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View Full Text Article Color profile: Disabled Composite 150 lpi at 45 degrees 2 Pests of Banana C.S. Gold,1 B. Pinese2 and J.E. Peña3 1International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, ESARC, PO Box 7878, Kampala, Uganda; 2Queensland Department of Primary Industries, PO Box 1054, Mareeba, Queensland 4880, Australia; 3Tropical Research and Education Center, University of Florida, 18905 SW 280 Street, Homestead, Florida 33031, USA Bananas and plantains (Musa spp.) are among western Africa, Latin America and the Carib- the most important crops in tropical and sub- bean. Dessert bananas, especially Cavendish tropical climates. The genus Musa evolved in clones (AAA), are important export crops in South-East Asia (Stover and Simmonds, 1987) Latin America and the Caribbean, Africa, Asia where numerous undomesticated Musa spe- and the Pacific, and Australia. cies still grow as ‘opportunistic weeds’ (Price, In terms of gross value of production, 1995). Edible bananas (Musa spp., Eumusa bananas and plantains are the fourth most series) originated within this region from two important global food crop. World production wild progenitors, Musa acuminata and M. is calculated to be 87,934,558 t (INIBAP, 2001). balbisiana, producing a series of diploids, trip- Export bananas are the developing world’s loids and tetraploids through natural hybrid- fourth most important commodity and most ization. Additionally, man has selected for important fruit crop (INIBAP, 2001). Bananas parthenocarpy (development of fruit without grown for export are almost exclusively of one pollination or seeds). Simmonds and Shep- variety, ‘Cavendish’; this cultivar accounts herd (1955) provided a key by which these for little more than 10% of global production. naturally hybridized bananas may be divided Most banana production consists of a wide into six genome groups (i.e. AA, AAA, AAB, range of locally adapted clones that are AB, ABB, ABBB) based on the relative contri- consumed within the region (INIBAP, 2001). butions of M. acuminata and M. balbisiana. Banana production systems range from Domesticated bananas include a wide range low input kitchen garden and small-scale of dessert, cooking and brewing cultivars subsistence stands to large-scale, high input (Stover and Simmonds, 1987). The most export banana plantations. Some commercial extensively grown bananas are triploids. plantations of dessert bananas or plantains are Plantains (AAB) evolved in southern replanted annually. By contrast, well-managed India with a secondary centre of Musa banana stands have produced stable yields diversity in West Africa. East Africa has also for 30–100 years, even under low input condi- evolved as a secondary centre of Musa diver- tions. At the same time, an extended harvest sity with numerous, locally evolved highland period ensures resource-poor farmers with cooking and brewing clones (denoted AAA- food and income throughout the year. How- EA). Cooking banana is the primary staple ever, insect pests can cause reduced yields and crop in the Great Lakes region of eastern shortened plantation life (Rukazambuga et al., Africa, while plantain is an important food in 1998; Gold et al., 1999d). ©CAB International 2002. Tropical Fruit Pests and Pollinators (eds J.E. Peña, J.L. Sharp and M. Wysoki) 13 21 Z:\Customer\CABI\A4285 - Pena\A4351 - Pena #D.vp Monday, July 01, 2002 2:53:02 PM Color profile: Disabled Composite 150 lpi at 45 degrees 14 C.S. Gold et al. Phenology Pests Bananas are rhizomatous herbaceous plants Pest and disease pressures have increased ranging in height from 0.8 to 15 m (Turner, considerably in recent years, and yield loss 1994). A mat (= banana stool) consists of an due to pests and/or disease attack is now underground corm (rhizome) from which one considered the most significant factor affect- or more plants (shoots) emerge. Adventitious ing banana and plantain production world- roots spread extensively 4–5 m from the par- wide (INIBAP, 2001). The status of specific ent and down to 75 cm or more (Nakasone pests and diseases reflects, in part, the banana and Paull, 1998); however, most roots are clone and the management system. At a near the soil surface. Plants represent a single global level, diseases are considered the shoot (pseudostem, stem, leaves, flower and major threat, followed by nematodes and bunch). Yield is normally expressed in kg/ insects and mites. Nakasone and Paull (1998) area/year reflecting both number and size suggest that the continuous nature of banana of bunches harvested. The banana shoot production makes pests such as nematodes consists of a pseudostem bearing the leaves more important than insects and mites; and a true stem bearing the flower and fruit however, Pinese and Piper (1994) argue that (bunch). The apparent stem or pseudostem is management of insect pests is a key operation actually composed of leaf sheaths. New in banana production in Australia. Gold and leaves emerge from the centre of the pseudo- Gemmill (1993) reported that pest problems stem. A single plant produces 25–50 leaves in banana and plantain significantly reduce in its lifetime and normally supports 10–15 yields in all tropical regions, and particularly functional leaves at any one time (Nakasone in Africa. and Paull, 1998). The true stem arises from Detailed information on banana pests the apical meristem after leaf production has has been presented by authors in different terminated and grows through the centre of parts of the world (Ostmark, 1974; Gold the pseudostem (Stover and Simmonds, 1987; and Gemmill, 1993; Pinese and Piper, 1994; Turner, 1994; Karamura and Karamura, 1995). Fancelli and Martins, 1998). Integrated pest One terminal inflorescence emerges from management tactics have been developed for the true stem and bends downward after several pests; in general, chemicals are widely extrusion. After the fruit matures, the stem used in some systems, although these are dies back to the corm. Farmers normally cut beyond the means of many growers. Environ- harvested plants between ground level and mental degradation and the development 1 m. Crop residues may be used for weevil of insect resistance have highlighted the traps (Gold, 1998). limitations of chemically based control New plants (ratoons) are produced by strategies and the need for integrated pest suckers emerging from lateral buds in the management, including host plant resistance, corm. These can be left in situ or serve as cultural control and biological control. a source of planting material, in which case In this chapter we will address manage- they are removed and planted elsewhere. ment of the most common arthropod pests of Normally, a banana mat consists of three banana in tropical areas. or more plant generations (= ratoons or crop cycles) at any one time. Plant density is con- trolled by the farmer through desuckering. As banana stands age, mats ‘divide’ and the Pests of Rhizome and Pseudostem relationship between plants (e.g. sharing of a common corm) becomes more tenuous; Banana weevil, Cosmopolites sordidus thus, in older stands, mat definition becomes (Germar) unclear. Suckers used to establish new fields are called the ‘mother plant or plant crop’ The banana weevil, Cosmopolites sordidus (Stover and Simmonds, 1987; Turner, 1994). (Germar), is an important pest of banana, 22 Z:\Customer\CABI\A4285 - Pena\A4351 - Pena #D.vp Monday, July 01, 2002 2:53:02 PM Color profile: Disabled Composite 150 lpi at 45 degrees Pests of Banana 15 plantain and ensete (Plate 1). Damage to the unclear how long the weevil has been present banana plant is entirely the result of larval in most areas. feeding. Weevil attack can prevent crop The banana weevil is an oligophagous establishment, cause significant yield reduc- pest with a narrow host range, attacking tions in ratoon cycles and contribute to short- wild and cultivated clones in the genera Musa ened plantation life. For example, the weevil (banana, plantain, abaca) and Ensete. Reports has been implicated as a primary factor con- of alternative hosts appear to be in error. tributing to the decline and disappearance Nevertheless, L. Traore (personal communi- of East African highland cooking banana cation) was able to maintain larvae through (Musa spp., genome group AAA-EA) from its several instars using a factitious host (pro- traditional growing areas in central Uganda cessed Xanthasoma saggittifolium), while Pavis (Gold et al., 1999b) and western Tanzania (1988) and Schmitt (1993) had modest success (Mbwana and Rukazambuga, 1999). Banana rearing larvae on artificial diets. weevil pest status may reflect ecological conditions, banana types, cultivar selection, Banana weevil biology and management systems. ADULTS Longevity, tropisms, and distribution. The Taxonomy, morphology, distribution banana weevil displays a classical ‘K’ selected and host range life cycle (Pianka, 1970) with long life span and The banana weevil was first identified by low fecundity. Adults may live up to 2 years Germar in 1824 from specimens collected in (Froggatt, 1925; Treverrow et al., 1992), Java and given the name Calandra sordida.In although mean longevity under field condi- 1885, Chevrolat changed this to its currently tions is not known. The adult is nocturnally recognized name Cosmopolites sordidus active and characterized by negative photo- (Germar). The genus Cosmopolites belongs tropism, strong hygrotrophism, thigmo- to the subfamily Rhynchophorinae of the tactism, gregariousness and death mimicry family Curculionidae (weevils and snout (Delattre, 1980; Ittyeipe, 1986; Tsai, 1986). The beetles). Taxonomic keys are presented by adults favour moist environments and are Zimmerman (1968a); adult morphology has closely associated with banana mats (being been described by Moznette (1920), Beccari primarily in the leaf sheaths, around the base (1967), Zimmerman (1968b), Viswanath of the mat or, occasionally, in larval galleries) (1976) and Nahif et al. (1994); reproductive or with detached residues (Gold et al., 1999d) system morphology by Cuille (1950), (Plate 2). The weevils feed on rotting banana Beccari (1967), Uzakah (1995) and Nahif tissue and are not pests (Budenberg et al., (1998); and larval morphology by Moznette 1993b).
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