Mohammadreza Gharibreza Muhammad Aqeel Ashraf

Mohammadreza Gharibreza Muhammad Aqeel Ashraf Applied Limnology Comprehensive View from Watershed to Lake <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">Applied Limnology </li><li style="flex:1">Mohammadreza Gharibreza </li></ul>Muhammad Aqeel Ashraf Applied Limnology Comprehensive View from Watershed to Lake Mohammadreza Gharibreza Soil Conservation and Watershed Management Research Institute Tehran, Iran Muhammad Aqeel Ashraf Department of Geology University of Malaya Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia ISBN 978-4-431-54979-6 DOI 10.1007/978-4-431-54980-2 Springer Tokyo Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London ISBN 978-4-431-54980-2 (eBook) Library of Congress Control Number: 2014939876 © Springer Japan 2014 This work is subject to copyright. 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Violations are liable to prosecution under the respective Copyright Law. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein. Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com) This Book is sincerely dedicated to my family. Their support, encouragement, and constant assistance have sustained me throughout my life Preface As an author, I am proud to introduce Applied Limnology, which addresses a new, comprehensive method of studying lake systems from watershed to open waters. This book opens up a new view of limnology for researchers and decision makers to consider overall land use across the catchment to find the real issues in which lakes are involved. Recently, several issues concerning lakes have been encountered such as pollution of natural resources, shoaling, eutrophication, coastal changes, and reduction of water sources around the world. Human activities have contributed most in recent issues which are exacerbated by natural factors such as climate change. There are conservation and land development approaches in terms of integrated lake management and mitigation of the environmental impact of recent land development projects in catchment areas. This book is remarkable for highlighting a method in which issues are completely investigated and a natural resource management plan is presented with a conservation approach. Applied Limnology has a simple outline of six chapters. Chapter <a href="/goto?url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-54980-2_1" target="_blank">1 </a>gives a brief introduction to an overall view of Bera Lake and issues that involve it. Chapter <a href="/goto?url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-54980-2_2" target="_blank">2 </a>is divided into two sections, catchment areas and lake characteristics. Physiographic particulates, geological settings, stratigraphy, structural geology, climatology, and land use are introduced in the catchment section. Lake specification comprises hydrology, bathymetry, water quality, and physical properties of sediments in Bera Lake. In Chap. <a href="/goto?url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-54980-2_3" target="_blank">3 </a>the emphasis is on shoaling as one of the main issues of Bera Lake, which was investigated by using 210Pb and 137Cs radioisotopes. The book highlights the capability of this method in a tropical lake to estimate sedimentation rate. Severe soil erosion and nutrient loss is another issue that plays an important role in devastating natural resources of wetlands and open waters. Chapter <a href="/goto?url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-54980-2_4" target="_blank">4 </a>presents the application of radiocesium in estimation of soil loss in a tropical area that is far from a source of 137Cs emission. In addition, the contribution of land development projects in the soil redistribution rate is highlighted in Chap. <a href="/goto?url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-54980-2_4" target="_blank">4</a>. Chapter <a href="/goto?url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-54980-2_5" target="_blank">5 </a>deals with contamination of sediments and several models that evaluate ecological risk assessment. Application of models of risk assessment and of dating of sediment age is a novel feature of this book that reveals the contribution of land development phases in pollution of Bera Lake. Another contribution to knowledge is provided in vii <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">viii </li><li style="flex:1">Preface </li></ul>this book, namely, that the natural background level of several heavy minerals has been calculated for further investigation. Emphasis on the watershed and lake management plan is presented in Chap. <a href="/goto?url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-54980-2_6" target="_blank">6</a>. I believe that applied limnology must involve management practices to conserve natural resources. Therefore, this book has included a management plan that shows how limnology comprehensively applied will perform and how legislation and a decision support system will be established. I am highly appreciative of Dr. Muhammad Aqeel Ashraf for his partnership in most phases of the research project and for his great guidance and help in editing and providing an opportunity to release this book, Applied Limnology. I attribute the publication of this book to his encouragement and effort; without him the book would not have been completed. I express my sincerest gratitude to Dr. John Kuna Raj, Dr. Ismail Yusoff, Dr. Zainudin Othman, and Dr. Wan Zakaria Wan Muhamad Tahir, whose encouragement and support enabled me to carry out this multidisciplinary research project and to write this book. Great acknowledgment goes to Dr. Dess Walling, professor at Exeter University, UK, for his valuable advice on choosing a suitable model to estimate soil erosion at the study area. I offer sincere gratitude to Dr. Peter Appleby, professor at Liverpool University, UK, for his great advice and geochronology calculation model to determine the sedimentation rate in Bera Lake. Gratitude is also expressed to Dr. Lee Kheng Heng and Dr. Lionel Mabit and the IAEA staff for their valuable help in providing soil erosion conversion models. I gratefully acknowledge the Soil Conservation and Watershed Management Research Institute, Iran, and the Institute of Research Management and Monitoring (IPPP), University of Malaya, for their valuable executive and financial support to accomplish this mission. I am indebted to my many colleagues in the Soil Conservation and Watershed Management Research Institute for their contributions in official and departmental support. I owe my deepest gratitude to my parents and my brothers, who gave me financial and moral support. I also offer sincerest heartfelt acknowledgment to my family members, especially to my wife, Mahboubeh Hadadfard, and to my daughters, Zahra, Roghayeh, and Sara, whose encouragement, assistance, and support from the beginning to the conclusion enabled me to accomplish this project. <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">Tehran, Iran </li><li style="flex:1">Mohammadreza Gharibreza </li></ul>Contents 12<ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . </li><li style="flex:1">1</li></ul>12356 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 What This Book Is About . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . An Introduction of Bera Lake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . What Problems That Bera Lake Is Involved? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Overview of Applied Limnology in Bera Lake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bera Lake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 788<ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">2.1 </li><li style="flex:1">Catchment Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . </li></ul>2.1.1 Physiographic Particulars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.2 Geology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 2.1.3 Climatology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 2.1.4 Land Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Lake Characteristic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 2.2.1 Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 2.2.2 Bathymetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 2.2.3 Water Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 2.2.4 Physical Properties of Bera Lake Sediment . . . . . . . . . . . 50 2.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 3Sedimentation Rate in Bera Lake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 3.1 3.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 3.2.1 The Constant Rate of Supply CRS Model . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 3.2.2 The Constant Initial Concentration CIC Model . . . . . . . . 68 3.2.3 The Limitation of Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 3.2.4 Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 3.2.5 Sample Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 3.2.6 Radioisotopes Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 210Pb and 137Cs Inventories and 210Pb Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Sedimentation Rate at the South of Bera Lake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 3.3 3.4 ix <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">x</li><li style="flex:1">Contents </li></ul>3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 Sedimentation Rate at the Middle of Bera Lake . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Sedimentation Rate at the North of Bera Lake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Sedimentation Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">4</li><li style="flex:1">Soil Erosion Rate and Nutrient Loss at the Bera </li></ul>Lake Catchment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Soil Sampling and Sample Analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Soil Type of Catchment Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Soil Redistribution Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 137Cs and 210Pb Inventories in Soil Samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 Soil Loss Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Nutrient Content in Bera Lake Catchment Soil Profile . . . . . . . . 121 Soil Accumulation Rate in Wetlands and Open Waters . . . . . . . . 124 Soil Redistribution Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 4.10 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 4.11 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">5</li><li style="flex:1">Sediment Quality and Ecological Risk Assessment </li></ul>of Bera Lake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Chemical and Pollution Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Nutrient Content Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Ecological Risk Assessment Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Standard Levels of Heavy Metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 5.5.1 Background Concentration of Heavy Metals in Bera Lake Sediments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 Heavy Metal Concentration in Bera Lake Sediments . . . . . . . . . 143 5.6.1 Pearson Correlation Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 5.6.2 Cluster Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 Bera Lake Sediment Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 5.7.1 Ecological Risk Assessment of Bera Lake Sediment . . . . 157 Nutrient Fate in Bera Lake Sediments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 6Watershed Management Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 6.1 6.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Soil and Sediment Management Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">Contents </li><li style="flex:1">xi </li></ul>6.2.1 Mechanical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 6.2.2 Agronomic Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 6.2.3 Research and Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 6.2.4 Socio-Economic Controlling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Abbreviations AWB BLC BP Asian Wetland Bureau Bera Lake Catchment Before Present <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">Becquerel per square Meter </li><li style="flex:1">Bq mÀ2 </li></ul>Bq mÀ2 yearÀ1 Becquerel per square Meter per Year CBSQG Cf Consensus-Based Sediment Quality Guidelines of Wisconsin Contamination Factor CF:CS CIC ClÀ Constant Flux: Constant Supply Constant initial concentration model Chloride cm yearÀ1 CRS CV Centimeter per Year Constant rate of supply model Coefficient of Variation 137Cs DEM Df Fallout Caesium-137 Radionuclide Digital Elevation Model Degree of Contamination <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">Dissolved Oxygen </li><li style="flex:1">DO </li></ul>DWNP EC EF Department of Wildlife and National Parks Electric conductivity Enrichment Factor EFB EIA Empty Fruit Bunches Environmental Impact Assessment Potential Ecological Risk Factor for Individual Metal Federal Land Development Authority Full Width at Half Maximum Gram per cubic Centimeter Gas Chromatographic Er FELDA FWHM g cmÀ3 GC GIS H3BO4 HCA Geographical Information System Boric Acid Hieratical cluster analysis xiii <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">xiv </li><li style="flex:1">Abbreviations </li></ul>HCl HF Chloride Acid Fluoride Acid 1À HNO3 IAEA Nitrate Acid International Atomic Energy Agency <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry </li><li style="flex:1">ICP-MS </li></ul>ICP-OES Igeo Inductively Coupled Plasma Optic Emission Spectrometry Index of Geoaccumulation Integrated River Basin Management Interim Fresh Water Sediment Quality Integrated Water Resource Management Lowest Dissolved Oxygen Lowest Effect Level IRBM ISQG IWRM LDO LEL <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">LGM </li><li style="flex:1">Last Glacial Maximum </li></ul>MACRES mg kgÀ1 mg LÀ1 MnCO3 MPOB NE-SW Malaysian Centre for Remote Sensing Milligram per Kilogram Milligram per Liter Manganese Carbonate Malaysian Oil Palm Board North East—South West Ammonia +1 NH4À1 NO2 NO3 Nitrate Nitrate 2À NW-NE NWQS 210Pb PEL North West—North East National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia Fallout Lead-210 Radionuclide Probable Effect Level PFE pH Permanent Forest Estate Acidity <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">Phosphate </li><li style="flex:1">PO4 </li></ul><ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">POC </li><li style="flex:1">Particular Organic Carbon </li></ul><ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">Per Part Million </li><li style="flex:1">PPM </li></ul>QAQC RI Quality Assurance and Quality Control Potential Ecological Risk Factor for Basin <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">Severe Effect Level </li><li style="flex:1">SEL </li></ul>SQG SRM SW Sediment Quality Guidelines Standard Reference Material South West t hÀ1 yearÀ1 TCD TDS ton per hectare per year Thermal conductivity detection Total Dissolved Solid <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">TN </li><li style="flex:1">Total Nitrogen </li></ul><ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">Total Organic Carbon </li><li style="flex:1">TOC </li></ul>USLE WGS Universal Soil Loss Equation World Geographic Coordinate System Chapter 1 Introduction Abstract Applied limnology is addressing comprehensive biological, physical, and chemical aspects of the lake and its catchment area. This concept of limnology comprises an integrated study that shows issues that catchment and lake are involved. Management plan of natural resources with conservation approach is the main objective of applied limnology. This hypothesis was tested in the Bera Lake, Peninsular Malaysia. Bera Lake is excellent example of lakes that is located in tropical climate and affected severely by land use changes at catchment area. Consequently, several issues have created such as extensive soil profile degradation, soil and nutrients loss, severe sedimentation in open waters, sediment pollution, and dramatic diminution of animal’s population particularly fishes, birds and relevant animals in Bera Lake and surrounded wetlands. Suggestion will be presented in order to minimize adverse environmental impacts of land use changes and conserve soil and water resources. This book is considerably contributing in knowledge and to achieve several new findings that will help the decision makers. The real reasons for severe reduction of area and depth at Bera Lake, reduction of fish population in the open waters, scarcity of emigrant birds and water quality degradation are the uncertainties for governmental agencies and decision makers. Keywords Applied limnology • Bera Lake • Conservation approach • Environmental issues • Management plan 1.1 What This Book Is About The book topic has concisely introduced and what the study will be addressed. The book introduces an original research and comprehensive limnological project which was fulfilled in the most important natural habitat in Malaysia. This book entitled “Applied Limnology” comprehensive view from watershed to the Bera Lake. The topic has significantly represents the multipurpose and has highlighted the relevant methodology. Further, the topic has introduced an especial lake in the M. Gharibreza and M.A. Ashraf, Applied Limnology: Comprehensive View 1from Watershed to Lake, DOI 10.1007/978-4-431-54980-2_1, © Springer Japan 2014 <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">2</li><li style="flex:1">1</li><li style="flex:1">Introduction </li></ul>tropical area with exclusive limnological, ecological, and sedimentary environment in Malaysia. It has appropriately demonstrated that book subject is an applied limnology field which has been supported by a high-tech method. This book is not included details about flora and fauna of Bera Lake and is focused mainly on physical features of the lake. 1.2 An Introduction of Bera Lake Bera Lake is a lacustrine mire system located in the central part of Peninsular Malaysia, in the east-central State of Pahang. Bera Lake has occupied 0.11 km2 area at the most northern part of catchment, is the largest natural lake in Malaysia. The natural rainforest has been covered (593.1 km2) Bera Lake catchment (BLC) entirely prior the Malaysian land development scenarios. Their distribution in study area was decreased dramatically to 300.24 km2 by the end of 1994. Permanent Forest Estate (PFE) in BLC was cited as the first RAMSAR site in Malaysia in November 1994, because of its biodiversity and ecological importance. The oil palm and rubber planted states was established as “Buffer Zone”. According to EIA, despite government regulations stipulating that any project beyond 500 ha should have an EIA (ECD 2002b). Local settlements is disregarding this regulation by deforestation of smaller areas in RAMSAR site since 1994 and leaving destructive effects on BLC ecosystems. Bera Lake wetlands and open waters distribution is 56.3 km2 with a dendritic pattern and an elongate form. Their elevation is lower than 20 m and 2ꢀ slope, have remarkably occupied the low land areas which have geologically created 5,500–6,500 (Wu¨st and Bustin 2004) (BP). The history of study area could be divided to two prior and post 1950 or industrialization period. According to Surut (1998, unpublished) this area has been habitat of original Peninsular Malaysia (Orang Asli) people which historically living in the rainforest areas. Malaysian national plans were commenced since 1960 and Bera Lake and its catchment were recognized as one of the main states of land development projects. The catchment area was significantly deforested since 1960 by FELDA, the main executive government agency. The several kinds of timbers extensively harvested between 1960 and 1970. Then, five FELDA land development projects were fulfilled between 1970 and 1995. Official land development has prohibited, 1994, after RAMSAR site citation. Bera Lake has been studied by the commencement of the Second Malaya Plan (1961–1965) due to its multidisciplinary importance. Reviewed literature showed that most of the previous works have been related to biological and ecological aspects of Bera Lake especially its flora and fauna. The biology of Bera Lake was initially studied by University of Malaya and Botanic Garden of Singapore, published by Merton (1962). Between 1968 and 1972, Japanese–Malaysian joint research group undertake an ecological study of Bera Lake (Furtado and Mori 1982) that includes information about plant decomposition (Sato et al. 1982), flora

Mohammadreza Gharibreza Muhammad Aqeel Ashraf

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