WILDLANDS CONSERVATION IN CENTRAL AMERICA

by Gary S. Hartshorn

1982INo. 23 South America [GSH-1-'821

This country-by-country survey double by the year 2000. The of national parks and reserves inexorable advance of the agricul- tural frontier into the shrinking reveals the difficulty of con- forests leaves little time-certainly serving wildlands in areas where no more than this decade-to growing populations exert pres- establish protected conservation sure on every natural resource. units. The current political strife in Political instability and war com- northern Central America and the severe economic problems buffeting pound the problems. the region make it difficult for government agencies responsible Central America has served as a for national parks and equivalent great biogeographic mixing ground reserves to protect the existing for the floras and faunas of North parks. How will they be able to add and South America. Tracks of puma new conservation units and to and overlap in Honduras' Rio consolidate the national conserva- Platano biosphere reserve. Northern tion system? hemisphere conifers (pines, firs, This Report offers a country-by- spruces, and cedars) extend as far country overview of the status of south as Lake Nicaragua, but oaks national parks and equivalent re- dominate the high-elevation Tala- serves. The latter include biological manca forests of and reserves, wildlife refugia, biosphere Panama. Paramo-low, shrubby reserves, as well as those multiple vegetation above tree-line that use areas, world heritage sites and dominates the northern Andes- has natural monuments that protect its northernmost extension on Costa significant natural ecosystems. Rica's highest peak. comments on biological and eco- Central American forests are the logical aspects are kept to a bare habitats of a great diversity of minimum; however, references to tropical birds, mammals, reptiles pertinent literature are included. The (herps), and invertebrates. Many listing of national parks and equiva- so-called North American migratory lent reserves (Table 2 and Figure 1) birds spend more time in these follows, where possible, the numer- tropical forests than at their brief ation of lUCN (1981). northern summer habitat. Recent studies indicate a surprising number of local bird species migrate altitudi- nally. Yet Central America's forests Editor's Note: During his tenure as a are being cut at a combined rate of Forest and Man Fellow of the Institute not less than 300,000 hectareslyear of Current World Affairs, Dr. Hartshorn (Table 1). Except for sparsely popu- was required periodically to write lated Belize, the other six countries "newsletters" on his research and have less than 45 percent of their travels. Several that seem pertinent to land still in natural forests (MacFar- this Report or his lectures are listed on land & Morales 1981). With human page 11. These may be obtained by population growth averaging 3.0 writing the Institute of Current World percent for the region, central Affairs, 4 West Wheelock Street, America's population will nearly Hanover, NH 03755. Table 1 Features of Central American Countries Area* Population Remaining 1978 Minimum Protected Area* Number of Con- 1977- 1978 Wildlands* Rate of De- (%I servation Units forestation* Belize 22,975 Costa Rica 51,000 El Salvador 21 ,I56 Guatemala 108,889 Honduras 112,088 Nicaragua 148,000 Panama 77,082

Total 541,190

Regional Synthesis but it is much more difficult to recent cases, La Amistad and the Central America's 46 national parks implement the decree establishing a Braulio Carrillo-La Selva corridor, and equivalent reserves cover conservation unit. Consolidation the government has tried to avoid 18,537 km2, or about 3.5 percent of means that boundaries must be expropriation by segregating pri- the region. About three-quarters of established and maintained on the vately held lands into a Protection these conservation units have been ground; privately owned land should Zone, where changes in current land established since 1970. Except in be expropriated; nonindigenous use are prohibited. Belize, each country's early efforts occupants need to be moved to new focused on national parks. Only in lands outside the unit; the biota The lack of ecological and cadastral the past few years have some must be protected from hunters and surveys prior to legal establishment countries established other types of poachers; the area should be zoned of a conservation unit has also conservation units, such as biologi- for use; and a management plan hindered the consolidation process. Office-drawn boundaries often in- cal reserves, wildlife refugia, and developed. Failure to consolidate a conservation unit not only permits clude operational farms, yet omit natural monuments. The early predi- critical habitats or unique ecosys- lection for national parks is under- the destruction of biota and natural tems. In an independent evaluation standable and even justifiable, given resources that were supposed to be of Costa Rica's national parks and the strong international recognition protected, but it also has the more equivalent reserves, boundary modi- associated with national park status. insidious effect of inculcating dis- fications were recommended for If park consolidation and effective respect for conservation. The all too two-thirds of the conservation units protection are achieved, a protected common occurrence of "paper (CCT 1982). La Amistad Interna- area can be reclassified to a more parks" in Latin America, where a declared park is occupied by tional Park is the first case in Central appropriate type of conservation America where ecological and unit. hundreds of squatters practicing slash-and-burn agriculture, makes cadastral field studies preceded In general terms, each country has consolidation nearly impossible. In- legal establishment of a conserva- an adequate legal base for conserva- effective government efforts to tion unit. tion. Most conservation units have avoid "paper parks" pose serious Other than in Costa Rica, the sparse been established by presidential threats for other conservation units decree, thus they can be abrogated ecological information available on that may still be intact due to established conservation units by another decree or simply ignored inaccessibility. by the next president. Nevertheless, makes it difficult to assess their presidential interest in conservation The inclusion of privately owned representativeness. The biogeo- can produce results, as shown by lands within the boundaries of a graphic provinces (see Table 2) used Costa Rica's impressive advances in conservation unit presents another by IUCN are ecologically meaning- conservation during the adminis- obstacle to consolidation, largely less in Central America. Estimates of trations of Daniel Oduber (1974- because of government noninterest major ecological life zones repre- 1978) and Rodrigo Carazo (1978- e.g., El Salvador's Montecristo) or sented in each conservation unit 1982). Costa Rican law stipulates difficult economic conditions. The (Table 2) suggest that subhumid that a conservation unit established Costa Rican tradition of private land and humid life zones are poorly by presidential decree can be ownership is reflected in the esti- represented in protected areas of changed only by a two-thirds vote mate that 23 percent of the Central America. This is not sur- of the Legislative Assembly. country's protected wildlands is still prising since these humidity in private hands. As money be- provinces are preferred for agricul- Consolidation of conservation units comes available, the National Park ture and human habitation, with a is the most serious problem facing Service (SPN) purchased key par- long history of natural resources Central America's national parks cels, but the current economic degradation. The subhumid Pacific and equivalent reserves. It is easy to debacle has seriously slowed the lowlands of Central America have promulgate a presidential decree, consolidation program. In two very few conservation units due to the general absence of forests. conservation systems should be Half-Moon Ca ye National Similarly, the dry highlands of expanded and consolidated, the Monument northern Central America have few Central American governments Half-Moon Caye bird sanctuary was functional conservation units be- simply lack the resources to converted to a National Monument cause of centuries of human use. accomplish their conservation goals. in 1982 by the newly independent This is truly a critical decade for Belizean government. It is a 15 Private organizations have played conservation in Central America. hectare coral sand caye at the critical roles in helping Central Yet in times of crises, the impor- southeastern end of Lighthouse American countries establish and tance of education is often for- Reef, one of the few true coral atolls consolidate conservation units. gotten. Public education is crucial to in the Caribbean Sea. The western Most obvious is the financial the growth of environmental aware- half of the island is a thriving support of international or foreign ness and support for conservation. rookery for the white phase of the conservation groups to government Without support of the general red-footed booby (Sula sula) as well conservation agencies, as well as to public, few national parks and as for the magnificent frigatebird. private biological reserves. Although equivalent reserves of Central Despite clear legal status as a wild- space does not permit the long America will survive into the twenty- life sanctuary, Half-Moon Caye and listing of all the private donor organi- first century. the smaller island rookeries suffer zations, they deserve much credit from nest raiding by local fishermen Status of Central American National for donations that, more often than for eggs and young birds. The Belize not, made the critical difference in Parks and Equivalent Reserves Belize Fisheries Department is adminis- the successful consolidation of tratively responsible for Half-Moon several conservation units. The British administration created several small Crown Reserves and Caye National Monument. Worldwide concern about tropical entrusted the administration of Costa Rica deforestation has prompted a much these bird sanctuaries to the Belize Since the establishment of the more active participation of USAID Audubon Society. The oldest, Half- National Park Service (SPN) in 1970, in Central American conservation. Moon Caye Wildlife Sanctuary, was Costa Rica has made truly remark- AID'S Central American portfolio set aside in 1928. Seven Crown able progress in conservation. includes grants to the Costa Rican Reserves are tiny islands Twenty-two national parks and Association for the Conservation of less than two hectares in size and equivalent reserves cover 8.47 Nature (ASCONA), a loan to the not described in the listing of percent of the country, one of the Panama government to rehabilitate national parks and equivalent re- highest percentages of any country the Panama Canal watersheds, a serves. The mangrove islands serve in the world. In contrast to many loan to the Costa Rican government as rookeries for roseate spoonbills Latin American countries, Costa for conservation of natural re- (Ajaia ajaja), wood storks (Mycteria Rica's national parks and equivalent sources, and country environmental americana), great egrets (Egretta reserves are functional conservation profiles. The U.S. Nature Con- alba), cormorants (Phalacrocorax units; each has on-site administra- servancy is helping the private Costa olivaceous), boat-billed herons tive and guard personnel. Manage- Rican National Parks Foundation (Cochlearius cochlearius), anhingas ment plans exist for most of the raise funds for land acquisition (Anhinga anhinga), cattle egrets conservation units. SPN is respon- (Barnard 1982). RARE (Rare Animal (Bubulcus ibis), white ibis (Eudoci- sible for all national parks and public Relief Effort) is supporting a con- mus albus), reddish egret (Dichro- biological reserves and through an servation education program in 11 manassa rufescens), tri-colored intraministerial agreement with the primary schools in Costa Rica that herons (Hydranassa tricolor), brown Forest Service, the SPN administers complements ASCONA's public boobies (Sula leucogaster), white- two protection zones contiguous to education efforts. CATIE's program crowned pigeons (Columba leuco- national parks. in wildlands conservation is partially cepbala) and magnificent frigate- Two wildlife refuges, Palo Verde supported by the Rockefeller birds (Fragata magnificens). Brothers' fund. and Tapanti, are administered by the The colonial government created Wildlife Department (DVS). Two In the face of burgeoning popula- ten Forest Reserves totaling about well-known private biological re- tions and rampant deforestation, 420,000 hectares (18% of the serves are important components of previous little time remains to add country); however, they are con- the conservation system; Monte- new conservation units or to con- sidered reserves primarily for timber verde Cloud Forest Reserve is solidate existing national systems. exploitation. Protection efforts owned by the Tropical Science Ecological evaluations of existing focus on control and prevention of Center and the La Selva Biological and potential units, such as have fires in the pine forests. Station is owned by the Organiza- been completed in Costa Rica and tion for Tropical Studies. are in progress in Nicaragua, are Guanacaste Park Wildlife Sanctuary urgently needed in Panama, Hon- The dominant feature of this park is Many of Costa Rica's conservation duras, and Guatemala. The convul- a huge guanacaste tree (Enterolo- units are described and beautifully sive political situation and horren- bium cyclocarpum). The 21 hectare illustrated in the books by the first dous economic problems of most of bird sanctuary was decreed in 1975 SPN director (Boza 1978; Boza & the countries make it extremely with tenure assigned by a con- Mendoza 1981). Considerable eco- difficult to maintain the conserva- ditional free grant to the Belize logical information on the biota of tion status quo. Even though re- Audubon Society. The sanctuary is Santa Rosa, Palo Verde, Corcovado, sponsible government institutions fenced and is used principally for La Selva, and Monteverde also need strengthening and national bird watching. exists (Janzen 1983). Chirripd National Park Braulio Carrillo and La Selva, but it blocks into one conservation unit is The highest peak in Costa Rica, is probably too small to support the a top priority of the newly formed several lakes of glacial origin and numerous altitudinal migrants from National Parks Foundation. extensive paramo vegetation are the Braulio Carrillo that require lowland principal features of this national forest for part of their yearly cycle. Nancite beach is one of the prin- park in the central Cordillera de cipal nesting sites of the Pacific Talamanca. The Chirripd paramo is With financial assistance from ridley sea turtle (Lepidochelys the northernmost occurrence of this USAID, the SPN is actively pre- olivacea). Uncontrollable fires high-altitude, shrubby vegetation paring management plans and inter- sweeping through dry, rank grasses that dominates the northern Andes. pretive programs to capitalize on the are the major problem confronting A fire set by visitors in March 1976 considerable traffic expected on the . San Jose-Gua'piles highway. Un- burned about 90 percent of the Hitoy- Cerere Biological Reserve paramo. Post-fire recovery is being controlled construction of the high- way right-of-way has devastated This little-known biological reserve documented by a team of ecologists is nestled in the rugged Caribbean from the National University (UNA). slope forests and dumped thou- sands of tons of sediments into two foothills of the Cordillera de major rivers. But the most serious Talamanca. It is bordered on three Many visitors consider Corcovado problem for Braulio Carrillo is a sub- sides by the Estrella, Talamanca, to be the gemstone of Costa Rica's stantial number of private holdings and Telire Indian Reserves. system of national parks and equiva- within the park that the SPN lacks lent reserves. Corcovado's lowland funds to purchase. Carara Biological Reserve wet forests are the most spectacular When the government expropriated I have seen in the tropics. The park the vast Hacienda Coyolar for agri- includes entire watersheds of sev- Isolated low hills, extensive swamp cultural colonization, the extensive eral rivers that flow onto the 10,000 forests, coastal lagoons and a long forests were segregated to form the hectare Corcovado plain before stretch of sandy beach make up Carara Biological Reserve. It is the interrupting the 19 kilometers of this extremely wet national park that only large block of primary forest pristine beach. Endangered large is world-famous as the primary remaining on the lower slopes of the mammals, such as white-lipped nesting area of the endangered central Pacific region. The area is peccary, giant anteater, tapir and green turtle (Chelonia mydas). very rich biologically because it is in jaguar are well-represented in Cor- Three decades of research by Dr. a transitional region between the covado. SPN is having considerable Archie Carr and collaborators at southern perhumid life zones and difficulty controlling the activities of Tortuguero have generated much northern subhumid life zones. placer miners in the rugged interior greater understanding of sea turtle Excellent accessibility from the of the Park. biology (see Carr 19671, as well as Coastal Highway suggests reclassi- providing the impetus for establish- fication to national park status (CCT Braulio Carrillo NationalPark ment of Tortuguero National Park. 1982). Easy access to most of the This major national park is partly a Despite legal protection and guards, reserve borders during the dry consequence of a proposed high- turtle hunting, both on-shore and season facilitates illegal hunting, the way through the rugged Cordillera just off-shore, and egg collecting are principal problem affecting Carara Volcinica Central. Conservation still problems in the park. wildlife. opposition to construction of the San Jose-Guspiles highway played Rincdn de la Vieja National Park a major role in the establishment of The relatively low, isolated volcanic Volc~hPoa3 National Park This active volcano in the Cordillera Braulio Carrillo National Park. Ex- massif of Rincdn de la Vieja in the Volcanica Central just northwest of tending from the peak of VolcSn Cordillera de Guanacaste is the Barba (2,900 meters) down to 500 principal park feature. The park also the capital, San Jose, is the most meters on the Caribbean slope, has critical watershed functions, visited of Costa Rica's national Braulio Carrillo offers an exceptional with 32 rivers and 16 intermittent parks. A recent government loan altitudinal transect through three streams originating in the park. The from the Central American Bank for superhumid ecological life zones. Pacific slope drainages form the Economic Integration (BCIE) funded headwaters of the Rio Tempisque, major improvements in tourist facili- the principal river of the monsoon- ties, including visitors' center, Dr. G. Stiles of the University of ally dry Guanacaste lowlands. restaurant and a paved highway. Costa Rica has found a substantial proportion of the bird species in Santa Rosa National Park Braulio Carrillo are altitudinal Not only is Santa Rosa the most Isla de Coco National Park migrants that spend part of the year important historic site in the This oceanic island lies about 500 in the Sarapiquf lowlands. To pro- country, but it is also the largest kilometers southwest of the Costa tect lowland habitat for altitudinal conservation unit in the seasonally Rican mainland. In contrast to the migratory species from Braulio dry lowlands of northwestern Costa Galapagos Islands, Coco is ex- Carrillo and to provide a forest Rica. Santa Rosa includes the tremely wet, with annual rainfall of corridor between the park and La recent 11,600 hectare Murcielago about 7,000 millimeters. The Coco Selva (described below) the govern- addition; however, the two are sepa- Island finch (Pinaroloxias inornata) ment decreed a 6,000 hectare rated by 13,000 hectares of private is closely related to the famed protection zone to be administered land. These intervening lands have Darwin's finches of the Galapagos. by the SPN. The narrow protection been recommended for inclusion in Sizable feral populations of do- zone (2-5 km. wide) may be a mini- Santa Rosa National Park (CCT mestic pigs and cats are the mum forest corridor between 1982) and consolidation of all three principal problem on Coco Island. Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve status as a National Recreation Area park was reduced to about 25 Straddling the low Cordillera de would be more appropriate (CCT percent of its original size due to the Tilaran in north-central Costa Rica, 1982). Pollution from nearby houses government's financial inability to the Monteverde Reserve is an and the town of Quepos and expropriate the large private hold- exceptional cloud forest laden with sedimentation are affecting the ings in the park. Seasonal lagoons epiphytes and mosses. Monteverde marine component of the park. remain in the park, but severe has good populations of the financial problems have hindered resplendent quetzal and the en- La Selva Biological Station SPN consolidation of the park and demic golden toad (Bufoperiglenes); La Selva was owned by Dr. L. R. protection of the waterfowl. The legitimately identified feathers have Holdridge from 1953 to 1968 when should been found of the oilbird (Steatornis he sold it to the Organization for eventually be integrated into the caripensis). The private Monteverde Tropical Studies (OTS). Nearly three Palo Verde Wildlife Refuge. Cloud Forest Reserve is owned and decades of research activities have administered by the Tropical Sci- made La Selva a renowned site. The La Amistad International Park ence Center, a Costa Rican associa- U.S. National Research Council Friendship International Park ex- tion involved in the conservation recommended La Selva as one of tends along the Cordillera de Tala- and rational use of natural resources four tropical sites for long-term manca east from Chirripd National in the tropics. ecological research (NRC 1980). The Park to the Panama border, where it recent purchase by OTS of an is supposed to join Panama's com- Volch~Irazu National Park adjoining property will permit ex- ponent of this binational park. Costa The oldest of Costa Rica's national pansion of research activities into Rica's Amistad Park covers about parks and equivalent reserves, Irazi ecosystem processes and applied 192,000 hectares, extending down functions exclusively as a tourist fields. The OTS is actively collabo- to 900 meters on the Pacific slope attraction. Volcanic eruptions in rating with the National Parks and 200 meters on the Caribbean 1963-1965 destroyed the vegetation Foundation to raise funds to con- side. The 19,602 hectare Las Tablas near the summit and most of the solidate the Protection Zone corri- Protection Zone is considered part rest of the park is used for agricul- dor to Braulio Carrillo National Park. of Amistad, even though it was ture or pasture. Because of the lslas de Guayabo, Negritos, Pijaros legally established as a separate unit tourist attraction and the absence of Biological Reserves. because the lands are privately significant natural ecosystems in the Three small rocky islands in the owned. park, it has been proposed (CCT Nicoya gulf serve as sea-bird 1982) that Irazi National Park be Amistad National Park includes 7 of rookeries, especially for brown the 12 ecological life zones in Costa joined with the nearby Ricardo pelicans (Pelecanus occidentalis), Jimgnez Oreamuno Recreational Rica and is estimated to contain at frigatebirds, brown boobies (Sula least two-thirds of the country's Area (Prusia) in a National Recrea- leucogaster) and anhingas. These tional Area. vertebrate fauna. The very large size islands would be more appropriate of the park and its exceptional as a wildlife refuge. ecological diversity make Amistad This small park on the Caribbean Barra Honda National Park potentially the most important con- coast includes 1,100 hectares of Intricate and extensive limestone servation unit in Central America. degraded terrestrial habitats and 600 caverns are the primary feature of hectares of sea to protect Costa Barra Honda. All the land is privately Tapant; Wildlife Refuge Rica's only coral reef that is about owned, with the consequence that Practically no information is avail- 6.5 kilometers long and 300 meters terrestrial habitats are severely able on this new conservation unit offshore. Unfortunately, the coral degraded. Since the park does not administered by the DVS. It is near reef is badly deteriorated and with contain important ecosystems of the Rfo Grande de Orosi at the considerable mortality, apparently biota, Barra Honda should be northern end of the Cordillera de caused by sedimentation. Because reclassified as a National Monu- Talamanca, and it includes one of of its smallness and popularity with ment. the major watersheds supplying the tourists, Cahuita should be reclassi- Rio Macho and Cachf hydroelectric fied to a National Recreation Area Rafael L ucas Rodrhuez Wildlife power plants. (CCT 1982). Refuge (Palo Verde) Extensive seasonal lagoons on the El Salvador Cabo Blanco Strict Nature Reserve Tempisque floodplain attract thou- The smallest country in Central The Cabo Blanco Reserve at the tip sands of migratory waterfowl in the America, El Salvador is the antithe- of the Nicoya peninsula was estab- dry season to the Palo Verde refuge. sis of Belize. El Salvador has the lished in 1963 as a private reserve by The Forest Service's Wildlife De- region's highest population density Olof Wessberg. The nearby island of partment (DVS) administers the (Table 1) and is nearly completely Cabo Blanco is a major rookery for Palo Verde refuge and has an active deforested. No information is avail- frigatebirds and pelicans. Cabo research program on several water- able for two national parks (Cerro Blanco is now administered by the fowl species. Palo Verde Wildlife Verde and Deininger) administered SPN as a biological reserve. Refuge also includes one of the least by the National Institute of Tourism ManuelAntonio National Park disturbed blocks of dry forest re- (INSTU). Implementation of agrarian Manuel Antonio is the smallest of maining in northwestern Costa Rica. reform is purported to have tripled Costa Rica's national parks, but the number of protection units, but includes some of the most beautiful Palo Verde National Park it is extremely doubtful that any unit Pacific beaches. It is very popular Bordering the Palo Verde Wildlife can be protected during the current for recreation and tourism, hence Refuge on the south, this national warfare. Table 2 National Parks and Equivalent Reserves in Central America Conservation Unit Year of Area (ha.) Elevations Biogeo- Ecological Life Zones* Creation (m) graphic BELIZE Province 1. Guanacaste Park Wildlife Sanctuary 1975 21 50 8.01 .O1 Sm 2. Half-Moon Caye Natural Monument COSTA RICA 1. Chirrripd National Park TLMr,TMr, TSAr 2. Corcovado National Park Tw,TPw,TPr 3. Braulio Carrillo National Park TPw,TPr,TLMr,TMr 4. Tortuguero National Park Tw 5. Rincdn de la Vieja National Park TPw,TPr,TLMr 6. Santa Rosa National Park Td,Tm 7. Hitoy-Cerere Biological Reserve Tm,TPw 8. Carara Biological Reserve Tm,Tw 9. VolcSn Po& National Park TLMw,TLMr,TMw,TMr 10. Isla de Coco National Park TPr 11. Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve TPw,TPr,TLMw,TLMr 12 Volca'n Irazil National Park TMw,TMr 13. Cahuita National Park Tm 14. Cabo Blanco Strict Nature Reserve Tm 15. Manuel Antonio National Park Tw 16. La Selva Biological Station Tw,TPw 17. Islas de Guayabo, Negritos, PAjaros, Biological Reserves 18. Barra Honda National Park 19. Rafael Lucas Rodriguez Wildlife Refuge (Palo Verde) Td 20. Palo Verde National Park Td 21. La Amistad International Park Tw,TPw,TPr,TLMw TLMr,TMr,TSAr 22. Tapantf Wildlife Refuge TPr EL SALVADOR 1. Montecristo National Park SLMw 2. Laguna Jocotal Wildlife Refuge Sm

GUATEMALA 1. Tikal World Heritage Site 1955179 57,600 200-250 8.01 .O1 Sm, Sw 2. Rio Dulce National Park 1955 24,200 0-1267 8.01 .O1 Sm,SLMw 3. Lago Atitldn National Park 1955 13,000 1 562 8.21.04 SLMm 4. Volc6n Pacaya Natural Monument 1963 2,000 1300-2600 8.21.04 SLMw 5. Quetzal Conservation Biotope 1977 1,000 1580-2348 8.21.04 SLMw 6. El Rosario National Park 1980 1,030 ? 8.01 .O1 ? HONDURAS 1. La Tigra National Park 1980 7,571 1360-2290 8.21.04 Sm,SLMm 2. Rio Platano Biosphere Reserve 1980 350,000 0-1326 8.16.04 Sm,Sw,SLMw 3. Lago de Yojoa Multiple Use Area 1971 34,628 600-2744 8.21.04 Sw, SLMw, SMw 4. Cusuco National Park 1959180 15,000 0-2270 8.21.04 Sm, Sw, SLMw 5. Bay Islands National Park 1960180 33,800 0-413 8.16.04 Sm NICARAGUA 1. Volcan Masaya National Park 1979 5,500 100-635 8.16.04 TPm 2. Saslaya National Park 1971 1 1,800 200-1650 8.16.04 Sw, SLMw PANAMA 1. Altos de Campana National Park 1977 4,816 250-1034 8.02.01 Tm, TPw 2. VoIcdn Bad National Park 1976 14,322 1544-3475 8.16.04 TLMw,TLMr,TMw,TMr 3. Portobelo National Park 1976 17,364 0-979 8.02.01 Tw,TPr 4. Darien World Heritage Site 1981 597,000 0-1500 8.02.01 Tm,Tw,TPw,TPr,TLMr 5. Soberanfa National Park 1 979 22,000 20-200 8.02.01 Tm,Tw,TPw 6. Barro Colorado Natural Monument 1923179 5,400 26-171 8.02.01 Tm 7. La Amistad International Park Proposed 200,000 200-3550 8.16.04 Tw,TPw,TPr,TLMr,TMr

*Ecological Life Zones: Td =Tropical dry, Tm =Tropical moist, Tw = Tropical wet; TPm =Tropical Premontane moist, TPw = Tropical Premontane wet, TPr = Tropical Premontane rain; TLMw = Tropical Lower Montane wet, TLMr = Tropical Lower Montane rain; TMw = Tropical Montane wet, TMr = Tropical Montane rain, TSAr = Tropical Subalpine rain; Sm = Subtropical moist, Sw = Subtropical wet; SLMm = Subtropical Lower Montane moist, SLMw = Subtropical Lower Montane wet; SMw = Subtropical Montane wet.

Montecristo National Park biologists at the University of §a Lago AtitIan National Park El Salvador's last major remnant of Carlos formed a Center for Con- The 1955 presidential decree that primary forest is in this mid-elevation servation Studies (CECON) in 1976, established Lago AtitIan National national park at the international that led to the establishment of the Park protects the 130 square kilo- border convergence with Guatemala University Biotope for the Conserva- meter lake, but not the shoreline or and Honduras. The two principal tion of the Quetzal. CECON has adjoining land. Rapid and uncon- forest types are oak-dominated established three other biotopes and trolled development along the cloud forest and oak-pine to 2,100 is considering five other possibilities shore, particularly of summer meters. Several threatened and en- (Godoy 1982). homes, is causing erosion and pol- dangered animal species are re- lution problems. The lake supports a The escalating violence between ported to occur in the park; government and guerrilla forces has small population of the endemic however, the native wildlife has AtitlAn grebe (Polylimbus gigas). turned many wildlands into free-fire probably been seriously decimated zones, relegating most conservation by war and use of the Montecristo Volc$n Pacaya NaturalMonument units to the status of "paper parks." region by antigovernment forces. The active Pacaya volcano was Continued violence has drastically Although managed and protected recognized as a natural monument reduced tourism to Guatemala. by the National Parks and Wildlife by a 1963 presidential decree. Service (DIGERENARE), Monte- Although a master plan for manage- Tikal World Heritage Site ment and protection was prepared cristo National Park has not been The Tikal National Park, created by legally established and the majority (Anon. 19741, it has not been im- government decree in 1955, was plemented. The natural forests have of the land is privately owned. Most reclassified in 1979 as a World of the lower slopes were deforested been severely affected by volcanic Heritage Site in recognition of the activity (two major forest fires in the for subsistence agriculture prior to Mayan temples, pyramids, and the creation of the park. past 15 years) and subsistence agri- stelae. The extensive forests have culture. Many of the 100 families Laguna Jocotal Wildlife Refuge an abundance of mahogany (Swie- living near the volcano intensively Laguna Jocotal is a eutrophic lake teria macrophylla ) chicle (Manilkara cultivate corn on the upper slopes situated at the base of Volcih San achras) and ramon (Brosimum ali- and use the highlands for pasture. Miguel. The refuge was established castrum), possibly a consequence of Wildlife is scarce due to continuous in 1978 to protect local and Mayan silviculture to increase the hunting pressure. As in the case of migratory waterfowl; however, it abundance of these useful trees. Rio Dulce National Park, the Volcan still lacks legal protection. The lake- The Tikal forests are reported to Pacaya Natural Monument is not a shore vegetation is severely de- contain the following endangered or functional conservation unit. graded and the lake tributaries carry threatened animal species: giant pesticides used in the neighboring anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla), Quetzal Conservation Biotope cotton fields. About 300 families live (Felis pardalis), jaguar (F. In 1977 the municipality of Salama, along the lake margin, of whom 120 onca), Baird's tapir (Tapirus bairdii), Baja Verapaz, donated about 900 subsist on fishing in Laguna Jocotal. and crocodile (Crocodylus more- hectares of cloud forest to the Uni- let;;). Although some illegal hunting versity of San Carlos to establish a Guatemala occurs within the protection area, conservation unit for the resplen- Guatemala made an impressive start the principal problem is theft of dent quetzal (Pharomachrus to conserve wildlands with the archaeological items. mocinno), Guatemala's national establishment of ten national parks bird. University of San Carlos' biolo- in 1955. By 1973, 16 national parks Rio Dulce National Park gists have actively participated in had been created, but only 4 meet Created in 1955 by presidential biological inventories and research international criteria for national decree, Rfo Dulce National Park is a and development plans for the parks (Godoy 1982); Tikal, Rib classic paper park. It includes the Quetzal Conservation Biotope (e.g., Dulce, Atitla'n, and Pacaya. The Sierra de Mico, Lago Izabal, and the Dary & Ponciano 1980). Although auspicious start in 1955 is attribu- Rib Dulce, but most of the land is hunting is common in the region, table primarily to the conservation privately owned and exact bound- the biotope is now well protected. It of tourist attractions such as the aries have never been fixed. In the is questionable if 900 hectares of Mayan ruins at Tikal. National Parks absence of protection and manage- primary forest is sufficiently large to and equivalent reserves are admin- ment by INGUAT, deforestation and support a viable population of istered by various government hunting are rampant. The same en- quetzals, hence the plans to enlarge agencies. Tikal is administered by dangered or threatened animal the biotope to about 3,000 hectares the National Archaeology and species listed forTikal are also re- should be strongly supported. History Institute (INAH), while Rio ported for the Rio Dulce National ElRosario National Park Dulce is assigned to the Institute of Park; however, it is unlikely that No information is available for this Tourism (INGUAT). The National viable populations of large animals small (1,030 ha.) park in the Pet& Forestry Institute's (INAFOR) De- can survive in the park without that was created by presidential partment of National Parks and complete protection from hunting Wildlife has legal responsibility for and human encroachment. Several decree in 1980. national parks and equivalent re- small settlements and the town of Honduras serves, but has yet to develop Livingston are in the national park, In the past four years Honduras has protection and management pro- and nickel mining is planned. Given made great progress in conserva- grams in any park. INAFOR's con- the unlikelihood that the Rib Dulce tion, with the creation of a national servation priorities focus on recrea- National park can become a func- protected wildlands system, new tional areas. Due to government non- tional conservation unit, the area national parks and Central America's interest in conservation, concerned should be reclassified. first biosphere reserve. The general Directorate for Renewable Natural Honduras, with the introduced lands. The SPN is evaluating 35 Resources (DIGERENARE) in the largemouth bass supporting both potential wildlands for classification Ministry of Natural Resources is re- commercial and sport fisheries. The as conservation units (Dilger & sponsible for national parks and Yojoa watersheds were declared as Lopez 1982). equivalent reserves. The Honduran a forest reserve in 1971, but are now Forest Development Corporation considered a multiple use area Volcdn Masa ya National Park (COHDEFOR) has an active program (Betancourt & Dulin 1978) rather This active volcanic complex lies in watershed protection for Lake than a reserve for timber exploita- only 20 kilometers southeast of the Yojoa and Cusuco. COHDEFOR tion. capital, Managua. Because of its controls the nationalized forest attraction to local and foreign industry and forest reserves; how- Despite full legal protection of the tourism, Nicaraguan dictator ever, since the latter are for timber area, persistent problems include Anastasio Somoza was developing exploitation they are not considered squatter invasions for subsistence it as a showcase national park. here as conservation units. agriculture, lake contamination from Management and protection ceased La Tigra National Park mining operations and fertilizer and during the recent civil war; after the Created in 1980, this park includes pesticide runoff, and lack of control revolution squatters invaded the the higher elevations of San of the bass fishery. national park that was closely iden- Juancito mountains that are the Cusuco National Park tified with Somoza. These problems source of potable water for the The Cusuco Forest Reserve was have been mostly solved by the new government; however, minor prob- capital, Tegucigalpa. A master plan decreed in 1959 and efforts are for protection and public use of the being made to convert the area to lems of firewood collecting and deer poaching persist. Detailed manage- park is being implemented. Minor national park status. The Cusuco ment and interpretative plans have problems include lack of adequate watersheds are the principal source patrolling and enforcement, as well of potable water for San Pedro Sula, now been implemented, so it as agricultural encroachment along Honduras' commercial center. The appears that Nicaragua finally has a the boundaries. municipality of San Pedro Sula functional conservation unit. R/b Pla tan0 Biosphere Reserve maintains forest guards in the park Sasla ya National Park A 1980 law changed the Ciudad and COHDEFOR has a fire control This pristine park in the Zelaya Blanca Archaeological Reserve to brigade stationed near the park. The hinterland has yet to be consoli- the Rfo Platano Biosphere Reserve, surrounding area has been largely dated. Although protected so far by a vast area of approximately 350,000 deforested for slash-and-burn agri- inaccessibility, the eastward expan- hectares in eastern Honduras. Major culture and coffee growers are en- sion of the agricultural frontier will vegetation types include coastal croaching on the remaining mid- soon reach park boundaries. Pro- , swamp forests fringing elevation forests. tection and management will be coastal lagoons, pine , Bay Islands National Park necessary if Saslaya National Park is gallery forests and extensive mixed DIGERENARE has proposed con- to be a viable conservation unit. broad-leaved forests. In the absence verting the Guanaja Forest Reserve of significant disturbance or into the Bay Islands National Park, Panama hunting, this broad spectrum of including the addition of about Panama has an impressive list of habitats supports an impressive 10,000 hectares of marine area and national parks and equivalent re- array of endangered species in- many beautiful coral reefs. The prin- serves, including the huge Darien cluding manatee, jaguar, crocodile, cipal islands, Roatan, Guanaja, and World Heritage Site and part of the giant anteater, harpy eagle, brocket Utila, have been severely degraded La Amistad International Park. deer and scarlet macaw. Two and watershed destruction has Except for the Barro Colorado groups of Indians, the Paya and reached a critical stage. Although Natural Monument (BCNM) admin- Miskito, also live in the reserve. the 1959 Fisheries Law declared istered by the Smithsonian Tropical A management plan for the reserve coral reefs as protected areas, the Research Institute, Panama's has been prepared (Anon. 1980) and Bay Islands' reefs have suffered smaller parks have serious problems basic inventories of the natural and considerable degradation. Numer- with squatter invasions, fire, hunting cultural resources have also been ous endemic wildlife races and and general disrespect for conserva- completed. DIGERENARE has re- species occur on the Bay Islands, tion. The Renewable Natural Re- ceived strong support from CATIE but have greatly reduced popula- sources Directorate (RENARE) is and WWF-UK helping to consoli- tions due to habitat destruction. The the government agency responsible date the Rf? Platano Reserve. Not Bay Islands lack effective enforce- for administering Panama's national only is Rio Platano the first ment of existing statutes protecting parks and equivalent reserves. biosphere reserve in Central forests, wildlife, and coral reefs. RENARE's conservation efforts America, it is truly the most signifi- have been ineffective, in part due to cant conservation unit in northern Nicaragua weak leadership. Apart from BCNM, Central America. Except for the In 1980 the new government estab- the best conservation effort in Tikal World Heritage Site all other lished the National Park Service Panama is by the Cuna Indians in conservation units in northern (SPN) under the auspices of the the autonomous Comarca de San Central America are less than a Nicaraguan Institute of Natural Bias. But even their forests are tenth the size of the Rfo Platano Resources and the Environment coming under increasing pressure Biosphere Reserve (see Table 1). (IRENA). Although only two con- from non-Indian slash-and-burn servation units existed prior to the agriculturists and it is questionable Lago de Yojoa Multiple Use Area 1979 revolution, the new govern- that the Cuna can maintain their The 79 kilometer Yojoa lake is the ment has initiated efforts toward a patrimony without more direct gov- only large body of fresh water in national system of protected wild- ernment help. Panama has also declared 8 forest later to a World Heritage Site. This poaching of wildlife and trees in- reserves and 2 forest protectorates vast area is mostly undisturbed by creased dramatically. RENARE is totaling some 300,000 hectares; the man due to its inaccessibility; Cuna having great difficulty lessening former are primarily for timber ex- and Chocoe Indians practice tra- these illegal activities that were well- ploitation, while the latter are sup- ditional shifting cultivation on about established prior to the creation of posed to be preserved as protection 10 percent of the protected area. If the park. forests. Several key watersheds the Pan-American Highway is should be reclassified from forest eventually completed between Boca Barro Colorado Natural Monument reserves to hydrologic protection de Cup6 and the Colombian border, Several forested peninsulas in zones. Even though the critical the highway will bisect the conser- Gatfin Lake were added to the Bayano watershed was classified as vation unit. RENARE's poor track famous Barro Colorado Island (BCD a forest protectorate, logging and record in conservation and the in 1979 to become the Barro Colp- rado Natural Monument (BCNM). slash-and-burn agriculture continue rapacious clearning and burning of Under terms of the Torrijos-Carter to destroy the native forests. forest along the recently opened Pan-American Highway to Yaviza Panama Canal Treaty, the Smith- Altos de Campana National Park do not augur well for the planned sonian Tropical Research Institute This park contains one of the highway corridor through the Darign (STRI) is charged with management watersheds contributing to Gatfin World Heritage Site. responsibility of BCNM until 1999. Lake and the Panama Canal. The STRI is effectively protecting and managing BCNM. xeric vegetation is caused by the According to Dr. A. Gentry of the shallow, porous soil and frequent Missouri Botanical Garden, the rain BCI was set up as a preserve in 1923 fires set by local people. Forest forests of the Daridn and adjoining for biological and ecological re- cutting for agriculture, fire, and Colombian Choco'are extremely rich search. Over five and one-half hunting are serious problems that in plant species, possibly the most are increasing in the park. decades STRI has developed BCI as species-rich forests in tropical one of the premier tropical sites for Vo/c$n Bard National Park America. Although the flora and basic research (Leigh et al. 1983). The park extends from mid-eleva- fauna of the Daridn are still poorly Long-term records enabled Willis tion to the highest peak in the Known, the preliminary information (1974) to document a predicted loss country. Although it is all govern- on very high species diversity of bird species attributed to the ment land, squatters occupy about suggests that the Darign World smallness (15.6 km2) of the island. 15 percent of the park and some 500 Heritage Site probably includes families are estimated to practice more plant and animal species than La Amistad International Park subsistence agriculture within the any other conservation unit in In 1979 Presidents Royo of Panama park boundaries. Deforestation, Central America. Strictly from this and Carazo of Costa Rica officially fires, and hunting in the park are biological perspective, consolidation declared their intent to establish the increasingly serious problems. of the Dari6n conservation area is Friendship International Park absolutely essential, preferably be- straddling the Cordillera de Tala- Portobelo ~ationalPark fore highway construction enters manca of both countries. The Although this park contains over the area. World Wildlife Fund (U.S.) boundaries initially proposed include 17,000 hectares, Portobelo Bay and has been the principal foreign donor about 200,000 hectares in Panama; the colonial ruins are the principal to help with park establishment and however, the Panama government features. RENARE shares adminis- CATIE has been actively assisting did not follow through with park trative responsibility with the Pana- RENARE with planning and opera- establishment prior to Royo's abrupt manian Institute of Tourism (IPAT). tional development. resignation in 1982. CATIE is Approximately 5,000 people live actively assisting RENARE with within the park boundaries, where planning in an attempt to bring to they continue to convert forest to Soberank National Park fruition the first binational park in pasture, practicing subsistence agri- Created in 1979, this large park Central America. culture and hunting with impunity. occurs along the east side of the Unless drastic action is taken soon, Panama Canal and includes sub- stantial areas of well-developed Portobelo will cease to be a viable conservation unit. forest. The new park also encom- passes several small settlements, as Daridn World Heritage Site well as Summit Gardens. As U.S. The Daridn National Park estab- influence in the Canal Zone waned lished in 1980 was reclassified a year in the 1970s, squatter invasions and (September 1982) BIBLIOGRAPHY Dilger, F., R. & N. Lopez 0. 1982. Marco conceptualpara la determinacidn de un sistema nacional de areas silvestres protegidas en Nicaragua (SI NASI PI. SPNIIRENA, Anon.1974. Plan de manejo para el propuesto Monumento Managua. 60 pp. Natural Volcan Pacaya, Guatemala. INA FOR1FAO, Guatemala City. 54 pp. Godoy, J.C. 1982. "Situacidn actual del rnanejo de las areas silvestres en Guatemala, especificamente dos bio- Anon. 1980. Plan de manejo de la Reserva de la Bidsfera, topos." Serninario de la Ciencia Forestal y el Desarrollo Rib Platano. DIGERENAREICATIE, Turrialba, Costa del ~rdpico.CATIE, Turrialba, Costa Rica. 21 pp. Rica. 200 pp. IUCN. 1981. Conserving the Natural Heritage of Latin Barnard, G.S. 1982. "Costa Rica: Model for Conservation in America and the Caribbean: The Planning and Manage- Latin America." The Nature Conservancy News 32(4): ment of Protected Areas in the Neotropical Realm. Proc. 6-11. 18th IUCN Comm. Nat. Parks and Prot. Areas, Morges, Betancourt, J. & P. Dulin, eds. 1978. Plan de uso multiple Switzerland, 329 pp. Lajo de Yojoa (segunda fase), proyecto inter-institu- Janzen, D.H. 1983. Costa Rican Natural History. University cional. COHDEFOR, RENARE, CATIE, FAO, UNDP, of Chicago Press (in press). Tegucigalpa, Honduras. 196 pp. Leigh, E.G., Jr., A.S. Rand, D.M. Windsor, eds. 1983. The Boza, M. Los Parques Nacionales de Costa Rica. INCAFO, Madrid. 224 pp. Ecology of a Neotropical Forest: Seasonal Rhythms and Longer-Term Fluctuations, Srnithsonian Inst. Press, Boza, M. & R. Mendoza. 1981. The National Parks of Costa Washington. (in press). Rica. INCAFO, Madrid, 310 pp. Moser, D. 1975. Central American Jungles. Time-Life, New Carr, A. 1967. So Excellent a Fishe: A Natural History of York, 184 pp. Sea Turtles. Natural History Press, Garden City, NY. MacFarland, C. and R. Morales. 1981. Planificacibn y 248 PP. manejo de 10s recursos silvestres en America Central: Centre Cientffico Tropical. 1982. Areas potenciales para Estrategia para una de'cada craca. CATIE, Turrialba, unidades de conservacidn de recursos naturales en Costa Rica. 10 pp. Costa Rica. Min. Presidencia, San Jose". 307 pp. NR C. 1980. Research Priorities in Tropical Biology. U. S. Dary, M. and I. Ponciano. 1980. Plan demanejo del Biotopo National Academy of Science, Washington. 1 16 pp. Universitario para la Conservacidn del Quetzal, Purulha, Bara Varapaz, Guatemala: Un estudio introductorio con Willis, E.O. 1974. "Populations and local extinctions of recomendaciones para manejo. Univ. Sa n Carlos, 175 birds on Barro Colorado Island, Panama." Ecological Monographs 44153-169. PP.

Gary S. Hartshorn

Selective List of Newsletters, Institute of Current World Affairs, 4 West Wheelock, Hanover, NH 03755

El Salvador: An Ecological Disaster New Biological Perspectives on the Management of Tropical Diseases Corcovado National Park Travels in Bolivia Travels and Impressions of the Tropical Far East Are Tropical Forests Sources or Sinks of Carbon Dioxide? The Biological Model of Diversification in the Tropics The International Amazon Project USAID and Conservation of Costa Rican Natural Resources The Morado Expedition (Bolivia) JAR1 I Natural Forests of Bolivia Forests and Forestry in Panama Amazonian Deforestation Ecological Implications of Tropical Plantation Forestry Tambopata Natural Wildlife Reserve JAR1 I1