Mohammadreza Gharibreza Muhammad Aqeel Ashraf

Applied Limnology Comprehensive View from Watershed to Lake Applied Limnology

Applied Limnology

Comprehensive View from Watershed to Lake Mohammadreza Gharibreza Muhammad Aqeel Ashraf Soil Conservation and Watershed Department of Geology Management Research Institute University of Malaya Tehran, Iran Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

ISBN 978-4-431-54979-6 ISBN 978-4-431-54980-2 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-4-431-54980-2 Springer Tokyo Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London

Library of Congress Control Number: 2014939876

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Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com) This Book is sincerely dedicated to my family. Their support, encouragement, and constant assistance have sustained me throughout my life

Preface

As an author, I am proud to introduce Applied Limnology, which addresses a new, comprehensive method of studying lake systems from watershed to open waters. This book opens up a new view of limnology for researchers and decision makers to consider overall land use across the catchment to ﬁnd the real issues in which lakes are involved. Recently, several issues concerning lakes have been encountered such as pollution of natural resources, shoaling, eutrophication, coastal changes, and reduction of water sources around the world. Human activities have contributed most in recent issues which are exacerbated by natural factors such as climate change. There are conservation and land development approaches in terms of integrated lake management and mitigation of the environmental impact of recent land development projects in catchment areas. This book is remarkable for highlighting a method in which issues are completely investigated and a natural resource management plan is presented with a conservation approach. Applied Limnology has a simple outline of six chapters. Chapter 1 gives a brief introduction to an overall view of Bera Lake and issues that involve it. Chapter 2 is divided into two sections, catchment areas and lake characteristics. Physiographic particulates, geological settings, stratigraphy, structural geology, climatology, and land use are introduced in the catchment section. Lake speciﬁcation comprises hydrology, bathymetry, water quality, and physical properties of sediments in Bera Lake. In Chap. 3 the emphasis is on shoaling as one of the main issues of Bera Lake, which was investigated by using 210Pb and 137Cs radioisotopes. The book highlights the capability of this method in a tropical lake to estimate sedimentation rate. Severe soil erosion and nutrient loss is another issue that plays an important role in devastating natural resources of wetlands and open waters. Chapter 4 presents the application of radiocesium in estimation of soil loss in a tropical area that is far from a source of 137Cs emission. In addition, the contribution of land development projects in the soil redistribution rate is highlighted in Chap. 4. Chapter 5 deals with contamination of sediments and several models that evaluate ecological risk assessment. Application of models of risk assessment and of dating of sediment age is a novel feature of this book that reveals the contribution of land development phases in pollution of Bera Lake. Another contribution to knowledge is provided in

vii viii Preface this book, namely, that the natural background level of several heavy minerals has been calculated for further investigation. Emphasis on the watershed and lake management plan is presented in Chap. 6. I believe that applied limnology must involve management practices to conserve natural resources. Therefore, this book has included a management plan that shows how limnology comprehensively applied will perform and how legislation and a decision support system will be established. I am highly appreciative of Dr. Muhammad Aqeel Ashraf for his partnership in most phases of the research project and for his great guidance and help in editing and providing an opportunity to release this book, Applied Limnology. I attribute the publication of this book to his encouragement and effort; without him the book would not have been completed. I express my sincerest gratitude to Dr. John Kuna Raj, Dr. Ismail Yusoff, Dr. Zainudin Othman, and Dr. Wan Zakaria Wan Muhamad Tahir, whose encouragement and support enabled me to carry out this multidisciplinary research project and to write this book. Great acknowledgment goes to Dr. Dess Walling, professor at Exeter University, UK, for his valuable advice on choosing a suitable model to estimate soil erosion at the study area. I offer sincere gratitude to Dr. Peter Appleby, professor at Liverpool University, UK, for his great advice and geochronology calculation model to determine the sedimentation rate in Bera Lake. Gratitude is also expressed to Dr. Lee Kheng Heng and Dr. Lionel Mabit and the IAEA staff for their valuable help in providing soil erosion conversion models. I gratefully acknowledge the Soil Conservation and Watershed Management Research Institute, Iran, and the Institute of Research Management and Monitoring (IPPP), University of Malaya, for their valuable executive and financial support to accomplish this mission. I am indebted to my many colleagues in the Soil Conser- vation and Watershed Management Research Institute for their contributions in official and departmental support. I owe my deepest gratitude to my parents and my brothers, who gave me financial and moral support. I also offer sincerest heartfelt acknowledgment to my family members, especially to my wife, Mahboubeh Hadadfard, and to my daughters, Zahra, Roghayeh, and Sara, whose encouragement, assistance, and support from the beginning to the conclusion enabled me to accomplish this project.

Tehran, Iran Mohammadreza Gharibreza Contents

1 Introduction ...... 1 1.1 What This Book Is About ...... 1 1.2 An Introduction of Bera Lake ...... 2 1.3 What Problems That Bera Lake Is Involved? ...... 3 1.4 Overview of Applied Limnology in Bera Lake ...... 5 References ...... 6 2 Bera Lake ...... 7 2.1 Catchment Area ...... 8 2.1.1 Physiographic Particulars ...... 8 2.1.2 Geology ...... 12 2.1.3 Climatology ...... 25 2.1.4 Land Use ...... 27 2.2 Lake Characteristic ...... 28 2.2.1 Hydrology ...... 28 2.2.2 Bathymetry ...... 34 2.2.3 Water Quality ...... 38 2.2.4 Physical Properties of Bera Lake Sediment ...... 50 References ...... 60 3 Sedimentation Rate in Bera Lake ...... 63 3.1 Introduction ...... 64 3.2 Modeling ...... 67 3.2.1 The Constant Rate of Supply CRS Model ...... 67 3.2.2 The Constant Initial Concentration CIC Model ...... 68 3.2.3 The Limitation of Models ...... 71 3.2.4 Sampling ...... 72 3.2.5 Sample Preparation ...... 77 3.2.6 Radioisotopes Analysis ...... 79 3.3 210Pb and 137Cs Inventories and 210Pb Flux ...... 80 3.4 Sedimentation Rate at the South of Bera Lake ...... 81

ix x Contents

3.5 Sedimentation Rate at the Middle of Bera Lake ...... 87 3.6 Sedimentation Rate at the North of Bera Lake ...... 91 3.7 Sedimentation Map ...... 95 3.8 Discussion ...... 95 3.9 Conclusion ...... 100 References ...... 102 4 Soil Erosion Rate and Nutrient Loss at the Bera Lake Catchment ...... 107 4.1 Introduction ...... 108 4.2 Soil Sampling and Sample Analyses ...... 108 4.3 Soil Type of Catchment Area ...... 110 4.4 Soil Redistribution Models ...... 112 4.5 137Cs and 210Pb Inventories in Soil Samples ...... 114 4.6 Soil Loss Estimation ...... 117 4.7 Nutrient Content in Bera Lake Catchment Soil Proﬁle ...... 121 4.8 Soil Accumulation Rate in Wetlands and Open Waters ...... 124 4.9 Soil Redistribution Map ...... 125 4.10 Discussion ...... 126 4.11 Conclusion ...... 130 References ...... 132 5 Sediment Quality and Ecological Risk Assessment of Bera Lake ...... 135 5.1 Introduction ...... 135 5.2 Chemical and Pollution Analysis ...... 137 5.3 Nutrient Content Analysis ...... 139 5.4 Ecological Risk Assessment Models ...... 139 5.5 Standard Levels of Heavy Metal ...... 141 5.5.1 Background Concentration of Heavy Metals in Bera Lake Sediments ...... 142 5.6 Heavy Metal Concentration in Bera Lake Sediments ...... 143 5.6.1 Pearson Correlation Coefﬁcient ...... 144 5.6.2 Cluster Analysis ...... 144 5.7 Bera Lake Sediment Quality ...... 154 5.7.1 Ecological Risk Assessment of Bera Lake Sediment . . . . 157 5.8 Nutrient Fate in Bera Lake Sediments ...... 165 5.9 Discussion ...... 171 5.10 Conclusion ...... 177 References ...... 178 6 Watershed Management Practices ...... 183 6.1 Introduction ...... 183 6.2 Soil and Sediment Management Plan ...... 186 Contents xi

6.2.1 Mechanical Methods ...... 187 6.2.2 Agronomic Methods ...... 191 6.2.3 Research and Monitoring ...... 195 6.2.4 Socio-Economic Controlling ...... 196 References ...... 197

Appendix ...... 201

Abbreviations

AWB Asian Wetland Bureau BLC Bera Lake Catchment BP Before Present Bq mÀ2 Becquerel per square Meter Bq mÀ2 yearÀ1 Becquerel per square Meter per Year CBSQG Consensus-Based Sediment Quality Guidelines of Wisconsin Cf Contamination Factor CF:CS Constant Flux: Constant Supply CIC Constant initial concentration model ClÀ Chloride cm yearÀ1 Centimeter per Year CRS Constant rate of supply model CV Coefﬁcient of Variation 137Cs Fallout Caesium-137 Radionuclide DEM Digital Elevation Model Df Degree of Contamination DO Dissolved Oxygen DWNP Department of Wildlife and National Parks EC Electric conductivity EF Enrichment Factor EFB Empty Fruit Bunches EIA Environmental Impact Assessment Er Potential Ecological Risk Factor for Individual Metal FELDA Federal Land Development Authority FWHM Full Width at Half Maximum gcmÀ3 Gram per cubic Centimeter GC Gas Chromatographic GIS Geographical Information System H3BO4 Boric Acid HCA Hieratical cluster analysis

xiii xiv Abbreviations

HCl Chloride Acid HF Fluoride Acid 1À HNO3 Nitrate Acid IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency ICP-MS Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry ICP-OES Inductively Coupled Plasma Optic Emission Spectrometry Igeo Index of Geoaccumulation IRBM Integrated River Basin Management ISQG Interim Fresh Water Sediment Quality IWRM Integrated Water Resource Management LDO Lowest Dissolved Oxygen LEL Lowest Effect Level LGM Last Glacial Maximum MACRES Malaysian Centre for Remote Sensing mg kgÀ1 Milligram per Kilogram mg LÀ1 Milligram per Liter MnCO3 Manganese Carbonate MPOB Malaysian Oil Palm Board NE-SW North East—South West +1 NH4 Ammonia À1 NO2 Nitrate 2À NO3 Nitrate NW-NE North West—North East NWQS National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia 210Pb Fallout Lead-210 Radionuclide PEL Probable Effect Level PFE Permanent Forest Estate pH Acidity PO4 Phosphate POC Particular Organic Carbon PPM Per Part Million QAQC Quality Assurance and Quality Control RI Potential Ecological Risk Factor for Basin SEL Severe Effect Level SQG Sediment Quality Guidelines SRM Standard Reference Material SW South West thÀ1 yearÀ1 ton per hectare per year TCD Thermal conductivity detection TDS Total Dissolved Solid TN Total Nitrogen TOC Total Organic Carbon USLE Universal Soil Loss Equation WGS World Geographic Coordinate System Chapter 1 Introduction

Abstract Applied limnology is addressing comprehensive biological, physical, and chemical aspects of the lake and its catchment area. This concept of limnology comprises an integrated study that shows issues that catchment and lake are involved. Management plan of natural resources with conservation approach is the main objective of applied limnology. This hypothesis was tested in the Bera Lake, Peninsular Malaysia. Bera Lake is excellent example of lakes that is located in tropical climate and affected severely by land use changes at catchment area. Consequently, several issues have created such as extensive soil profile degradation, soil and nutrients loss, severe sedimentation in open waters, sediment pollution, and dramatic diminution of animal’s population particularly fishes, birds and relevant animals in Bera Lake and surrounded wetlands. Suggestion will be presented in order to minimize adverse environmental impacts of land use changes and conserve soil and water resources. This book is considerably contributing in knowledge and to achieve several new findings that will help the decision makers. The real reasons for severe reduction of area and depth at Bera Lake, reduction of fish population in the open waters, scarcity of emigrant birds and water quality degradation are the uncertainties for governmental agencies and decision makers.

Keywords Applied limnology • Bera Lake • Conservation approach • Environ- mental issues • Management plan

1.1 What This Book Is About

The book topic has concisely introduced and what the study will be addressed. The book introduces an original research and comprehensive limnological project which was fulﬁlled in the most important natural habitat in Malaysia. This book entitled “Applied Limnology” comprehensive view from watershed to the Bera Lake. The topic has signiﬁcantly represents the multipurpose and has highlighted the relevant methodology. Further, the topic has introduced an especial lake in the

M. Gharibreza and M.A. Ashraf, Applied Limnology: Comprehensive View 1 from Watershed to Lake, DOI 10.1007/978-4-431-54980-2_1, © Springer Japan 2014 2 1 Introduction tropical area with exclusive limnological, ecological, and sedimentary environment in Malaysia. It has appropriately demonstrated that book subject is an applied limnology ﬁeld which has been supported by a high-tech method. This book is not included details about ﬂora and fauna of Bera Lake and is focused mainly on physical features of the lake.

1.2 An Introduction of Bera Lake

Bera Lake is a lacustrine mire system located in the central part of Peninsular Malaysia, in the east-central State of Pahang. Bera Lake has occupied 0.11 km2 area at the most northern part of catchment, is the largest natural lake in Malaysia. The natural rainforest has been covered (593.1 km2) Bera Lake catchment (BLC) entirely prior the Malaysian land development scenarios. Their distribution in study area was decreased dramatically to 300.24 km2 by the end of 1994. Permanent Forest Estate (PFE) in BLC was cited as the first RAMSAR site in Malaysia in November 1994, because of its biodiversity and ecological importance. The oil palm and rubber planted states was established as “Buffer Zone”. According to EIA, despite government regulations stipulating that any project beyond 500 ha should have an EIA (ECD 2002b). Local settlements is disregarding this regulation by deforestation of smaller areas in RAMSAR site since 1994 and leaving destruc- tive effects on BLC ecosystems. Bera Lake wetlands and open waters distribution is 56.3 km2 with a dendritic pattern and an elongate form. Their elevation is lower than 20 m and 2 slope, have remarkably occupied the low land areas which have geologically created 5,500–6,500 (Wu¨st and Bustin 2004) (BP). The history of study area could be divided to two prior and post 1950 or industrialization period. According to Surut (1998, unpublished) this area has been habitat of original Peninsular Malaysia (Orang Asli) people which historically living in the rainforest areas. Malaysian national plans were commenced since 1960 and Bera Lake and its catchment were recognized as one of the main states of land development projects. The catchment area was significantly deforested since 1960 by FELDA, the main executive government agency. The several kinds of timbers extensively harvested between 1960 and 1970. Then, five FELDA land development projects were fulfilled between 1970 and 1995. Official land development has prohibited, 1994, after RAMSAR site citation. Bera Lake has been studied by the commencement of the Second Malaya Plan (1961–1965) due to its multidisciplinary importance. Reviewed literature showed that most of the previous works have been related to biological and ecological aspects of Bera Lake especially its flora and fauna. The biology of Bera Lake was initially studied by University of Malaya and Botanic Garden of Singapore, published by Merton (1962). Between 1968 and 1972, Japanese–Malaysian joint research group undertake an ecological study of Bera Lake (Furtado and Mori 1982) that includes information about plant decomposition (Sato et al. 1982), flora 1.3 What Problems That Bera Lake Is Involved? 3

(Ikusima and Furtado 1982), fauna and fish ecology. The evolution of Bera Lake has been studied by Morley, stated that palynological evidence of Bera Lake Basin evaluation since 5,300 BP. A semi-detailed soil characteristics and geology and mineral resources of east Bera Lake have studied by Tharamarajan (1980), and MacDonald (1970), respectively. In November 1994, Malaysia became a contracting party to the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (RAMSAR) Convention. The AWB initiated an integrated management project at Bera Lake. The project ended in June 1999 with publications of several reports, including anthropology (Surut 1988), faunal and floral studies (Giesen 1998) and an ecological and geological report (Wu¨st and Bustin 2001). Phillips and Bustin (1998) have implemented a preliminary investigation onto the peat deposits. Geological evolution of Bera Lake and the comple- mentary studies about coalification in wetlands and open waters has been studied by Wu¨st et al. (2003, 2008), and Wu¨st and Bustin (2004). Besides, Wu¨st presented the new classification for organic-rich and peat deposits, and also explained development of the interior peat-accumulating basin of tropical Bera Lake since Late Pleistocene and Holocene. Evolutional trend of Bera Lake documented using three 14C dating samples. Wu¨st and Bustin (2004) have stated that accumulation of organic matter occurred in local lakes during the LGM, but widespread peat deposition did not start until 5,300 BP when climatic changes led to the evolution of a wetland system. As a result, peat accumulation rates, ranging from 0.7 to 2.5 mm yearÀ1, are highest in Pandanaceae environments and lowest in high-ash swamp forests and environments dominated by Cyperaceae. The research hypothesizes assume that soil and nutrient loss rates, sedimentation rat in wetlands and open waters, Bera Lake water and sediment quality have been significantly affected by anthropogenic changes over the last decades. Hypothesizes have been tested by a comprehensive field surveys and experimental analyzes to reveal and approve assumptions. As a result, Bera Lake and its catchment were selected to investigate sedimentary processes in order to cover existing gaps and effective contributions in the knowledge.

1.3 What Problems That Bera Lake Is Involved?

Water and soil resources have been experienced several stresses in Malaysia in the form of national agricultural scenarios. The first and second Malay plan (1956–1966) and the first Malaysian agricultural plan (1966–1970) have been supported by the government to promote the agriculture in the nation’s economy. Efforts were made by the government to settle and cultivate huge tracts of undeveloped land through the FELDA schemes. A widespread operations and extensive adverse consequences have been established in study area during and post five documented deforestation and land development phases. The FELDA has been main executive government agency for 4 1 Introduction land clearing and development in study area. Deforestation phases have been occurred between 1970 and 1975, 1976 and 1980, 1981 and 1985, 1986 and 1990, and then 1991 and 1995. Additionally, undocumented rubber plantations and timber harvesting has been performed in study area during the first and second Malay plans (1956–1966). Consequently, extensive soil profile degradation caused considerable soil and nutrients loss, reduction of soil fertility, and creation of erosional features. In addition, a great sediment transport and severe sedimentation have taken place and depth of the most important of natural lake and wetlands in Malaysia has significantly decreased. Heavy metals as product of deep chemical leaching has been released frequently in aquatic media, therefore, has been resulted in water and sediment pollution, dramatic diminution of animals population particularly fishes, birds and relevant animals in Bera Wetlands and Lakes. Adverse environmental impacts of a huge deforestation program and ecological importance of the largest natural lake in Malaysia has been led to an integrated ecosystem research on Bera Lake during 1970–1974 at Pos (Fort) Iskander, within the framework of the International Biological scheme by the Joint Malaysian– Japanese. Further, the ecological of wet lands and open waters have been studied (1994–1998) by the joint Malaysian–Danish team (DANCED 1998). Their researches have been focused mainly on the biological, coalification, and anthro- pological aspects. Assessment of literature review has remarkably highlighted a significant deficiency in the issues that the present research is concerned have never been properly studied and resolved. Additionally, previous studies in study area have not applied radioisotopes techniques and sediment quality guidelines to qualify adverse effects of land use changes. Therefore, lack of scientific knowledge about current issues, agricultural and ecological importance of study area especially its wetlands and lakes, and considerable people who are effectively have been depended on the water and soil resources of study area, brought a great incentive to investigate issues using advanced methods. This book is introduced issues to find out scientific answers to the following questions: • How much and where soil and nutrient resources of BLC have been degraded? • What has been destiny of redistributed soils and nutrients at catchment area? • What are current and historical variations in sedimentation rates in Bera Lake? • What is ecological risk of Bera Lake sediments for human health and aquatic life? • How sediment management practices could conserve soil and water resources of study area? Evidently, answering to those questions will reveal and resolve problems that the study area has been involved. Hypothesis will be tested by a comprehensive methodology in which the complete field surveying, detailed experimental analyzes, and an advanced modeling will be accomplished to achieve to the objectives. Suggestion will be presented in order to minimize adverse environmental impacts of land use changes and conserve soil and water resources. 1.4 Overview of Applied Limnology in Bera Lake 5

1.4 Overview of Applied Limnology in Bera Lake

The book of applied limnology, comprehensive view from catchment to the Bera Lake is corresponding to determine the soil erosion rate at catchment area, to estimate loss of nutrients from different land uses, to determine the sedimentation rate in Bera Lake, to assess Bera Lake water and sediment quality, to highlight ecological risks for aquatics and human health. Furthermore, this book reveals nutrients fate in the Bera Lake, the latest land use map, the Bera Lake bathymetric map, the Bera Lake hydrology and sediment discharge into the Bera Lake and its trap efficiency. This book is considerably contributing in knowledge and to achieve several new findings that will help the decision makers. The real reasons for severe reduction of area and depth at Bera Lake, reduction of fish population in the open waters, scarcity of emigrant birds and water quality degradation are the uncertainties for governmental agencies and decision makers. In addition, BLC is at the threshold of replantation of new generation of the oil palm and rubber estates. Therefore, this book will present real and quantitative guidelines for further land development projects to mitigate the adverse environmental impacts and to conserve soil and water resources in study area. General outline of this an applied limnology would be followed chart (Fig. 1.1).

Outline of Research

Filed Experimental Result Library Studies Studies Studies GIS Studies Interpretation Publications

Pre filed works Determination of Literature Sample Maps Sampler Soil Erosion Review Preparation Development Innovation Rates

Determination of Data Core Radioisotopes Geological Map Sedimentation Collection Sampling Analyzes Rate

Chemical and Sediment Methodology Hydrography Physiographic Pollution Quality improvement Operation Map Analyzes Assessment

Water and Physical Bathymetric Capability of Sediment Prosperities Map selected discharge Analyzes methodologies

Soil Nutrient Soil Erosion and Sampling Analyzes Rosion Risk Suggestions Maps

Water Sedimentation Quality Map

Land Use Map

Nutrients Map

Soil texture Map

Fig. 1.1 Applied limnology outline chart and procedures 6 1 Introduction

References

DANCED (1998) Wetland international Malaysia programme. Ministry of Science, Technology and the Environment. http://www.mst.dk/danced-uk/ ECD (2002b) Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) guidelines oil palm plantation development. The Minister of Tourism, Environment, Sabah, http://www.sabah.gov.my/jpas/Assess ment/eia/handbook/Handbook%20Oil_Palm.pdf Furtado JI, Mori S (1982) Tasik Bera: the ecology of a freshwater swamp. Monogrov Biol 47:413 Giesen W (1998) The habitats and flora of Tasik Bera, Malaysia: an evaluation of their conservation value and management requirements. Wetlands International Asia-Pacific, Kuala Lumpur Ikusima I, Furtado JI (1982) Tasik Bera: the ecology of a freshwater swamp. Primary production. Monogrov Biol 43:191–278 MacDonald S (1970) Geology and mineral resources of the lake Chini, Sungia Bera, Sungai Jeram area of South Central Pahang. Ministry of Lands and Mines Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur Merton F (1962) A visit to Tasek Bera. Malays Nat J 16:103–110 Phillips S, Bustin RM (1998) Accumulation of organic rich sediments in a dendritic fluvial/ lacustrine mire system at Tasik Bera, Malaysia: implications for coal formation. Int J Coal Geol 36(1–2):31–61 Sato O, Mizuno T (1982) Tasek Bera: the ecology of a freshwater swamp. Dr. W. Junk, The Hague, 413 pp Surut Z (1988) Sites of cultural and historical interest at Tasek Bera. Wetlands International-Asia Pacific, Kuala Lumpur Tharamarajan M (1980) Semi-detailed soil survey of East of Taesk (Lake) Bera. Ministery of Agriculture Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur Wu¨st RAJ, Bustin RM (2001) Low-ash peat deposits from a dendritic, intermontane basin in the tropics: a new model for good quality coals. Int J Coal Geol 46(2–4):179–206 Wu¨st RAJ, Bustin RM (2004) Late Pleistocene and Holocene development of the interior peat- accumulating basin of tropical Tasek Bera, Peninsular Malaysia. Palaeogeogr Palaeoclimatol Palaeoecol 211(3–4):241–270 Wu¨st RAJ, Bustin RM, Lavkulich LM (2003) New classification systems for tropical organic-rich deposits based on studies of the Tasek Bera Basin, Malaysia. CATENA 53(2):133–163 Wu¨st RAJ, Bustin RM, Ross J (2008) Neo-mineral formation during artificial coalification of low-ash mineral free-peat material from tropical Malaysia-potential explanation for low ash coals. Int J Coal Geol 74(2):114–122 Chapter 2 Bera Lake

Abstract The comprehensive view of applied limnology comprises catchment area and lake. Therefore, this book represents characteristics of Bera Lake in scale of watershed and lake area. The total catchment area is 593 km2 with the area of cleared land, rubber and oil palm plantations covering some 340 km2. The remaining area is covered by wetlands and reed swamps. This catchment has been separated into the 12 sub-catchments in which main open water with 1.11 km2 area is located at most northern part. Overall water flow is directed northward and stream patterns of the fourth to twelfth sub-catchments have been joined and ultimately connect and drain into the south of Bera Lake. Gravelius coefficient of this catchment is 1.57 which illustrates its semi-elongate shape. Bera Lake catchment (BLC) is located in the geological central belt of Malaysia. Catchment area is covered by Semantan formation, Bera formation as well as granitic rock unit. Evidences support the effects of strike-slip faults (N110) in shaping BLC valleys and controlled elongate shape of wetlands and open waters. Probably, accumulation of detritus sediments at the depths of 8–9 m of Bera Lake has been taken place 5,500–6,500 year BP due to a tilting and rapid steepness of the main valley. In addition, forest and reed swamps have developed mainly along depressions which already created by the strike-slip faults especially in the first, third, fourth, sixth, and the twelfth sub-catchments. The first one meter thickness of Bera Lake sediment profile is composed of five distinct layers. These layers with different thickness differentiated along all cores or at whole lake area. The annual mean water level fluctuation in Bera Lake has been 2.7 m since 2007. Bera Lake volume or storage capacity is 2,995,998 m3. Annual water and sediment discharge into the Bera Lake are 24.2 (km3) and 2,042.58 (ton), respectively. Overall classification of Bera Lake water quality before and after land development project is classified IV and V which is suitable for irrigation only and requires extensive treatment for drinking. Consequently, morphology, ecology, water and sediment quality of Bera Lake has been changed since 1972 due to extensive land use changes at catchment area.

M. Gharibreza and M.A. Ashraf, Applied Limnology: Comprehensive View 7 from Watershed to Lake, DOI 10.1007/978-4-431-54980-2_2, © Springer Japan 2014