendance10 percent went to reform schools and then An administrator informeda Commission staff in- back to school; 10 percent went to reform schools,were over- age (upon release from reform schools), and dropped out terviewer that a private school, Rolling Hills,was built or went to work; the remaining 10 percent (could be) classi- when desegregation was announced. Thisis the school fied as losers who went to t -siring school,ran away, roamed to which the county loet many of its students. It isre- the streets, ended up in the hospital for drug-related prob- ported to be in financial difficulty and isexpected to lems, or in other ways joined the counter-culture." close shortly. White Flight Attitudcs The superintendent stated that "some white flight In 1970 Alachua received $56,500 in funds under has occurred although the majority of whitesaccept integrated schools in the county." He added that "two Title IV of the Civil Rights Act of 1964and $40,000 in 1971 to conduct human relations workshops " schools, Mebane Middle School and ArcherCommu- as a means of counteracting prejudicial attitudes of teach- nity School, which were 30 percent white and 70per- cent black, now have 50-50 enrollments. Both schools ers and administrator& Although in most cases teachers are located in rural areas" and he feels that they "ex- seemed to benefit from the sessions,a member of the biracial committee alleged that emplify white flight in reverse." Eastside HighSchool some of the faculty has a similar enrollment pattern." is still very prejudiced. "Some teachersseat blacks in corners by themselves or stand them outside the A guidance counselor at Mebane said thatsome of room by the door and forget about them." He the approximately 40 students wholeft the Mebane added that "White students who misbehaveare given punishment Middle School area 26 have returned, apparently"because Mebane is considered an innovative school with assignments such as raking leaves, but theiroffense is ... team teaching, flexible scheduling,20 and individ- not recorded. Black students, by contrast,are sent to ualized instruction the principal's office wherea record of their offense is made," On one occasion, a community leader recalled: " Interview with Dr. Russell Ramsey, Director of Moun- "A white teacher seated all the white childrenaround tain Top School, Alachua. County School District,May 4, 1972. her and the black studentswere seated at a table by themselves. 24 See following table: "Smaller children may be damaged bydesegrega- tion," he added, "because theycan feel-the animosity but cannot understand where it is comingfrom and why it is directed at them. The older childrendeal with Mebane Middle it as it occurs." School_ - ___ 1, 316 280 199 One teacher in an elementary school has purchased Archer Com- munity School_ 242 0 219 154 teaching sets with interracial themes thatshow dif- Easiside High ferent skin colors andeye colors, Through these aids School_ -_ not constructed 562 536 she tries "to make the childrenaware of differences Note: HEW statistics, Fall 1965 and 1970. Mebane is located in Alachua Township,a small com- HEW Division of Equal Educational OpportunitiesPis. munity of 1,500 residents outside Gainesville. in 1971-72the cal Years 1965671 Lists of Projects Funded: University student enrollment was 515-52 percent white and 48percent Desegregation Consultative Centers, University Institute Proj black. sets, and Local Education Agencies. Section 405 of Title IV 9° Flexible scheduling involves adaptinga student's sched- of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 provides i,part: (a) The ule to permit shorter or more lengthy class periodsfor given Commissioner 1,0 authorized, upots applier.5on ofa school courses in order (a) to permit additional time and emphasis hoard, to make grants to such board topay, in whole or in on a student's weak areas and leA time on mastered areas or part, the cost of:(1) giving to teachers and other school (b)to permit coverage of material better presented ina personnel inservice training in dealing with problems incl. longer .leheduled period than is normally provided.Time dent to desegregation, and (2) employing specialiststo advise taken from another course can be madeup on another date. in problems incident to desegregation. without overemphasis. Cita& are [also] taught: to students titf other races, but the group be kind with words. Certain words are outla io is ctgreat, , ome.students from racist hot les can co [her] classroom," to school and mix, but when they go home they have A guidance counselor felt that "whites in Alachua to show another face." now accept integration and are beginning- to agree black student experiencing desegregation for the with me that the old dual school system was an error first tittle, stated: "Integration gives us a better chance and a' `stone around our necks.' Besides that, to undeistand each other. Whites are just like any- expensive." body else." A black student discussed the reticence of some of An denten school teacher remarked about her classmates to mix with students of other races. younger students: "The kids are just children. They "Desegregation should, begin in the home so that si m to get along quite well and help each other out. when a child goes out of the home there would he Children adjust better than adults. If the grown -ups

no problems. There might be a desire to. .know would leave them alone, they'd adjust,"

9 PUBLIC SCHOOL DESEGREGATION IN ESCAMBIA COUNTY, FLA. Background History of Desegtegation in Escambia County Eseambia County, encompassing 72.1 square miles, Desegregation litigation in Escambia County be- is situated at the extreme western end of the Florida gan on February 1, 1960, when a suit was filed to en- Panhandle. It is bordered on the north and west by join the Escambia County School Board from main- Alabama and on the south by the Gulf of Mexico. Most twining racially segregated schools and from employ- of the population of 205,388 resides in or near Pen- ing school personnel on the basis of race.' On March sacola, the county seat and a well known seaport in 17, 1960, the U.S. District Court for the Northern the southern half of the county. A major U.S. Naval District of Florida ruled for the plaintiffs and ordered Air Station is located there. Industries in the county the school board to develop a desegregation plan that- include fishing, shipping, wood processing, naval stores, would allow the plaintiffs and all black children to ap- and canning. Estimated mean family income is $7,946.1 ply for admission or transfer to any school for which In the past 2 years Eseambia County has exceeded they were otherwise eligible. The board then developed the national average in rate of population growth and a plan, unsatisfactory to plaintiffs, but approved by the this trend is expected to continue in the next 10 years.' district court on September 8, 1961. While the county's school population has also grown, Upon the plaintiff's appeal the U.S. Court of Ap- the rate of growth appears to have decreased markedly peals for the Fifth Circuit reversed the district court over the last 4 years.' In the 1971-72 school year, there and ordered it to modify the board's desegregation were 47,021 students in Escambia County, schools, of plan to ensure that the dual system be abolished, with whom 13,372 or 28 percent were black. desegregation of the first two grades by the 1963 fall Despite the presence of the U.S. Naval Air Station, term and desegregation of at least one additional grade which entitled the Escambia School System to $650,939 each year thereafter. in Impact Aid in 1971-72, the system appears'to have Following the filing of a report by the school board financial problems.' Per pupil expenditures, excluding in December 1965, which indicated that 50 of the capital outlays, averaged $730 in 1970-71. Escambia board's 72 schools remained completely segregated, the pays its beginning teachers salaries lower than those plaintiffs on March 31, 1966 filed with 'the district offered by surrounding counties or by the majority of court a motion for further relief. The plaintiffs now counties in the State,5 Neither operating levies nor urged the development and implementation of a plan bond issues has been approved by the local electorate conforming to the March 1966 Guidelines as devel- in the last 5 or 6 years.' oped by the U.S, Department of Health, Education, I Income statistics provided by Escambia County Chamber and Welfare. (HEW) 3 of Commerce. In response to the plaintiff's motion, the district PCA 1064, U.S. District Court for the Northern District court on April 14, 1967 ordered a freedom-of-choice of Florida, Pensacola Division, Apr. 21, 1969, plan to conform with the Fifth Circuit Court's decree ° Between 1961-68, the school enrollment increased from 39,000 to 46,000 students. From 1968-72, the enrollment has grown by roughly 1,000 pupils. Augustus v. The Board of Public Instruction of Escambia. `Impact Aid is Federal assistance given to local educational In 1960 the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund agencies upon which the United States has placed financial brought a school desegregation suit against the Escambia burdens. County Board of Public Instruction. The board of public Augustus v."scambia County, PCA 1064, Apr. 21, 1969. instruction is the policy-making body for the scLool system. 8 J. Edwin I-10151;0.m a local attorney, recently stated that It is composed of five Men, all white. There has never been an estimated $13 million for new construction was needed a black member of the school board. for the desegregated school system. A bond issue to provide Revised Statement of Policies for School Desegregation these funds was rejected June 1, 1971 by the voters. Plans under Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.

10 in United States v. Jefferson County Board of Ed adopted, enabling students of the majority _race in any lion." school to transfer to any school in the county where In light of the U.S. Supreme Court's decision in their race was a minority similar to the average per- Green v. County School Board of New Kent County., centages of minority students in all county schools. which ruled that a freedom-of-choice plan is accept- The board was ordered to devise a transportation able only if it accomplishes elimination of the dual system which integrated the buses. The school system school system, the district court on January 23, 1969 was further ordered by the court to locate all new ruled, therefore, that the existing freedom-of-choice schools with a %kw to eradication of all vestiges of plan was no longer acceptable. On April 21, 1969, the the dual school system. court finally approved and ordered implementation of a new plan submitted by the Escambia County School Effects of Plan Board. Some schools were substantially affected by the de- The Current Desegregation Plan segregation plan while others were virtually untouched. The new desegregation plan devised by the board Since 1969, many changes in residential patterns have and approved by the court utilized the techniques of resulted in continued racial isolation, especially in the geographic zoning,pairing,'° school closings, and elementary schools." In the 1971-72 school year, 7,572 grade restructuring within the framework of the neigh- out of a total of 12,974 black students (59 percent) borhood school concept. Eight inner-city elementary attended schools where their race constituted 52 per- schools in Pensacola were paired with one another, cent or more of the enrollment.. and three other formerly black elementary schools " The court order declared: were closed. The racial composition of these eight schools, as projected by the school board, was major- there will be some 20-21 schools in which there is ity black. The outlying elementary schools which ring little or no integration which gives concern. But it appears, and the Court finds, that this results from population loca- the city were projected as predominantly white. tion and from natural and geographic, rather than historical Grade restructuring led to the creation of middle boundaries!' schools, Two forrnerly black schools, Ransom (grades The court refused to order busing to remedy the situa- 1-12) and Wedgewood (grades 7 -12)were restruc- tion in these 20 schools on the grounds that the school tured to serve grades 6-8. Clubbs and Blountwere district was in an "economic strait jacket." The court zoned to be majority black middle schools." added, however, that "this is not to say it [the plan] Geographic zoning was used to alter the 63 percent has the stamp of finality upon itit may need further black enrollment at the two inner-city high schools, examination and rearrangement from time to time." Pensacola and Washington. The enrollments of these two schools were projected 13 The projected enrollments for six schools the 1969-70 as 2,151 whites and 1,098 blacks at Pensacola and 1,540 chool year arc compared with the actual 1971-92 enroll- meats in the following table: whites and 976 blacks at Washington. The plan provided that existing and newly employed 1969-70 1971-72 faculty personnel be assignedso that each school's School projection enrollment faculty was approximately 75 percent white and 25 Black bite Black White percent black. A majority-minority transfer policy was Olive Elementary_ 526 241 775 165 F. K. Yonge 0 F. 2d 385 (1967). Elementary.... 578 78 251 25 footnote 2, at i. The eight paired elementary schools Dixon Paired ___ 700 452 524 255 arc as follows:(Spencer Bibbs-McMillian) (Brown Barge- Yniestra Elementary__ Semmes) (Dixon-Yniestra) (Gibson-Hallmark). Clubbs Junior "The three schools closed were: Judy Andrews, Kirksey, High 599 300 550 208 and Pickens. Washington High School.-- 976 I, 540 990 926 "The projected enrollments for these schoolsWen as follows: Clubbs: 300 white and 599 black; Blount: 164 white "Augustus v. The Board of Public Instruction of Escarnbia and 551 black. County, Fla. Apr. 21, 1969, Transportation acceptance." There was no public opposition to the The board's transportation program, now in effect plan from civic leaders, public figures, ministers, or the for 2 years, provides that all pupils who live at least news media. 1 mile from the nearest elementary school, 11/2 miles White Flight from a middle school, and 2 miles from a high school, and pupils who are physically handicapped, are eli- Several school officials interviewed by Commission gible for transportation. A principal may allow an un- staff said that some opposition took the form of "flight" filled bus to carry students who live farthest away either from public to private schools or to "safer" from school but reside in nontransport zones. neighborhoods where the white majority enrollment The number of students transported has gradually was more "favorable". increased during the past 4 school years.'5 One school Such flight was possible undera plan whichpro- official said that the growing number of transported vided that some schools would be significantly more pupils indicates both that increasing numbers of stu- integrated than others. Although they were unable to dents are eligible for transportation and that parents provide statistics regarding the number of students who appear to want their children bused to school. left the public schools in order to avoid desegregation, Approximately 2,500 ineligible students were bused Escambia school officials believed the number to be in the 1971-72 school year. These are students for small. whom the State did not reimburse the local system for Some students who left have since returned to the cost of transportation. county schools. One school official cited two possible Although many parents in Escambia County may explanatioz; km their return: (1.) the realization that want their children transported to school, they voted chaos and race riots would not inevitably follow deseg- in the 1972 State referendum to oppose the use of bus- regation, and (2) the high cost of private education. ing for the purpose of desegregating schools' In March 1972, the Escarnbia School Board passed a reso- Attempts to Ease Adjustment of Students to the lution supporting a constitutional amendment to ban integrated Schools the use of busing as a technique for school desegrega- In some instances, parents anxious for the desegregation. But the county's vote did not agree with the tion transition to proceed smoothly organized biracial board's. committees as at Booker T. Washington Senior High School. This is the formerly black high school whose Reaction to Desegregation Plan black principal continued in his post following imple- After so many years of litigation, the reaction to the mentation of tIld 1969 plan. 1969 desegregation plan was generally one of resigned Under the plan, the affluent and influential white Cordova Park section on the eastern side of Pensacola 14 Statistics provided by Assistant Superintendent Thomas was to be included in the Washington attendance Le Master, May 1, 1072, in interview with Commission Staff. zone. Washington's enrollment had accordingly been School Total Transported 2 projected at 1,540 white and 976 black. year transported miles or more Immediately afterfinalcourt approval ofthe board's desegregation plan in the spring of 1969, Wash- 1968-69_ 21,083 18,737 ington High's black principal and a few prominent 1969=70 24,759 21,172 1970-71_ 25,947 32,661 leaders of the Cordova Park community met to dis- 1971-72 26,471 20,966 cuss various means to implement the plan. A biracial "The question asked in the. March 14, 1972 primary was: Parents' Advisory Committee evolved from these con- "Do you favor an amendment to the U.S. Constitution that versations. This committee of influential citizens, act- would probihit forced busing and guarantee the right of ing as a liaison group, explained the feasibility of inte- each student to attend an appropriate public school nearest gration to fearful parents and focused attention on the his home?" 36,737 Escarnbia citizens voted "yes" and 12,056 voted "no." However, the majority of the county favored a need to improve Washington's long neglected facilities. statement calling for equal opportunity for quality education for all children regardless of race, creed, color, or place 11 The 1969 court order has not yet been brought up to of residence and opposed a return to a dual public school date to conform to the most recent decisions of the United system, vote 53,337-10,314, States Supreme Court in Swannv. Charloile-Mecklenburg.

12 According to a white assistant principal at Wash- black and one white, quickly grew into a melee involv- ington who still serves on the committee: "We were just ing about 100 students. Irate white parents stormed as determined that integration would work as others the school, denouncing the principal, and calling for were sure that the lid would blow sky high." The com- the expulsion of the black students. After a meeting mittee succeeded in getting roads paved in front of of black and white parents, policemen were stationed the school, traffic lights installed in the immediate on the school grounds for the remainder of the school neighborhood, and adequate equipment and materials year. An explanation of the disturbance, which some provided for classrooms. The school board was' per- teachers said had been "blown way out of proportion", suaded to provide approximately $60,000 in repairs. was offered by an assistant principal who said Student biracial committees were organized in al- There should have been some provisional inclusion or rep- most ;ill of the high schools. Student cooperation often resentation of black students in various activities when the transcended the work of special -committees. The large influx of blacks enrolled at Woodham in 1969. The 1971-72 senior class at Washington, the first inte- black class and club officers from Wedgewood should have grated class about to graduate after 3 years together, had a continuing role to play at Woodham. This perhaps would have provided for greater identification of black stu- became indirectly involvecHn an interracial fight be- dents with their new school in the first year of desegregation. tween two male students, both of whom were sus- Upon that basis better communication could have developed pended by the principal. Rumors spread rapidly in in that and succeeding years. the black community that only the black student had Few incidents on school buses have been reported. been suspended. Outsiders appeared on the scene, re- According to the transportation route supervisor, in.. portedly eager to start a disruption. One black male cidents or fights average one per week or one every student commented later that: "Some of the militants 4,560 bus trips, and the majority of them does not do not really want to see integration work." At this appear to be racially motivated. One bus driver com- point senior class leaders followed by virtually the en mented: "I try to be alert to the possibility of disrup- tire class requested a meeting in order to clear the air. tions without overreacting to harmless horseplay." The meeting took place, the rumors were quashed, Displacement of black faculty and supervisors has and the disruptive elements were pacified. Washing- caused concern in Escambia County. The court order ton's principal credited the intelligence and maturity provides that: of the senior class as a whole with having averted hostilities. Teachers and other professional staff members may not be discriminatorily assigned, dismissed, demoted or passed The school superintendent felt that "the Ministerial over for retention, promotion or rehiring on the ground Alliance was probahly the most recognizable positive of race or color. In any instance where one or more teachers force in the community following the 1969 court rul- or other professional staff members are to be displaced as a ing." Its members urged their congregations "to obey result of desegregation, no staff vacancy in the school sys- the law in a spirit of goodwill." tern shall be filed through recruitment from outside the school system unless no staff member is qualified to fill the vacancy. Disruptions and Violence One black resident expressed alarm at the number of Several Escambia County school officials cautionedblack teachers allegedly demoted or fired in the school that, in assessing the extent of racial violence in the system. schools, one should not assume that all interracial After acknowledging that an exact count of disc fights are necessarily racially motivated. They insisted missed teachers is difficult to provide,.a staff member that there are normal adolescent differences which can of the Race Relations Information Center, using in- lead to clashes between black and white, as well as formation provided by the Florida Education Associa- black against black or white against white. A small tion, stated in a Special Report of the Race Relation4 number of apparently racially motivated fights had been reported. Several school administrators felt that Information Center that from 1967-70, 86 black teach- outside forces often influence the studeats involved in ers had Jost their positions in Escarnbia County,'® such incidents. The most serious student disruption, according to 18 "Displacement of Black Teachers in the Eleven Southern States." Race Re!ations Information.Center Special Report, several teachers, occurred at Woodham High School by Robert W. Hooker, December 1970. In 1969 there was a in March 1972. A fight between two male students, one teachers' strike throughout the State of Florida.

13 479-771 0-72-----9 Statistics obtained from HEW SchoolSystem Sum- Three schools in Escambia County drew widespread mary Reports for the past 4 school years do not appear praise for the determination and skill with whichthey to substantiate the charge that black teachers have been moved doward complete integration. WashingtonHigh demoted or fired in the wake ofdesegregation, as far School, which now has a majority black enrollment, as the total number of black teachers in theEscambia was credited with strong and fair leadership, active County School System isconcerned. That number has and influential parental support, and general good slowly risen from 471 in the1968-69 school year to relationships among students. Washington's principal a current 497. HEW statistics also indicate, however, and staff Were often singledout for their enormous that since 1968, the percentage of black teachers in contribution to the peaceful transitionat the school. the system has dipped slightly from 22,9 percent in Teachers and club advisorsat Washington were urged 1968 to 21.9 percent in 1972. to include members Of both races in all organizations The diminishing number of black principals in the and activities at both the leadershipand membership school system following the plan's implementation in levels. Washington High School also enjoyedthe sup- 1969 has been anothersource of concern to some ob- port of 3 strong interracial advisory committee of servers. According to information provided the Com- parents which has reportedly generatedan inestimable mission by school officials, 16black principalswere in amount of good will in recent years. Finally, Washing- the system during the 1968-69school year, of whom ton has been blessed with what the principal described only nine remain. Two blackprincipals have retired as "extremelv mature and intelligent students. and two are deceased." Other black residents are dis- Ransom Middle School, located in Cantonment, turbed that no blacks serve on the elected five-member Florida, approximately 15 miles northof downtown board of education and that few blacks hold adminis- Pensacola, is a formerly black union(grades 1-12) trative positions at the EscambiaCounty School Ad- schocil. RansOm's enrollmentin the 1971-72 school ministrative Office. One blacksupervisor stated that: year was made up of 597 whites and 226 blacks. There, "To bring about more changes we are going to need too, the teachers and students pointedto the high cal- more people [black] at the central office, because they ibre of the school's leadership, theeasy relationships do the hiring. Usually, whena black teacher retires or which exist among parents, faculty,and students, and withdraws, the position is filledby a white teacher." Blacks are somewhat better rewarding innovations in the educationalprogram. represented in dean- When the plan was implemented ships and other supervisorypositions in a number of at Ransom some tension was obvious in both black schools. Black teachers withexperience in both the and white communities. According to the principal, present school system and thesegregated system noted some black parents a vast improvement in felt the school had been taken some facilities following de-. over by whites, and segregation. Prior to 1969, saidone, requests for funds white parents did not want their childrenin the school and equipment at blackschools went virtuallyun- because it had been a black school. Helfelt,however, heeded. The school's curriculumwas limited to basic that the mood today isone of cooperation. A tiacher courses and included no foreign languageinstruction. in another school said that "theRansom administrative Another administrator recalledthe difficulty of pro- team has been successful in preventing racial clashes curing needed repairs andadministrative assistance and establishing communicationamong parents be- before white childrenwere assigned to the school. Sev- cause it has tried to be fair and consistent with eral black high school every- students also remembered the one, Ransom has had well-integrated athletic contrast and expressed bitterness teams, at the "double stand- cheerleading squads, and elected studentrepresenta- ard" which had existedunder the dual school system. tives. An interracial boostersgroup was recently formed Finally, some Pensacolaresidents expressed fear by parents. One sign of the school'sapparent success that the new schools mightbe located without regard is the return ofsome 42 students from the Pensacola to desegregation guidelinesprovided by the court's Christian Academy [segregated private 1969 ruling. They specificallyreferred to the building school] in the last 2 years." One administratorsays: "Parents call of a new high school inthe predominantly whitewest side of Pensacola. and ask about boundary linesso their child can attend Ransom." " The school board did not account for the three other The paired Hallmark school whichserves grades principals who no longerserve in those positions in the county. K-3 is a third school drawing favorablecommunity 14 comment. Hallmark, an unconventionally structured greatly. A black mii_nister,chose own children attend inner-city school receiving aid under Title I of the Hallmark, declared that he is a staunch believer in Elementary and Secondary. Education Act, has an en- its program. In support of its open classrooms and rollment which is 67 percent black. At one time, it learning center programs, it has received funds under was one of Pensacola's most prestigious schools; now Title I of the Civil Rights Act of 1P54 in the 1971,-72

80 percent of its students are eligible for a free lunch school year. - program. Although these-three schools appear to stand out in According to the principal, the school operates on the eyes of many Pensacola residents, desegregation has the rationale that "when students do not respond, the proceeded quietly and without incident in most other teacher's approach must be wrong. The conventional schools in the county. According to the assistant prin- level structure was substituted for the conventional cipal at Tate High School in Gonzalez, Florida, de- grade structure and report cards were eliminated." segregation has gone forward without major difficulty, The curriculum specialist stated that studies indicate and both black and white communities have appar- clearly that the students' self-images have improved ently been pleased with the outcome. PUBLIC SCHOOLDESEGREGATION INEVANSTON ILL Evanston is an affluent suburb northeast of Chicago has only one school, EvanstonTownship High School, on the southwestern shore of Lake Michigan. Its pop- which serves all of the grAduates fromDistrict 65 mid- ulation of approximately 79,808persons is 16 percent dle schools. In 1971-72 Evanston Township black. Evanston contains diverse had a total racial and ethnic enrollment of 5,009 students,' 26percent of whom groups because it is the site of several foreigncon-, were black. sulates and the home of NorthwesternUniversity, a By 1963 a triangular central section focal point for of Evanston many foreign students and faculty. was becoming heavily black, and this Was reflected in Evanston's lake front homes are old palatial mansions the all-black enrollment of theinner-city Foster now somewhat crowded together because ofadditional School (K-8), The school district building on estates. implemented a voluntary transfer plan that desegregatedroost of the The community is conservative on the whole, but schools along the lake front in theeast, the far south, a liberal segment is influential and vocal. Evanston's and the extreme west. These schoolshad been all-white population is well-educated and, accord g iu she 1970 prior to 1963.5 Foster, however, remainedalmost all- census, enjoys a relatively high median family income; black (99 percent) and anotherelementary school, $13,932 in 1969. Black families inEvanston, taken Dewey, became 65 percent black. alone, had a median family income of $9,671 in that In 1964, in the face ofsome pressure from the local year. The 1970 census reports that the median value NAACP and Urban League, the school boarddecided of owner-occupied homes in the city was more than to eliminate segregation completelybecause ofits $33,000 in 1969. stultifying effects on all children,'As a first step in According to a school official, theblack middle class eliminating segregation, District 65's "has higher home ownership School Board than in most areas and selected a Citizens AdvisoryCommittee in December many [of its members] hold two jobs." The estab- 1964.5 The function of the committeewas to devise lished black community iswell-settled and dates back a planfor submission to the school b_ oard to the latter half of the 19th within a century when Evanston 1-year periodproposinga workable method for was the end of the line for the UndergroundRailroad. implementing desevtgation. In order The major influx of blacks to facilitate the to Evanston came in the effort, the board allocated $5,000 forcomputer expert 1920's during the city's greatest period of growth. It time to determine the distributionof students within came mainly in response to the demand for domestic walking distance of schools, insuringproportionate workers among the North Shore communities. numbers of black and white studentsfor future school assignments. History of Desegregation inEvanston, Ill. The completed plan called forthe assignment of Evanston has two independent,tax-supported school central city black studentsto white schools with small districts with twoseparate boards of education. Con- Statistical Summary 197142, EvanstonTownship High solidation has been proposedseveral times without School, District 202. result, The majority of schools were all-white byvirtue of neigh- District 65 today consists of16 elementary and horhood school zoning. MI of the black populationresided four middle schools. Theelementary schoolsserve in the central section of the city. This segregatedpattern was grades K-5 and havea total enrollment of 6,533, of protected by Realtors and by disparate income levels of blacks which 25 percent is black. The and whites. four middle schools Coffin, Gregory, "How Evanston, serve grades 6-8 and have Integrated All a total enrollment of 3,311 of its Schools, " a paper prepared for the November 1967Na- students, of whom 27percent are black.' District 202 tional Conference on Race and Education sponsoredby the United States Commission on Civil Rights. Enrollment facts from data analysis ofFeb. 11, 1972, as prepared by Robert L. Dawkins, The 18member committee included the superintendent, Pupil Services Department, one assistant superintendent, two principals, and representa- Evanston School District 65. tives from diverse segments of the community, 16 black enrollments. Only 450 of approximately 2,300 defeated in favor of another motion introduced by a black students were not within walking distance of school board member which provided for polling the the schools. The 450 students were grouped according parents of black students who were to be bused to de- to neighborhood rather than grade and assigned to termine whether they would agree to one-way busing. five outlying areas-to which they were to be bused. In preparation for this survey, 50 persons, 40 of The plan also called for the redistricting of all mid- whom were black, were selected for in.strudtion at a dle schools to ensure proportionate black enrollment. special workshop in survey techniques. Black clergy- Upon plan implementation, the schools would' be fully men 7 and the leaders of 40 different black organiza- desegregated, with a range of between 17 and 25 per- tions were contacted concerning the survey and its pur- cent black enrollment pose and asked to familiarize the black community with Dr. Gregory Coffin was appointed superintendent the survey's objectives.° Parents and guardians of the of District 65 in 1967, followirt the r.tirement of the black students to be bused were called for interview former superintendent, Dr. Oscar M. Chute. Under appointments- and when they could not be reached, Dr. Coffin, the desegregation plan for elementary and surveyors went to their homes without prior contact. middle schools was implemented. Two and sometimes three efforts were reportedly made Evanston residents interviewed by Cornrnio-ion staff to reach some parents. The perseverance of the sur- generally credited Dr. Coffin with a strong moral com- veyors paid off when the response proved to be 93 mitment to integration, indicating that his administra- percent favorable to the one-way busing. The school don moved boldly and without delay to achieve com- board was satisfied with the poll response and allocated plete desegregation. $38,000 of its $10 million budget for transportation. Some observers today feel that the former superin- In accordance with the citizens advisory committee's tendent had been somewhat abrasive. Further, he re- recommendations, the middle schools were desegre- portedly often bypassed the board in making decisions. gated. Foster, the all-black K-8 school, became a The black community generally respected him, al- kindergarten experimental education center in the though some of its members resented the fact that he 1966-67 school year. The school then became known instituted a one-way. busing program (blacks were as the District 65 Laboratory School. In 1969 the board bused to outlying white schools) even though he was renamed the facility the Martin Luther King, Jr. merely implementing the plan created by the citizens Laboratory School.® The laboratory school was limited advisory committee. to the kindergarten level because of the experimental In describing Dr. Coffin, one administrator com- techniques to be implemented. Enrollment at the school mented that he was "a hard-headed, down-to-earth was voluntary: 900students,applied and 25 percent person with a common touch [who] lived by his con- of the 600 accepted were black. Parents of accepted victions." Under his leadership substantial numbers children were promised that other children in the same of black faculty and administrators were employed. families would be permitted to attend in subsequent Another administrator stated: "Only a Greg Coffin years. The children who were to attend the school had could have implemented the desegregation plan.. differing achievement levels and came from neighbor- Since his departure Evanston kips not moved, but has hoods throughout the school district. Those requiring become enmeshed in procrastination." ° transportation were bused at a cost of $50 per child

Implementation of the Current Plan 'At that time there were about 22 black churches in Evanston. In 1965 the plan prepared by the citizens advisory The support reflected in one survey statement largely de- committee was submitted to the board and accepted, termined the decision of the board to go forward with the but controversy surrounded that part of the plan pro- plan. That statement was "If the cost of integrated educa- posing one-way busing of black children to outlying tion is busing, then I am willing to have my child bused." white schools. At a meeting called by the board and Coffin, Gregory, "How Evanston, Illinois Integrated All of attended by more than 800 persons, a motion for a Its Schools," a paper prepared for a conference on Race and referendum on the whole issue of desegregation was Education, November 1967, sponsored by the United States Commission on Civil Rights. In 1969 Dr. Coffin was discharged because of his al- Learning How to Learn: An Individualized Program at leged abrasiveness and his unrelenting stand on dosegrega, the Martin Luther King, Jr. Laboratory School, District 65, tion. Evanston, Illinois,

17 per semester. This cost was willingly paid by parents -February 11, 1972, statistics indicate that the LabOr- apparently enthusiastic about the laboratory school atory School had 623 students in attendance. Three program. hundred and ninety ride the bus, and all but 52, who The school was operated under the aegis of North- receive some scholarship assistance,pay $50 a semester western University ane funded under Title HI of the for transportation costs. Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965.10 The assistant superintendent reported that thein- The Laboratory program is nongraded with indi- structional program at the Laboratory School hashad vidualized instruction and freedom which permit chil- a catalytic effect on the other district schools stimulat- dren to move from one area of learningto another. ing them to adopt in varying degreessuch innovative Grouping is done according to the needs of the child, techniques as team teaching, heterogeneous multiage which might depend on one or several of the following grouping, and nongraded instruction. factors: achievement, interest level, social adjustment, Central Elementary School is located inthe south- or self-concept." A black parent said that students eastern section of Evanston, where most of theuniver- "don't feel that they are competing againsteach other, sity student populationonce lived. As they moved, but are learning as much as each is capable of learn- blacks gradually replaced than, and thearea has being." According to a 1971 study '= of Evanstonschools come the most integrated, in Evanston, giving Central which was funded by the.Rockefeller Foundation,the a balanced enrollment in the district, 51 percent black. Laboratory School does not have the highest achieve- Central students are bused. ment scores, but faculty and administrators comment Central, which had the lowest achievementlevel in that "children love the school," andare "also having the district accordingto the "Rockefeller Study," has fun while learning." One teacher at the Laboratory a 300-student enrollment. The faculty of 23 is 15per. c. School summed up her enthusiasm for the learning cent black. The principal believes that "thedisparity atmosphere there, by saying: "I just loveto come to in black and white achievementis societal." He has work." seen a general increase in achievement in his school, By the. following year, 1967-68, the school had citing an example of 24 kindergartenchildren who, proved to be such a success that it was expanded to an according to the Metropolitan ReadinessTest, were elementary laboratory school, grades K-5." "high-risk ". first graders. Some, thoughnot all, of these 10 Title 111 of the Elementary andSecondary Education students have begun to function wellat the first grade Act of 1965 provides in Section 301: "TheCommissioner level. [of Education] shall carry outa program for making grants The school is a unifying factor inthe community. for supplementary education centers and services,to stipulate Integrated meetings, picnics, dinners, and assist in the provision of vitally needed after-school ac- educational sery tivities are well received. Popular classes ices not available in sufficient quantityor quality, and to in arts and stimulate and assist in development andestablishment of crafts, yoga, and macrameare offered after school and exemplary elementary and secondary schooleducational .pro- are taught by parents who volunteer their time.There grams to serve as models for regular school programs." 20 is also a day careprogram for children whose parents U.S.C. 841 enacted Apr. 11, 1965, P.L. 89-10, Title III, must work until 5.30 or 6p.m. The program is super- Sec. 301, 79 Stat. 39. . vised by two paid staffpersons. A sum of $125,000 was allocated for theLaboratory School from Tide HI during its firstyear. Funds were cut 30 percent In the 1972-73 schoolyear, Central was to become a the next year and after 3 years (1970) theywere discontinued, magnet school similar in its innovative approachto the Ibid. Learning How to Learn. King Laboratory. Thenew school will be sponsored by The Rockefeller Study was undertaken by School Dis- the University of Chicago. As ofMay 1972 there were trict 65 and the Educational TestingService to compare 40 vacancies remaining at the school, achievement and attitude changes inEvanston 1967-71: A and the adminis- Longitudinal Evaluation, by Jojjia Hsi,Princeton, Educa- trators hoped "that white parents willvoluntarily tional Testing Service, 1971. choose this innovative school." Themagnet school con- " Screening criteria have recently beeninitiated to curtail cept is being 'introduced by the schoolsystem to stem enrollment and to guarantee attendanceof a proportionate white flight from the Central School area.11 number of boys and girls, and black andwhite students of differing achievement levels. In determiningadmission stand- and the pupil's former attendance at the Laboratory School ards, consideration is given to specific needs of students, the (kindergarten program). Enrollment is kept between 600 and racial distribution of students in the applicant'sneighbor- 625 students. hood, recommendations by the LaboratorySchool principal, "See footnote2 18 Student Achievement in Evanston Schools indicate that no unusual disciplinary problems have occurred on the buses. The Evanston schools were recently examined by District 65 staff and the Educational Testing Service.15 Some antibusing sentiment has been expressed by The study covered three academic years, during which several members of the black community who feel that "the desegregation plan in Evanston has been unfair the performance of 10, 981 students from kindergarten through the eighth grade was examined. Study results because only black children have been bused." One showed that black children increased their level of black parent interviewed ."accepts busing if both achievement, but did not reach national norms. There whites and blacks are bused," but would prefer to "move into a white neighborhood to avoid the busing was also a decline in "positive self-concept" which some attributed to the exposure of black students to a dif- of her children." High real-estate costs and property ferent environment in which white students performed taxes, however, impede such a move. Another black so well that black students felt academically dwarfed. parent who supports busing said: "I believe I repre- Black children who were bused achieved at a higher sent the majority of the people around here but not level than those who attended walk-in schools.1° everyone. I haven't heard any negative comments from White student achievement scores remained substan- parents whose kids are being bused out or from the tially above national norms after desegregation, just white parents whose kids are coming in voluntarily. as before desegregation. Of the schools examined in The total aim is education for all the children." In the study, Central Elementary School had the lowest noting the cross section of people in Evanston, he aclievement rates and Lincoln Elementary School the added: "Busing for desegregation is fine since it fur- highest. thers [educational opportunity] and is workable." A white parent whose child attends the Laboratory School Transportation related: "Our neighborhood school isone block away, When the final stages of desegregation began in and we are busing 2 miles because the quality of educa- 1967, about 1,960 black and white students were tlon at the Lab School is better. Also, We feel our child bused instead of tilt- originally recommended number will be involved with every type of individual, and of 450 black students. The increase resulted from the that is what life is, getting along with all people and board's decision to bus all those students, black and different situations." Mr. Robinson, the bus company white, affected by redistricting, some of whom could owner, expressed the hope "that open occupancy will not afford to pay the cost of public transportation. open up all the schools without busing." He added: Initially 17 buses were needed, but when it was dis- "Busing in this town is running better than in most covered that one of the buses was all-white and one places." a::1- black, two additional buses were added to the fleet and the routes were redrawn so that all buses would White Flight be desegregated, This brought. the total number of buses to 19 at a cost of $64.54 per day per bus as.cal- The white student populationin Evanstonis ciliated for the year 1971-72.17 decreasing. Some of the decline may be attributed to A contract was negotiated with the black-owned factors such as birth rates, but several school officials Robinson Bus Company. Some Evanston observers view the decline as white flight from newly desegre- suggest that this contract was entered into to assuage gated schools. bad feelings resulting from one-way busing. The racial composition of the area surrounding Adult bus drivers receive in-service training in first Central Elementary School, which is a K =8 school, aid and how to maintain discipline on the buses. They has made the school 51 percent black. Thus, one teacher observed: "When a school becomes more than The Educational Testing Service is a nonprofit organiza- 50 percent black, white families leave." The principal tion devoted to research and measurement in education with of Central feels that the panic has subsided and "the funds provided by the Rockefeller Foundation. community is now stable and that those whites who " Integration in Evanston 1967 =71: A Longitudinal Eval- 'lotion: A Summary of the Major Findings. remain loyally support the school!' Administrators in 'Transportation information provided by School Dis- the district office are wary of the situation.and, as noted trict 65. earlier, have decided to convert Central to a magnet

19 school,ia freezing the enrollment,as y do not wish When teachers were asked to evaluate theirdesegre- to move students solely to achieve racial balance. gated classrooms, most, especially olderteachers and When desegregation was imminent in the Skiles area teachers in middle schools, indicatedthey had feared the white community reportedly becameapprehensive a change in disciplinary standards. Little variance in about the possibility of physical abuseof their children, response was noted between black and white teachers. and some members of the community moved. To a lim- While most teachers agreed that workingrelationships ited extent "the flight is still in progress." with black and white colleagueswere excellent, black The problems of white flight andthe loss of District teachers cited poorer rapport with white 65 enrollment are teachers than on the, school board agenda for vice versa. A white teacher observed:- "The faculty resolution.' mingles well now although therewas some strain at first." Attitudes, Discipline, and Disruptions The majority of black parents polledfor their re- District 65 has had few disruptionsas a result of actions to 4 years of desegregation repliedthat they desegregation beyond the customary childishfights and strongly favored the educational experiencein de- tiff's, not necessarily race-related.Generally positive at- segregated schools. Only a handful felt theirchildren titudes of students and facultymay help explainwhy have been inconvenienced by busing. discipline problems are minimal. When problemsdo The principal of a middle school expressedthe opin- arise, they are normally "handled in the classroom." ion that "racial attitudes of studentsare better this In 1967, District 65 helda summer institute for year than ever before. Many of our kids have helped teachers in preparation for desegregation.The institute educate their parentson racial issues." Another ad- was funded under Title IV of the Civil Rights Act of ministrator noted: "Where there had been separatism 1964 with a grant of $119,840, anddealt with racial among black and white students in the past, particu- prejudice as presented through diversemedia 'such as larly at the middle schools, there ismore integration magazine ads and television commercials.In 1968 the and intermingling now." district received $58,096 in Title IV funds foran in- A teacher at Skiles Middle School,-which has the stitute examining curricular materials forprejudicial most modem facility, told .a Commission staff inter- treatment of minority racial and ethnicgroups, utiliz viewer that the school had "good racialinteraction, ing format and materials from the previousinstitute. though generally you will find that 80percent of the Questions for judging student self-evaluationwere blacks and 80 percent of the whites preferto stay to presented, and methods of recognizing andcounteract- themselves while 20 percent will intermingle.Often ing prejudiced attitudesamong students were also children who relate well during theyear are negatively taught. An effort was made to make attendanceat the influenced over the summer by parents andothers." latter institute mandatory for principals, but theboard `) According toan administrator at Nichols Middle threatened to withhold applicationior funds ifthisre- School: 'There is peerpressure on black students not quirementwere adopted. Some principals did attend to perform. They will do anythingto be part of a institutes, if somewhat irregularly. Those whoattended group. t hey can do well but some kid willsay: 'What regularly' generally had steadily Supportedthe goals are you trying to do, trying to be white?' Since it isa of desegregation. problem, we take the student asideand talk to him Despite the institutes and other training sessionscon- privately, so that he does notequate being black with ducted throughout the schoolyear, the RoCkefeller being dumb." Study noted prejudicial teacher attitudes. According Several teachers expressed the opinionthat "integra- to the study: "There were more psychological referrals tion has to begin withyounger children in order to for black boys, and therewere more written comments succeed." Those who started in kindergartenunder of a mixed nature instead of favorableones for black integrated conditions are doing better than those who girls," after desegregation. "come in the third or fourth grade." Initially,they reported, there were problems, butnow "we are getting See footnote 2 at i. children who have been together for 5 u Between fall 1968-69 and spring 1971-72,the total or 6 years. The elementary school enrollrr,ent has decreased from 6,916to children know each other's wants and all abouteach 6,487 students. The middle school enrollment has decreased other. -True solid friendships have developedbetween from 3,501 to 3,311 students. individuals of both groups. There is stillsome hatred 20 on each side, but the students are learning to deal with cility of Evanston Township was completed. Four each other, schools were built of an H-shaped corridor which is "I have two daughters. They accept their fellow now used for administrative offices. black students as people, they are not overly bemused About 300 teachers are employed by this district; by them or hate or love them so much as to accept 92 percent have had previous teaching experience and all of their faults. They are realistic. They can deal 76 percent have master's or doctor's degrees. Nine with a black-white problem." percent are black. A high calibre staff is maintained As one white teacher said: "The kids now in the because the school board allocates 80 percent of its

middle school will make the high school happy_.We are $1-1 million budget for staff salarieF About 20 percent over the tension years of initial integration." of the faculty participates in some form of in-service training during the summer, and all of the faculty at- Evanston. Township High School, District 202 tend a 4-day in-service program during the school Evanston Township High School (ETHS) com- year." prises School District 202 and serves all of Evanston's Modular scheduling was introduced to ETHS the 1967-68 school year. The school day is divided high school population of about 5,000 students.2° These students are housed in four schools," Beardsley, Bolt- into 15-minute mods, each class lasting at least wood, Bacon, and Michael, which are run semi-inde- two mods or 30 minutes with 5 minutes being allotted pendently. Each hires its own staff and has its own for getting from one class to another. Classes may therefore be 35, 55, 75, or 95 minutes in length. The first administration but all answer to the administration of mod is a home room assignment called the registration ETHS under the superintendent. One of the leading secondary schools in the Nation," period because it is during this time that attendance offers 360 courses and has many modern facilities is taken and announcements are made. Modular sched- such as a television studio nursery for the study of uling was initially used for sophomores, juniors, and early childhood development, a planetarium, a nata- seniors. The first decision was to allow students tc torium," and a greenhouse. Other resources are its schedule their own time," but thepolicy was changed when nonproductivity of unscheduled free time began language department that provides instruction in nine to cause concern. A sophomore at Michael lamented: languages, 20 science laboratories, a computer counter, art and drama departments, and its central resource "They have given us all of the freedom, but they don't want the students to exercise it. Sometimes students center that provides reference materials, newspapers, just want to talk and stay in the halls to get away. magazines, filmstrips, tapes, records, slides and more from the teachers and all the formality," As a result than 50,000 volumes.24 only juniors and seniors will have modular scheduling The four-in-one plan was conceived in 1956 but not during the 1972-73 school year. fully implemented until 1967-68 when a $15 million The administration found that in order to keep the building program expanding and renovating the fa- students in the classrooms, disciplinary measures had to be taken, and teachers were stationed in the halls Referred to as 4 in1 plan. Racial comparability is maintained in the schools by computerized student assignment. to act as monitors. The monitors are a source of irrita- Twenty.one percent of student enrollment is black. Be- tion to the students. One student explains that "if you tween 1968-69 and 1970-71, the total enrollment at ETHS are in the halls during a mod period, a pass is required went from 5,029 to 5,150. Black enrollment increased from 847 to 750 students, white enrollment, from 4,095 to 4,250. " Ibid. HEW statistics Fall 1968 and Fall 1970, " "... modular scheduling encourages a student to learn Traditionally, the black students from the previously all- responsibility and develop his own deeisionmaking abilities. black Foster Elementary School (K-8) were accepted at When a student comes face to face with his unscheduled time Evanston Township High School, They were required to each day, he has to make the decision of where and how he'll conform with the behavior standards set by ETHS, otherwise spend it within the school building. He may go to the central they were expelled. libiary, the resource center of his school, a student lounge, ri Eighty percent of its graduating class goes to college school cafeteria, or an open lab or classroom. This means according to school administrators. that he can choose to 'goof off' or he can choose to apply " Indoor swimming pool. himself. It is up to him to make this important decision." (no "All About ETES, a pamphlet prepared by District 202 emphasis added) Flexible Modular Scheduling at ETHS, a about the school district. pamphlet circulated by School District 202.

21 478 471 0-72-4 or you are 'written up'. Five write -ups andyou are sent undertaken or are planned. One home." assistant superintendent doubted the value of theseworkshops so long as A black student commented that the curriculum, school officials had to be paidto attend them. He teachers, freedom of environment, and opportunity for said: "As long as we haveto pay teachers and admin- independent study are assets toa motivated student istrators $75 a week to attend these body, but they present problems sessions, no results to those students who will be reaped." He addedthat a change in attitude are not self-motivated in pursuit of academic goals. is anticipated eventuallyas "a large faculty turnover Some of these approaches have not helpedmost black is expected around 1980." students according to one staff member who noted As mentioned,peer pressure has blocked some black that: "In 1971 there were 300 black seniorsof whom students from striving for only 57 graduated." academic excellence, but group counselors are attemptingto counteract the A 7day suspension is automatic for vulgarity before effects of suchpressure. All freshmen are required teachers, although black teachers to are allegedly more attend group counselingon a weekly basis for the first lenient in this respect than white teachers because, ac- semester and voluntarily thereafter.Black students cording to one black student, they understandthat "it have achieved well in the is a manner of expression and past and are still achieving. not intended as a form One of the highestscores on the National Achieve- of offensive communication." She added: "White ment Examination was received byone of the black teachers are very prejudiced and want blacksto mess students at Evanston Township,according to a school up. They expect blacks to act in a certain way and administrator. many black students do not disappoint them." The principal of Boltwood One staff person commented: has found a means to "expand the trust level betweenthe staff and the stu- School spirit has diminished at Evanston Township,be- dents" through such effortsas a VA-day retreat with cause of administrative policies enforcing stricter discipline, six or seven staff members andabout 20 students, and more structured scheduling, and a general move toward three campouts for low-motivated traditional schooling, but theseare needed because too students. He believes these "get rid of many students, for whom adjustment has been difficult,are a lot of misconceptions and stu- being lost in the school. dents then feel that teachersare accessible." While the dropout rate of white studentsat Evans- Some members of the blackcommunity feel the ton Township is 1 percent, black students who.com- present administration of Evanston TownshipHigh prise 21 percent of the student body havea 40 percent School is conservative, butone teacher perceived that dropout rate and 10 percent absenteerate. There are changes have been good for the blackcommunity. Un- currently 17 programs for poorly motivated students, der the previous administration,black parents were made to feel uncomfortable and yet blacks can still be found standing around inthe unwelcome at ETHS, halls during the day. This, accordingto a black school but the present administration, accordingto a black teacher, is more open, has created official, is "a sign of their apathy anddisinterest." greater black parent No racial incidents have occurredsince a black sit-in interaction with the school, and holdsparents -more ac- 4 years ago. There have been fights, butno break in countable for the behavior and educationalattain- merit of their children. communication. One white student noted"a steady decline in tension." A black administrator stated thata "whole new so- cialization process is goingon that didn't go on before. District 202 does not provide transportationfor its The black kids have to work students to and from school. Rather, students out their identity. There use pub- are growing pains until they get their identity, then lictransportation, private automobiles, and other they will loosen up. Of course, white kids means. are going through the same struggle of how to relate. Wehave Although the attitudes of the facultyhave caused successful desegregation, but no integration; cultural problems, no human relations workshopshave been pluralism rather than integration." PUBLIC SCHOOL DESEGREGATION IN HARRISBURG, P$V

Demographic Facts 1930 have complicated efforts to establish and n- tain an integrated school system there. Harrisburg, the capital of Pennsylvania, is situated This gradual population decline is a contemporary on the east bank of the Susquehanna River in the phenomenon which plagues many large cities in Amer- southeastern part of the State. It is about 100 miles ica. It poses grave urban problems, particularly for west of Philadelphia and 201 miles east of Pittsburgh_ schools which rely on local tax support. Harrisburg's The city was founded in 1710 and became the State school district is confined by city borders drawn long capital in 1812 largely because H location is almost ago to the city itself.It, therefore, faces a menace halfway between these two major cities. The State which metropolitan or countywide school districts do capitol building itself, occupies a large area in the not encounter: a shrinking tax base. As in so many central city. The principal sources of employment are other American cities, some observers in Harrisburg the State government and the railroad industry. fear that the exodus for a myriad of reasons threatens The total population of Harrisburg peaked in 1950 the collapse of its school system despite the determined at 89,544 and since then has steadily declined 1 to its efforts of the school board, teachers, and parents to present 68,061. The black population of the city, by ensure quality integrated education for their children. contrast, shows a 88 percent increase since 1960.2 The ratio of white tc black students enrolled in the schools History of School Desegregation in the District alsodeclineduntilthe black student population reached 50 percent in 1968 and 61 percent in Sep- In 1968, the Pennsylvania Human Relations Com- tember 1971.3 The changed proportions of white and mission (PHRC) requested the Harrisburg School black students enrolled in the Harrisburg schools since District to submit a plan and timetable to eliminate racially imbalanced schools in the city. In 1968 and I The overall population of Harrisburg grew steadily to a 1969, plans were submitted by the school board to total of 89,544 in 1950. Thereafter, the population began to the PHRC, which declared them unsatisfactory. An- decline to 79,697 in 1960 and finally to 68,061 in 1970. By other plan submitted by the board in April 1970, was 1970, the total Harrisburg population decreased by 14.6 per- approved by the PHRC and also by the department cent. U.S. Bureau of Census, U.S. Census of Population: 1970, Number of Inhabitants, Final Report PC (1 )A40 of public instruction of the Commonwealth. Pennsylvania, Table 7, Population of Incorporated Places of Shortly after the board adopted the second plan, a 10,000 or more: 1900 to 1970. suit was filed in the court of common pleas of Dauphin ° U.S. Bureau of Census, U. S. Census of Population: 1970, County by a group of parents to enjoin implements- Number of Inhabitants, Final Report PC(1)A40 Pennsyl- vania, Table 7, Population of Incorporated Places of 10,000 tion of the plan on grounds that: (1) the directives or more: 1900 to 1970. Blacks constituted 11.3 percent of from the PHRC placed such "duress" upon the school the total population in 1950. By 1970, black population had board as to have illegally forced it to adopt the plan; doubled in Harrisburg and now constitutes 30.7 percent of and (2) the elimination of the "neighborhood school" the total Harrisburg population, U. S. Bureau of Census, U.S. Census of Population 1970, Negro Population in Selected violated the constitutional rights of parents, pupils, Places and Selected Counties, PC(S1) =2 June 1971 Supple- and taxpayers in general.' mentary Report, Table 4. Race of the Population of Selected The county court rejected the suit, however, and the Places by State and Rank: 1960 and 1970. case was then appealed to the Pennsylvania Supreme "Directory of Public Elementary and Secondary Schools in Selected Districts. Enrollment and Staff by Racial/Ethnic Court. In April 1972, the State supreme court held group: Fall 1968, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office for Civil Rights. For 1971 Statistics See 'Balsbaugh v. Rowland, Court of Common Pleas of Dau- Table 1. phin County, Pa., Equity, 1970.

23 that if the sole basis for the school board's role in creasingly black until by 1968,seven of the 18 Schools implementing the plan was indeed the directive of were heavily black.' Map 1 shows the attendance zones the PHRC, the board had done only whata duly at that time. constituted' and authorized State agency (PHRC) had ordered it to do, and this could not be considered CURRENT PLAN "duress".5 The court also found that the plan "represents a salutary endeavor by the board to improve the Implementation quality of education . . and to comply with the The new plan upheld by the courts resulted inre- PHRC directive." It went on to state that the plan organization of the schools.' This representeda total was within the board's statutory authority. departure from the concept of neighborhood schoolsas The court held that when a school board undertakes currently understood in favor of schools with hetero- to correct racial imbalance resulting from de facto seg- geneous enrollmenti mirroring the district as a whole. regation through a program which involves pupilas- In order to reach the stated goals of "educational signment and transportation, thus substantially chang- excellence, racial balance, equity, stability, andecon- ing the pre-existing pattern of neighborhood schools in omy" the schools were reorganized arounda 3A-2-2-2 the process, the equal protection clause of the 14th grade structure whereby separatefacilitiesserved amendment is in no way violated. "H busing may be grades K-2, 3-6, 7-8, 9-10, and 11-12. The previous said to be a burden imposed by the plan," the court structure tended to be uneconomical in that it dupli- declared, "it is patently clear that the burden, along cated facilities and often wasted the time of psycholo- with the concomitant benefits of an improved educa- gists, guidance counselors, and art and music teachers tional environment and more and better services and who had to travel back and forth from school to school. facilities, is evenly distributed among all students." Moreover, facilities and staffs tended to vary in quality Drawing on judgments contained in the United Su- from neighborhood to neighborhood in that preme Court Swann decision, the Pennsylvania Su- some schools lacked laboratories, nurse's rooms, art preme Court continued: rooms, music rooms, guidance counseling facilities,or teach If assignment and busing may be acceptable, and indeed ers of specialized subjects and skills. required, methods of attempting to overcome racial segregation where that condition is historically of de jure origin, The new grade structure was intended to benefit it would indeed be anomalous if they were nevertheless con- from the centralization of staff andresources serving sidered to be unreasonable, discriminatory and therefore the different levels of the education ladder. Toensure constitutional methods when voluntarily employed to rectify "equal access to excellence for all", the board stated: an imbalance which is the product of de facto segregation. "Every public school in Harrisburg will reflect in its The court agreed with the Harrisburg School student population and teaching staff the racial and Board's view that, in order to prepare Harrisburg students to live in a pluralistic society, each school should See the following table: have a prescribed ratio of black to white studentsre- Black White Total flecting the racial proportion of the districtas a whole, and that this approach in no way violated the Federal Franklin Elementary. 695 26 722 Constitution or the constitution and laws of the State Downey Elementary__ 464 11 475 Hamilton Elementary..... 736 24 760 of Pennsylvania. Lincoln Elementary 615 98 713 As noted, the black population of Harrisburg has Woodward Elernentary_, 414 28 442 In- Camp Curtin Junior High_ 787 485 l 1, 280 creased rapidly while the white population has been Penn Senior 596 490 i1, 097 decreasing. As has happened in many of the Nation's cities, ghetto schools have resulted from theconcen- 1 The slight variance in the total represents other minority students. tration of blacks in the central city and the whiteexo- Racial imbalance in varying degrees existed in all dus to the suburbs. The Harrisburg schools became in- but two of the 18 school buildings according to to- tirnony given by Dr. David H. Porter, the superinten- 'Balsbaugh v. Rowland, Docket Number 32, May Term dent, to the Select Committee on Equal Educational 1971. Supreme Court of Pennsylvania, Middle District. Opportunity on Aug. 4, 1971. Opinion filed Apr. 20, 1972. See Map 2. 24 socioeconomic composition characteristic of the public These decisions were well publicized, as was the system as a whole." Children were to be assigned to board's assurance that it accepted responsibility for schools by a computer selection program.B each student from the moment he boarded the bus Prior to implementation of the plan, professional until hk arrival home later in the day. In the board's staff personnel attended a sensitivity workshop funded opinion, this policy was not really necessary from the under Title. IV of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. This standpoint of student safety, but it was helpful in program and other "inservice" programs dealt with alleviating the anxieties of a number of uneasy parents the question of how to avoid resegregation in the and students. classroom, what to expect in the way of behavior pat- Soind school officials feared that the strange build- terns of both students and teachers, and how students ing, new students, and new staffin short, the total are affected by teacher response. "newness" of the reorganization schememight also tend to provoke disruptions by some students. They Cost of Reorganization Pion were reluctant to permit troublesome students to jeopardize the new system, but they were anxious to help In view of the additional costs entailed in the plan, therm One administrator reasoned that suspension and Harrisburg raised local real estate taxes by 21/4 mills expulsion of the student who disrupts classes "only un- and levied a new $15 flat tax on every adult resident of leashes a lot of kids who have problems out on the the city. These monies paid for lunch programs in street in an unsupervised situation which leads down- elementary and early childhood centers ($123,000), hill." A new program was therefore instituted whereby additional transportation costs (about $450,000) and the disruptive student was to be removed from the computer rental expenses ($40,000). These expenses classroom and assigned to a New Learning Center. could not be covered by cutting back spending in other While the student attended classes with a modified parts of the budget so the increased taxes were clearly Curriculum, Center personnel attempted to analyze his required, according to the superintendent. problems and their causes in order to guide teachers and counselors as well as the students. The Center's Steps to Win Community Acceptance efforts and other safeguards by the board were well received by many parents. Local newspapers had previously publicized the re- A public relations firm handled the effort to win sistance and occasional violence associated with busing community acceptance for the reorganization plan by in several communities in the Nation, incidents which increased fears about busing by some parents. This emphasizing the theme, "Kids are Happy in the Har- concern was heightened by the absence of any past risburg Schools." Poster- type displays were prepar, tradition of busing in Harrisburg. for use in staff offices. Moreover, 12 free billboards, To counter these anxieties, the board decided touse provided as a public service, and 21 bus posters were paid monitors as supervisors both on the buses and in used early in the summer of 1969 to spread the mes- the school buildings. It also establisheda special pro- sage: "Lucky Kids go to Harrisburg Schools this Fall!" gram for students who presented disciplinary prob- Prior to the opening of school, the message was changed lems. on these billboards and transit posters to make the

point: "The Harrisburg Schools...Give Them A a The computer employed the following criteria to balance Chance!" the pupil population by schools and classes within schools: In addition to these printed messages, one commer- (1) Race evenly distributed with a maximum variance of 10 cial television station provided the school district with percent from the total percentages in the system; (2) Males and females evenly distributed among all schools and classes 30 minutes of prime time for a presentation by school within schools; (3) Children from below poverty-line fam- personnel regarding the reorganization plan. A tele- ilies evenly distributed, with a maximum variance of 10per- vision station in the neighboring town of Hershey also cent from the total; (4) For grades three through six, ex- gave 40 minutes to the tlistrict.for a documentary on tremes of an achievement scale were evenly distributed so the plan. All of these efforts, including direct mail that all schools had about the same percentage of children deficient in basic skills as of those most capable of pursuing approaches using Christmas cards, were thought by the independent study; (5) Residential locationwas considered school authorities to have impressed Harrisburg resi- in assigning schools so as to minimize busing. dents favorably. The superintendent, looking back, offeredsome ad- parents to transfer their children from public-to private vice to other school districts whichare implementing schools. desegregation plans: Such parents insist that they have made the transfer You can give all the credit you want toour board, to the to ensure their children a quality education andnot fine group of deputies thatwe have here, to the adrninistra- to avoid integration. They insist that the public schools and to a cooperating community, butany school distdct have been integrated for today that tries to operate with their many years and that the own public relations private schools are also integrated today. One couple, people and with the limited thinking that educatorshave is going to be shortchanged, whose son attended a Harrisburg school in thefirst year of the new plan but then was transferred to He declared that the $20,000 fee paidto the advertis- a parochial school, asserted that "they do ing agency was a "bargain" for the valuable assistance not provide it gave to school personnel quality education in the schools anymore." They added on how to communicate that the school their son had attended with the public. The consensus of school authorities prior to the reorganization had provided "quality" education was that the services of the public relations firm and were was 30 percent black. The father of the student instrumental in helping the school district ex- to explain plained his action in this way: its proposals effectively. You cannot attribute the1....orer quality to busing. At the Opposition school he had been attending in his neighborhoodhe was learning something. Then they bused him intoa neighborhood The immediate reaction to the planwas "85 to N where the level of education was seriously low.It has prob- percent negative", according to one school boardmem- ably been that way for years. We probably justrealized ber who voted to adopt the plan. As details of the it through the busing situation. We realized thatat that one school they were not teaching at the level of teaching at plan were explained to the community, however, the other schools. It is not busing that has causedthis. This majority of the people, while not enthusiastic,never- condition has probably been goingon for years, and we who theless began to accept it. Some families moved from have lived in the city foryears are just realizing that it the city to suburbs, others transferred their children had been going on for years. I don't feel bitter because I to nonpublic schools, and several others supported a am not running away from the problem. Because I have placedmy boy in parochial lawsuit to halt the plan's implementation. school does not necessarilymean that I am running away But the plan did not become a major issue in school from it because I feel he needsa chance. Maybe 5 or 10 years board or other local elections, nor has it becomec from now they might have something. Theydefinitely do since.There were no boycotts,protest meetings, not have it now. planned disruptions, nor was there violence associated The dimensions of the decliningwhite enrollment with the adoption of the plan, Rather, the 22.9 percent have in any case poseda serious enrollment disparity decrease in white student enrollment since 1969sug- for Harrisburg." gests that many parents opposed to the plan simply Slowing this white flight isnow seen as critical to decided to leave the district.® the future of the city. One board membersaid: "If the public schools can't stabilize the situationif CURRENT SITUATION at an early age we cannot work at human relations, trust, White Flighty and Parental Attitudes learning to live with each otherthenI see Harris- As noted, the white population of Harrisburg has burg becoming an all-black city witha larger ghetto been decreasing since the early 1950's when the flight area." Looking back over the 2-year transitionperiod, to the suburbs began in earnest. The black population another board member said he thought the majorityof has generally remained within the city of Harrisburg, parents have "fairly well accepted" the plan, although the center of the metropolitanarea. Several board some have reservations. He added: members told Commission staff that they believed It is still at the point where most peopleare ratherskepti- the busing program had accelerated the flight of fam- cal if they have an option of coming intoor going out of the city.... Whether or not you can say there are legitimate ilies who would otherwise have remained in thecity grounds for their fears, there is no denyingon my part that and that the reorganization may have promptedsome many of them are afraid because of some things.

See Table 3. '1' See Statistics in Table I. 26 One board member explained that some parents morning" and to ensure student safety in the schools feared possible extortion, fights among students, at- succeeded in calming many of the parents' fears. Many tacks on monitors by students, and increased tension of these monitors subsequently doubled as aides at the between parents and monitors because of the monitors' schools. alleged mistreatment of students. He said that one 10th The New Learning Center approach to discipli- grade girl had transferred to a nonpublic school be- nary problems has met with some measure of suc- cause she could not stand the harassment on the bus cess, according to the black deputy superintendent of "the pulling of hair, slurring remarks, bumping her, program planning and development. The expected and that sort of thing." He concluded: "There is that psychological services from local agencies were not kind of underlying fear that I sense and hear reports made available, however, which limited the program's about from many quarters, specifically white fears." effectiveness. School officials are now ironing out the One school principal, who lives in the suburbs, re- deficiencies in the program, and one administrator ported that people were moving to suburbs because reported that "as a result of this program, we have they wanted more room, a lawn, and the prestige that at least ended the practice of kicking kids out on the goes with the address. He conceded that many were streets." also reacting primarily to the racial tension they read Busing did result in some unexpected problems. about in the newspaper, but that "improvement of School officials, warned of expected misbehavior by the schools in the last 2 years is a factor now inducing black students on buses, found such problems were some people to stay," created mostly by whites. Social class differences also Many black parents and students initially hesitated caused some friction between black students from dif- to support the plan. Today, most black students ap- fen . sections of the city, -; problem which one school pear to dismiss the ineoevenience of walking further official seemed to feel caused more difficulty than any or riding a bus in light of the advantages of integra- other. tion. One black parent said she had no opinion on During the past 2 years, there have been no serious busing except that "when they [students] come out racially-motivated incidents in the city schools of Har- into the world, they all have to be mixed. You know risburg." there is no segregation in heaven or in hell." Concern about the declining proportion of white Student Perceptions students in the Harrisburg schools was expressed by Although Harrisburg residents interviewed by Com- several parents, administrators, and board members. mission staff agreed that the new school system has One parent predicted that "in another year the schools "brought people closer together", some white and will be 90 percent black in the city" and that a metro- black students criticized busing because of the incon- politan plan involving both suburban and city schools venience it caused them. Black students complained will be needed. Another parent suggested the desir- that the buses were often late. They were also unhappy ability of a metropolitanwide plan and noted: "If they about the schedule which required them to be at the can ship my kid from where he could walk two blocks bus stops at 6:30 a.m. to school all the way uptown [about 21/2 miles] they White students occasionally expressed concern over ought to be able to ship him across the river when the scuffling on buses. Two white girls told of a 10-year school there is only I mile from here. If the authorities old being "slapped around" by two black girls who are going to forcibly integrate one school district, then took her bus pass and of similar incidents which fright- every school district should be integrated." ened them. School officials are encouraged that enrollment for kindergarten, which is voluntary but desegregated, One black student reluctantly endorsed the plan: rose from 385 in 1968-1969, to 717 in 1969-70, to 968 "The only way to get quality schools is to ensure that in 197142, when it changed from majority black to the white kids are in the integrated schools, and for 50.5 percent white. that reason integration is necessary." She also- criticized the schools' emphasis on sports and added that she Disruptions, Violence, and Discipline "A disruption which resulted in several arrests, occurred The board's efforts to provide "each student with at an out-of-town football game, This incident, however, was supervisory authority on every bus as it rolled each not related to the school integration plan.

27 was glad there was little interracial mixing or dating. risburg could become the small, black "inner-city" of She felt that her school had "gone down" academically the larger metropolitan area. Furthermore,the devas- because scholastic requirements had been- lowered, tation caused by major floods in June 1972may also there was a shortage of books, studentswere skipping cause families to leave the city. classes, and "student freedom is generally curtailed." The plan achieved a school reorganizationwith Many students believe that if they must be bused, they sufficient safeguards to offer quality integratededuca- should be bused to suburban schools which they feel tion to all, but the declining total populationand the have "everything in abundance because all themoney declining proportion of white studentsmay make this is being concentrated in the suburbs." Some student achievement less possible to maintain.Many students, complaints revealed that fairly normal administrative parents, and school officials see the consolidation of or discipline problems may become related to school the city schools with the suburbanschools as the only desegregation even when such problemsmay not be solution to the financial problems.They claim that the particularly new. In any case, many students viewed entire metropolitan area is alreadyone unit which the school system negatively. Of the school officials, handles many regional problems.If outdated govern- parents of both races, teachers, and students inter- mental boundaries continue to blockefforts to solve viewed, the students had the least positive attitude. problems that clearly transcendboundaries, many observers worry that Harrisburg's school problemswill Conclusion remain largely unsolved despitethe determined ef- The Harrisburg Plan is an example of school de- forts of school personnel. segregation brought about by a State commission with Survey of .pupil population-trend legal authority to remedy racial imbalance in the by racial characteristics, 1930-70, Harrisburg City Schools, Harrisburg,Pa. schools. Litigation in the State capital servedas a precedent for legal action against the school systems in Year Total WhiteNegroOthersPercent Pittsburgh, McKeesport, Erie, and Philadelphia. pupils Negro The plan was well designed and effectively adminis- 1930 = 13, 69012, 047 1, 643 12 1940 tered. School officials, fully aware of student andpar- 12, 39510, 039 2, 356...... 19 1945 = 10, 353 8, 075 Z 278 ental fears about integration, acted to reduce suchcon- 22 1950 10, 551 7, 808 2, 743____.= - 26 cern by increasing security and by striving for quality 1955 11, 644 8, 151 3,493 ____ 30 1960 13.274 8, 496 4, 778 36 education throughout the system. Most uniquely, the 1962 13, 281 8, 235 5, 046______38 1964 school administrators effectively communicatedthe 13, 972 8, 165 3, 453.....-. 39 1965 13, 785 7, 741 5, 940 104 43 plan's positive aspects to the community. 1966 _ _ _.13, 497 7, 288 6, 140 69 1967... 45 Despite these strenuous efforts, several developments ....._13, 751 7, 118 6, 532 101 47.5 1968 _-13,313 6,7006,613 51 jeopardize success of the plan. White migrationfrom 1969____,= 13, 252 6, 095 7, 157 = = 54 1970-__, 12, 473 5,228 7, 245 58 the city to the suburbs is working against the integrated 1971 1._ ___..,12,047 4,699 7,348 61 school system by siphoning off whitestudents and higher-income families. Some residents fear that Enrollment Report Summary-Nov. 3, 1971-72 nd of Har- year tabulations incomplete.) June 15, 1972.

28 PUBLIC SCHOOL DESEGREGATION IN HOKE COUNTY, N.C.

Public School Desegregation in Hoke County_, North The presence of Ft. Bragg also provides employ- Carolina ment for Hoke County residents, and the county re- Hoke County is located in rural south central North ceives $45,000 in impact aid.' Carolina and covers an area of 326 square miles. Al- though it has been traditionally conservative in its History of School Desegregation Efforts voting habits, Hoke County, unlike North Carolina as Until 1964 the county operated a "triple" school a whole, gave a small majority of its votes to former system, with separate white, black, and Indian schools. Governor Terry Sanford rather than Alabama Gover- One school traditionally served all Indian children nor George Wallace in the May 1972 presidential in Hoke County from grades 1-12. Black students at- primary. tended four all-black schools and white students three In 1970 the county population was 16,436, an in- all-white schools. crease of only 0.5 percent over the 1960 population. During the 196465 school year, J. W. McLauchlin, Twenty-six percent of Hoke County families have in- previously an all-white elementary school, enrolled one comes below the poverty level, and a number of fami- black first grade student. As a further example of lies have multiple earners contributing to total family things to come in the wake of national pressure for income. The average per capita income is $1,663 school desegregation, several black students enrolled ($2,492 for the State), and the median family income the following year at the Indian school, and several is $6,844 ($7,774 for the State) .1 The school popula- Indian students enrolled at other schools. Nearly 30 black students began to attend three formerly white tion, grades 1-12, is 4,908, of which approximately 50 schools. percent are black, 35 percent are white, and 15 percent are Lumbee Indians. The average per pupil ex- Impact aid is Federal assistance given to local educational penditure for education is $607.39, as compared with agencies upon which the United States has placed extra fi- $473 for the State.2 Employment is foundchieflyin nancial burdens because (1) the revenues available to such agriculture, textiles (Burlington Industries' Worsted agencies from local sourcts have been reduced as the result of the acquisition of real property by the United States; or Plant is located in Raeford, the county seat) and in (2) such agencies provide education for children residing poultry processing. The labor force numbers 6,510 on Federal property; or (3) such agencies provide educa- with 6,010 employed and 500 unemployed (anunem- tion for children whose parents are employed on Federal ployment rate of 7.7 percent) .a property; or (4) there has been a sudden and substantial increase in school attendance as the result of Federal activities, (20 U.S.C. 236) Enacted Sept. 30, 1950, P.L. 874, 81st 1 As reported by John Coder, Statistician, Personal and Cong., Sec.1, 64 Stat. 1100; amended Apr. 11, 1966, P.L. Family Income Branch, U.S. Bureau of the Census. The 89-10, Title I, Sec. 2, 79 Stat. 27. Ft. Bragg has assisted Hoke figures are for 1970. In 1960 the per capita income was $1,705 County through its Domestic Action Program by initiating, and the median family income was $2,733. among other projects, the Hoke County Health Clinic, School As reported by Ron Smith, Public Instruction, State Board Health Project, Community Health Education, and Special of Education, Raleigh, N.C. Of Hoke County's per pupil out- Community Health Projects. Helping Hands! Domestic Ac- put, 10 percent comes from local, 19 percent from Federal, tion at Fort Bragg. The Green Berets have been especially and 71 percent from State funds. active in aiding medical and paramedical programs. John J. 'North Carolina Employment Security Commission (1970 Green, "A New 'Image for the Green Berets," The Sunday Data). News Magazine (Detroit, Michigan). Man 12, 1972, p. 17.

29 479-771 0-72----5 In the fall of 1967, approximately 50 blackstudents desegregation plan, which stated that its decision to enrolled in predominantly white schools undera free- desegregate completely was a voluntaryone, not re- dom-el-choice plan. At the same time, all schools quired by the courts or by Federal enforcementpro- maintained integrated staffs consistent withthe HEW ceedings under Title VI. The board had, however, guidelines, previously been warned by HEW that the existing Anticipating full desegregation, Hoke Countyin freedom-of-choice plan was not working and addi- 1966 obtained a grant of about $70,000 underTitle tional steps toward desegregationwere necessary. Don- IV of the Civil Rights Act of 1964to be shared with aid A. Abernethy, who became superintendentof the nearby St. Paul's City School District, `fora series of Hoke County Schools in 1967 when his predecessor died teacher workshops. About two-thirds ofthe partici- and who has been instrumental in helping HokeCoun- pants were drawn from Hoke County. ty implement desegregation, later noted in testimony The workshops dealt with such subjectsas the de- before the Senate Select Committeeon Equal Educe. segregation responsibilities of the schools andcom- don Opportunity in 1970; munities under the CiVil Rights Act of 1964 and the I understand that the local board of education had Elementary and Secondary Education Act; the been devel- warned by HEW during the summer of 1967 thata greater opment of a better understanding andappreciation degree of integration would be required by the fall of 1968. of the abilities of all students; better communication In fact, shortly after I became superintendent,I received a among races; understanding the value systems of stu- letter requesting that a plan for total desegregationbe sub - dents of different racial and ethnic backgrounds; mitted to HEW. solution of racial myths; ,:accepted procedures for Under the board's new desegregation plan,the coping with discipline problems; and the study ofnew county's three high schoolswere consolidated into one. teaching trends, Students from Hawkeye High and Upchurch(all- A 3-week series of workshops began during thesum- black) were moved to themore modern Hoke County iner of 1966 followed by five Saturday sessions in the High (formerly white). Another advantage of the fall. The program concluded witha full week of lec- latter school was that an additional school (originally tures and discussions in June 1967. About 100 teachers intended to be a junior high) had justbeen con- and other professional personnel tookpart in the work- structed across the street from it. shops. Board members also attendeda few of the ses- All students in grades 6-8 were to attend Upchurch, sions. All three ethnic groups were includedamong the a formerly all-black school that h. I served grades volunteer participants. Neitherparents nor students 1-12. Under the new desegregation plan,grades 6-8 was invited to take part. filled Upchurch, necessitating transfer of Upchurch Among the speakers at the workshopswere repre- students in grades 1-5 to the all-black Scurlock (grades sentatives of both the U.S. Office of Education and 1 and 2) and West Hoke (grades 3 and 4) schools,and the North Carolina State Department of PublicIn- to the all-while Raeford Elementary School (grade 5). struction, who explained the legal requirementsfor Since some Upchurch studentswere sent to Raeford school desegregation and the technical assistanceavail- Elementary, the fifth grade at the latter schoolwas able from the Federal and Stategovernments. Other partly desegregated in 1968. Speakers included various specialistson race relations In the fall of 1969, grades 1-4 and the remainder as well as officials from school districts which hadgone of grade 5 were completely integrated throughreor- through the experience of desegregation. ganization of the elementary schools and re-districting. Three attendance zones were establishedwestern, The Desegregation Process, 1968-1970 central, and eastern. Approximately thesame ratio In June 1968, the Hoke County School Boardan- of white to nonwhite studentswas established in the nounced its decision to eliminate all racially identifi- three 'zones as exists in the school population. The able schools through a combination of graderestruc- schools in the eastern and western areas could ade- turing and geographic zoning. Grades 6-12were to quately accommodate grades 1-5, In.order to achieve be desegregated in September 1968, andthe lower a successful desegregation pattern in the central area, grades in the fall of 1969. it was necessary to pair the schools so that gradeS K--1 The board sent a news release to the News Journal were housed in one building' in Raeford, grades 2 and (Raeford), the county newspaper, announcingthe 3 in a building a short distance away, and grades 4 and 5 in a former. Indian school, 6 miles south of editorial support from the News Journal. and a spirit Raeford. of cooperation from the general public with joint re, Following desegregation, seven schools were in op- sponsibility for the relatively peaceful transition. eration instead of nine. One of the two schools no He also noted, however, that "it Would be difficult longer operating became a part of Hoke County High to say how the community would feel if laws did not School, and the other was closed i,. accordance with exist that required integration, But I think it has been county plans,' generally accepted, and very few people today are really dissatisfied with it." Community Reactions tit Desegregation Several of those interviewed by Commission staff Despite the area's relative conservatism, no serious said that the community approached integration very disruptions occurred after the announcement of fur- cautiously and accepted it with resignation. According ther plans for desegregation. Mr. Abernethy observed: to one teacher: "The school board and the majority The 1968-69 plans were a drastic departure from the of the people saw integration as inevitable. I don't think traditional organization of the schools. Naturally, there were either race was real excited about it. We had it to do some complaints. .. Sane white parents felt that they and made up our minds to do it, Public education is could not bear to have their children attend the Upchurch here to stay: school. Almost every white parent worried about standards While the principal of Upchurch Middle School being lowered because of integration, worries we triedto alleviate with assurances that every child would have an observed that everyone was critical at first and afraid opportunity to progress as far as he could without being held thattotal integration would not work, he went on to back by slower students. Moreover, some white parents were say: "But, in general, it has been accepted. More than afraid that the nonwhite teachers would not be as capable as nine out of 10 would say the right thing was done." the white teachersa concern ultimately proven unnecessary. Another principal agreed that: "When total integra, The white parents were more direct in expressing their concern, but the Negro and Indian parents also had fears and tion came, about 97 percent of the people said 'here concerns. Some Negro groups called to wonder about Negro it is, and we're going to do the 'best we can with it.' " staff members keeping their positions. A black mother of three said that at first, "things Mr. Abernethy told Commission staff that, although didn't look too good, but there hasn't been any trouble." there was some apprehension, integration proceeded She firmly supported the new school system, stating smoothly on the whole largely because of the positive bituttly: approve." leadership of the school board. A black father reported that he was pleased from the very outset about the desegregation plan and thinks Once the decision was made, [the board] nevor reneged, even privately_ ,on its comminnent. Public confidence was the Hoke County plan is working better than similar displayed on May 2, [1970] when allfive members were plans in surrounding areas, although "I do sense 'a feel, renominated in the primary. A candidate for the board who ing of tension in the schools." had expressed sentiments that the board had moved too fast, Not all parents interviewed favored integration. A finished last in a field of nine candidates, I think it is signifi- white mother felt that 1968 was too early for integra- cant that the hoard stated in a public hearing that the decision to integrate the school was made, not because of pressure tion. "Many feelings have had to be smothered, es- from Washington, but because the board felt it was the right pecially by the whites who, are bending over backward thing for Our schools. to avoid trouble. I do not feel our children should The superintendent also credited the positive deter- have to feel afraid to walk down the balls. If there is too much contact, there will be intermarriage. I think mination of the principals, teachers, staff, and students, neighborhood schools are the answer. Freedom of -The racial composition by enrollment of each schoolas choice is Americanism." of October 1971 follows: An Indian mother of two said she liked the system better before integration. "I just don't like it this way with the races mixed. My children are always getting Hoke County High _- 755 525 153 beat on by bigger colored kids, but I'm not saying it's Upchurch - 752 449 193 South Hoke .. 204 156 96 just them doing it. I think they should 'have left every- Raeford Elementary 228 139 -95 body at their own schools." She added that she resented J. W. McLauehlin 142 72 70 West Hoke_ 231 121 52 her son 'having to spend so much time on the school Scurlock Elementary 220 211 37 bus.

31 White Flight sample of Indian students showed no significant dif- White flight has not been a significant problem in ference; the desegregation of Hoke County schools. An effort (c) The race of the teacher mac., no signific was made to establish a private school in the county, difference; but the project was abandoned due to lack of enroll- (d) White and Indian students experienced noneg- ment, Along with general community acceptance, ative effects in achievement from integration. whether affirmatively or resignedly, of the county's This study, covering the first year of integration integration plan, relatively high private school feesmay for sixth through 12th grade students, offeredsome also have accounted for the shortage of students at encouragement for overall academic achievement and the private school. prospects for future performance, although school offi- A private school was opened in 1969 in adjacent cials concede that such early assessment is not conclu- Robeson County where serious racial problems had sive and that additional evaluation is necessary. been reported in that county's public schools. Some School Personnel Hoke County students (reports suggested anywhere from nine to 50) enrolled in the new school. Prior to desegregation one Indian and four black According to HEW statistics, in 1971 therewere principals served in the school system. Subsequently, 1,674 white students attending Hoke County schools, one Indian and one black remained as principals. One 48 less than were enrolled in 1969. Specific informa- black principal retired, one becamean assistant super- tion was not available to explain the decline in white intendent for curriculum and supervision, and the attendance. School authorities feel that several file- other resigned to pursue doctoral studies. The remain- tors, such as the steady dropout rate, population de- ing Indian principal is currently on leave completing his doctorate. cline, and/or negative reactions to integration prob- Among the teaching personnel, 46 percent ably account for the slight drop in enrollment. are black, 40 percent white, and 14 percent Indian." Approxi- Effects of Integration mately the same racial ratio that exists in thecounty population and in the student population is mainteined The board of education considered the matter of for the faculty in each school. The superintendent said the academic benefits of integration, in view of the that when the system integrated, all faculty members disparate achievement levels of students in the indi- were assigned to schools to follow their students. He ex- vidual schools. In 1968 two consultants from Duke plained: "I don't mean teacherswere assigned to black University were engaged to evaluate student progress students when they got to the schools, but theywere in grades 6 through 12 during the first year of inte- kept on the faculties and went to that particular gration at that level. Funds from an Elementary and school." Secondary Education Act Title V giant financed the Following integration in 1968-69, all but nine teach- study. The California Achievement Testwas acinlin- ers remained in the system. Of these nine, two [one In- istered to all students in October 1968 andwas read- dian and one white] accepted positions in other North ministered (along with the California Test of Mental Carolina school systems, two left for maternity leave, Maturity) at the -close of the spring semester of that two [both black] returned to school, one black isno school year. longer teaching, and the whereabouts oftwo black The study [Academic Performance and School In- teachers are unknown to the school board. tegration: A Multi-Ethnic Analysis] found: At Hoke County High School the principal and both assistant principals are white. An Indian heads the (a) The white pupils averaged aboutone grade guidance department, and blacks head level higher than the Indian and black pupilsat the the depart- sixth grade. The range of difference gradually in- ments of social studies, physical .education and vocational training. creased to approximately two grade levels difference at the 12th grade with the Indians slightly higher The principal of Scurlock Elementary School ob- than the black pup_ ils served that racially insensitive teachers have beena (b) The black students performed better after in- Before integration 49 percent were black, 38 percent tegration than they did before integration. The small were white, and 13 percent were Indian. 32 major problem, but "they are transferred if they can- 69 plan said :'They accepted me from the first day not make the adjustment. The faculty has improved, of the first grade. I have friends pretty much half a.id and these persons who want to grow have been able half and a few Indians." to do so." Among students, Indians seem to participate least The teachers interviewed by the Commission staff in activities. Several administrators and teachers ex- generally felt that teachers are treated fairly and that pressed concern about the limited participation of In- in turn they treat students fairly. One black teacher dian students but suggested that their failure to join disagreed and told the Commission: activities might be caused by farm work responsibilities Teachers don't care about predominantly black classes. at home. One teacher, noting a high absentee rate They 'coke, joke, and smoke' away the day, try to teach among Indian students, commented that "90 percent the students as though they have come from the same back- of Indian absenteeism is because of work at home. ground as the teacher, then cannot understand why their Others suggested that timidity and insecurity caused approach fails, Black teachers generally arc given the slower classes, one or two have advanced classes. Black teachers by their minority station in the schools played a role. work harder and are afraid to speak out against wrongs they Prior to the recent senior pram and senior weekend see and experience for fear of losing their jobs. Next year festivities, a question was raised over the type of band there will be a one-year probation period followed by ten- to be secured. The issue was resolved by hiring a band ure which should provide better job security. that played both "soul" and "square" music. This year at Hoke County High School the black Student Reactions and white students put on a skit involving the merging Students almost immediately were concerned with of the KKK and the Black Panthers. The principal fair representation of all races in school organizations. reported that the performance was well received and This proved to be no problem. Following integration, illustrated the absence of racial tension in the school. each race was represented in every school-sponsored One enthusiastic black first-grader told the'Commis- organization, including majorettes, cheerleaders, Beta sion: "I like school because I make 100s on all my Club [honor club], chorus, band, class officers, student papers!" The reaction of black and white kindergar- council and pep club. In 1969 the Homecoming Queen ten and first graders to whom Commission staff talked was a black girl and the 1970-71 student body presi- was generally characterized by the phrase "I love dent was black. The Kiwanis Club-sponsored Key Club school." was all-white during the first year of integration but has become integrated. The basketball team is also Transportation integrated. During the Commission staff visit in May The 54 buses of Hoke County now operate 15 min- 1972, staff members observed tryouts for the Junior utes less per day following complete desegregation. Be- Varsity Cheer leading team which took place in front fore 196869 three buses traveled the same routes. One of the entire high school with the students acting as bus transported whites; one blacks; and one Indians. judges. Both blacks and whites competed, although a Approximately 3,648 students were bused in the preponderance of those trying out were blacks. (Results of the student vote for each cheerleader's position were 196849 school year. Since total integration, 4,228 not available to Commission staff in the course of its are transported yearly, an increase of 580 according to visit.) Joe D. Soles, Transportation Officer in Hoke County. Almost all of the students interviewed felt that inte- Since busing has reportedly not been a problem in the gration is working. As one Indian student put it"Inte- county, precise statistics have not been maintained al- gration is working because students are getting along though some students travel a greater distance than and participating in other school activities. It's good they did previously. Some, for example, are bused 6 to attend integrated schools because you know more miles from the city of Raeford to South Hoke Elemen- people and learn more from different races." tary School. Many students reported that they have friends of One school official reported that the incidents of dis- other races and that, although some voluntary sepa- ruption and vandalism were "mild" before integra- ratism appears in the cafeterias and on the playground, tiol,, and since integration are still "mild." A few there are also many integrated groups. The first black bloken windows and a few fights have made up the student to attend an integrated school under the 1968 problems, none usually racial in nature. During deseg-

33 regation the cost of transportation has increasedfrom black student who struck a white student after $22.50 to $29.29 per student but, accordingto Mr. provocation. Abernethy, this increase has nothingto do with inte- The principal of Raeford Elementary School said gration. He noted that: "Earlierwe were paying our there have been some fights but he added: "Fights do bus drivers $30 a month. Now theymust be paid the not occur because of race. Even in the first year of in- minimum wage which raisesour expenses. If this fac- tegration, fights were rarely racial." tor were removed, we would be paying less fortrans- The principal of Scurlock Elementary Schoolre. portation since integration." ported that very few racial incidents have occurred, None of the students interviewed by Commission but added: "Some black students in the fifth grade staff had strong feelings about busing, althoughone told some white students they hadno right to be in the felt that "you should not bus out ofyour district or school because it belonged to all the black students. The neighborhood-because of color. Ifyou want to stay in blacks were initially upset at losing the school butnow your own neighborhood and attend the school, that's have accepted the white students." your privilege." A teacher at McLauchlin Elementary Schooltom- Several parents expressed concernover busing. An planied that defiant black and Indian studentsgive Indian mother said that shewas not in favor of hav- white and Indian teachers a hard time, and that de- ing to bus her daughter 6 miles to school when there fiant white and Indian students give black teachers a was another school almost at their front door. She hard time. "It is a racial thing," he observed. said that this was her only complaint about integration, and she went on to note that: "My daughter is Integration Within the Classroom doing better now than before." A white mother told Commission staff:"I have In most schools, classroom grouping is leftup to never known of an ideal bus situation. Misbehavior teachers although the general policy of the school abounds. I would not let my child ridea bus to school. system is that there should be no ability grouping. My children only ride for sports activities when there Because blacks are the majority group, they often are parents to chaperone." make up the largest segment of the classes. At Up- church, for example, four or five classes School officials plan to inaugurate are 90=95 a dual system percent black. None, however, of busing in the 1972-73 school isoverwhelmingly year which will be white. Mr. Abernathy said that the preponderance of dual in the sense that elementary and secondary stu- blacks is "not by design" and thatan effort is made dents will be bused separately. They jested to the staff: to have a comparable number of students byrace and "Thought it was segregated busing, didn't you?" sex; When asked how Indians tend to be grouped, the superintendent explained: "They fall bothways, Disruptions and Discipline if there is a way." Indian students tend to maintain friendships with both blacks and whites, he said "fall- There have been no major racial disruptions in ing both ways again." Hoke County schools since integrOon. Some quarrels The principal at Scurlock reported that therewas and fights have occurred but they rarely relate to racial no ability grouping there, while a teacher at Raeford problems. Elementary said that grouping at that school is not The principal of Hoke County High School isa dis- racial but based solely on ability. An Upchurch admin. ciplinarian who enforces a dress and hair codeas a istrator observed: "We've found that parents like it means of maintaining authority. When he finds two better if they know there is ability grouping." A teacher students of the same race fighting he suspends them for at Hoke County High School reported that slow 2 weeks; but if they are of differentraces, they are ex- students are grouped by class with white students pre- pelled for the rest of the year. This kind of policy, dominating in the higher mathematics and geometry regarding hair and dress codes and discipline, receives courses. strong, unwavering parental support. Raeford Elementary administrators, unhappy with This principal also states that there is little racial the grouping policy utilized for the 197142 school tension at the school although there have beensome year, plan to move to self-contained and ungrouped racial incidents of which the most recent involveda classes for the 197243 school year. 34 Superintendent and School Boarr! joyed substituting and that the public schoo. d been her "life's blood" for 8 years. She complained that the Mr. Abernethy became superintendent in 1967 fol- board had shown "sheer prejudice," in that "unquali- lowing the death of his predecessor. Together he and fied" people were asked to substitute while she had the board have maintained a position of firm resolve been denied her right to pursue a profession she loved. that "it [school desegregation] shall be donedone She also felt that the board's position has been incon- well." Many individuals interviewed by Commission sistent for she is still permitted to participate in a vol. staff reported that the leadership exercised by these six untary reading program 1 hour a week in an elemen- men has been the key to smooth and peaceful school tary school. When questioned about the board's re- desegregation in Hoke County. At a, public meeting sponse to her complaints, she said the reply had been: held at the time of consolidation and desegregation, "We can't keep you from volunteering." Despite this the board stated its position that desegregation would conflict with the board, one of her three children is be undertaken and completed "because it is right for enrolled in the public schools and rides to school with the school system." An assistant superintendent, re- a board member's child. flecting back, commented that "they took a very posi- In the eyes of many, the board's stand lends uncom- tive stand." Mr. Abernethy added : "We were unequiv- promising and unequivocal support to an integrated ocal in supporting the desegregation of schools. The public school system. One white parent, supporting mistake made by some school leaders is that they de- this position, insisted that "private schools are not the cided to delay, oppose, and sabotage with predictable answer." resultstrouble. It is hard to turn prai)le affisr Hoke County' School Board is elected every 2 years. attitudes have hardened, and that is what many have The current board was re-elected in 1970 and renom- had to do." inated in a primary on May 6, 1972. The chairman has The present school board is composed of a doctor, been on the board for 20 years. One school adminis- an insurance salesman, a pharmacist, and two farmers, trator, however, commented in retrospect that it was one of whom is chairman of the board. All five are col- "a good thing no election immediately followed the an- lege graduates. They and the superintendent have 24 nouncement that desegregation would be undertaken. of ;heir own children in the Hoke County schools. Nobody would have been re-elected." The presence of their children in the public school Replying to a query regarding the lack of black and system suggests the strength of their parents' convic- Indian representation on the board, an assistant super- tions. The board has adopted a policy requiring that intendent said: "In this county, the nonwhite vote is all public school teachers, administrators, and substi- the swing vote. Nonwhites seem reasonably satisfied tute teachers must send their children to public schools. with what goes on in Hoke County schools. They voted One board member stated: "We assumed that the ones solidly for all five members. There were no issues, and who sent their children to private schools were against people didn't criticize the current board," desegregation. It was not fair to our students to employ One board member remarked that busing is "noth- people who sent their children to private schools. It is ing new" locally and creates no problems. He said he our feeling that the only reason they sent them there feels that "home life" is the source of most problems was to escape desegregation. All of us were against confronting integrated schools. anyone working for the schools who was doing this Another board member appeared enthusiastic about kind of thing." In the board's view, this would sinasunt the "success" of the desegregation plan in Hoke County to an indirect subsidy of the private schools. and maintained that he "wouldn't change the school This position resulted in a decision involving a white system now for anything." Most parents now approve mother who had been a substitute teacher for 8 years, of the desegregation plan, in his view mostly because but who in 197142 enrolled a child in a private school the board has always been "positive" on the issue. attended by only one black student. Although she had The chairman of the board credited successful in- another child in public school and still another one tegration to the fairness of school authorities"Many who had attended public school for 11 years (but who boards think they are fair, but they are not"and to chose to spend the last year in a military school), the strong discipline in the county schools. woman was not asked to substitute during the 1971- An Indian staff member commented lightheartedly: 72 school year. She said that she had thoroughly en- "We don't know why it's [integration] working here,

35 and if we did,we wouldn't11 you We'd sell it and make a million." desegregation was desirable. Manypersons interviewed regarded the efforts of thesuperintendent and the The real answer to the questionmay not be so dif- board as clear evidence of theirconsistent and con- ficult to find. Commissionstaff was informed That when scientious support for qualityintegrated education and the board asked Mr.Abernethy to serve as superin- this supportseems to have been the key to the smooth tendent, its memberswere aware that he felt that school desegregation of Hoke County'sschools.

36 PUBLIC SCHOOL DESEGREGATION IN JEFFERSON -TOWNSHIP, OHIO The Jefferson Township School District has never tion plan involving the city of Dayton, a civil war been under a court order to desegregate nor does it would surely follow." operate under a voluntary desegregation plan. As a There are five schools in the Jefferson Township majority black system in which the percentage of white School System, with a total of 2,711 students in the students is increasing, the Jefferson system is unique 1971-72 school year. Schools in the district include: among school districts studied by the Commission. Blairwood (grades K-2) ;Radcliff Heights (grades The Jefferson Township School District is a sub- 3-4) ;Jefferson Elementary (grades 5-6) ;Jefferson urban-rural community which lies adjacent to the Junior High (grades 7-9) ; and Jefferson Senior High

southwe_tern boundary of Dayton, Ohio. Fanning is (grades 10-12). the chief occupation. There are no major industries. Sixty-five percent of all students are black, a de The two principal population clusters are the Drexel crease of 61/2 percent from the previous year. School and New Chicago-Blairwood areas, both of which are officials state that black students comprised only 10 located in the northeastern section of the district. percent of the er7.ollment 10 years ago, but by 1966 Drexel is populated chiefly by lower-income white this percentage had increased to between 40 and 50 residents from Appalachia, most of whom are fairly percent of the school population. recent arrivals to the area. The new Chicago-Blair- One principal noted that as blacks moved into the wood area is inhabited primarily by middle class blacks Township, many middle class whites who had served who hold white-collar jobs in Dayton. This latter com- as pillars of the schools left, which resulted in a pre- munity began as a housing devolpment approximately dictable loss of financial and participatory support to 15 years ago. The price range for houses is $20,000 to the district. $35,000. The first black professional personnel were hired by Jefferson Township, at one time, was the one sub- the school system around 1960. Today blacks constitute urban area where housing was available to blacks who roughly 50 percent of the instructional staff. As the sought to leave Dayton. In addition to moderate-in- predominantly white townships adjacent to Jefferson come black residents, a few of the Dayton area's most recruit few black teachers, the township has had little affluent blacks now occupy $60,000$100,000 homes competition in hiring black faculty. in Jefferson Township. As a result of recentprogress By 1968, Jefferson had become a majority black in the area of open housing, minoritypersons are inschool district. When the school superintendent re- creasingly able to find housing in other communities to signed that year, the school board selected a black to the north and east of Dayton, and the number of fill the vacancy. The present school board chairman blacks moving to Jefferson Township is declining. observed that: "With a majority black student popula- Jefferson Township is surroundedon the northern, tion and a black superintendent, Jefferson Township's western, and southern sides by either all-white or pre- schools were commonly identified as a black system dominantly white townships. Some teachers in the within the total metropolitan area." Jefferson Township School System who have taught As a result, the Jefferson School System has received school in adjacent districts feel that these communities much attention from the media. Several teachers and harbor a good deal of racial prejudice, particularly in administrators have expressed concern at the nature the matter of school desegregation. One teacher who of the media coverage which the Jefferson schools re. had taught in a nearby township commented that: "If ceive. One assistant principal stated that "the high that township was ordered to implementa desegrega- school's championship football and basketball teams

37 470771 receive good, coverage, but incidents whichreflect ership. One housewife summedup the feelings of a poorly on the school are often blownout of propor- number of Blairwood residents: "My husband and I tion." attended school consolidation meetings and supported the superintendent, althoughwe would have preferred School Consolidation to send our youngest child to a school [Blairwood} closer to home." During the 1969-70 school year, the superintendent Despite a past record of opposition publicly proposed a school consolidationprogram in to school bond the interests of improved efficiency. He explained that issues, including the bond issue providing for thecon- better use could be made of faculty, facilities, and struction of Radcliff Heights Elementary School,many white Drexel residents had equipment if his consolidation planwere adopted. The come to consider Radcliff Heights, once built, to be "their" school. 1\I plan called for reorganizing the K-6 gradestructure in ny, there- the three elementary schools to provide the following fore, objected strenuously to the consolidation plan. changes; The opening paragraph ofa petition dated Febru- ary 14, 1970, and signed by approximately 400 residents Blairwood ; Prekindergarten, Kindergarten, Grades 1-2. in the Drexel area, summarized the views ofthese parents: Radcliff Heights; Grades 3 -4. "It is the feeling of the parents and Jefferson Elementary; Grades 5-6. tax-payers of our district that we would sooner see our schools closed Opposition to Consolidation if we cannot have a say in theway our schools are run. We want to retain the tradition of the neighbor The consolidation proposal quickly ran into a stormhood schools." of controversy. Several school authorities interviewed The petition went on to state that: "We will, when by Commission staff insisted thatmany arguments the next school tax levy is placed on the ballot, do against the plan were Clearly based less on the issue of everything we can to see that it is defeated," consolidation per se than on opposition to the by- Some teachers also had misgivings regarding the product of the proposed consolidation: school desegre- consolidation plan. A Radcliff Heights teacher stated gation and theconcomitantdissolutionofthe that she had doubts regarding the viability of consoli- neighborhood school concept. dation: "I felt that the plan would disrupta smoothly To these school leaders, public reaction in. Jefferson working school system." Nevertheless, teachers who Township was heightened by what they called the had doubts tended to support the superintendent. national"hysteria"thenoccurringoverbusing. Although the rationale for consolidationwas more effi- Adoption of the Consolidation Plan cient use of available resources, most of those who op- Despite such misgivings, the consolidation planwas posed the plan did so on the grounds that itwas a approved by the school board and implemented at the thinly-concealed integration scheme. But,as one teacher painted out, if integration had been the sole beginning of the 1970-71 school year.' Members of objective of reorganizing the elementary schools, it the school board said they have received few complaints could have been accomplished by redrawing the school since the implementation. All teachers and administra- zones. According to one school administrator, there tors interviewed by Commission staff felt that consoli- would have been no basis for controversy if the Blair- . a In May 1972, the Drexelvoters, in alliance with dissat- wood and Radcliff Heights Schools had beencon- isfied taxpayers elsewhere, succeeded in their pledge to defeat structed on South Union Road which bisectsthe the operating levy, although the levy had nothing to do with county where the other three schools are located. Suf- school consolidation. The defeat was by an overwhelming ficient land was available to permit sucha plan. margin. The black resin nts of the Blairwoodarea reportedly s The racial composition of the board of education at the took much pride in "their" elementary school,and time of consolidation approval was one black and four whites. the school was conveniently located in the immediate Currently, there are four blacks and one white on the board. neighborhood. Although most Blairwooclresidents The board chairman is a retired Air Force colonel who owns preferred to maintain the existing a tool and die plant. Three other members are employees of system, they, never- the U.S. Government, and the single white board member theless, reluctantly followed the superintendent'slead- owns a plumbing company. dation had accomplished its educational purpose. One As in so many areas of the section, the burden of board member noted that a family that had most stren- supporting the school system in Jefferson Township uously opposed consolidation was now among its falls squarely on the shoulders of homeowners via the strongest supporters. A white teacher at Blairwood. property tax. The property tax rate for operation of said: "I did not accept the plan [consolidation] be- schools is currently 30.1 mills or $30.10 per $1,000 of cause I could not imagine these young children chang- assessed value. Jefferson Township residents pay an ing classes. After experiencing the reorganization, I'm average of $241 a year in support of school operations. very impressed. The system has worked out and the School appropriations for the 1971 calendar year parents are very pleased." amounted to $2,021,800.59. Of this amount, $75,- Consolidation also achieved integration in all .:he 576.10 came from Federal sources. The superintend- elementary schools, dispersing black and white stu- ent statedthatadditional funds are desperately dents to the three former elementary schools in num- needed for building repairs and increasing teachers' bers comparable to the ratio of blacks and whites in salaries. the school district. In an effort to secure support for the school operating levy, the superintendent and school board mem- Transportation bers canvassed the community in May 1972 and distributed financial fact sheets. They noted that Jef- ApproxLmately 2,500 ofe son's 2,711 total stu- ferson Township spent $625 per pupil in the 1971-72 dents are now transported by school buses. Prior to school year, while the Dayton School System spent consolidation, some 2,000 students were bused. Ac- approximately $1,000 per pupil in the same school cording to the district's assistant superintendent, the year. slightly increased costs for transportation resulting from There appear to be several reasons for the lack of consolidation have been more than offset by savings support for education in Jefferson. The most obvious accomplished through released classrooms and fewer is the high property tax rate due to the lack of busi- equipment and furniture outlays. Transportation costs ness and industry in the township. now average $28.53 per pupil pev school year. Although Increasing numbers of Jefferson residents derive no no additional purchases were necessary, the school direct benefit from public education. Elderly persons board retained one bus which was to have been sold. on fixed incomes or residents whose children have The distance and time of the 'average bus ride are completed their schooling have no further need for 8 miles and 25 minutes respectively although some dis- public education and may well resent paying more tances and times may be as long as 12 niles and 45 taxes to support it. minutes. A new bus routing system was developed by Some residents expressed their disapproval of "per- the transportation officer. Few parents interviewed by missiveness" in the school, particularly in the junior Commission staff expressed strong concern over any and senior high schools. Several school officials and inconvenience caused by the consolidated transporta- parents complained that the public seemed to believe tion schedule. Many students indicated a preference that the State and/or Federal governments would pro- for riding the bus to walking to school. One child re- vide whatever additional funds may be necessary to marked: "It's fun to ride the bus." continue operation of the public schools. The assistant superintendent noted that incidents A problem clearly deriving from lack of funds is of misbehavior on the buses have been very few. None the township's difficulty in retaining competent teach- of the 10 fights reported in the 1971-72 school year ers. The Jefferson School System pays a beginning between students on integrated buses was identified teacher who has a B.A. degree, $6,700.a After years of as racially motivated. experience, that teacher's pay can rise no higher than $10,264 without additional education certification. FinancialProblems of Jefferson Township The range for a teacher with a master's degree is The exodus of the white middle class, which an 10 to 12 years ago as blacks started to arrive in con- This figure is among the lowest for beginning salaries in the school systems of the Dayton Metropolitan Area. Only siderable numbers, has created financial difficulties for three of the 16 systems in the area pay less to a beginning the township's schools by depriving them of support teacher who has a B.A. degree. Statistics were provided by and constricting the already narrow tax base. the Research Department, Ohio Education Association.

39 $7,336 to $11,848. Several school administrators re- do not come from impoverished backgrounds and can- ported that the system was losing desirable teachers not be classified as disadvantaged. simply because of its inability to offer a more competi- To meet this problem, the school board is revising tive salary schedule. the cu_ rriculum to make it more "relevant" to stu- Along with the question of teacher competency, dents, especially with regard to their post-graduate however, goes the problem of low morale when salaries plans. It is hoped that such new courses as Modern are low. Several teachers, black and white, commented Jazz Workshop, Fix-It-Skills, Salesmanship, Black and that some of their colleagues arrive late for class, leave White Drama, Black Authors, Physical Science, Ecol- early, and take no. books home in preparation for the ogy, and Environment- will help create greater in- following school day. Most of these complaints were terest in learning in some students. voiced by younger teachers, who said that the guilty Student rr,:sbehavior is a second subject of concern teachers were both young and old, male and female, to school persennel and some parents. Few, if any, in- white and black. cidents appear to be racially motivated. The most In any case, the township's financial problems serious offenses, according to several school officials, threaten the efforts of the superintendent and the include lighting fires in wastepaper baskets, loiter- board to provide quality, integrated education for all ing, and excessive tardiness. One member of the Jeffer- students. son administrative team conceded that: "Many parents are dissatisfied with what they view as permissive- Integration Within the Schools ness in the junior and senior high schools." A high Race relations among the elementary children are school teacher reported, however, that the Jefferson very cordial. According to the principal at Blairwood, students she had encountered were very well man- there has never been any friction at the K-2 level. A nered and cooperative, especially in comparison to fifth-grade teacher at Jefferson Elementary said that: students in a nearby school system where she had pre- "The student. at Jefferson seem very cooperative and viously taught. willingtolisten."Another Jefferson Elementary School officials credit the principal and the assistant teacher indicated that black and white students min- principal for the "vast" improvement in the educa- gled easily at his school. He observed that racialsepara tional climate at Jefferson Junior High School. In tion seemed to begin in the junior high schoolyears. order to alleviate problems which seem to result from A number of teachers viewed the reorganization excessive free time, study hall periods at the school will involved in consolidation as beneficial to relations be abolished in the coming school year and students

among children. A Blairwood teacher stated that: will be urged to take elective courses in their place. "Second graders are [now] the 'big' childrenat the A number of teachers and several administrators school, and the kindergarten and first gradersare ex- were disturbed by the general lack of participation of posed to them as big children.' Jefferson school offi- white students in high school activities. It was sug- cials expressed hope that by progressing through the gested that "many white students feel themselves out- school system together, black and white children will numbered and therefore tend to withdraw." A black escape the self-imposed racial separation which exists teacher who graduated from Jefferson in 1964 recalled to some extent in the high schools. that his black classmates also had withdrawn and de- Most disciplinary problems involving students,according to administrators and teachers, appeared in clined to participate in extracurricular activities other the junior and senior high schools. These problems than sports when they were in the minority 8 years ago. seemed to involve lack of motivation, misbehavior, One high school administrator said that most of the perhaps resulting from excessive free-time, and/or white students who participate in school activitiescome voluntary racial separation. from families who have lived in the community for Some school authorities, including the superintend- some time. These students receive many of the academic ent, are concerned by what they see in local schoolsas laurels awarded each year. He added that the children a "lack of hunger for learning." They fear that too of the one white school board member continue to many students are "shortchanging" their futures by participate in school activities. White students new to not properly preparing themselves for class. This is Jefferson Township tend to have greater difficulty ad- especially true, they feel, of many black students who justing to the majority black situation in his view. 40 These students are most often involved in those few developing skills that will make graduates employable.5 interracial incidents which have provoked negative He has encouraged graduates who attend college, in- comments about the school system. Although some of dustrial institutes, and who secure employment to re- them leave Jefferson for majority white school dis- turn and appraise their experiences at Jefferson in tricts, many other whites, some from Appalachia,con- light of their, various situations. Through these efforts, tinue to arrive to replace them. school officials learned that the high school has a For various reasons, black and white students some- mathematics program which enables a number of col- times prefer voluntary separatism in the cafeteriaor lege students to be exempted from freshman mathe- certain clubs. One high school principal said: "Despite matics. On the other hand, returning_ students haverer this isolation, there is a personal camaraderie that al- ported weaknesses in language arts, so a decision was lows for not only peaceful co-existence, but for good- made to put extra emphasis on this part of the aca- natured kidding." demic program. In the area of curriculum and guidance, other Successful and Encouraging Patterns thoughtful innovations have been introduced. Although The fact that s© Many administrators, teachers, and Ohio State law does not mandate kindergarten attend- parents singled out financial strain as Jefferson's major ance, parents in Jefferson Township are encouraged problem indicates that racial matters appear largely to send their 4 and 5-year olds to the prekindergarten resolved. Black and white administrative teams, both and kindergarten programs at Blairwoocl School where on the superintendent's staff and in the schools them- they are introduced to a beginning reading program. selves, reportedly worked well together to resolve prob- From that program, the children move to formal read- lems and improve the quality of education. ing. Approximately 80 percent of the eligible children At the beginning of the 1971-72 schoolyear, the superintendent developed a number of educational attend kindergarten and are transported one way. In goals and objectives for his office.4 1972-73. two-way transportation will be provided in Each of these has now been developed and partly an effort to ensure 100 percent enrollment, since chil- implemented. The development of such goals suggests, dren who have not had these early experiences tend according to many people interviewed by Commission to lag behind, beginning with the first grade. staff, that Jefferson TOwnship's school leadership At the third and fourth grade levels, students who knows where it stands and what its problemsare and have no reading disabilities are encouraged to reada has a "game plan" for overcoming its problems. wide range of materials for the purpose of gaining School officials are enthusiastic about other innova- knowledge and cultivating interests rather than striv- tions such as a new systemwide requirement that each ing for higher achievement. The township board has teacher write four or five goals or objectives which moved from a policy of evaluating student achieve- he or she will attempt to achieve in a given schoolyear. ment by groups to one of developing a profile of each In turn, a portion of the teacher's evaluation is based student's strengths and weaknesses. on the extent to which these goals were achieved. In an effort to encourage participation and interac- The superintendent has sought the -advice of man- tion of parents in the community, particularly across power officers in private industry for the purpose of racial lines,' the administration planned a series of Par- ents' Seminars during the summer months of 1972. ''Goals and Objectives of the Superintendent" Jefferson Township Local School District, Sept. 1, 1991. Parents were asked to help develop mechanisms for 1. Develop and evaluate job descriptions for all adminis- dealing with a number of school problems including trators, counselors, and clerical personnel ; racial frictions. Such determined and imaginative efr 2. Develop and implement guidelines on adult and student forts to provide the highest possible quality of inte- responsibilities relative to student achievement and welfare; 3, Develop guidelines on coping with student discipline and grated education system reportedly persuaded at least due process; 4. Improve the procedure of channeling and reporting to The superintendent said that the high school strives for principals on request for educational equipment, materials 100 percent job placement of graduates. From the graduating and supplies. class of 1971, 51 percent of the students enrolled in college, 5. Develop and implement guidelines and tools for coopera- 27 percent went to technical or trade schools, 35 percent tive appraisal of teaching performance. found employment, and 9 percent joined the Armed Forces.

41 one white couple who recently weighed thepros and any hour, in any emergency, particularly if the diffi- cons of moving to Jefferson Township to decide that culties involve law enforcement. such a move may positively benefit their childrenaca- The administration has respondedto the call for demically while simultaneously enabling themto un- student rights by sponsoring a student jury. Its effec- derstand and accept children of otherraces. tiveness to date has been difficult tomeasure because The racial clnate within Jefierson Township's all racial and socioeconomic groups havenot willingly schools is reportedly much better than that found ina participated. number of high schools in the Dayton Metropolitan In the 1971-72 school year, school officials discov- Area. A healthy respect for the local black sheriffap- ered that some students were registering in Jefferson parently serves as a restraining influenceon some of the Township although they continued to live in the city less inhibited students from Jefferson Township as well of Dayton, and others were requesting admissionon as mischief-making youths from other communities. a tuition basis. The Jefferson administration then A casual and warm relationshipappears to exist be- adopted a policy requiring that the Montgomery tween the superintendent, Hemian L. Brown, and stu- County attendance office verify the addresses of all dents of all ages and races in the township who know newly arriving students. Because of the shortage of him by name and chat easily with him. Mr. Brown classroom space, the system has refused toaccept non- has demonstrated that he is available toany student, at residents on a tuition basis.

42 PUBLIC SCHOOL DESEGREGATION IN LEON COUNTY, TALLAHASSEE, FLA.

Demographic Facts History of School Desegregation in Leon County Leon County, extending over 670 square miles in On November 17, 1961 a group of black parents north Florida, has increased in population from 74,000 petitioned the Leon County School Board to adopt a in 1960 to 103,000 in 1970, a gain of 29,000 or 39 per- plan that would begin to desegregate the public cent. The black population, 24,282 in 1960, increased to schools. When no such plan was forthcoming, the pan 26,021 by 1970, a gain of more than 7 percent. During ents instituted a civil law suit. (Steele et al. v. Board this same period there was a 61.6 percent population of Public Instruction of Leon County, Florida.)' On increase in urban areas and a 3.3 percent population February 28, 1963, the court ruled that the county was decrease in the rural sections of the county.' operating a dual school system in violation of the 14th Tallahassee, the county seat and capital of Florida, amendment. and its environs constitute the smallest metropolitan A new plan, proposed by the school board in April area in population in.the State. The rapid population 1963, was strongly opposed by the plaintiffs on the growth is related to Tallahassee's function as the cap- grounds that it unfairly placed the burden of desegre. ital of the State and to the presence of Florida A &M gation upon the black community by requiring its and Florida State Universities. White immigration has members to transfer to white schools. The April 1963 been substantial but the emigration of rural blacks from plan provided for the transfer, or reassignment, of stu- Leon County accounts for the decline in percentage dents in any district who wanted to attend a school of the minority population.2 other than that to which he or she had been initially assigned. To the petitioners, this was a nz-:ed "open Table 9. Population and Land Area of Counties: 1970 door" assignment policy which placed no burden on and 1960 U.S. Bureau of the Census of Population: 1970 the school system itself to take any affirmative steps Number of Inhabitants Final Report ( PC ( 1)-All Florida.) Table 3, Components of Population Change by Race: to dismantle the dual system but continued to place 1970 and 1960. U.S. Bureau of the Census. U.S. Census of the entire responsibility upon the black community. PopulationandHousing: 1970,GeneralDemographic Trends for Metropolitan Areas, 1960 to 1970, Final Report Civil Action No. 854, U.S. District Court for he North- PHC (2)-11 Fla.: ern District of Florida, Tallahassee Divisior

TABLE 3 Population Change Component of Change Leon County, Fla. Net Migration

1970 1960 Number Percent Births Deaths Number Percent

Total population 103, 047 74,225 28, 822 38. 8 17, 705 5, 739 16, 856 35. 7 Inside central city 71, 897 48, 174 23, 783 49. 2 11, 401 3,808 16,160 33. 5 Outside central city 31, 150 28, 051 5, 099 19.6 6, 304 1, 931 726 2. 6 White 76, 525 49, 816 26, 709 53.6 11, 500 3, 256 13, 435 37. I Inside central city 53, 235 32, 215 21, 020 65.2 7, 400 2, 174 15, 750 40.0 Outside central city 23, 290 17, 001 5, 080 32. 3 4,061 I, 032 2, 896 15. 2 Negro and other races 26, 522 24, 400 3,113 6. 7 6, 205 2, 483 -1, 309 -6. 6 Inside central city 18, 662 15, 050 2, 703 10.9 3, 992 I, 694 943 2.2 Outside central city___ 7,1360 8, 450 -590 7.0 2,213 849 - I, 954 -29. 1

43 Despite numerous appeals and motions by the plain- district and Florida State University. In addition to tiffs, this system of transferswas maintained by the these workshops which sought to develop positive atti- school system until May 1967 when the Federal cl- tudes toward integration, a new Instituteon Black ourt entered an order requiring that the school Studies encouraged participants to integrate black system desegregate pursuant t© a freedom-of-choice studiesmaterialintoexistingAmericanHistory plan." courses. As part of this 6-week program, 17 social On January 23, 1969, the court ordered the school studies teachers were sent to black universities to be district to adopt a plan consistent with the Supreme taught black studies by black professors. The partici- Court's ruling in Green v. County School Board of pants then prepared a curriculum-guide and designed New Kent County,' which required the schoolboard a new course in minority culture which focused on to take prompt and effective action to eradicate its blacks, Indians, and other minorities. dual school system. During the 1969-70 school, despite years ofcourt In May 1969, the district court approveda plan action, three elementary schools remained 100percent which retained freedom-of-choiceat the elementary black, two were 98 percent black, and twowere 93 and junior high schools, contemplated the continued percent and 33 percent black respectively. Two of the operation of seven all-black elementary schools, and seven high schools also remained all-black. provided no specifics on howor when faculty integra- To remedy this situation, the local school boardre- tion would be achieved. quested the Florida School Desegregation Center at Upon further appeal, the districtcourt was ordered the University of Miami to preparea new desegrega- by the Fifth Circuit Court of Appealson December 12, tion plan. The board's request followed the court of 1969 to order submission ofa plan for complete stu- appeals' decision of December 12, 1969, whichover- dent and faculty desegregation by February1, 1970. turned the district court's acceptance ofa freedom- A supplemental order of the Court of Appeals, issued of-choice plan.° January 8, 1970, then authorizeda delay of pupil A new plan was, therefore, designed. Implernenta- desegregation until September 1970. don of it in September 1970 eliminated the all-blaCk This order was followed bya January 30, 1970 order schools. Five of the 29 schools remained about 50per- of the district court ° which finally directed the school cent black. The enrollment systemwide was 34.7per- board to(1) immediately desegregate faculty, other cent black in 1970 showing a decrease from 36,1 staff, and transportation; (2) completethe necessary percent in 1968. alteration of records and assignment ofstudents for The new plan prepared by the Desegregation Cen- their transfer at the beginning of the September1970 ter, recommended by the board, and finally accepted school year, according to the plan preparedby the by the court was based on redrawing of schoolzones. Florida School Desegregati ©n Centerat the Univer- It did not recommend pairing nor did it lead toan in- sity of Miami; and (3) allowa minority transfer crease in pupil tramsportation. Under it, each child policy.' was assigned to the school in his residential zone with CURRENT PLAN the exception of the mujority-to-minority transfer pol- Implementation icy required by the court. The plan required reassignment of teachers, administrators, and aides to adjust During the late sixties, Leon County schooladmin- the staff at each school at a ratio of about 70 percent ators and teachers participated in several workshops white and 30 percent black. The plan did notrecom- on integration problems, sponsored both by the school mend the closing of any school. On June 29, 1970, however, the court ordereda `See note 3 p. 43. special committee of architects, composed ofone 390 U.S. 430 (1968). plaintiff's representative, one defendant'srepresenta- Steele v. Board of Public Instruction on County_ , 421 F. 2d 1382, tive, and a third person selected by bothgroups, to 7 Under this policy, school systemsmay (1) permit any appraise existing physical conditions at Lincoln Ele. student totransfer_from a school where students of his race mentary, an allJblack school with 682 students in the are a majority to any other school within the system where students of his race are a minority,or (2) assign students "Steele et al.v. Board of Public Instruction of Leon on such basis. County, Florida, 421 F. 2d 1382. 44 1969-70 school year, to determine whether the build- in operation in May 1972 in Tallahassee and one in ing was safe for occupancy. One part of the facility was the northeastern rural and predominantly black area declared unsafe by the committee, and another part of the county." was found to require prohibitively expensive renova- tions!' Faculty Transfers The school board chairman agreed to close the The school district retained most black professionals school since more than a half million dollars would while implementing the new plan. Faculties at each have been required for renovation and its deficiencies school were to be about 70 percent white and 30 per- were aggravated by inadequate playground space. The cent black. chairman concluded that "the school should have been Prior to 1969 there were nine black principals in closed two years earlier, even though it is honest to say Leon County. Of these, one was in the senior high that integration required that such a decision be made school, two in junior high schools, and six in elemen- now." tal,/ schools. As of May 1972, there still were -nine The closing of Lincoln Elementary modified the en- black principals in the system. Two were middle school rollments at other city elementary schools as originally principals and seven were elementary school principals. proposed by the Desegregation Center. Since 1968, The black former principal of Lincoln High School two middle schools and four new elementary schools had moved to the superintendent's office as director have been constructed to replace those black and white of data systems and research. An ad hoc committee of schools with overcrowded and inadequate facilities.° four blacks and four whites was established to guide The present plan divides the county and the city of Tallahassee as one might slice irregular wedges of faculty transfers. In reassigning teachers, no one was assigned to a cheese. The plan provides for the integration of students from the inner-city and the various concentric position more than one grade above or below his areas of the city so that all racial and socioeconomic previous assignment, with the exception of two volun- groups are included in each zone. The wedge-shaped teers. The committee considered requests for changes zones are effectively used for the middle schools, the in the first assignments and submitted recommenda- high schools, and most of the elementary schools." tions on each appeal to the superintendent and the The white enrollments in Bond, Pineview, Harts- board. Both black and white faculties now appear to be field, and Western Elementary Schoolswere lower than originally estimated by plan designers because pleased with the rearrangement although some are some white parents chose to enroll their children in disturbed that there is no black head coach in any of private schools or moved to anotherarea of the city.12 the three high schools. After the closing of Lincoln Thus, there were still four predominantly black schools High School, there have reportedly been no openings for a head coach at the other three high schools. The Lincoln Elementary School Report, Sanford M. Goldman, former head football coach at Lincoln has since be- Pearce L. Barrett, Mark Schwizer submitted to Federal Dis- come head coach at Florida A&M University. One trict Court, Tallahassee Division July 31, 1970, in Steelev. top administrator said he is convinced that if a head Leon County School Board, Civil Action No. 854. coaching slot does become vacant, efforts to find a black 1° Concord Elementary School, however; which is still in,will be fully pursued as loss of the athletic traditions use in the eastern corner of the county, has an integrated staff and student body but still suffers from an old and inadeqate of the Lincoln School remains a highly sensitive point facility. A first grade teacher told a Commission staff member within the black community. that children frequently got splinters in their feet from the hare floor, and her numerous requests for a rug were finally met Transportation with a small surplus throw rug from another school. Concord Elementary may be in need only of replacement or major While the total student enrollment had increased renovation but is in marked contrast to the other excellent from 19,906 in 1968 to 21,022 in 1970, the number facilities of the school system. of students transported decreased due to the more Figure 1illustrates how zoning has been employed to obtain racial comparability in the schools. Is Within the city, Bond Elementary School 85 percent; 12 Interview with Dr. James Beck, Assistant Director of Charles -Elementary School 52 percent; Pineview Elementary Florida School Desegregation Center at Tallahassee, May 4, School 68 percent ; Nims Middle School 53 percent ;.and Con- 1972. cord Elementary School 81 percent in the rural area.

45 efficient routing of buses provided bythe plan. Prior nual increase in the number of white students attend- to adoption of the plan, 8,897 studentswere trans- ing public schools. ported at public expense, and this numberdeclined The flight of familiesto avoid integration is not to 8,482 when the plan was implemented. "White entirely regretted by the schoolofficials as it has flight" was not considered a factor in the smaller num- reduced overcrowding insome schools. One school ber of students transported because the system's total official said that the transfersto nonpublic schools white student enrollment had reached13,656 (65 per- did not hinder the public school cent), a numerical and percentage system. In fact, he increase from added: "White flight might have been goodbecause it 12,661 (63.6 percent) in 1968. got rid of all the dyed-in-the-wool segregationists." 16 Miles traveled by the school buses on one-way morn- The board chairman, however, made thepoint that: ing trips -decreased from 8,409 to 7,523after the [white flight] has probably hurt toan extentas long as you plan's implementation. The 70 buses in the fleetwere have an element in the community that is goingto stay on able to meet new requirements withoutadditional the segregated bandwagon, itis going to be bothersome buses. to the community. Operating costs have been growing over the years The chief complaints of whiteparents who with- because of increased prices of labor, maintenance, and drew their children from Bond ElementarySchool supplies, but transportation personnel said that the (which has the lowest percentage of whitestudents in plan was not responsible for the rise in these costs.14 the city schools) were: (1) hazardoustraffic condi- Uniquely, many Leon County parents havere- tions faced by childrenon the way to school and (2) quested more busing rather than its elimination. Both fears that black children wouldphysically abuse the black and white parents have asked for transportation outnumbered white children." for elementary students who would otherwise have to Few white parents expressedany misgivings that the walk in areas of heavy traffic. The board has com- quality of education offeredat the Bond School was plied with these requests, with a consequent increase below that of other schools. School officialsreported both in the number of students transported from that students arenow returning to the public schools 8,482 to 8,616, in the number of miles. from 7,523 in increasing numbers. The assistantprincipal of God- to 8,347, and in the number of buses from 70 to 76 by High School said : "We have probablypicked up as of May 1972. 50 returns (from nonpublic schools)this year." According to the county transportation officer, the average ride covers about 4 to 5 miles and takes about Opposition to the Plan 30 minutes. The longest ride is 25 milesas it was be- The long history of a school desegregationlitigation fore adoption of the plan. case in Leon County demonstrated lengthy community resistance to integration. After the Florida White Flight Desegrega- tion Center presented its desegregationplan, no op- Some people, reportedly fearing that integration position to it was raised by the boardor school admin. would adversely affect the quality of education in Leon istrators. What opposition did exl, in thecommunity County, have placed their children in privateschools, was not expressed in demonstrations, boycotts,or according to the board chairman whose children all threats of violence. None of theadministrators inter- attend public schools.16 School officialsassert that the viewed by Commission staff had been threatened.No number of whites fleeing public schools is negligible,so acts of violence were reported in connection withop- negligible that it has not stopped the continuingan- position to the plan. According to the board chairman, therewas some " Interview with Johnie G. Goggins, Acting Director of resistance in January 1970 (primarilyfrom the white Transportation, Leon County Schools, Tallahassee,Fla., community but also from the black community)with May 5, 1972. The operating cost for pupil transportation incurred by the school district over the past 4 schoolyears " Interview with Dr. Freeman Ashmore, Superintendent, is as follows: 1968$264,921; 1969$280,910; 1970 Leon County School District, Tallahassee, Fla., May 4, 1972. $320,239; and 1971$323,158 (as of May 30, 1972.) Interview with Walter Seabrooks, Principal, Bond Ele- " Precise nonpublic school enrollment statisticsare not mentary School, Leon County School District, Tallahassee, available. Fla., May 5, 1972. 46 regard to the new zoning which, in somecases, pre- desegregation effort, while television, particularly the vented children of both races from attending the educational station, was helpful. Some school officials schools they had attended under the previous plan. expressed annoyance at radio and newspaper reporting Parents who lived near one schoolwere upset when which seemed to exaggerate racial incidents in order their children were assigned to a school farther away. to "make a story" regardless of its effect on the com- Some students who lived only three blocks from munity. An example of this overreaction involved a Brevard Elementary were assigned to Bond, 15 blocks radio reporter who had overheard a police radio call away. Most of the children near the Bond School were to pick up a student at a school. Although the incident assigned to three different schools at a greater distance. in which the student was involved was purely personal, Students who lived more than one block away from had not occurred at the school, and was entirely un- Bond, if their homes were to the south, east, or west related to the school, the station's rebroadcast of the of the school, were assigned to schools as far as 18 call seemed to suggest that a riot at the, school required blocks away." immediate police intervention. This radio story re- A student living on Main street just two blocks from portedly caused some parents to rush to the school to Bond therefore had to attend Hartsfield, 2 miles distant. get their children. The board chairman commented Since the new zoning did spotlight certain traffic haz- philosophically on such media coverage by remarking: ards for students walking to school, the school board "If a newspaper printed good news it would go out of added five buses to reduce this danger. businessthe newspaper business is bad news." Many in the black community, including several school administrators, oppose the closing of Lincoln CURRENT SITUATION School. As one of two black high schools prior to desegregation, Lincoln was a source of pride and tradi- Integration Within the Schools tion in the black community. It had been converted In many cases, black and white students have had to to an elementary school in 1969, and many residents learn to adjust to each other after their racial isola- complained that the closing of the school ignored the tion in heavily segregated schools. Some friction has sensitivities and needs of the black community. Black occurred between students of opposite races. parents from the Lincoln neighborhood objected to In several high schools, student human relations the closing because their' hildren had to travel further. committees were formed to welcome new students, help They complained that the burden fell more heavily on smooth the transition, and to handle potential prob- their children than on white children. lems. Such foresight and helpfulness bore fruit in what Many white parents 'were reluctant to place their one teacher called the "flag and fist controversy." Cer- children in formerly black schools because they were tain white students had been prominently displaying unfamiliar with the schools, faculty, and the condition the Confederate flag on their clothing, bOoks, and auto- of the buildings." The school administrators dealt with mobiles.Black, studentsrespondedbysimilarly this concern by inviting parents to visit the schools, to displaying the Black Power fist emblem. Tension in- talk to faculty members, and inspect school facilities. creased. Student members of the school's human rela- A number of parents accepted the invitation and, in tions committee and key faculty members, black and most cases, were persuaded to give the new plan the white, brought the leaders of the contending groups to benefit of any doubts. Many parents became involved join in a discussion of the situation. and have remained involved in PTA groups. The discussion lasted an entire day, and both sides, Two years after implementation of the plan, the conceding that their emblems could unnecessarily an- superintendent summarized the situationin Leon tagonize other students, agreed not to wear or display County: "There are still some resistersbut we have them any longer. The assistant principal felt that this more parents who are willing to accept change than negotiated solution revealed a generally flexible stu- those who are not." Most school administrators felt dent attitude. that local newspaper and radio coverage hindered the A white student at another school mentioned another influence on student attitude. "Both groups are 1° Figure 1 shows these zones and the locations of the schools. kind of scared of each other", she said. "Neither is " Interview with Broward P. Davis, Chairman, Leon County sure how to act. But they are equally scared. Maybe School Board, Tallahassee, Fla., May 4, 1972. the whites are a little more scared." 47 One student leader was convinced that interracial trol of the discussion, insults student understanding and were exchanged, and one trust is increasing, Rickards student slapped another. The High School, withan enrollment of 56 percent white quarrel was then carried into the halls, and otherfights broke out. Police were and 44 percent black students,this year elected black students to be president, vice called and remained in theschool for half a day. Two president, and secretary days of high tension followed of the student council.Last year a black student lost but no student was in- the presidency by only five jured. The recently elected blackstudent council presi- votes even though song: dent seems justified in saying of the black studentswere boycotting the election for that interracial com- reasons which remain unclear, munication is good now and gettingbetter. Teacher and Parent Attitudes Discipline, Disruptions, andViolence There are no monitorsin the schools oron the Interviews with Leon County staffrevealed that white and black professionals buses, an indication thatunusual disruptions or serious of the school system are discipline problems havenot accompanied desegrega- almost without exception pleasedwith the overall per- tion. Parking lot attendantswere hired in May 1972 formance of their colleagues indesegregated condi- to insure that students attendclasses rather than loiter tions. They are proud of thesuccess of the desegrega- in their a,utornobiles. School tion plan and the fact thatstudents seem to be learn- authorities have avoided ing well and possible clashes in studentassemblies by restricting are relatively tranquil. Student and their number, althoughmost students and teachers teacher morale in the system isapparently high. The would prefer more assemblies. board is confident that stabilizationwill continue and The black president-electof the Rickards Student that its educationalprograms will become increasingly successful. Council said :"I promised [duringmy campaign] to establish a discipline committeeto deal with students Black and white faculty memberswere pleased that who have brokenup assemblies so that wecan have no teacher had been displaced by theplan. They believe that the workshops, PTA more assemblies. The students haveto take care of these meetings, and improved problems becausewe are the best ones to do it." teacher performancewere instrumental in ensuring Since the plan did notcreate violence or disruptions a smooth transition. Black principals,assistant prin. cipals, and deans were satisfied in the schools, monitors,who were available,were not with their acceptance necessary. Some minor incidents occurredbut they as professionals by their white colleagues.22 were not significant racial clashes. Creditfor this was The great majority ofparents have now accepted attributed to the enlightenedleadership of the admin- the plan, according to the boardchairman and superintendent. Many white istration, some cooperativestudents, and facultymem- parents with children in pre- bers at each school." dominantly black schoolsare involved in those schools' PTAs and vigorously Students and faculty of Rickardssaid that modular support various meetings, fairs, and other get-togethers scheduling,21 with its free time andincreased student to bring people into the schools and to raise funds for mobility, makes possible therumor spreading and extra school materials." thereby createsmore problems than integration or Most persons interviewed felt thatthe community has greatly benefited from the busing. One such incident involveda classroom dis- presence in Tallahassee he two universities, Florida cussion group following theshowing of the film, "A A&M and. Florida State, and from cooperation by Raisin In The Sun." Theteacher reportedly lost con- the State government. One school official saidthat these institutions have "' Interview with Roland White,President Elect of Student helped attract outstandingteachers to the school sys- Council, Godby High School, Tallahassee, Fla., May 3, 1972. tern and have also influenced theentire community " Modular scheduling divideseach day into "modules" or to adopt a broader viewpoint units of tirne. The scheduled classtime of each student is on civil affairs. Similarly divided among largegroup sessions (50-150), small group. "'Interviews with Luther H. Williams,Principal, Riley Ele- sessions (1213), regular sized classsessions, ams laboratory mentary School and Freeman Lawrence, Directorof Data Sys- work. There are also times during theday when a% student tems and Research, Leon County School District,Tallahassee, is not scheduled for a specificclass. During this part of the Fla., May 4, 1972. day the student is free to pursue the areas of study that have 13 Interviews with Luther H. been directed by his teachers Williams, id.; Walter Sea- or that may interest him or her. broio9k7s2, .Principal, Bond Elementary The student can also chooseto waste his unscheduled time. School, Tallahassee, May 48 the presence in the State capital of a popular, mod- Conclusion erate Governor who has urged goodwill and patience on the busing issue may also have contributed to a Leon County's relative success in desegregating its more thoughtful and reasoned attitude in the commu- schools does not appear accidental, but rather the re- nity. Successful implementation of the plan should not sult of determined efforts by administrators, teachers, be surprising, according to the black Mayor-Commis- and parents both black and white. School staffs in Leon sioner of Tallahassee, because the city and county have County were integrated without the displacement of never had hardcore racial problems or clashes. black professionals that has marred the implementation of desegregation plans in many other cities. The plan Location of Low-Rent Housing Projects permitted reduction in the number of students bused and in the number of miles traveled. School officials expressed alarm at the construction The transition has not been free of difficulties. The of large low-rent housing projects in school zones that plan's use of strictly contiguous .zones was not as suc- already have a high proportion of- black residents. It cessful as hoped for inthe inner-city elementary was feared that most of these projects would be oc- schools. "White flight" has made the integration of cupied by black families, a development which would formerly all-black inner-city schools more difficult. The affect housing patterns and school integration. A 150- black student population in these predominantly black unit project has been constructed close to Hartsfield attendance zones is further concentrated by the con- Elementary School. Another large project may be built struction of low-income housing projects. Substantial near the Riley Elementary School, which has a current adjustments in the zones may be necessary to achieve enrollment of- 50 percent black and 50 percent white. full desegregation of the remaining predominantly The possible adverse effect of these projects on school black schools. School officials give every indication, desegregation has prompted the school superintendent however, of their determination to overcome these ob- to place his administrative assistant on the Leon Coun- stacles and to ensure quality integrated education for ty Planning Committee which selects sites for such all students in Leon County. projects. He fears, however, that the existing housing patterns will influence school assignment zones nega- Elementary School Attendance Zones, Tallahassee, tively for long future periods. The low-rent projects Fla. and other similar housing trends may well compel the Astoria Park, Sealey, Timber lane, Riley, Ruediger, redrawing of several elementary school attendance Bevard, Sullivan, Sabal Palm, Hartsfield, Pineview, zones in the near future, he has stated. Bond, Wesson, and Oakridge. PUBLIC SCHOOL DESEGREGATIONIN MOORE COUNTY, N.C. Moore County is located in south-central North sistent with the Title VI guidelines of theDepartment Carolina and covers an area of 760 square miles. It of Health, Education, and Welfare.2 Unlikemany is a part of the tobacco belt and is situatedabout 80 freedom-of-choice plans, this plan permitted students miles from the three largest cities in the State. Theyare to choose only between those schools within certain Charlotte, Greensboro, and Raleigh, the State capital. attendance zones and notthose schoolslocated The largest town in the county is Southern Pines throughout the school system. Students could chooseto with a population of 5.937. The population of Moore attend either all-black or formerly all-white schools. At County in 1970 was 39,048, of whom 9,906 residents that time 85 blacks chose to attend previously all- were nonwhite. The school population is 10,162 of white schools. All the white students choseto attend whom 67 percent or 6,800 are white and 32.5percent white schools. or 3,307 are black. Fifty-three Indians comprise 0,5 In September 1965, Moore County receiveda letter percent of the school population. from HEW approving its plan, but notingthat the Moore County, especially Southern Pines, is a Moore County school situation would be subjectto popular tourist and retirement center containing19 periodic review. golf courses and offeringa wide variety of outdoor On March 21, 1966 the school boards unanimously sports. The county is the site of the Golf Tournament adopted a motion requiring black studentsat the Davis of the World and the Stoneybrdok Steeplechase. and Pinckney schools in grades 1-12 in AreasI and In addition to recreation and tourism, agriculture, II' to attend nearby white schools for the1966-67 textiles, tobacco, and furniture makingprovide im- school year. portant sources of income. The median familyincome In 1967 Moore County successfully-combinedthree for 1970 was $6,834 and the medianincome for blacks, administrative units 5--:the Pinehurst City Schools, $4,322.' Smaller towns in the county include Aber- Southern Pines City Schools, and the CountySchools deen, Carthage, Pinebluff, Pinehurst,Robbins, South- which resulted in further desegregation. ern Pines, Vass, West End, and Whispering Pines. In February 1968, HEW informedthe board that Moore County was in probable noncompliancewith History of Desegregation in Moore County the requirements of Title VI and wouldhave to sub- Until the fall of 1965, MOoreCounty had main- mit a new plan to eliminate the dual schoolsystem tained separate schools for blackand white students. completely by the opening of the 1968-69school year unless there were compelling administrative Indians attended white schools.In April 1965, a free- reasons dorn-of-choice plan was adopted by the district con- The Moore County School Board is madeup of eight members. All are white and fiveare college graduates. The Bureau of the Census, 1970, GeneralSocial and Economic previous five member school boardwas enlarged when the Characteristics, U.S. Department of Commerce. city units merged with the county system in theconsolida- 2 Revised Statement of Policies ForSchool Desegregation tion of administrative units. Plans under Title VI of the CivilRights Act of 1964. Title VI 4 There are three geographically-based schoolareas in of the Civil Rights Act of 1954,Sec. 601 provides: "No per- Moore County. Each containsone high school and approxi- son in the United States shall, on the grounds of race, color, mately five elementary and middle schools. UnionPines High or national origin, be excluded from participationin, be is in Area I (Eastern) North Moore High denied the benefits of, in Area II (North- or be subjected to discrimination under western), and Pinecrest High in Area III (Southern). any program or activity receiving Federalfinancial assistance." In North Carolina, an administrative unit isequivalent to a school district or school system. 50 to postpone this until 1969-1970. In June 1968, HEW dents to Montgomery County Schools. Superintendent stall reviewed the Moore County System and found Lee announced that the new policywas being inaugu- that four all-black schools still existed in Area III and rated to prevent excessive travel for students and had that no white full -time classroom teachers were serv- nothing to do with race. ing in those schools. They also found that the county In addition to the three high schools in the three still maintained, at least in Area III, a dual transporta- areas of Moore County, there are now 16 elementary tion system. and middle schools and kindergarten classesarc held A plan was devised by the board to consolidate all in some schools. seven high schools in Area III into Pinecrest High The three comprehensive high schools house grades School by September 1969. Under this plan the re- 9-12. They were built in 1964, 1965, and 1969re- maining elementary schools in Area III would also spectively, according to the same basic plan andare be desegregated in September 1969 through the use modern, attractive, and spacious. of pairing!' In addition, one small white elementary The assistant superintendent of schools reported school [Eagle Spring] was closed. that the county has applied for all possible Federalas- With the consolidation of three black and four sistance and has received nearly all the grants sought. white schools into the new Pinecrest High School, This aid is primarily used for school piograms involv- Superintendent Robert E. Lee assured HEW that cam- ing such areas as libraries, kindergartens, occupational plete desegregation would be achieved in Moore classes, and reading. Pinecrest High Schoolwas funded County. He said the county now had a unitary system, under Title III of the Elementary and Secondary completely desegregated in regard to students, staff, Act (ESEA).8 The district.reeeives 67 percent State faculty, transportation, extracurricular activities, and support, 16 percent county support, and 17 percent facilities. This, he said, had been accomplished through Federal support, closing two formerly black schools andone formerly white school and by building three new comprehensive School Personnel high schools in order to accommodate the consolida- Before desegregation there were four black princi- tion of schools in the three areas. pals, two of whom served at union schools (grades Despite the superintendent's assertion, HEW in- 1-12) and two of whom served at elementary schools. formed the district in the summer of 1971, that some Immediately following integration three elementary schools did not have adequate minority student repre- schools were headed by black principals andone black sentation. A plan to correct the problem providing for was appointed assistant principal of Pinecrest High additional school transportation was submitted in Oc- School, He has recently been elevated to the position tober 1971 and accepted by HEW in May 1972, of principal following the resignation of the white The Current Plan principal. There are now four black principals in Moore County, three at the elementary level andone The revised plan for establishing a unitary, desegre- at the secondary level. gated system called for some noncontiguous pairing, The county has 76 percent white teachers and 24 feeder pattern changes,' and the alteration of school percent black and similar percentages for its total pro- attendance areas. A total of 504 students [201 whites fessional staff. The county followsa policy of replac- and 303 blacks] and 12 of 19 schools was involved. ing black teachers who resign with other black teach- The student racial makeup of each school was sub- ers and the same policy is followed when white teach- stantially the same as the county ratio, 67 percent white Title III of the Elementary and Secondary Education and 33 percent black and Indian. The transfer of 25 Act of 1965 provides in Section 301: "The Commissioner teachers was necessary to providea similar faculty ratio (of Education) shall carry out a program for making grants in each school. for supplementary educational centers and services, to stimu- On May 2, 1972, adjacent Montgomery County and late and assist in the provision of vitally needed educational Moore County agreed that public transportation would services not available M sufficient quantity or quality, and to stimulate and assist in the development and establishment no longer be available to convey Moore County stu- of exemplary elementary and secondary school educational programs to serve as models for regular school programs." ' See footnote 2, at i. (20 LT.S.C. 841) enacted Apr. II, 1965, P.L. 89-10, Title 7 See footnote 2, at i. III, Sec. 301, 79 Stat. 39,

51 els lhtHt:11!,!rick 1lfti rlI iu1111'riitrai some white teachers appear unable to 'elate to black Cat ,t) `t iitiu..1 WI(' in administrative soidents. but he insisted that "theyare not necessarily deciionmaking in the school hoard ofhcrL racists," A black teacher complained: "White teachers Ln Iv inthe 'tlescerepti,mprocess. countywide are prejudiced. One reportedly told a black child he workshops fundQd through it Fedet al grant under Till should go to his own school. One teacher calledthe IV of the civil Rights At of 1961 were held for children 'niggers' andnever referred to them by their tarp huts. These aided the desgregationprocess and own names. After sonic people talked with her, she helped to prepare teachers forintegration,' One such now calls the children by their names." institute dealt with correet terminology in room-nun- Commission staff was told that black teachersat eating with students of who- races. Other programs High Falls and .Westmore Elementary Schoolswere under Title IV have int hided inservice training for initially apprehensive about theiracceptance since the teachers assigned to Pinecrest to develop individualized surrounding neighborhoods were only 10percent black instruction techniques and inservice meetings for ele- and Moore County and adjoining counties hadstrong mentary teachers to discuss their role in desegregation. Ku Klux Flans organizations. Despite their anxiety, Several schools in Moore County have undertaken the teachers have apparently been accepted andnow innovative educational programs such as team teach- interact successfully with people in thearea. ing, individualized instruction, flexiblescheduling,'" Most black and white teachers reported that the and the elimination of textbooks in favorof audio- atmosphere is relaxed in their schools and that they visual materials. These types of programs, according feel comfortable teaching in integrated situations.A to local school officials, have value, not only forthe black teacher at Carthage Elementary said: "I like the students in general, but especially for students at the working conditions at the school because there isno lower levels of the learning scale. pressure, which makes it easier to teach, Students are Superintendent Lee reported: "Fifteenyears ago likable, needed materialsare available, and teachers people felt black teachers were inferior and would not are given leverage to use the programs they choose in be able to teach witites. Board memberswere therefore the classroom." taken to classrooms to watch the teaching, and children One school official said that his daughter hasa black started telling parents about good black teacher.Then math teacher who is, in her opinion, the best teacher the convinced parents accepted the situation." she has ever had. Another white student reportedly Some teachers and principals observed thatteachers told his black teacher: "Youmay be colored but you of one race are often uncomfortablewith students of sure know how to teach. The color of the skin doesn't other races, although onlyone student reported that he have a thing to do with theway a person teaches. I thought teachers did not treateveryone fairly. A black have enjoyed having you as teacher at Aberdeen Middle School felt thatsome my English teacher this year." white teachers are "clearly uncomfortableon occasion with poor, black students." A principalstated that Biracial teams recruit teachers from 27 colleges and universities---five of them bh,ck----in the State. Section 405 of Title IV of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 provides in part: (a) The Commissioner isauthorized, upon Community Reactions to Desegregation application of a school board, to makegrants to such board to pay, in whole or in part, the cost of : Immediate public reaction to both consolidation and (1) giving to teachers and other school personnel in- desegregation in Moore County was generallynega- service training in dealing with problems incidentto desegre- tive. Today, it is mixed. Some persons feel it is work- gation, and Mg successfully; some are merely resigned to the plan; (2) employing specialists to advise in problems incident some do not like it and apparently hope for a return to desegregation; to the segregated system. 'Flexible scheduling involves adaptinga student's schedule to permit shorter or more lengthy class periodsfor given The superintendent said: courses in order (a) to permit additional time and emphasis 111.1965 we could not discuss integration with the public on a student's weak areas and less time on mastered areasor because it was an emotional and deepseated issue. Some resi- (b) to permit coverage of material better presented in-a dents accused the Board of moving faster than the courts. longer scheduled period than is normally provided. Time There was some KKK opposition. But now integration isa taken from another course can be madeup on another date.' dead issue.

52 One school board member told the Cornrrdssion: and community leaders to discuss their roles in the As for the reaction in Moore County, there is a feeling successful desegregation of Pinecrest, of resignation to the inevitable. This governs most people. We don't have a lot of rednecks in my immediate area. We White Flight have more of the enlightened people. Many people in Moore County are convinced in their While the population of Moore Colinty is increasing, hearts that black people are simply inferior. It is no more the public school population is decreasing. The past possible to convince them that they are dead wrong than 3 years have seen first grade enrollments in the count y that you can fly without wings. These are tragedies that we schools decrease by 26 in 1969, 77 in 1970, and 43 in have to overcome. Frankly, until some of the old people die off, we are still going to have this problem before us. 1971 with total enrollment 945; 868; and 825 for these White people believe that there is one pattern that fits 3 years. This represents an average decrease of 5.3 all black people. They cannot believe that all blacks don't percent per year. vote and think alike. They do not believe that blacks are A board member said: capable of independent judgment. An important threat to integration isthe new private The chairman of the school board said that the move schools. The private elementary schools which existed long tc, consolidate was more disturbing than the move to before desegregation are not a threat to desegregation. They inegrate, which took place at the same time. "Today generally have been an alternative to the academic nature of I don't think the problems which people are concerned public schools, but not an integration alternative. about have anything to do with integration." Rather, One of the new private schools, Big Oak Christian the said, "There is an interest in programs, budget, and Academy, is "doing an obviously inferior academic beautification. There were quite a few people who op- job," according to one board member. "It represents posed integration from the beginning. Some said the the separatist movement with about 140 students." program was offensive to them. Now everyone in our The majority of Big Oak students come from Mont- area works together, including blacks." gomery County where some whites refused to attend Another member of the school board added: formerly black schools. It was a lot easier in 1968 than it is now. At that time the Another school board member declared that the national leadership was consistent. It looked like that was Wallace O'Neal Day School, housing grades 4-6, was the way we had to go and that they were resigned that was recently opened by affluent parents to fight busing and the way they would have to go. Boards of Education have it integration. "I know some of the people who have rough now. The resolve of the Nation as expressed by its helped in the development of the school, and they are leaders cannot be underestimated as a strength when making among the more enlightened rednecks." About 36 these steps. Moore County students are enrolled here at a cost of A black teacher commented: "Kids have no prob- $750 a year per pupil. lems with desegregation;it's the adults." Another The board member said that the Episcopal School teacher believes that many parents are opposed to in- has been operating for many years and, in his view: "It tegration because of busing. has been a blessing to the public schools because it has One black teacher thought that very few people in helped relieve congestion. I believe that the ideal pupil- Moore County still hold a negative view of desegrega- teacher ratio would be 20-1. In this respect, the school tion thanks in part to the positive contribution of has been a help." The Episcopal School has about 60 student biracial committees in 'fostering acceptance. students and has expanded from K-2 to K-4. "Their involvement was very beneficial," she said, One central office administrator made the following comment about private schools: "Private schools are "because, as of today, desegregation has definitely been too expensive. Not because of love, but because of lack accepted." She felt that integration has "succeeded" of money most whites stay with the public schools." because "many liberal-minded people live in the com- One board member, explained that his children are munity." in public schools because "I want them to live in the Southern Pines currently has 70 volunteer parents real world and contribute to the real world and not working in the high school. A biracial group called to live in an isolated situation. This is how they can be Friends of Continuing Education serves in an advisory happiest and can contribute most,' capacity to the local community and the board of edu- Private schools, however, do not wholly account for cation. Tide IV funds sponsored seminars for parents the decline in public school attendance. Perhaps more important is the Moore County dropoutrate of 20=24 the remaining residue of their past isolation from ch percent in grades 5 through 12. Last year a textile plant other." transferred some workers from thearea which caused A teacher at Carthage Elementary stated thatmost their children to leave at least two of the schools. students mix, "except for two or three racists: One Others who left were children of blacktenant farmers racist in the seventh grade is ostracized by the other who moved from the district. students because of his racism. He is not freely chosen for any group activities. This has caused himto modify IntegrationWithin the Schools his racism."

Most students reported that theyseem to be having An elementary school teacher told the Commission: , very few problems adjusting to integrated schools. "Children are children and they mix well. Race doesn't Many black and white students said they have formed matter. My major problem is tattling." interracial friendships. A black student who claims As for the feelings of the minority Indian students, a black teacher claimed that: quite a few white friends and has dined withone said she was apprehensive about her friend's parentsat first, Indians are prejudiced against blacks and arc marrying whites rather than Indians or blacks. One Indian child in "but everyone relaxed and all went well." Shecon- my room does not like blacks and won't cluded: "Blacks and whites have to get together it next t© them some- because he says they smell and are dirty. time; it might as well be now." Prior to full desegregation,a meeting sponsored Another white teacher, however, said that many In- under Title IV brought together student leaders from dian students look upon their black classmates as "brothers" and seem able to relate well with them. the seven high schools subject to consolidationto A white student at Pinecrest High said that integra- acquaint them with each other and thenew school system. tion is working and everyone is "beginning to understand." A black student added that integrationis Most student clubs and sports activitiesare integrated though there appears to be underrepresenta- working in part because the administration is fair. He said he personally "liked the competition:" tion. Blacks have been participating in alltypes of extracurricular activities, particularly sports. School Transportation administrators believe that black participationin athlet;rs has done much to create friendships and im- As Moore County is primarily a rural county, pupil prove relations between black and white students. transportation'has long been.necessary. A black student from Aberdeen Middle School said: A bond issue providing for consolidation of regional "Desegregation is okay and has presentedno problems high schools was passed prior to enactment of the Civil but most whites stay around each other. Ihad more Rights Act of 1964, so consolidation itself had required fun in segregated school, liked the teachers better,and additional busing Well before complete desegregation learned as well, except in math." He noted that ifa stu- was announced.

_dent got into trouble before, the teacher and principal Inthe school year 1970-71, 6,759 students were talked it over with him. At this school,he said: transported a total of 1,108,400 miles on 119 buses. "Students are expelled. Some students don'tcare about The operating cost for student transportation was ap. expulsions, but most don't want to be expelled." proximately $255,021. Each morning school buses traveled approximately 5,785_ miles transporting 4,725 At North Moore High School,a biracial human elementary and 2,034 high school students. relations committee was organized "but-isnot too active Prior to consolidation, the county operated 102 and doesn't draw many students," according to, one buses. Following consolidation and desegregation the student member. She noted that blacks and whites county added 13 more buses. Last year, four additional tend to separate at dances and in the school cafeteria. buses were purchased with county funds as part of final She personally felt that integration is "fine"and is consolidation in Pinecrest, Area. III. working "to an extent. Before and after consolidation ithe transportation Others reported that students oftensegregate them- policy provided that all students living 11/4 miles or selves, sitting in isolated groups at ballgames and other more from schools were eligible for transportation. activities. ,A teacher observed that "this isnot neces- Before consolidation Moore County had a dual sarily from racial tensionas such, but probably reflects ansportation system, one black and one white. Of the 15 high schools, four were all-black. One of these served Our situation is not comparable [to other school trans- three-fourths of the county and necessitated long bus portation systems] because people know we have to routes. Elementary and high school students rode the bus." same buses. The average one way distance was 1712 miles and took about 52 minutes. The longest distance Disruptions, Violence, and Crime was 44 miles and took 11/2 to 1 hour and 50 minutes. Commission staff was told that the number of sus- The shortest distance was 5 miles and took 20-25 pensions had quadrupled in the county since desegre- minutes. gation; however, innovative curricular techniques, With consolidation and total desegregation, the 15 rather than the desegregation process, were largely high schools were merged into three high schools to responsible for the increase. Between September 1, serve the three distinct areas in the county. The longest 1971 and April 15, 1972, 425 students in the school route became shorter. The county currently has sepa- district were suspended. Of these 230 were black and rate transportation for elementary and high school 195 were white. students. The average distance is 20 miles one way and A number of students were suspended at Pinecrest takes 60 minutes. The longest distance is 375/2 miles High School at the beginning of the 1971-72 school or 1 y2 hours; the shortest is 13 miles or 30 minutes. year as the new principal moved to provide more dis- Activity buses are provided to transport students cipline and structure in classroom organization. The who participate in after school activities, These buses school was closed for 2 days early in the year when an are sponsored by Booster Clubs. incident concerning tryouts for the basketball team Only three accidents occurred during the school year allegedly provoked a confrontation between some white 1971-72, and no one was injured. There have been and black students. Of 188 students suspended at Pine- minor incidents of vandalism involving damaged seats crest during the school year, 106 were black. Of 11 ex- and broken windows, but these incidents are not neces- pelled, nine were black and all nine were expelled for sarily considered racially motivated. profanity. Of the white students expelled, one had Students said that they had no problem in riding reportedly struck a black girl on the head with a home- buses, although one said that her bus picked up K-8 made blackjack, the other had robbed a hank. The children, and "the older children sometimes picked on principal explained that he considered the behavior the younger children and made them cry." of the black students to be as serious as that of the There does not appear to be a great deal of opposi- white students, "Both types of offenses were of the tion to busing in Moore County. A black teacher said same severity," he said. Since the Commission visit, that students have always bused so there is no opposi- this principal has resigned and the. black assistant tion now. principal of Pinecrest High School has been made There are two all-black buses in the morning and principal. one all-black bus in the afternoon caused by residential Plainclothes policemen have been brought to Pine- housing patterns. Several students said they ride all- crest, for trespassers are occasionally a problem on the white buses. Some buses are crowded, others are not. large campus. After the trouble at the beginning of the Students drive all the 'buses." school year, parents requested hall monitors. In addi- The school board chairman said that some protests tion, teachers were assigned to ride the bases. Accord- had been received on the busing of students to differing to the principal, whenever there is hint of impend- ent schools, based on the argument that this was un- ing trouble parents are called to the school so that kind to children, "Students were bused to Carthage students can be removed fiorn the campus. from Robbins, over 20 miles away. But the, children Several teachers agreed with the principal that the are in school, they are doing fine and everybody is fine. trouble at Pinecrest was caused by students having had North Carolina has student bus drivers with just a sprink- too much freedom in prior years. Others added that ling of adults. All drivers are licensed. The qualifications are: students were unhappy at the lack of gym, auditorium, (1) Be at least 16 years of age; (2) Have a valid N.C. opera- or cafeteria facilities, construction on which has been tor's or driver's license; (3) Pass such tests as may be required delayed for lack of funds. Some thought that the prin- by law and prescribed by the Commissionee of Motor Ve- hicles and State Board of Education. Applicants are required cipal's strict disciplinary actions were responsible for to pass the following, tests: (a) Classroom instructionwrit- the disruptions. In any case, it was difficult to find any ten or oral tests; (13) Behind-the-wheel instructionroad tests. student who thought that such problems were racial. A white cheerleader froth another schoolsystem team teaching of young children. Learning activities was injured in a fight following a ballcanto; A black center around math, science, writing reports, and male student from Pinecrest High Schoolwas identi- learning activity centers. A teacher reported: "Chit fied and charged by the school district. A school hear- then learn to work independently and make theirown % comprised of black and white teachers and stu- choices. They learn verbal skills and thelanguage dents cleared the student but the girl'sparents took the experience approach. Its a unique learning experi- case to juvenile court and he was found guilty. ence for poor black and white children," At another school a black "sit-out"was staged in 1971 following a student governmentelection in which School Board two black candidates lost: The protestorsalleged that black students were not givena fair chance in the Two black candidates recently ran for positionson election, the school board, according. to the superintendent, but At Carthage Elementary School(K-8), four stu- they did not campaign against board personalitiesor dents of whom onewas black, were recently suspended policies. Integration was not an issue, and two of the for "troublemaking" and -15 (eightblacks and seven veteran board members who served during the transi- whites) have been suspendedduring the 1971772 tion are still on the board. school year. The principal said theusual offenses were Many of the school personnel reported that the board "disrespect for teachers" and"fighting," "Such inci has always been consistently in favor of integration dents are usually not interracial," henoted. which has helped to desegregate the system. The Com- Despite such incidents,most schools, including mission staff was told that they recognized from the Aberdeen Middle School, have hadlittle or no trouble first the importance of community acceptance of and since integration. "Everythinghas worked out fine involvement in the entire desegregation process and here," one principal said stressed their determination to keep the community fully informed about the county and its educational Classroom Grouping system. One of the few women school board chairmen in Students in Moore County schools are grouped both North Carolina stated : homogeneously and heterogeneously.When they are The basic thing is that AVC decided the direction we would grouped homogeneously, blacksare often placed in the go conceived a plan which we thought was good. We have lower group. One school official said that the acceler- ong Board ; we have a strong administration. The Board ated classes are 98 percent whiteand special educa- has accepted the recommendations of the administration. tion classes are 98 percent black.However, three of Once the Board made a decision we' stayed with it. The the white students inone low achievement English class people wondered if they could change our, plans and found they could not. at Southern Pines High were thesons of very prominent white members in the community. This chairman of the board was also praised for her At Southern Pines Middle School,students are fairness and politeness in handling all issues connected grouped homogeneously in math andlanguage arts with consolidation and desegregation. Another board and heterogeneously in social studies,science, and member told the Commission: health. We took a firm position. There was a lot of mumbling A board member told the Commission: and grumbling and undertones of threats, but after youare on the Board a while, you can sift out the wheat from the The reason there is some segregation in the classroom is chaff. We have received many threatening calls, but mostly because the situation which existed [undersegregation] pee- about not letting us back on the Board. eluded the advancement of black students. Untilblack students have time to catchup, homogeneous grouping will Another board member said that he ran for the have to occur. In thosecases where blacks have had an board because of his children: opportunity they have excelled. The homogeneousgrouping At the time we decided to desegregate, it was obvious is a short-lived thing which will vanish in time.I am not too that things were at a critical' stage on whetherwe were alarmed about that, because I thinkyou realize that the going to make it in the county: I was compelled torun for one with the really good brain should not be held back. the Board because my children and all children are my in- The nongraded primary terest. There are people on the Board who honestly and program at Aberdeen Elea deeply feel that it's right that you give children equal edu- mentary School, K=3, features open education and cational opportunity.

56 In discussing several reasons for the overall success arise among students. They have also aided the transi- of school integration in Moore County, a hoard mem- tion from segregated to desegregated schools. ber and the superintendent felt that the Title IV grants Staff personnel said they have received steady sup- received by the county were invaluable in helping pre- port from the school board ; hence, they feel confident pare teachers for integration. Two-thirds of the coun- in voicing opinions, knowing that they will not lose ty was desegregated following the first Title IV pro their jobs. "They know if they do what's right the gram. board will hack them up," said one. A demographic factor common to the rural South The leading local newspaper, The Pilot, has reportedly played a posiiive role in the desegregation process. also worked in favor of school desegregation in Moore Observers said it has provided "no encouragement for County. There are no large separated all-white or all- prolonging the agony of segregation." black communities, and this "salt and pepper" or One candid board member concluded: "Thbre is no mixed residential pattern made additional busing un- question that having a dose of salts, once it's over, necessary. In fact, school desegregation resulted in less helps. In retrospect people are happy with the kind of busing. The board member argued that "we could leadership that pressed on and got it done. Pressing on beat them [opponents of busing] to death with that and getting it done before community attitudes get issue." rigid is important. The people who have delayed and Student human relations councils, established in all gone to court have made it much harder for themselves schools, help solve desegregation problems which may and their school systems." PUBLIC SCHOOL DESEGREGATIONIN VOLUSIA COUNTY, FLA.

The Volusia County School District is locatedon the Background Atlantic coast of Florida and includes the city of Day- tona Beach and the smaller communities of Ormond For most of the decade of the 1960's Volusia Beach and De Land, the county scat and home of Stet- County's schools operated .under various freedom -of- son University. The county population in 1970 was choice plans which had left 99 percent of all white stu- 169,487; of this number 45,327 lived in Daytona dents in "white schools" and 60 percent of all black stu- Beach. The black population in the countyis approxi- dents in "black schools". Until the fall of 1969, the mately 24,330. faculty and student body of seven elementary schools Daytona Beach is a resort center, featuringone of remained all-black. Two junior and senior high schools the longest beaches in the Nation. A small, liberalarts were also all-black.' college, Bethune-Cookman is located here. Daytona To correct this situation, the board implemented its Beach's 1960 median family incomewas $3,986. The Plan B in September 1969. This plan utilized primarily median family income in the rest of Volusia County geographic zoning and pairing to provide further de- was slightly lower. The median family income for non- segregation.' Several schools were closed including the whites in Daytona Beach, where most of Volusia'snon- Campbell Elementary School, whichwas located in white population is concentrated,was $2,756. the core area of Daytona Beach and has been rated by The district's student enrollment is currently almost the Florida State Board of Educationas unsuitable for 34,000, of whom about 7,450are black. The land area elementary education. Volusia Avenue Elementary, covers 1,062 square miles. which previously served walk-in black elementary pupils exclusively, was converted by the Volusia Board History of School Desegregation Efforts to a racially integrated all-day kindergarten andex- ceptional child center. The Federal District Court for the Middle District Through other such changes which involvedtrans- of Florida ( Jacksonville Division) ruledon January 27, porting of some students, Plan B resulted in 93.3per- 1970 that the desegregation plan then in effect in Vo- cent of all white pupils and 73.3 percent of all black lusia County failed to eliminate the dual school sys- pupils for all grades in all areas of the county attend- tem.' The court ordered the Volusia County School ing integrated schools. Under this plan, 5,877 black Board to totally desegregate all of the county's schools pupils attended desegregated classesas compared to by February 1, 1970, by implementing theboard's al- 2,906 in the 1968-69 school year. At thesame time, ternative plan, referred to as Plan B-1.2 23,848 white pupils attended desegregated classes in Tillman v. Board of Public Instruction of Volus d County, the 196970 school year. Florida, et al. No. 4501Civ The statistics were different, however, for thespe- This decision ended years of hearings heldto effectuate cific area of Halifax, consisting of 15 schools in Port school integration in Volusia County. These hearings had followed a school desegregaticn suit filed by the NAACP Orange, South Daytona, Daytona Beach, Holly Hill, Legal Defense and Educational Fund, Inc.on June 3, 1960 Ormond Beach and irrimediately adjacentareas on the against Volusia County Board of Public Instruction. The Atlantic shore of Volusia County, and for the five board of public instruction is the policy-making body for the school system. At present it is composed of fivemen, all of Campbell Junior and Senior High was 100 percent black them white. There has never been a black member of the in Daytona Beach, and Southwestern was an all-black junior board. Board members are electedevery 4 years on a county- and senior high in DeLand. wide basis. See footnote 2, at i.

58 schools in the De Land area, which is located near the which were racially mixed, with a slight preponder- western county line, about 22 miles distant from the ance of whites. Both white and black elementary school Halifax area. children were therefore transported to George Marks Two elementary schools (Bonner and Small) in the from the Marks island, and black students represented Halifax area remained as all-black schools, so that 53.9 23 percent of the total enrollment, percent of the black elementary school children in Hali- fax attended completely segregated all-black schools. The Current Desegregation Plan All of the white elementary children in Halifax at- On January 27, 1970, the district court ruled that tended schools integrated to some extent, although six by leaving three of 20 schools in Halifax and DeLand of the 15 schools had fewer than 10 percent black stu- all-black and eight others more than 90 percent white, dents and one of the six, Tomoka, had only one black Plan II perpetuated a dual school system, The court pupil out of total enrollment of 497. Port Orange also therefore rejected Plan B and an alternate offered by remained virtually all-white, located a considerable dis- the board, Plan B-2, which it found to be basically tance from any appreciable number of black families. similar to Plan B, and ordered the implementation of a The degree of segregation in the DeLand area ele- plan prepared by the Florida School Desegregation mentary schools was still greater. There, under Plan B, Consulting Center and the Department of Health, 74.9 percent of the black elementary children attended Education, and Welfare (HEW), This Plan, B-1, the completely segregated and traditionally all-black would, in the court's opinion, effectively eliminate school, Starke. All of the white elementary school chil- the remaining all-black schools. dren in DeLand attended integrated schools, although The Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals sustained the two of the five schools there had fewer than 10 percent district court's ruling on July 21, 1970 and upheld the black students. lower cot'sur requirementm of a "moderate increase in Plan B had drawn a walk-in attendance zone around transportation to eliminate all vestiges of the long- Bonner and another around Small in Halifax to in= standing dual system in all the affected schools." elude the adjacent areas from which, it was projected, The appellate court agreed that the only matter in those schools would be filled to capacity. A substan- controversy at that point was pupil assignment to those tial number of students from core areas were thereby aforementioned elementary schools in Halifax and excluded from Bonner and Small because of their DeLand. place of residence, They were not drawn into the at- The board's Plan B-1, implemented February 1, tendance zones of the outlying schools nearest to them, 1970, was designed in part so that, in the board's which were at capacity and were attended by stu- words: "Principals, teachers, aides and other staff aides dents of both races from their own attendance zones. who work directly with children at a school are as- Rather, those pupils from the core area were zoned signed so that in no case would the racial composition into six transportation islands, from which they were of a staff indicate that a school was intended for black transported to Hurst, Longstreet, Lenox, Riverview, or white students." The staff distribution by race in Ortona, and Osceola schools, most of which were located in the predominantly white area near the beach. each school was to conform to a ratio of 78 percent All but the Hurst school would otherwise have been white and 22 percent black.' attended only by white pupils. Nearly all of the core The principal feature of Plan B-1 is that the Small, area pupils so transported under Plan B were black, al- Bonner, and Starke walk-in zones are restricted, and though 18 white children resided in the Hurst island, the additional black pupils displaced are transported as did 99 black children. Hurst now became 73 percent to the perimeter schools. White pupils are transported black. from outlying areas to the Bonner, Small, and Starke Similar results were accomplished by Plan B in the Schools. The pupils residing in the Hurst and Marks DeLand area, where a walk-in zone drawn around transportation islands under Plan B are still trans- Starke School led to the creation of a transportation island for George Marks School, whichwas able to * Tillman v. Board of Public Instructionof Volusia County, accommodate additional pupils. The Marks transpor- U.S. Court of Appeals for the. Fifth Circuit, No. 29180, 430 F.2d. 309 (1970), P. 4. tation island embraced a neighborhood in which black Report on the Status of Plan B-1 as of September 1970, residents were dominant and other neighborhoods School Board of Volusia County, Jan. 31, 1971. ported to 1ltth and George Marks, respectively,from A major center of black resistance was the Campbell the expanded transportatio zones created by B-1. Center in Daytona Beach, formerlyan all-black junior- Under Plan B-1, all of the illack students and all senior high and now a 7th grade center with gradesto of the white studentswere to attend substantially inte- be added each year until it included grades7-9. Black grated schools, with the racial composition of each students from Campbell were to be busedacross town, school to be predominantly white. The court ruled that primarily to Seabreeze and Mainland. county schools should seek enrollments of no fewer than Most city officials and prominent civic leadersre- 20 percent or more than 40 percent black pupils. One mained neutral on the issue, leaving the board with school, Osceola, which is at thenorthern extremity the responsibility for the whole matter. The district's of the county and across the Halifax River from the Congressman, who was engaged ina campaign for a mainland where the black population is located, and U.S. Senate seat, sided with the Governor, Of theme- several other schools in the southeast would remain dia, the Orlando Sentinel opposed Plan 11-1,while nearly all-white in view of the absence of blacks in most other area newspapers, including the Daytona that region.' Beach News Journal, were neutralor favorable. The Opposition to the Plan News Journal reportedly lostsome subscribers because of its stand, but has since recovered most of them. There were three main obstacles to.implemenanon While tension was high at first, there wereno serious of Plan 11-I on February 1, 1970.First, the prospect incidents of violence and no major demonstrations of implementing the planat mid-year, rather than against the new plan. the following fall, evokeda good deal of criticism from Adoption of the Plon teachers and parents. Second,pressure on the board to resist the court order was heightened when a school tent with a "Sunshine Law" in Florida which desegregation decision by a court in Florida's Orange requires that school board meetings be open to the County appeared to accept freedom-of-choice with a public, the Volusia County Board heldopen hearings majority transfer plan, leaving 15 or 16 schools all throughout the fall of 1969 to explain its position both black in that county. Third, the Governor's office on Plan-B, implemented that September, and then threatened to prevent execution of the court order Plan B-1, to be implementedon February 1, 1970. by a last minute petition and brought strong pressures These hearings drew large audiences. The board itself on the board to resist the order. had internal disagreements about its proposed policy, Plan B-1 involved cross-busing from predominantly but after initial, sharp dispute, it united black low-income to approve areas to white coastal 'schools and Plan B-1 unanimously for implementation vice versa and, for this on Febru- reason, many black and white ary 1 as ordered by the court. parents were critical of the plan. Some teachers also Since February 1, 1970, two board members, the opposed cross-busing to and from widely differing so- chairman and vice chairman, have been re-electedto cioeconomic neighborhoods. Resistanceto the plan was office, with the chairman defeatinga candidate sup- irrrmediately visible. The superintendentand several ported by the local White Citizens' Council in whatwas other administrative leaderswere burned in effigy and considered a good test case ofany public backlash. The received telephone threats. Several boycotts resulted vice chairman of the board was re-elected without immediately. On the first day of desegregationat Bon- opposition. ner, approximately 200 white students failed to appear The court rejected the Governor's petition fora stay for classes, and only a very few rode thebuses that day. of the order, and despite a last minute Executiveorder threatening the Volusia Board, that body proceededto Port Orange Elementary had 8.3 percent black pupilsin implement Plan B-1. May 1972 and Tornolta 16.7 percent black. EdgewaterPublic and Coronado Beach Elementary Schoolsare isolated in the WhiteFlight southeastern part of thecounty. Hillcrest andVolusia Ave. nue Schools, now exceptional child centers, had,as ci May - White flight has not been a major problem in the 1972,53.3 percent and 79.5percent black enrollments, respectively, The board indicated that it is concernedat the desegregation of Volusia County's schools. Aminor lack of white referrals to the lattertwo schools and is seek- exodus to private schools in February 1970 decreased ing to halt the trend toward heavily black enrollments there. attendance at the three affected schools from 650to 60 340. Ten to 12 white families refusedto permit their to desegregation come into traumatic reality. The improve- children to attend newly integrated Small. ment of instruction for all children is in our opinion, the best Most of these families have returned their children means of obviating problems of desegregation. We believe that Program PRIDE will bring abbut attitudinal changes to Small, apparently because of the high costs of pri- in teachers and children to the extent that race willcease to vate schools, and by April 1970, attendance at the three be of significance in our educational program. schools had climbed back to 600. The ultimate goal to which we aspire is to provide a school The Daytona Beach Academy was organizedto be- climate which accepts each child as a person of worth and come the principal private school, enrolling about 400 which will, through a process of participation, involvement, students in grades 1-3. It has since added grades and self-directed learning activities, produce self.actualized 4-B, persons." but only 135 of the county's students attend theAcad- emy today. Five parochial schools continue to operate A Title IV workshop was held in 1971 at Small to help teachers adjust to desegregated classroom con- today as they did before February 1, 1970, withper- ditions. No money was made available in 1972 through haps a slight increase in student enrollmentsince the February 1970 desegregation. A military school has the Emergency School Assistance Program (ESAP)' since closed for lack of support. because of anHEWreport of October 1971, Which noted that schools were not maintaininga representa- Attempts To Ease Adjustment of Studies in the tive staff. In the opinion of HEW staff, there were too Integrated Schools many black teachers in some schools. The board declined to transfer faculty in October, so an application Preparation for desegregation had begun well before for ESAP funds totaling $125,000 was denied. the court order. Volusia County had received three Numerous teaching innovations accompanied de- grants under Title IV of the Civil Rights Act of 1964-- segregation in Volusia County. Open classrooms and $350,000 for the 1965-66 schoolyear; $160,000 for the team teaching are now operating at the junior high 1966-67 school year; and $75,000 for the period Janu- level. There are now 34 Title I reading centers to serv- ary 1968 to March 1969. These funds were used for "a ice Title I and noneligible Title I students. Summer comprehensive, countywide program to identify and :reading programs are intended to raise student read- solve problems of school desegregation by furthering ing levels. The Hoffman system which utilizes teach- Personal Responsibility for Individual Development ing machines for groups of six to eightas well as spe- through the Education of Teachers."' The 3-year effort cial tapes, records, filmstrips, and workbooks is to be was known as Program PRIDE. At its peak, the Vo lu- initiated in grades K-3 and grade 7 from July 1-June sia County program includeda desegregated demon- 30, 1972-73. "The Bob Warner Systems 80"program, stration center, a reading center for teacher training, a reading program involving individualized instruc- variableinstructionalserviceteachers B(VIS) a tion, teacher diagnosis and prescription, is also to be planned observation program at the demonstration incorporated. Black studies material was inserted into school, the reading center and, in other classrooms, social studies courses. "Negro History Week" and Mar- specialtraining programs through college-related tin Luther King, Jr.'s birthday are now celebrated at courses and seminars and workshops and conferences. some schools. Inservice training in black history was While none of these activities dealt directlywith de- provided for the teachers at Bethune Cookman Col- segregation, the purpose of theprogram was made lege and Stetson University. Finally, teacherswere clear by the board: urged to make home visits in order to gain a better is the intent of this program through the multiplicity understanding of the home environment of their stu- ofs phases, to serve the varied needs of individuals of all dents. creeds and ethnic backgrounds before problems attendant Another aid to smooth desegregation was the utiliza- Program PRIDE Final Technical Report. Original Gran tion of extra rooms which had been vacant ata num- Period, Aug. 3, 1965 July 31, 1966. Volusia Ccumty Board ber of white schools - .although the blackschools had of Public Instruction. ' VIS teachers 'actas catalysts for, change on school fac- " Program PRIDE, Final Technical Report, Osiginal Grant ulties by helping classroom teachers learnways of meeting Period, Aug. 31, 1965July 31, 1966, Volusia Co. Bd, of the personal needs of children through varying procedures, Public Instruction. methods, equipment, materials and supplies." Final Technical Emergtcy School Assistance Program (ESAP) grants Report--Ang. 31, 19659july 31, 1966. are Federal grants to school districts which are desegregating.

61 been overcrowded. Most ofthe formerly black schools junior arid senior high schools, had been built after 1954 particularly in sports. and, although theywere Small Elementarynow has a student council, recent overcrowded and often lacked supplies and equip- elections for which found black students ment, they ware relatively campaigning new and attractive. Many for whites and white studentsfor black candidates. individuals interviewed by CommissionStaff members Small also has a school reported that the availability of newspaper and Tri-Grade Y for supplies and equip- girls, both drawing black and ment was greatly increased with white students. A black desegregation and girl was elected "Miss DeLand"for the first time by maintenance was improved. Fences which had been students at DeLand Senior High. requested in vain for a long timewere now installed Most students interviewed said thatthey had friends at formerly black schools in order to prevent vandal- of another race but seldomsaw them after school be- ism. Several formerly black schools were closed. cause of the distance beween their homes. Some schools Another helpful factor in the relatively peaceful have encountered difficultyin organizing dances ap- desegregation in Volusia Countywas the positive role pealing to both blacks and whites andDeLand Senior playedbytheVolusiaEducational Association High held two seniorproms last year, one for each race. (VEA), an integrated teachers' organization, which was the result of a merger in 1966 ofthe white Transportation teachers' organization (VCEA) and its black counter- part ( VCTA). The VEA'scurrent president is black, Transportation is provided at Stateexpense for and the organization is creditedwith "accomplishing students who live more than 2 milesfrom school (about 15,800 or 48.9 percent) a lot" in terms of keeping communicationchannels .County and local funds open for fruitful interracial discussionof problems pay for the busing of those who travel less than 2 miles associated with desegregation. (about 750). Any damageto the buses caused by pupils Students in some junior high schoolsinitiated "rap' roust be paid for by the parents of theguilty individual. scions, monitored by teachers,as an effort on their Both before and after February 1,1970, 85 buses part to ease the transition. were used by the Volusia Board in the operation of the entire system for all grades.Before that date, 67 Integration Within Schools buses were in daily use on actualtransportation routes, while the rest were being Homogeneous grouping hasbeen used at some rotated through mainte- schools, and school administrators nance, kept as spares, and devoted to athletic activi- and teachers have ties, field trips, and other specific expressed some concernat the resultS. The "General activities. Educational Development" After February 1, 1970,an additional seven buses, courses for low-achieving or a total of 75, were required on students at Campbell Centerare now attended pri- routes, and the number free for maintenance, standby_ marily by black students.As mentioned, low white ,and other pur- poses was correspondingly reduced. The additional referrals to Riverview and VolusiaAvenue Elementary schools, operating cost of the transportationsystem as a result which became exceptionalchildcenters of implementation of Plan B-1was about $38,500. (Volusia Avenue also haskindergartenclasses), During the schoolyear, 197172, approximately caused the percentage ofblacks at those schoolsto 16,500 students in Volusia County rise to 53.3 percent and79.5 percent, respectively.The were bused, of whom at least 3,600 senior high level employsaccelerated, average, and were black. This figure compares basic grouping with 12,026 students bused areas. Discontent with thegenerally in 1969, of whom 2,107 unsatisfactory results ofhomogeneous groupingat sev- were black. There are now 81 busroutes and each eral schools was expressed by some teachers andschool bus makes about fivetrips. administrators who consider such grouping a problem In the Halifax area, total mileageincreased from requiring serious attention. 159 to 264 miles in February 1970,and total mileage Some uneasiness between white and black students increased in the DeLandarea from 81 to 110, The still continues, and black and white students tendto longest ride takes-50 minutes tocover about 25 miles, separate in the cafeteria, library, and in some classes while the average ride is 15-20minutes and less than at several schools. According to students of both races 5 miles. Buses leave from Small;for example, from interviewed by Commissionstaff, black students are in- 777:45 a.m., and the longest ride is20 minutes or 5 . creasingly participating inextracurricular activities in miles. As a result of segregated housing patterns in Volusia championships and an excellent band, A petition cir- County, the buses tend to carry either whiteor black culated protesting the change at Campbell and drew students. There is therefore no opportunity for possi- 600 signatures. Southwestern High School in DeLand, ble interracial friction on most buses. No serious racial also previously all-black, was the center of opposition incidents have occurred on buses carrying both black to the plan among black families in DeLand. and white students, despite the early fears ofsome Much opposition faded as the fears and myths failed parents. to materialize. Physical conditions and security were Volusia County buses have an excellent safety rec- improved at the formerly black schools. The principal ord. The buses have travelled a total of PA million at Bonner was soon regarded by white and black miles with only 12 accidents, none of which resulted parents as one of the finest administrators in the county. in deaths or injuries. A steady decline in thefts and shakedowns began. Al- Training for bus drivers, who include both whites though the Ku Klux Klan had been active in the past and blacks, has been careful and has included driving in some rural pockets of the county, no Klan hostility desegregated Head Start groups. Integrated meetings to the plan was apparent during this period. of bus drivers have been held to discuss how to deal Parents began to visit the schools, which helped dis- with children on the buses. sipate many of their worries. Many were surprised at the relative lack of disruptions and violence, compar- Disciplining Students ing the situation in Volusia County with that in other Disciplinary problems were often made more diffi- parts of the State where major incidents had taken cult at first by some teachers of both races who were place. uncertain how to handle, infractions. The workshops In October 1971, blacks and whites at Mainland were useful, in the opinion of some teachers, in helping Senior High had a confrontation reportedly instigated them learn to cope with these situations. Today, they by an off-campus dispute near a black.project. Police usually involve fights between members of the same intervention was prevented and the threatened racial race rather than between blacks and whites. Some clash was avoided. racial clashes have occurred among the Special Educa- As in many other school districts in the Nation, drug tion students, but these account for only about 1 per- usage among students is considered a problem by some cent of the disciplinary cases, according to one school school authorities. The assistant principalat one official, Most schools reported that the number of dis- school in a predominantly black area observed that of ciplinary problems they dealt with rather closely par- 27 drug cases during the 1971-72 school year, six in. alleled racial ratios at the school, which is to say that volved black students. A school board member said primarily they involved only whites. that drugs, not integration, was the major problem in Volusia County schools. Disruptions, Violence, and Crime Teachers' Attitudes Toward the Plan As mentioned, there were incidents accompanying desegregation in February 1970. Some fights occurred Previous to the plan, 16 black elementary prin- and threats were exchanged. Rumors and exaggera- cipals headed schools in the county. When the plan ns spread, usually from parent to parent. Early was begun, all but three(at Small, Bonner, and morning telephone calls and slashed tires plagued some Starke) were named associate principals at no loss in county school officials for a while. pay when their schools integrated. There had been Fears and apprehensions centered largely around three black senior high principals before, but none the former black schools. White parents were initially remained after February 1, 1970. Two black prin- concerned about sending their children to schools, in cipals remain at Chisholm and Campbell junior. low-income, predominantly black neighborhoods. Ru- Highs. mors and fears were particularly rife at first at Bonner, The implementation of Plan B-1 involved a faculty where a bomb threat was received. shift. Teachers were arbitrarily assigned by race, but Black opposition to the plan centered on. Campbell, volunteers were transferred according to their choice. now an integrated 7th grade center and formerly a While the board claims it has no difficulty maintaining black junior-senior high with a record of athletic a representative staff at the elementary level, it con- cedes that it 7nay encounter difficultyin finding a black now feel that Small is "their school". A PTA carnival replacement should someone such as a black calculus was successful at Small this year, with many black and teacher leave. white parents attending. Parents have volunteered to The only recruiting for teachers in 1971 =72was serve as teachers' aides with small groups and individ- done at two black colleges, Florida A&M and Bethune- uals at the school. Some arc volunteer librarians. Both Clookman. There has been some difficulty in keeping black and white parents have joined to form the South black administrators, according toone source, as better Street Project Association, which repaintedsome paying jobs become available for them elsewhere.A Small's facilities. A Public Relations Group has fo- board member said that the search for qualified black cused on human relations projects, at Small,, including teachers continues and is a matter oftop priority. the extension of courtesies to the school staff 'on such Some teachers were moved from several schoolsbe Occasions as birthdays or marriages. The PTA at cause of their apparent inability to work with pupils mpbell School is now fully integrated. of another race. A free-transfer policy iscurrently Some black and white parents still prefer freedom- followed, although the 78-22 faculty racialcomposi- of- choice, but several stated that they did not want tion remains the guideline to which the free-transfer to go back to the old method and that the educational policy must adhere. system in Volusia County was better today. While no Teachers interviewed by Commission staff reported systematic research has yet been undertaken, oneob- that they mingle well across racial lines, and thatsome server said that comparison of some achievement scores who could not adjust have retiredor gone elsewhere. suggests gains in performance by both blacks And whites TeaChers socialize particularly wellat Small, where with a noticeable decrease in failing levels. One white the black principal has received praise fromnumerous parent, whose 9th grade son is having reading difficul- white and black teachers. ties, said that her son's problem has nothing to do with school desegregation. She said she ismore concerned Attitudes of Black and White Parents about the quality of teaching and the "relevancy" of er son's education than anything else. Many parents interviewed felt that desegregation is One school board member concluded that: "Initially proceeding surprisingly smoothly today in Volusia the parents were very upset by the plan, but thestu- County. Sonic parents of children attending Small dents have always been calm and cool. Noweveryone have asked not to have them moved againas they calm. Things have worked out very well."

U.S. GOVERNHOT PlaiTING OFFICE:19T2 9=479-771