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Human Trafficking: Women's Stories of Agency

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Human Trafficking: Women's Stories of Agency THE UNIVERSITY OF HULL Human Trafficking: Women’s Stories of Agency Being a Thesis submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the University of Hull by Maria Ivanna De Angelis, BA (Hons) Social Administration and CQSW, University of Lancaster January 2012 ABSTRACT This thesis is about women’s stories of agency in a trafficking experience. The idea of agency is a difficult concept to fathom, given the unscrupulous acts and exploitative practices which demarcate and define trafficking. In response to the three P’s of trafficking policy (prevention and protection of victims and the simultaneous prosecution of traffickers) official discourse constructs trafficking agency in singular opposition to trafficking victimhood. The ‘true’ victim of trafficking is reified in attributes of passivity and worthiness, whereas signs of women’s agency are read as consent in their own predicament or as culpability in criminal justice and immigration rule breaking. Moving beyond the official lack or criminal fact of agency, this research adds knowledge on agency constructed with, on, and by women possessing a trafficking experience. This fills an internationally recognised gap in the trafficking discourse. Within the thesis, female agency is explored in feminist terms of women’s immediate well-being agency (their physical safety and economic needs) and their longer term requirements for agency freedom (their capacity to construct choices and the conditions affecting choice). This feminist exploration of the terrain on trafficking found ways in which female agency takes shape in relationship and in degrees to women’s subjective and structural victimisation. Based upon the stories of twenty six women gathered through an indepth qualitative study, agency is visible in identity, decision making and actions. Women fashioned individual trafficking identities from their subjective engagement with the official trafficking descriptors. Additionally, their identification with ties to home (expressed via family relationships, occupational roles, national dress and ethnic food) helped to sustain their pre-trafficking personas. Women exhibited agency in risk taking and choices (initial, shared, constrained and precarious), which characterised their journeys and explained their grading of trafficking ‘pains’. Significantly, the fieldwork raised women’s engagement with ‘the rules’ and practices of the host society, as a way of realising new social, recreational, educational, employment, sexual and consumer related freedoms. Acknowledging the international and UK serious organised crime frame on trafficking, the fieldwork also included fifteen interviews with anti-trafficking professionals involved in delivering the three P’s of trafficking policy. This complementary standpoint to women’s stories presents ways in which official actors helped and hindered women’s achievement of well- being and agency freedoms. Crucially, in addressing trafficking as an evolving and integral aspect in contemporary global movement - displaying similarity and cross over with migration, smuggling, asylum and refugee accounts - this research unearthed trafficking exploitations and experiences around transnational marriage, which have been traditionally isolated and overlooked by UK trafficking discourse and policy platforms. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF ACRONYMS .............................................................................. i LIST OF IMAGES AND SOURCES ........................................................ v CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE THESIS ................................... 1 1.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 1 1.2 Developing a theoretical framework for researching agency ............. 2 1.3 The contemporary backdrop to the research inquiry ......................... 5 1.4 The UK policy position on human trafficking ..................................... 7 1.5 Themes and departures .................................................................. 15 1.6 The thesis structure ........................................................................ 16 CHAPTER 2: SEEKING AGENCY – ARGUING THE CASE FOR RELATIONAL KNOWLEDGE AND SUBJECTIVE UNDERSTANDING OF WOMEN’S AGENCY AND VICTIMHOOD .................................... ..19 2.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 19 2.2 Chapter outline ............................................................................... 20 2.3 Populist constructions of agency in prostitution and sex work ......... 21 2.4 Renewed feminist interest in agency ............................................... 27 2.5 Theorising agency, power and the construction of ‘truths’ ............... 35 2.6 Feminist re-workings of agency....................................................... 43 2.7 Concluding remarks on agency within the research ........................ 52 CHAPTER 3: RESEARCHING FROM A FEMINIST PERSPECTIVE .... 54 3.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 54 3.2 Chapter outline ............................................................................... 55 3.3 Why a feminist perspective and choice of a qualitative approach for this study? ............................................................................................ 55 3.4 Principles of good feminist research ............................................... 57 3.5 My fieldwork as feminist praxis ....................................................... 57 3.5.1 Gaining access and finding participants in an ethic of feminist care ...................................................................................... 57 3.5.2 Choice of methodological tools ................................................. 61 3.5.3 Principal methods of data collection .......................................... 63 3.5.4 Handling the data ...................................................................... 72 3.6 Pen portraits ................................................................................... 76 3.6.1 Vignettes of trafficked women ................................................... 77 3.6.2 Table of focus group data………………………………………….87 CHAPTER 4: RESEARCHING TRAFFICKING IDENTITY WITH TRAFFICKED WOMEN ........................................................................ 89 4.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 89 4.2 Chapter outline ............................................................................... 90 4.3 The imagery of a VOT: Considering the effects of media and campaign constructions on women’s trafficking identity ........................ 90 4.4 Researching what trafficked women say about identity: Privileging their views on self identification for a sense of their trafficked selves (4.4.1) and their pre-trafficking personas (4.4.2) ................................. 102 4.4.1 Women’s sense of a trafficked self .......................................... 102 4.4.2 Women’s pre-trafficking persona ............................................. 109 4.5 Researching the place of a victim narrative in women’s stories of trafficking ............................................................................................ 114 4.6 Anti-trafficking professionals and the formal identification process ........................................................................................................... 123 4.7 Chapter conclusions ..................................................................... 127 CHAPTER 5: RESEARCHING TRAFFICKING EXPERIENCE WITH TRAFFICKED WOMEN ...................................................................... 129 5.1.Introduction ................................................................................... 129 5.2 Chapter outline ............................................................................. 129 5.3 Why do women place themselves at risk of being trafficked? Examining the socio-political and economic context of trafficking ...... .130 5.4 So how are we to understand issues of consent, coercion and exploitation in a trafficking experience? .............................................. 135 5.5 Women’s stories of subjective trafficking experience – personal contributions around consent, controls, victim exploitations and injustices ........................................................................................................... 142 5.5.1 Consent. ................................................................................. 142 5.5.2 Coercion ................................................................................. 148 5.5.3 Exploitation ............................................................................. 155 5.6 Chapter conclusions ..................................................................... 160 CHAPTER 6: RESEARCHING WOMEN’S AGENCY: “WOMEN CAN BE VICTIMS BUT ARE ALWAYS THEIR OWN RESCUERS” (NGO INFORMATION OFFICER) ................................................................. 162 6.1 Introduction ................................................................................... 162 6.2 Chapter outline ............................................................................. 162 6.3 Women’s well-being freedom ........................................................ 163 6.4 Women’s agency freedom ............................................................ 167 6.4.1 Social Practices .....................................................................
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