PoS(MULTIF2017)001 https://pos.sissa.it/ The Impact of the Space Experiments " published in 2004 by the Kluwer Academic † ∗ [email protected] [email protected] Speaker. A footnote may follow. We will discuss the importanceciplinary of approach the for "Multifrequency the Astrophysics" knowledgestrated of as the in a physics pillar the of of last ourpossible an Universe. decades, to interdis- Indeed, get only near as with the largelythe whole demon- the phenomena behaviour multifrequency of that a observations originate source such ofthe and a study cosmic then of behaviour. to each sources approach In kind it of the spiteerful phenomenon physics is of occurring than governing in this, a each a simple kind "astrophysical multidisciplinary of approach".that cosmic approach source of A in is "The clear even Bridge example more pow- of betweenthe a the multidisciplinary competences Big approach Bang of is and astrophysicists, Biology".volcanologists, planetary This biophysicists, physicists, bridge biochemists, atmospheric can and physicists, be astrobiophysicists.petences described geophysicists, The can by unification using provide of the such intellectualphysics com- framework governing that the will formation betterone and enable another, structure that an of on understanding cosmic the ofIndeed, contrary objects, the a constitute lot apparently of the uncorrelated the steps future with necessaryand research for in on astrophysics life the will possibility (e.g. be to focussed Giovannelli,multidisciplinary detect on 2001). the approach signals discovery is for of alien coming exoplanets life fromthat somewhere the are in use a the of fundamental Galaxy. historical source An news forseveral extension reported the to example in newborn a "archaeoastronomy". "old that chronicle" In marked thisUniverse. the paper we continuous will evolution provide on theThis paper knowledge is of a the summary of physics an updated of version our of the book " on Our Knowledge of thePublishers, Physics reprinted of from the the Universe review paper bySci. Giovannelli, Rev. F. & 112, Sabau-Graziati, 1-443 L.: (GSG2004), 2004, and Space subsequent considered lucubrations. ∗ † Copyright owned by the author(s) under the terms of the Creative Commons c ⃝ Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0). XII Multifrequency Behaviour of High Energy12-17 Cosmic June, Sources 2017 Workshop Palermo, Italy Franco Giovannelli INAF - Istituto di Astrofisica eRoma, Planetologia Italy Spaziali, Via del Fosso delE-mail: Cavaliere, 100, 00133 Lola Sabau-Graziati INTA- Dpt. Cargas Utiles y CienciasArdoz, del Madrid, Espacio, Spain C/ra de Ajalvir, KmE-mail: 4 - E28850 Torrejón de Multifrequency Astrophysics (A pillar of an interdisciplinary approach for the knowledge of the physics of our Universe) PoS(MULTIF2017)001 Franco Giovannelli ? 1 From the infinitely small to infinitely big (adopted by Rees, 1988). Figure 1: We can strain our eyes into the distance considering that all the people shown in Fig. 3 belong Indeed, if we look at the Fig. 2 (left panel) – where a section of the metabolic network of a The Bridge between the Big Bang and Biology undoubtedly exists, as discussed in the book In order to cross this bridge, as always when we cross a bridge, we MUST advance slowly, step what are the experimental tools for understanding the pillars of this Bridge to the humanity. They follow the cycle: birth, growth, aging death, which is exactly the same cycle "simple" bacterium is shown – we canto note any other that point each through point the (each complexity chemical ofcurring the compound) in network is the (Luisi connected "cosmic & Capra, network" 2014) where exactlyplexity each the point same of oc- is the connected network to any asdel other shown point plasma). in through the Fig. The com- large-scale 2is structure (right now panel) of being (https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmologia the revealed Universe, bygalaxies as distributed large-volume along traced cosmological filaments, by the surveys. filaments the connectingShandarin, in distribution The Habib turn of & structure to Heitmann form galaxies, is (2010) a percolating objective characterized wasanisms network. by to that quantitatively drive specify the the formation underlying mech- ofwith the N-body cosmic simulations network. of gravitational Byits structure combining origin formation, percolation-based in they analyses the elucidate properties how ofby the the the network initial nonlinear has density mapping field induced (nature) by and the how gravitational its instability contrast (nurture). is then amplified edited by Giovannelli (2001). Theis: big problem is how to cross this bridge, and the main question Multifrequency Astrophysics 1. Introduction by step, with continuity, becausefrom everything the is infinitely small smoothly to linked infinitelyCollege in big, lectures the as (1986)" sketched "magma" (Fabian, in A.C., of Fig. 1988). the 1 Universe, (Rees, 1988) "Origins. The Darwin PoS(MULTIF2017)001 Franco Giovannelli 2 Left panel: Section of the metabolic network of a "simple" bacterium (Luisi & Capra, 2014). From left upper panel clockwise: a) https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Brazilians.jpg; b) Figure 3: 1456962-419386468183546-1930497595-n.jpg; c) fotonoticia-20150407101323-645.jpg; d) desarrollo psi- cosexual freud citlali.jpg. Right panel: the "cosmic network" (https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmologia del plasma). experienced by all the components ofhistory the of Universe. the Therefore Universe for it a is complete necessary understanding to of search the along that cycle. Figure 2: Multifrequency Astrophysics PoS(MULTIF2017)001 5% ∼ . we can attach Franco Giovannelli 95% is almost completely unknown. However, 3 ∼ what is now the situation about our knowledge of the The cosmic budget. we know a very small part of it, and not very well Figure 4: we can’t solve problems by using the same kind of thinking we . We can add something more, by using the wisdom: . ? The answer is discouraging: the Astrometry Mission GAIA (Rix & Bovy,dimensional 2013) map is of making our the Galaxy largest, by mostmonitor surveying precise more each three- than of a its thousand target million starstheir stars. about positions, GAIA 70 distances, will times movements, over and ahundreds changes five-year of period. in thousands of brightness. It new will celestial It precisely objects, isand chart such expected observe as extra-solar to hundreds planets discover of and thousands brown dwarfs, will of also asteroids study within about our 500,000 ownEinstein’s distant Solar General quasars System. Theory and of The will Relativity. mission provide stringent new tests of Albert Several examples of big experiments are: Thus it is evident the necessity of many kinds of experiments in different frequency regions. The Universe manifests not only through electromagnetic radiation but also through astroparti- As Albert Einstein affirmed, A fundamental question naturally arises: Indeed, Fig. 4 shows schematically such a situation. We can really discuss only on • Upstream of this wesmall have experiments. to distinguish two great classes of experiments:2.1 big Big experiments experiments and cles, including neutrinos, and recently throughservations, gravitational possibly waves. simultaneous, Therefore, are multifrequency fundamental ob- inand photonic gravitational astrophysics, wave particle astrophysics. astrophysics, 2. The tools for exploring the Universe Multifrequency Astrophysics used when we created them each kind of problem inwithout blinkers a way as general as possible, and in any case it is necessary to go on of the content of thethe Universe. recent The remnant fundamental of progressinformation in about this gravitational "unknown" astronomy content. could open an incredible source of Universe PoS(MULTIF2017)001 Franco Giovannelli 4 E-ELT versus Egyptian pyramids (adopted from Gilmozzi, 2013). Figure 5: The THESEUS mission is designed totransient vastly phenomena increase over the the discovery entirety space of of cosmic the history highThe (http://www.isdc.unige.ch/theseus/). energy main scientific goals of the proposeda. mission are Explore to: the Early Universecensus of (cosmic the dawn Gamma-Ray and Burst reionization (GRB) era) population by in the unveiling first a billion complete years. The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) willstand be the a Universe giant and leap our forward in origins.the our JWST first quest will luminous to examine under- glows every after phase the ofthe Big cosmic evolution Bang history: of to our from the own formation solar of system. galaxies,Figure stars, 6 and planets sketches to the differentof phases the of JWST the (lower cosmic panel) history (https://jwst.nasa.gov/science.html). (upper panel) and the structure GAIA is providing strongcosmic impact sources. on stellar evolution andThe in European calibrating Extremely the Large energetic Telescopea (E-ELT) of 40m-class is a telescope revolutionary that scientificquestions will about project our allow for Universe. us toThe address E-ELT will many be of the largest thetimes optical/near-infrared telescope more most light in pressing than the the world unsolved largest andcorrect optical will telescopes for gather existing the 13 today. atmospheric The distortions E-ELT willstart, (i.e., be providing fully able images to adaptive 16 and times diffraction-limited)E-ELT sharper from will than the vastly those advance from astrophysical the knowledgearound Hubble by other Space enabling Telescope. stars, detailed The studies thenature of first of planets the galaxies Universe’s dark in sector the (Gilmozzi &The Universe, Spyromilio, final 2007). super-massive approval black of holes, E-ELTLiske, occurred and 2014). at On the May ESO 25, on 2016for ESO December Signs ELT 3, Largest Dome Ever 2014 Ground-based and (de Astronomyview Telescope Contract Zeeuw, of Structure Tamai the & (eso1617 Universe (Science - within Organisation the http://www.eso.org/sci/facilities/eelt/docs/. European Release). Extremely Large An Telescope) can expanded Figure be 5 found shows the comparison of E-ELT with the pyramids of Egypt (Gilmozzi, 2013). • • • Multifrequency Astrophysics PoS(MULTIF2017)001 Franco Giovannelli 5 (Left panel: the GRASP (FoV versus Effective Area) as function of energy; right panel: the (upper panel: the different phases of the cosmic history; lower panel: the structure of the JWST Figure 7 shows the GRASP FoV versusthe Effective cumulative Area) distribution as of function of GRBs energy with (leftfor redshift panel) Swift determination and (in as 10 a yr) function and of the the prediction redshift fore-ASTROGAM THESEUS ("enhanced (in ASTROGAM") 3 yr). is a breakthrough Observatory space mission, b. Perform an unprecedented deep monitoring of the X-ray transient Universe. • cumulative distribution of GRBs with redshiftand determination the as prediction a for function of THESEUS the (in redshift 3 for yr) Swift (http://www.isdc.unige.ch/theseus/). (in 10 yr) Figure 7: Figure 6: (https://jwst.nasa.gov/science.html). Multifrequency Astrophysics PoS(MULTIF2017)001 Franco Giovannelli 6 -ray astronomy is the improvement of the physical and γ (Left panel: the sensitivity of e-ASTROGAM compared with those of the past, present and future The GAMMA-400 gamma-ray telescope: the nextment absolutely of extraterrestrial necessary high-energy step in the develop- Cosmic Ray experiments: Figure 9bands shows of the the various cosmic experiments rayoperate that spectrum. in will the cover future Some different (Spillantini, of 2008, them 2009). are already working, some of them will Figure 8 shows: in thethe left past, present panel and the future sensitivity experiments;of of in e-ASTROGAM extragalactic the compared right sources panel with between the those 1 compilationthe of energy of keV region measurements and in which 820 e-ASTROGAM GeV,Angelis, will The strongly et improve semitransparent al., on 2017). band present indicates knowledge (De with a detector composed by adedicated Silicon to tracker, the a study calorimeter, of and the an non-thermalto anticoincidence Universe 3 system, in GeV the photon - energy the rangerapidly lower from degrading 0.3 energy angular MeV resolution, limit for can the tracker, be andThe pushed to mission 30 to is keV energies based for calorimetric on as detection. an lowsensitivity, advanced as angular space-proven 150 detector and keV, technology, albeit energy with with unprecedented resolution,to combined its with performance polarimetric inASTROGAM capability. the will Thanks MeV-GeV open domain, a substantiallyobservations new of improving window the its most on powerful predecessors, the Galacticof e- and non-thermal their extragalactic Universe, sources, relativistic elucidating making outflows thein and pioneering nature the their MeV effects energy oninstruments, range the e-ASTROGAM one surroundings. will to determine With two the aunderstanding orders origin of line supernova of of explosion sensitivity and magnitude key the isotopes better chemical evolutionwill fundamental than of provide our for previous Galaxy. unique the The generation data mission of significantmentary interest to to powerful a broad observatories astronomical suchE-ELT, community, TMT, as comple- LSST, LIGO-Virgo-GEO600-KAGRA, JWST, SKA, Athena, ALMA, CTA,(De IceCube, Angelis, et KM3NeT, al., and 2017). the promise of eLISA • • Figure 8: experiments; right panel: the compilationGeV, of The measurements semitransparent of band extragalactic indicates sources the betweenon energy 1 present region keV knowledge in and (De which 820 Angelis, e-ASTROGAM et will al., strongly 2017). improve Multifrequency Astrophysics PoS(MULTIF2017)001 100 GeV) = γ Franco Giovannelli 1% at E ∼ -ray telescopes, by a factor of 5- γ 100 GeV) and energy ( 7 = γ at E ◦ 01 . 0 -ray telescopes, especially the angular and energy resolutions. ∼ γ The many experiments that are exploring and will explore differenht bands of the cosmic ray resolutions better than the Fermi-LAT, as well as ground technical characteristics of Such a new generation telescope willRussian be space GAMMA-400, observatory. which will be installed onboardThe the GAMMA-400 gamma-ray telescope isand intended cosmic-ray to electrons measure and positrons theSuch in fluxes measurements the of concern energy gamma-rays range theof from following gamma-rays, 100 scientific studies MeV of tasks: to the several energystudies investigation spectra of TeV. of gamma-ray of bursts Galactic point and and gamma-ray sources emission extragalacticmeasurements from diffuse the of emission, Sun, spectra as well of as high high-energyinstrument precision provides electrons the and possibility positrons. for protonsmain and Also goal nuclei the measurements for GAMMA- up the to 400 GAMMA-400dark knee. matter mission But particles the is in to high-energy perform gamma-rayreferences a therein). emission (Topchiev sensitive et search al., for 2016a,b, signatures and the of The GAMMA-400 will operate in thethe highly unprecedented elliptic angular orbit ( continuously for a long time with spectrum (Spillantini, 2008). Figure 9: Multifrequency Astrophysics PoS(MULTIF2017)001 Franco Giovannelli -rays from annihilation or decay of dark matter γ 8 The Large Hadron Collider is the world’s largest and most powerful particle accelerator (Image: All the controls for the accelerator,one its services roof and at technical the infrastructure are CERNcollide housed Control at under Centre. four locations From aroundparticle here, the detectors the accelerator – beams ATLAS ring, (A inside corresponding Toroidal LHCALICE the to ApparatuS), (A LHC the CMS large Ion positions (Compact are Collider Muon of made Experiment) Solenoid), four to andare LHCb three (Large more Hadron smaller Collider beauty). experiments: There Tal LHCf Elastic (Large and Hadron Collider diffractive forward), crossotics TOTEM section (TO- Detector Measurement), at the and LHC). MoEDAL TOTEMinstalled (Monopole is near installed and ATLAS, close and Ex- to MoEDAL is the close CMSmain to interaction experiments the point, are LHCb LHCf shown detector. in is The Fig. position 11 of (https://home.cern/topics/large-hadron-collider). The the four LHC will answer somebasic of laws the governing fundamental the openstructure interactions questions of and in space forces physics, and time, concerning amongand and the the general in relativity. elementary particular Data objects, the is interrelation alsowhich the needed between versions deep from quantum of high-energy mechanics current particle experiments scientific to models suggest are more likely to be correct – in particular to 10. GAMMA-400 will permit to resolve The Large Hadron Collider (LHC)erator. is It the first world’s started largest upaccelerator and on complex. most 10 The powerful September LHC particle 2008, consists accel- number and of of remains a accelerating 27 the structures km latest to ring addition10 boost of to shows the superconducting CERN’s a magnets energy partial of with view a the of particles the along tunnel the hosting the way. accelerator. Figure particles, identify many discrete sources (many ofof which extended are sources, variable), to to clarify specify the the structure data on the diffuse emission (Topchiev et al., 2017). • CERN). Figure 10: Multifrequency Astrophysics PoS(MULTIF2017)001 27% of the ∼ Franco Giovannelli 9 Localization of the four main experiments at LHC (CERN-Brossure-2017-002-Eng, p. 26). The BICEP (Background Imaging of Cosmic Extragalacticare Polarization) a and series the of Keck cosmic Array microwavepolarization background of (CMB) the experiments. CMB; They in aim particular, to measuring measure the the B-mode of the CMB. The experiments choose between the Standard Modeland and allow Higgs-less further model theoretical and to development.Standard validate Model Many their theorists to predictions expect emerge newunsatisfactory. at Issues physics the explored beyond by TeV the LHC energy collisions includebeing level, i) generated as the by mass the the of Standard elementary Higgs particles Model Model mechanism; and ii) appears Poincaré supersymmetry, to symmetry; an iii) be extensionon extra of string dimensions, the theory; as Standard predicted iv) the bymass-energy various nature of models of the based universe; the v) dark answer to matternuclear the that force question appears if are the to just electroweak account different force manifestations and for various the of Grand strong one universal Unification unified Theories; force,many as vi) orders predicted of why by magnitude the weaker than fourthditional the fundamental sources other of three force quark fundamental (gravity) forces; flavourModel?; is vii) mixing, viii) are so beyond why there are those ad- there already apparent present violationster?; of within ix) the what the symmetry are between Standard the matter nature andthe antimat- and early properties universe of and quark-gluon in plasma, thought certain to compact have andSome existed strange important in astronomical results objects obtained today? with the LHC will be discussed later. • Figure 11: Multifrequency Astrophysics PoS(MULTIF2017)001 Franco Giovannelli 10 Robotic Autonomous Observatories: A Historical Per- " presented a historical introduction to the field of Robotic Astronomy, discussing the basic have had four generationsArray, and of BICEP3. instrumentation, These experiments are consisting observingto from of discover the signatures South BICEP1, of Pole, Inflation and BICEP2, by their actually aims detecting the(CGB) are the via Cosmic Keck its Gravitational weak Background imprint as theprobing unique B-mode the polarization Universe signature at of the an CMB, earlierincrease directly time in than sensitivity ever to before. B-modedetectors, Each polarization. BICEP2 generation began represents observing BICEP1 in a observed the large from beginningthree of of 2006-2008 2010 five with with Keck 512 Array 98 detectors, telescopes and begandetectors. the observing first in The the final beginning two of Keck 2011,2012. each Array BICEP3, with receivers with 512 were a total deployed of during 2,560 theThe detectors, summer has main season been goal of operational of since May(Keating BICEP et 2016. experiments al., 2003; is Ogburn to IV et testIn al., the 2010). particular, if validity Inflation of happened the immediatelyturbulence after theory in the of the Big structure the Bang, oftected Inflation it recently. space-time would While have itself-gravitational these produced waves waves would likeorientation be the of too kind the weak light, for LIGO which LIGO de- is to known see,We as they will polarization. would discuss twist later the the resultstheir coming validity. from BICEP2/Keck-Array and we will comment on The number of Robotic Autonomous Observatories (RAOs) has rapidly grown. Figure 12 Castro-Tirado (2010a) in his review " The number of automatic astronomical facilities worldwide continues to grow, and the level In this short excursion about the tools necessary for an advancement of our knowledge of Of course the list of big experiments is far to be complete, but it is enough to show to the shows the location of moreexcellent than results 100 which RAOs worldwide should (Castro bescheduling, Cerón, impossible and 2011). to in any They obtain case are with not providing the available for larger long telescopes term subject runs to of observations. strict of robotisation, autonomy, and networking isastrophysical increasing fields, as well. like This the has searchGalaxy, a for the strong extrasolar impact study in planets, of many the activeimmediate monitoring galactic followup of nuclei, of variable the stars high-energy detection2010b). in transients and our such monitoring of as supernovae, gamma-ray and bursts the (Castro-Tirado, 2008, the physics of thethose Universe, Space–based: we small–, cannot mini–, omit micro–,small–telescope, the and nano–, extreme Robotic–telescopes. and importance cube–satellites, of and small those experiments, Ground–based: like spective definitions, the differing telescope controlfew operating current scientific systems, applications observatory in managers, that as time. well as a 2.2 Small experiments reader the efforts that thefrontier scientific international tests scientific to community validate the arebudgets current for facing theories their and both realization. for for the difficulties determining in the providing sufficient Multifrequency Astrophysics PoS(MULTIF2017)001 10. Two 50 cm Franco Giovannelli ∼ 11 bands. These telescopes respond automatically to GCN alerts and c , and I c to g’ allowing the photometric redshift measurements up to z s The Robotic Autonomous Observatories worldwide (adopted from Castro Cerón (2011) after The CHASE (CHilean Automatic Supernova2009) sEarch) project with began the in goal 2007understand (Pignata to the et discover physics al., of young, explodingto nearby stars derive southern and extra- supernovae their galactic progenitors, in distances. and order ii) to During refine i) the the better methods first four years of operation, CHASE has MITSuME (Multicolor Imaging Telescope for Surveybuilt and to Monstrous perform Explosions) Multi-color has photometry been from of K NIR/optical afterglow covering the wavebands optical telescopes are built at Akeno,western Yamanashi Japan. in Each eastern telescope Japan, has andimages a at Tricolor OAO, in Okayama Camera, g’, in which R allows usstart to taking take series simultaneous of tricolor images,pipeline which on are site. immediately The processed pipelinemapping through consists the to of analysis the source image finding, pixels,for catalog an matching, and optical sky photometry counterpart coordinates of is performed. theautomatically While patrol found pre-selected waiting sources. interesting for objects GRBs, such the An asmultiwavelength MITSuME automated AGNs studies Telescopes and with search galactic Fermi transients (GLAST) for and MAXI (Shimokawabe et al., 2009). Just for giving to the reader a short panorama about the many small ground- and space-based The most important news about the many scientific results obtained with the RAOs can be • • experiments, not necessarily autonomous, we list the follows: Hessman (2010). found in the proceedings of the series ofCastro-Tirado, Workshops Hanlon on Robotic & Autonomous Kotani, Observatories (Bloom, 2010;Hiriart Guziy, Pandey, & Tello Castro-Tirado, & 2014; Castro-Tirado, Caballero-García, 2012; Pandey, Hiriart Tello, & Riva, Castro-Tirado, 2016). Figure 12: Multifrequency Astrophysics PoS(MULTIF2017)001 and typically a 3 Franco Giovannelli 12 1.3 kg. Multiple modules are possible, i.e. 3 Units = 3 modules/units, i.e. 10 x , typically up to 12 Units. 3 ∼ MASTER-IAC: Spain, Canarias Islands,Canarias since (IAC). 2015 The Instituto deMASTER-OAFA: Argentina, since Astrofísica 2012 Observatorio de Astronomico Felix Aguilar, (OAFA) Instituto de Ciencias Astronomicas deversity la of Tierra San y Juan. del Espacio (ICATE), National Uni- MASTER-Progenitor: Russia, Moscow, Alexander Krylov Observatory, Since 2002. MASTER-Ural: Russia, near Ekaterinburg, Sinceservatory, Ural 2008. State University. Kourovka Astronomical Ob- MASTER-Kislovodsk: Russia, Near Kislovodsk. Kislovodsk Solar StationObservatory, of Sternberg the Astronomical Pulkovo Institute, Lomonosov Moscow State University. MASTER-SAAO: South Africa, Sutherland, sinceObservatory 2014. (SAAO). South African Astonomical MASTER-Amur: Russia, near Blagoveschensk. Blagoveschensk Stateversity. Pedagogic Uni- MASTER-Tunka: Russia, near Irkutsk.versity. Applied Physics Institute, Irkutsk State Uni- – – – – – – – – Very small satellites for multifreqyencyby astrophysics René have Hudec been et discussed al. in (2017).(typically this About for workshop the small ESA satellites missions, weaffected can 60 by assist proposals funding to a problems. for strong 1 competition satellite),The and moreover development all of the themostly system Pico with is involvement (Cube) of and students for Nanosatellites evident goals isThe of running education. standard at size many for a Universities, CubeSat is 1 Liter Volume, i.e. 10 x 10 x 10 cm Figure 13 shows the position of MASTER-Net sites (http://observ.pereplet.ru/). weight of 10 x 30 cm The range of weight of1-10 kg, Picosatellites Microsatellites is 10-100 0.1-1 kg. kg, FemtosatellitesRecent 10-100 technological g, progress allows Nanosatellites their use in any field of astrophysics. produced more than 130southern supernovae, hemisphere being (Hamuy et the al., most 2012). successful project ofThe Russian its global type network of in telescopesis robot the very MASTER (Lipunov fast et positioning al., alert, 2010). followreal-time MASTER up auto-detection software. and survey MASTER twin goal is telecopesThe One Global network Sky network in is with One spread own Night along upNet to the Sites: 20-21 whole mag. world. In the following are reported the MASTER • • Multifrequency Astrophysics PoS(MULTIF2017)001 Franco Giovannelli 13 Contribution of different space- and ground-based experiments to the transient alerts in As- The MASTER-NET Robotic Autonomous Observatories worldwide (http://observ.pereplet.ru/). Though we have not shown a complete list of small experiments both space- and ground- Undoubtedly MASTER contributions to transient alerts in Astronomer’s telegrams is funda- Figure 13: tronomer’s telegrams in the period 2013-2014 (after Buckley, 2015). based, we are able to affirmtelescopes that and small to telescopes bigger are ground- and unreplaceable space-based tools multifrequency complementary experiments. to larger Figure 14: mental. For instance in theas period shown 2013-2014, in MASTER Fig. contribution 14 is (after of Buckley, 2015). order 25% of the total Multifrequency Astrophysics PoS(MULTIF2017)001 Favour Franco Giovannelli xperiment) (Giovannelli et al., E -ray X talian I 14 panish S ! And he was completely right. Indeed he generated – like a super- No answer at all!!! . 1 44 years experience about Multifrequency Astrophysics, we can affirm that: there are − ∼ 3 yr ± SIXE was submitted to ASI (Agenzia Spaziale Italiana: Italian Space Agency) in order to After Summaries of that report can be found in several papers later published (Isern et al., 1999b; One of us (FG) remember a repetitive suggestion of Livio Gratton – his professor of astro- Therefore we can derive a severe question to all colleagues who produce more than 13 arti- And this produces an absurd. Indeed, in order to write a scientific paper a "normal" scientist This system foments only the increase of the production of articles at the expense of the syn- The science policy, that is now dominating the scientific world, measures the value of a re- Thanks to the numerous experiments ground- and space-based, we have collected a huge many problems in performingplatform Simultaneous Measurements Multifrequency, due to Multisite, i) Multiinstrument, objectiveobjectives; technological Multi- difficulties; iii) ii) problems sharing common of scientific opinion scheduling the and most budgets; critic point iv)this is politic point the is management latter clearly which of illustrated by is science. the moving SIXE in In ( a our "slippery ground". An example of ask a funding for sharingprovided the by costs Spain. of the payload with the PNIE, being the launcher (PEGASUS) Giovannelli et al., 1999a,b, 2001, 2002b).of SIXE. Figure 16 shows a summary of the main characteristics the quality against the quantity nova expelling heavy elements inpervaded the the interstellar world medium of – astrophysics.Fig. a All 15. number the of readers very surely know famous at pupils least that two of them, sketched in 1993). SIXE was planned as aobservations multifrequency of (X-ray, Optical) few payload selected for cosmic Long–Term continuous their sources behaviour. in order Later to clearly thePNIE understand phase-A (Plan the Nacional of physics Investigación SIXE governing Espacial, wasGiovannelli, being and Principal completed Investigators Lola thanks Jordi Sabau-Graziati to Isern asIsern a and et first Franco funding al., Co-I 1999a; of (PNIE-CICYT Giovannelli the et Report, al., Spanish ESP97-1784-E 2002a). grant): physics at La Sapienza University of Roma – who felt a true incentive to scientific research: cles/year. How they do? There are many colleagues who publish more than 100 articles per year! needs roughly three months of fullis time the work. upper Thus, limit fourpresented papers to at in the the international yearly international refereed conferences. journals publication. Thenof the 10 We new can upper limit be of generous publication can adding be half of a order dozen of papers thesis that would be needed, and a chain of "friendly" citations. searcher according to: i) thethey number make of to "scientific" a publications substantial regardless advancement of of the knowledge, real and contribution ii) the number of citations. amount of experimental data, the usebility of of which reaching is a extremely synthesis. difficult.thousands In This of greatly contrast, scientific limits this articles the that immense possi- only amount in of a data few generates cases a lead production to a of real advancement of knowledge. Multifrequency Astrophysics 3. The use of wisdom in physics PoS(MULTIF2017)001 Franco Giovannelli xperiment): main characteristics. E 15 -ray X talian I panish S SIXE ( Figure 16: The supernova "Livio Gratton" produced remnant-pupils, all of them rather well known within Figure 15: the international astrophysical community. (Giovannelli, 2010). Multifrequency Astrophysics PoS(MULTIF2017)001 8 of − (3.1) 10 mag ≈ V ∆ Franco Giovannelli = viscosity , and α ) increases due to the appearance K; x 4 10 / 0 15 / T 15 is the time between the optical and X-ray 28 / ) of the 8-day delayed flare was produced. ) 1 = X τ 4 ˙ 4 m T 3 T ( / and NOT vice versa! 2 5 / 4 m 16 α 9 . Effect 6 = τ /yr) ; ⊙ M 8 − generates an ˙ ˙ M/(10 M increases (depending on the activity of the Be star) between Cause = . The outer part of the accretion disk becomes hotter, therefore the optical ˙ 1 m − . The yr ) increases. Due to large turbulent viscosity, the wave of the large mass flux is ⊙ opt M ; 7 ⊙ − 10 Briefly, the model based on an accretion disk geometrically thin and optically thick without It is right to remind that the mechanism proposed by GBK13 for explaining the X-ray-optical Time-lag between HE events and LE events in disk-fed accreting X-ray binaries (XRBs) has And now some examples of problems resolved with the help of multifrequency observations X-ray/Be systems are formed by a compact star and an optical star. Obviously there is a mutual After about 25 years from the original idea (Giovannelli, F., Sabau-Graziati, L. et al., 1993) ≈ = maximum temperature in optics. 0 the optical star at the periastron and X-ray intensity (I advection (Shakura & Sunyaev, 1973; Bisnovatyi-Kogan, 2002)periastron is the the mass following: flux in theand vicinity of where: m = M/M delay in A 0535+26/HDE 245770 iscous based accretion on disk. an This enhanced mechanism, mass knownrespect flux as to UV-optical propagation the delay through optical (the the flash) delay vis- was ofLasota, observed the 2001). and EUV modeled flash Time for with delays cataclysmic have variables beenis (e.g. detected the Smak, also reason 1984; in that several urged other Bisnovatyi-Koganmodel, X-ray & developed transient Giovannelli for (2017) binaries. the to This particular generalizemodel the case provides aforementioned of the formula A (3.1) 0535+26/HDE of 245770 the (Flavia’ time star). delay in This transient cosmic general accreting sources: been noted in many systems, but the triggersuch of a the phenomenon work resulted (Bisnovatyi-Kogan in & a Giovannelli, modelGraziati 2017) for (2011) explaining was in who given general by noted Giovannelli athe & systematic optical Sabau- delay Be between star the –X-ray relative occurring enhancement flare at in in the luminosity the periastron of systemand passage HDE corroborated of 245770/A by the 0535+26. many events neutron (Giovannelli, The starlater Bisnovatyi-Kogan model & – by for Klepnev, and 2013: events such the GBK13), reported a and subsequent in system Giovannelli was et developed al. (2015) where also a relationship between luminosity (L flashes appearance. propagating toward the neutron star, thus the X-ray luminosity (L of a hot accretion disk regionmagnetic and due poles the of accretion flow the channeled neutron by the star. magnetic field The lines time–delay onto and good small quantities of wisdom in physics. influence between the two stars. Low-energyand (LE) processes vice influence versa. high-energy (HE) Never processes Cause confuse and the Effect effect with the cause. There is a general law in the Universe: SIXE papers are still read:search Gate). up It till is now the more most than read 3500 paper in readings all from INAF all Institutes!!! the World (source: Re- 3.1 X-ray/Be systems Multifrequency Astrophysics T PoS(MULTIF2017)001 ≃ th τ -EWs α 6.5 days. ≃ th τ Franco Giovannelli 8 days; ≃ th τ 3 days (Shahbaz et al., 1998); 350 days), not yet known, is coming ∼ ∼ 6 days (Orosz et al., 1997); 8 days (GBK13); exp , taking into account the experimental delay ∼ τ ≃ α exp exp τ τ 17 = 0.9–1.4 days (Wheatley, Mauche & Mattei, 2003); exp τ -viscosity parameter plays an important role, and usually it is α ) of Be/X-ray binaries has been found. This point (red cross in Fig. 18) orb -EW = 70 Å, like reported in Villada et al. (1999), also the position of the A α (89 Å) in their interesting diagram in which a relationship between the H α 1.35 days; Time-lag general model for disk-fed accreting XRBs (Bisnovatyi-Kogan & Giovannelli (2017). ≃ th Low-mass X-ray binary Aql X-1/V1333 Aql: Black hole X-ray transient GRO J1655-40: Cataclysmic variable SS Cygni; τ X-ray/Be system A0535+26/HDE245770: 3.2days Another example of the use of wisdom is that referred to the X-ray/Be system A 1118-61/Hen This general model for the time-lag for disk-fed accreting XRBs is sketched in Fig. 17. In this general formula the • • • • Figure 17: and the orbital period (P is clearly outside of the line1985 best to fitting 1997) the of other H data. However, if we use the average value (from 3-640, for which Reig,width Fabregat (EW) of & H Coe (1997) used one single measurement of the equivalent 1118-61/Hen 3-640 system is wellan on the indication line of best the fitting possible the value data of (red the star in orbital Fig. period 18). ( Moreover hard to be determined. However, ifmined, the the other formula parameters (3.1) are can known, be because usedmeasured for experimentally in determining deter- a certain source. Multifrequency Astrophysics By using this formula it istheoretical possible delays to found obtain in: an excellent agreement between the experimental and PoS(MULTIF2017)001 = 27.2 + 2 X L Franco Giovannelli ) where the "correct" position of RU Lupi is rot in X-ray/Be systems (after Reig, Fabregat & Coe, 002 days (Giovannelli, 1994). This could be the . orb 0 18 ± 686 . ) for T Tauri stars, late-type dwarfs, dKe-dMe stars, and 27 -EW and P rot α = FLEs 002 days is used, instead of using the "wrong" value reported in the . 0 ± 686 . ) versus the rotational velocity (v 27 X = The relationship between H FLEs if P In two occasions, RU Lupi showed a strong activity (Flare-Like Events: FLEs), much higher One of the main results obtained during the long-term multifrequency program was the si- The results were published in two main papers, the first with the experimental results (Giovan- A long-term (1982-1988) multifrequency program on Classical T Tauri Stars (CTTSs) was rot ) versus the rotational velocity (v v X than that in "quiescence". Together with theto FLEs determine reported in their the periodicity: literature, P these two FLEs allowed multaneous detection of emissions in differentEnergy energy Distribution bands (SED) that of allowed RU Lupi, to as construct shown the in Spectral Fig. 19. nelli et al., 1995), the secondreview with paper the about interpretation RU of Lupi data was and published modeling by (Lamzin Giovannelli et (1994). al., 1996). A developed by the international group leadedcampaign were by the Franco International Giovannelli. Ultraviolet The Explorerlite, facilities (IUE), and used the ASTRON for the X-ray/UV such ESO Soviet a 0.6-m satel- optical UBVRI spectroscopy, and telescope, 3.6-m 1-m telescope for IR Echelle telescope, high 1.5-m resolution telescope spectroscopy. for low resolution 3.2 The classical T Tauri star RU Lupi rotational period of RU(L Lupi. Indeed, ifRS we CVn use systems the (Bouvier, 1999), relationshiplog the between position the of X-ray RU luminosity Lupiliterature fits of the 3.7 relationship days log –is that largely simply commented does in not the existray paper (Giovannelli luminosity et by (L al., Giovannelli (1994). 1991) – Figureoverlapped whose 20 with wrong shows a origin red the cross, diagram and of the the "wrong" X- position with the blue cross. Figure 18: 1997; Villada et al., 1999). Multifrequency Astrophysics from that diagram. This can help350 the days. search for the orbital period of the system around the value of PoS(MULTIF2017)001 Franco Giovannelli ), late-type dwarfs (+), dKe-dMe stars • 19 m) of RU Lupi in different epochs (after Giovannelli, 1994). µ ). The right position of RU Lupi is marked with a red cross, and the wrong  SED (1,200-50,000 X-ray luminosity vs stellar equatorial velocity for TTS ( Figure 19: ), and RS CVn systems ( ⊕ Figure 20: ( position is marked with a blue cross (Giovannelli, 1994 after Bouvier, 1990). Multifrequency Astrophysics PoS(MULTIF2017)001 , HG L + NUC L = Franco Giovannelli TOT is the host galaxy luminosity, formed by the in- 20 HG versus z for extragalactic X-ray emitters. Red crosses and red line represent GP86 diagram. is the nuclear luminosity and L xmax L NUC GP86 found a general relationship between log z and the logarithm of the 2 keV equivalent The emission of the extragalactic X-ray sources can be expressed as L From the evidence that the shapes of SEDs (Spectral Energy Distributions) of different kind The argument of the possibility of describing all the collapsed objects with a unique scheme tegrated emission of itsdiagram. discrete In sources. the long Suchdiscussion review components about paper the by can GP86 Giovannelli be diagram. & derived Sabau-Graziati by (2004: using GSG2004) the there is GP86 a where, L Figure 21: The deeper surveys (Hasinger, Miyajicolors. & The Schmidt, light 2000) plum-colored shown band in indicates the the diagram range are of Mineo indicated et with al. different (2014) results. of AGNs (Cen A, NGCter, 4151, 1982), and Giovannelli 3C & 273)EINSTEIN Polcaro are observatory, (1986) practically constructed (GP86), the the by same maximumindependent using (e.g. of luminosity the experimental diagram Ramaty current data for classification & coming extragalacticthe of Lingenfel- those objects, same from objects. engine the producing Indeed, energy thoseare (supermassive extragalactic black classified objects hole have as with blazars, accretion orthe disk line radio-loud and of jet) QSOs, sight and or and they radioblack the hole galaxies jet in axis. depending function on The of the attenuationcalculated such by in angle Bednarek an the between et angle emission al. of and (1990). a the cosmic beam source Lorentz’s containing factor a of the particles have been have been discussed since long time& by many Rees authors. (1984) In discussed theirmodel review the of paper, Begelman, active theory Blandford galactic of nuclei (AGNs). extragalactic radio sources and in particular the unified Multifrequency Astrophysics 3.3 Unified Model for Compact Sources PoS(MULTIF2017)001 (position of ◦ 0.002. 725 yr – contrary Franco Giovannelli . ∼ Aschenbach 21 386 pc. above the horizon, celestial declination -46 ∼ ◦ ) to the total luminosity of galaxies with z NUC 2 a.m. - between the hours of the rat and the ox) (Soka Gakkai, The ± 1714 yr – and a distance of ∼ Every object rotating with adequate energy produces a jet. Relativistic jets have been found in At the moment Nichiren was about to be beheaded, a luminous object (full Moon) shot across The answer can be found in the writings of Nichiren Daishonin. This buddhist monk presented Bernd Aschenbach modified Sedov’s relation for determining the age of a SNR (Aschenbach, Historical document (Tatsunokuchi Persecution of Nichiren Daishonin "the Buddha of the last Later, with the advent of higher sensitivity X-ray experiments, different samples of extragalac- Sedov Vela Jr). numerous galactic and extragalactic cosmic sourcesby at electrons different and energy bands. protons – They accelerated canthe up be to formed matter relativistic and/or energies – photons whichstrongly through generate dependent interactions on high with the energy angle radiation. formed by the The beam spectra axis of and the such line a of radiation sight, are and obviously by the sky, brightly illuminating the surroundings.The soldiers The were executioner filled fell with on panic.on his the face, Terrified, twelfth the his day soldiers eyes of called blinded. the offto ninth the 3:00 month execution. a.m.). of This 1271, The happened between event the culminated hours 10 of the rat and the ox (11:00 p.m. 3.5 Some notes on relativistic jets to the public authority thein "Risho the Ankoku country) Ron" three (Establishing times: thehe a Correct was strong persecuted Teaching and for and sentenced clear the to critic peace death. to the behaviour of authority. For this reason writings of Nichiren Daishonin Vol.the I, SN p. Vela Jr 196). happened in How that it date with is a possible strong to precision? affirm that the explosion of 2016). He used asSky-Survey test in the X-rays (Aschenbach, SNR 1998) Vela – Jrto and (RX T he 0852.0-3946) gave an – age discovered of during T the ROSAT All- day of the law") supports12 this result September with 1271 an (1 exceptional precision: The date of the explosion was 3.4 Great example of synergy between Astrophysics and History tic X-ray emitters were discovered (Hasinger, MiyajiFigure & 21 Schmidt, 2000, shows and all the these references(red therein). samples line). with For the the weaker maximum sources,green, X-ray the luminosity luminosity and functions function are fuchsia found parallel lines). to byother the GP86 words GP86 function For this (blue, means z that suggested 0.01, that where such a only smooth AGNs are PoS(MULTIF2017)001 Franco Giovannelli -ray bursts. The presence and γ 22 An extensive review on the situation about the knowledge of the physics of our Universe has Undoubtedly the advent of new generation experiments ground– and space–based have given The association of jets with accretion disks strengthens the case for similar physical processes Astrophysical jets are a remarkable laboratory for a number of important physical processes. However, highly collimated supersonic jets and less collimated outflows are observed to emerge Jets are thought to be produced by the powerful electromagnetic forces created by magnetized been recently published by Giovannelli & Sabau-Graziati (2016a). The reader interested is invited a strong impulse fordeveloping a verifying new physics current for going, theories, probably, overfrom and the standard Active for model Physics (SM). Recent providing Experiments results new coming (APEs)such experimental a and new Passive inputs path. Physics for Experiments (PPEs) have opened 4. The present situation about the knowledge of the physics of our Universe They provide a confirmation of specialminal relativity motion, in terms and of time relativistic dilation Dopplerjets effects. boosting, have superlu- When implications coupled for with testing their generalcal black-hole/neutron-star research, relativity. origins, we Over have the become course awarelinear of that two structures jets decades now are of ubiquitous associated astrophysi- phenomena with inmicroquasars, jets astrophysics. active can galaxies Extended be and quasars, found clusters in of star–forming galaxies, regions, and galactic binaries, from a wide variety of astrophysicalplanetary objects. nebulae, They are compact seen objects in young (likestars), stellar and galactic objects in black (YSOs), the proto- holes nuclei or ofvelocity, active microquasars, and galaxies and amount (AGNs). X-ray of Despite binary energy theirphysics different do transported), physical they they scales share? have (in These strong size, in systems morphological nature are similarities. and either hydrodynamic are, What or aswas magnetohydrodynamic published such, (MHD) by governed de Gouveia by dal Pino non-linearthe (2005). equations. role Very interesting of discussion An has magnetic important been reconnection published reviewsources, about on like on jet/accretion from this microquasars disk topic to systems, low valid luminous& AGNs, Kadowaki, in till 2010). different YSOs kind (de Gouveia of Dal cosmic Pino, Piovezan gas swirling toward a collapsed object (i.e.collapsed black object, hole). some Although can most be of ejectedforces the at can material extremely extend falls over high into vast the speeds. distances Magnetic andal., fields may 2008). help spun explain out the by narrowness these of the jet (e.g. Clarke et Multifrequency Astrophysics the Lorentz factor of theGuillory & particles Rose, (e.g. 1999; Beall, 2002, Bednarek 2003; et Beall al., et al., 1990 2006, and 2007). the references therein; Beall, evolution of these jet–like structuresangular momentum. is of course a testament to the principlein of all these conservation phenomena of (e.g., Beall,tially 2003; the Marscher, 2005), same and physics it is hasJets become working have, plausible over therefore, that a become essen- a broad ‘laboratory’ rangeunderstanding or of perhaps of temporal, an the anvil, physical spatial, that processes and we in luminosity can the use scales. sky. to help us forge our PoS(MULTIF2017)001 σ 9 . Franco Giovannelli 6 GeV with 4 . 0 ± 3 . " because it’s said to be what caused 5 GeV has been detected. This value is com- . 23 126 the God particle ∼ excess at σ Thanks to collisions at 13 TeV the experiment Large Hadron Collider beauty (LHCb) at LHC From ATLAS results, a 5.0 The hunt to Higgs boson – often called " The Higgs boson discovery was announced by the ATLAS and CMS collaborations on 4th The Standard Model of particle physics takes quarks and leptons to be fundamental elementary One of the most exciting results from LHC is the detection of the Higgs boson which is often The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) can be considered as the eighth-wonder of the world. The detected a new particle:gested the since Pentaquark. 1960-ies (Gell-Mann, The 1964). existence Pentaquark of gives the a pentaquark new way was for theoretically the sug- combination of the significance (Incandela, 2012; Thefrom CMS ATLAS, if Collaboration, confirmed, 2012a). would completeATLAS and the This CMS SM (Jakobs result, of & physics. together Seez, 2015). with Figure 22 that shows the results from patible with the expected massMuon of Solenoid Higg’s boson (CMS) (Gianotti, experiment 2012; at Aad LHC et detected al., a 2012). new boson The at Compact 125 July 2012. Evidence for aStandard new Model particle Higgs with boson. the mass of about 125 GeV and the properties of the particles, and describes the forces thatof govern further their elementary particles. interactions as The mediated exchangednetic particles through interaction, are the photons W exchange in and the Zthe case of strong bosons the interaction. in electromag- the After the casetion discovery of of of the the the mechanism weak W by interaction, and whichWithin Z the and they Standard bosons acquire gluons Model in mass in the became the W the an earlyEnglert-Brout-Higgs-Guralnik-Hagen-Kibble and case important 1980s, Z mechanism, goal of the bosons for proposed have elucida- masses particle in generated physics. massive 1964 via scalar the and particle, symmetry the giving breaking Standard rise Model Higgs to boson a (Jakobs & Seez, 2015). the "Big Bang" that created our Universe:a matter few obtains mass years interacting ago with Higgs withthe field the – different started most experiments of powerful the acceleratorsmoment LHC. constructed of These in the experiments the life can world, ofdirectly provide in the to information particular the Universe. about Universe. with the LHC first is a complementary tool for HE observatories looking called "the God particle" because it’sverse. said Matter to obtains be mass what interacting causedStandard with the Model Higgs "Big of field. Bang" Physics would that Thus, be created if completed. our the Uni- Higgs Boson is detected, the fields of investigation withSupersymmetry. LHC In are this sense Dark we can Energy,Matter consider Dark unknown LHC oceans. as Matter, the LHC Extra vessel is sailing a Dimensions, theUniverse. complementary Dark LHC tool Higgs, Energy is for probably and and HE the Dark observatories highest looking and directlyto ultimately at active-physics be technological the wonder, outdated difficult because ofto dimensions develop and more costs. sensitive passive-physics ProbablyMoon-based. ground-based in experiments, the and next even decades if it space-based will or be cheaper 4.1 Active physics experiments Multifrequency Astrophysics to look at that paper. However, weuseful are for obliged a to better discuss understanding a of few the topics open that, problems in still our existing opinion, in could the be modern astrophysics. PoS(MULTIF2017)001 32 − 10 ≈ and 33 − Franco Giovannelli 10 1100 corresponding ≈ ∼ significance (Ade et al., 2015). If B- σ s after the Big Bang. It is not known exactly 36 − 24 10 ≈ s after the Big Bang. In turn, quadrupole anisotropy is induced by: i) density 13 10 ATLAS and CMS results for the probable Higgs boson (adopted from Jakobs & Seez (2015), × 2 . 1 Indeed, a key element to the primordial interpretation advanced by the BICEP2 team was ex- One of the most important question still open is the search for experimental proof of the infla- We know from the theory that linear polarization of the CMB photons is induced via Thomson Recently the collaboration of the BCEP2 experiment claims the detection of E-mode (Crites No other sources for a curl–polarization field on the CMB at large angular scales exist. Thus, ∼ tion. The expansion is thoughtof to the have preceding been grand triggered unification by epoch the at phase transition that marked the end 4.2 Passive physics experiments Figure 22: after The ATLAS Collaboration (2012), and The CMS Collaboration (2012b). quarks that are the fundamental2015). constituents of neutrons and protons (Cardini, 2015; Aaij et al., scattering by quadrupole anisotropy at recombination that occurred at z Multifrequency Astrophysics when the inflationary epoch ended,s but after it the is Big thought Bang.Cosmic to Microwave The have Background been experimental (CMB) polarization. between proof Winstein ofof (2007, the CMB 209) polarization inflation discussed in the could the problem come following from decade. measurements of et al., 2015) and B-mode polarization of the CMB at at 7.0 B–modes are a clear signature of inflation (e.g. de Bernardis, 2014). to t perturbations (scalar relics of inflation) producingii) a gravitational curl–free waves polarization (tensor vector field relicsfields (E–modes); (B–modes). of inflation) producing both curl–free and curl–polarization mode polarization would be confirmed, the inflationaryconfirmed. model of However, the big Universe would discoveries be need definitively independent big measurements confirmations. and precise For measurements a of robust polarized detection foregrounds of are B–modes, mandatory. cluding an explanation based on polarized thermal dust emission from our galaxy (Bucher, 2015). PoS(MULTIF2017)001 Franco Giovannelli 25 The Universe that contains by definition all the matter or all the energy available showed one Therefore, one more dowel support the General Relativity. Several papers have been published about the strong gravitational lensing (e.g. Tyson, Kochan- Gravitational lensing is widely and successfully used to study a range of astronomical phe- Kochanek (2003) discussed "The whys and hows of finding 10,000 lenses", mentioning the In the last few years two further experimental results confirmed the validity of the General For all these reasons is even more important to find an experimental proof of the Inflation. However, the theory of inflation is criticized by Ijjas, Steinhadt & Loeb (2013) after Planck2013 important event that was possibleperimental to demonstration be of detected the on validity the of the Earth. General This Relativity. event Indeed, was on September a 14, further 2015 direct ex- 4.3.2 Gravitational waves ski & Dell’Antonio, 1998; Tyson, 2000(Wittman and et references therein), al., and 2000). the weak AKochanek, gravitational review 2004). lensing on A "Gravitational book Lenses" on haveMeylan "Gravitational been et Lensing: al. published Strong, (2006). by Weak and Winn, Blandford Rusin Micro"central & & was image, Kochanek based published (2004) on by reported radio the observations most of secure PMN identification J1632-0033. of a nomena, from individual objects,scales, like to galaxies the and overall geometry clusters,assess of to the the the Universe use (Williams mass of & distribution gravitationalproblems Schechter, on lensing 1997). in various as astronomy, They the "gold describe determination and standards"namely of the in Hubble the addressing constant. absolute one distance of scale the to fundamental extragalactic objects, first radio lens survey – theLarge MIT Array - (VLA) Green snapshot Bank images survey ofSpace (MG) flux-limited Telescope – (HST), samples that and of found Chandra 5 lenses observations GHz bywithout (e.g. radio obtaining any Dai, sources. Very doubt X. that The & the Hubble Kochanek, gravitational C.S., lensing 2005) is showed operating. Relativity. 4.3.1 Gravitational lenses 4.3 Confirmation of the General Relativity results. They suggest that theing" Universe origin that of does the not Universebe need is the a not inflation. the "plausible" Big Membrane-Universes alternative Bang, thatStarkman, model but clashed 2008). for could endlessly Cyclic the be could models Universe a ofproblems "bounc- (Erickson the related et universe to have postulating al., the any 2007; sort advantage of of Steinhardt, beginning avoiding in Turok initial time conditions & (Ijjas, 2016). Multifrequency Astrophysics An independent analysis castSeptember doubt 2014 on the the Planck team BICEP2sured published claim across a the (Flauger, paper whole Hill onThis sky, the & work and level also Spergel, in of extrapolated 2014). the polarized particular polarized dust dust inin signal In emission the the seen mea- Wien in BICEP2 tail the field Planck of 353 (Planck theconclusion GHz CMB that Collaboration, map blackbody (a the 2014). frequency where BICEP dust Balthough dominates) mode a down signal primordial to could B 150 be mode GHz contribution entirely and could explained reached not by the be polarized ruled dust out. emission PoS(MULTIF2017)001 ± 180 190 5 . + − . In the and 7 03 04 . . 0 0 ⊙ . The source + − M σ 1 3 7 . . . 090 8 3 . 5 Franco Giovannelli + − 2 ≥ . , and the final black hole ⊙ 4 M ± and 29 ⊙ . We find that at least one of the component M ⊙ 5 4 + − M 1 7 26 . . . All uncertainties define a 90% credible interval. 6 1 + − 03 04 . . 8 0 0 . + − radiated in gravitational waves. All uncertainties define Mpc corresponding to a redshift z = 0 2 09 c . 160 180 ⊙ + − 5 M . 0 ± 0 . with 3 . The inferred source-frame initial black hole masses are 14 ⊙ σ 5 4 M ≥ ± The GW150914 event. Top: estimated gravitational-wave strain amplitude. Bottom: the Keple- , and the final black hole mass is 20 ⊙ Abbott et al. (2016b) reported the second observation of a gravitational-wave signal produced Abbott et al. (2016c) present a possible observing scenario for the Advanced LIGO (aLIGO) 3 M . by the coalescence of twotwin stellar-mass detectors black of holes. the The LIGO signal,significance on GW151226, December was 26, observed by 2015 the at 03:38:53 UTC. The signal was detected at Figure 23: rian effective black hole separation in units of Schwarzschild radii (adopted from Abbott et al., 2016a). Multifrequency Astrophysics at 09:50:45 UTC the(LIGO) two simultaneously detectors observed of a the transientpredicted Laser by gravitational-wave Interferometer general signal. relativity Gravitational-Wave for Observatory It theof inspiral matches the and the resulting merger waveform of single a black pair hole. of The black signal holes was and observed the with ringdown a significance 2 and Advanced Virgo gravitational-wave detectors over the next decade, with the intention of provid- This second gravitational-wave observation providesand improved on constraints deviations from on general stellar relativity. populations black holes has spin greaterMpc than corresponding 0.2. to a This redshift source z is = located 0 at a luminosity distance of 440 lies at a luminosity distance of 410 mass is 62 source frame, the initial black hole masses are 36 90% credible intervals. These observationshole demonstrate the systems. existence This of is binary the stellar-massbinary first black black direct hole detection merger of (Abbott gravitational et waves al., and 2016a). the first observation of a PoS(MULTIF2017)001 2 kpc away from ∼ Franco Giovannelli 40 Mpc, consistent with ∼ 1% that the current detection GW150914 is of ≥ 27 confidence level. σ 1.7 favor the accelerating universe interpretation and provide some direct ∼ ) ∗ ( The discovery in 1998 that the universe is speeding up and not slowing down (Riess et al. Nielsen, Guffanti & Sarkar (2016) found marginal evidence for cosmic acceleration from type The discovery of the accelerating expansion of the Universe is a milestone for cosmology. A During the preparation of this paper an important event of merging of two neutron stars was Gravitational waves provide a revolutionary tool to investigate yet unobserved astrophysical On 2017 August 17 the merger of two compact objects with masses consistent with two neutron stars was discovered ) ∗ 1998; Perlmutter et al. 1999) openedof a acceleration question and about deceleration the of the the Universe possibilitytions along of of its having SN life. different 1997ff Turner phases at & z Riess (2002) from observa- Ia Supernovae. On theaccelerating contrary, Universe Haridasu at et more al. than 4.56 (2017) found that the SN data alone indicate an very interesting paper about this argumentthe has Royal been Swedish published Academy in of 2011 by Sciences"2011. the as In "Class Scientific this for Background Physics paper on of an theliantly historical Nobel presented. journey Prize about in Physics the last century development of cosmology is bril- evidence that the universe wasdepends once upon decelerating. the nature They of show theical that dark constant energy the is causing strength the the of SNe present acceleration. evidence thisof definitive. Only conclusion the Using for universe, they a a show new cosmolog- that test the(z which SN > is data 0.5). independent favor of recent the acceleration contents (z < 0.5) and past deceleration 4.4 The accelerating Universe detected via gravitational waves"Multimessenger (Abbott Astrophysics" (Abbott et et al., al., 2017b). 2017a).it Therefore in we the This believe note. necessary event to mention has opened the new era of primordial origin. The higherdetection masses rate. of Up the to first five starsPop detections boost III per year BH-BH their with mergers. GW aLIGO Approximately signal, atcan once and final unambiguously per therefore design be decade, identified their sensitivity we originate as should a from detect Pop a III BH-BH remnant. merger that objects. Especially the firstmight stars, be which indirectly are observable via believed theHartwig to merger et be of al. more their massive compact (2016) than remnants.model developed present-day to a An stars, simulate interesting self-consistent, paper the cosmologically by formation representative,stars to of semi-analytical the the merger rate first density and stars. tothe the remnants detection They rate of estimated of primordial the the stars aLIGO. contributionis Owing produce to of relatively strong their small. higher primordial GW masses, signals, They even found if a their probability contribution of in number Multifrequency Astrophysics ing information to the astronomy communitywith to gravitational facilitate waves. planning for multi-messenger astronomy the galaxy’s center (LIGO Scientific Collaboration and Virgo Collaboration, 2017). through gravitational-wave (GW170817), gamma-ray (GRB 170817A), andThe optical optical (SSS17a/AT2017gfo) source observations. was associated with the early-type galaxy NGC 4993 at a distance of just ( the gravitational-wave measurement, and the merger was localized to be at a projected distance of PoS(MULTIF2017)001 010 K) . 0 ± 726 . Franco Giovannelli 7 K. . (0)(1+z), which gives at 2 ∼ CMBR = T CMBR 28 Three experimental results in favor of the BBN (see text for explanation). ) at redshift z = 2.34, ranging between 6 and 14 K (Srianand, Petitjean & Ledoux, CMBR The experimental confirmation of the content of the primordial light elements from WMAP Figure 24: In the last decade several experiments provided results confirming the validity of the BBN. In The Big Bang Nucleosynthesis (BBN) theory predits the presence of a fixed content of light Figure 25: (https://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/universe/). Fig. 24 one can see:primordial light i) elements (left (de Bernardis panel): et red al.,et 2000) star al., superimposed - 2001); to the ii) the theoretical experimental (middle curvesRadiation confirmation panel): (Burles (T of red the line content - of the2000), the temperature in of agreement the with Cosmic the Microwave theoretical Background temperature law T elements, the temperature of thegalaxy clusters: Universe T inversely = proportional T(0) to (1+z), the and the typical CMB distance radiation between temperature of Multifrequency Astrophysics 4.5 The Big Bang Nucleosynthesis theory has been proved z = 2.34 a temperature of(Bartelmann, 9 2008, K; after iii) Mather (right et panel): al., the 1990). CMB radiation temperature (2 PoS(MULTIF2017)001 Λ ρ Franco Giovannelli whereas the density 3 29 0.2%), indicated by the vertical red line in the Fig. 25 ± is independent of z. The final results from WMAP (Bennett Λ = 0.3, and that the normalized cosmological constant is around m Ω Constraints of cosmological parameters (after de Bernardis et al., 2000; Schuecker, 2005, Bennett The left panel of Fig. 26 shows the results obtained with the BOOMERanG (Balloon Obser- One of the most critical points about our Universe is the problem of its flatness. The present However, the Big Bang model can be tested further, thanks to the WMAP. Given a precise = 0.7. This sums up to unit total cosmic energy density and suggests a spatially flat universe. Λ related to the cosmological constant et al., 2013) shows a littlecareful misalignment in with the the conclusions. line of "flat Universe". Thus it is necessary to be vations Of Millimetric Extragalactic Radiation and2000). Geomagnetics) experiment (de They Bernardis are et fully al., consistentthe combination with of a the spatially likelihood flat contoursi) obtained Universe. type-Ia with The three SNe different right (Tonry observational panel et approaches: al. of al., 2013); Fig. 2003; iii) 26 Riess galaxy shows clusters etmic (Schuecker al. matter et density al. 2004); is 2003; ii) close Schuecker, CMB to 2005). (Spergel One et can al. see that 2003; the cos- Bennett et Figure 26: et al., 2013). Ω However, the density of cosmic matter growths with redshift like (1 + z) state of the cosmological tests is illustrated in Fig. 26. 4.6 Is the Universe Flat? measurement of the abundanceelements of becomes highly ordinary constrained. The matter, WMAP thematter satellite is density predicted able and to abundances finds directly a measure of value the of the ordinary 4.6% other ( light Multifrequency Astrophysics (https://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/universe/). This leadsin to the predicted graph, abundances which shown aredetailed test by in of good the nucleosynthesis agreement and circles is with further observed evidence abundances. in support This of the is Big an Bang important theory. and PoS(MULTIF2017)001 0 0 1 4 − ± 6 km s ± are converging 0 2 (random) Measurements of ± = 68 Franco Giovannelli in which they dis- 0 = 73 0 The Hubble Constant determination, and its derived values can 0 30 . ) is one of the most important numbers in cosmology because it is 0 0 . 1 . It is necessary to have two measurements: i) spectroscopic observations − 0 Mpc " (Damon et al., 2004). In this book, Teymourian (2004), after a comparison 1 − The Hubble constant determinations since 1970. The light-blue rectangle limits all the H . 1 A recent discussion about the Hubble constant has been published by Giovannelli & Sabau- Freedman & Madore (2010) published a review about A large summary about the methods used for H The Hubble constant (H − (systematic) km s Graziati (2014a), where it is possiblecontroversial to evaluations find of also H a large number of references, reporting the many Figure 27: value is one of the most exciting.coming Indeed, from in the different literature experiments itobtain is using a possible different true to value find methods. for many H determinations that However, reveal the it galaxy’s is redshift, indicating very itsEarth radial complicate (and velocity; this to ii) is the the galaxy’s most precise difficult distance value from to determine). determinations. The light-red rectangle shows the(After narrow John limits Huchra, to 2008). to which the values of H cuss the considerable progress made in determiningThey the discuss Hubble the constant cosmological over context the past andconstant, two importance focusing decades. of on an six accurate high-precision measurementgiant distance-determination of methods: branch, the Cepheids, maser Hubble tip galaxies, of surfaceIa the brightness supernovae. red fluctuations, Their the Tully-Fisher best relation, current and estimate Type of the Hubble constant is H needed to estimate the size and age of the universe. The important problem of determination of H be found in the Proceedings of the Fall 2004 Astronomy 233 Symposium on " Multifrequency Astrophysics 4.7 Hubble Constant the Hubble constant of many constraints on the Hubble constant determinations, reports a value H Mpc PoS(MULTIF2017)001 1 7 − ? 0 ∼ – for 0 ) ∗ ( 2.4 km s (Komatsu et 100 (Gnedin, 1 ± − ∼ Franco Giovannelli Mpc = 73.8 1 − 0 (marked with light-blue), 1 − (marked with light-red). Data 1 2.5 km s − Mpc 1000 until about z ± 1 ∼ − , a multi–parameter fit to the WMAP Mpc ri 1 ". How large is the redshift to which the − = 71.0 0 dfabricant/huchra/hubble.plot.dat). ∼ since 1970 (adapted from John Huchra, 2008). 31 0 reionization 5, from observations of the spectra of quasars with ≈ . 1 − Mpc 30 and reionized most of the hydrogen in the universe by z (Kaplinghat et al., 2003; Sunyaev & Zeldovich, 1980; Zaldar- 1 ∼ − τ 0.7 km s ± 5 (Spergel et al., 2003). On the other hand, the evolution of quasar spectra 6 shows a rapid decrease in the amount of neutral Hydrogen, indicating the ± ≈ 17 = 69.6 = 0 ri 9 from the Subaru High-z Exploration of Low-Luminosity Quasars (SHELLQs) project. . 6 7 and z < . This value agrees with the WMAP results: H ≈ 1 z However, Riess et al. (2011) with the HST determined a value of H Does this determination, finally, close the history about the search of the "true" value of H Modeling reionization with a single sharp transition at z Ground-based observations of the CMB on subdegree angular scales suggest that the gas con- Figure 27 shows the determinations of H The formation of the first stars and quasars marks the transformation of the universe from its The argument for an extended period of reionization is now proved by measurements. Indeed, Recently Matsuoka et al. (2016) reported the discovery of 15 QSOs and bright galaxies at − < Professor John Huchra, died unexpectedly October 8th, 2010. 7 ) . ∗ ( have been collected by Huchra (2007).constant This till precious that list date contains (https://www.cfa.harvard.edu/ all the determinations of Hubble al., 2011). Bennett etthe al. Hubble constant: (2014) results discussed coming the fromand the progress CMB cosmic occurred distance measurements in ladder at measurements recent high atof years redshift. low for the redshift The determining universe CMB by is(BAO) best-fitting used measurements to cosmological have predict model. been the used currentconstraining At possible – expansion solutions low rate although and redshift checks they on baryon cannot cosmicthey acoustic consistency. independently found Comparing H oscillation determine these measurements H and most of them are converging in the range 55-70 km s Mpc riaga, 1997). data gives z end of reionization (Fan et al., 2003). A simple interpretation to explain these two very different from z tent of the universe was mostly neutral since recombination at z 4.8 Reionization Epoch Practically all the determinations lie in the range 40-100 km s the highest redshifts (e.g.verse Giallongo from et neutral al. to highly 1994). ionized is This called " change of the ionization state of the uni- smooth initial state to its clumpylight current began state. to form In at current a cosmological redshift models, z the first sources of Multifrequency Astrophysics 2000 and the references therein) because earliersurface reionization to would have lower brought redshift, the last smoothingthat scattering the the universe intrinsic is CMB highly anisotropy. ionized, At since the z same time, we know reionization started and stopped is object of strong debate. the WMAP has detectedscales the (Kogut correlation et between al., temperature 2003)photons and that to polarization has Thomson an scattering, on amplitude large proportional angular to the total optical depth of CMB 5 (see review by Loeb & Barkana, 2001). PoS(MULTIF2017)001 6 α 6) 124 ∼ ∼ ± 6), looking ∼ Franco Giovannelli 7. LFs at z > 6. − α 6 emitters (LAEs) at z = ∼ α photons from LAEs by the α LF is also generally in agreement 5. α ± 15 = 6 to 7 and that the reionization proceeds from 6 to 7 and the amplitude of the drop is larger for 20. Panagia et al. (2005) in deep HST/VLT/Spitzer ∼ 20, but did not conclude until much later (z 32 ∼ ∼ ∼ 7 and 6.6. This study shows that deep spectroscopic ri . luminosity function (LF), clustering measurements, and 5 α ∼ 5 – may be capable of reionizing its surrounding region of the . 6 ≥ placed at z -emitting galaxies drop from z α ⊙ M 11 10 luminosities and UV continuum magnitudes, between the eight protocluster members and line profiles based on the largest sample to date of 207 LAEs at z = 6.6. The combination The question about the end of the reionization is strongly disputed. However, in our opinion The WMAP detection of reionization (Kogut et al. 2003) implies the existence of an early gen- This was also confirmed by the results from Subaru Deep Field (SDF) (Kashikawa et al., 2006; Jiang et al. (2011) presented Keck spectroscopic observations of z > 6 Lyman-break galaxy Ouchi et al. (2009a) suggested an existence of a well-developed ionized bubble at z = 7. Ouchi et al. (2010) presented the Ly Ono et al. (2012) presented the results of their ultra-deep Keck/DEIMOS spectroscopy of z- × 7. 6 α α & the seven non-members. The velocity dispersion of the eight protocluster members is 647 faint galaxies than for bright galaxies.hydrogen These two fraction pieces of of the evidence would IGM indicate increases that the from neutral z universe, starting the process at a redshift as high as z Kashikawa, 2007): the reionization ofal. the universe (2008) has in not been performing completed narrowband at imaging z of = the 6.5. SDF Also found Ota two et Ly probably it is possible to put a reasonable limit to the epoch of the reionization end (z (Knox, 2003). 7. This established a newMyr redshift after record, the showing that Big galaxy Bang. formation was They in found progress that just the 750 attenuation of the Ly of various reionization modelsprofile and indicates their that there observational would results exist atransmission about small owing the decrease to of LF, the reionization, clustering, intergalactic medium’sTheir but and (IGM’s) neutral-hydrogen Ly that fraction line constraint the implies hydrogen thatz the IGM major is reionization process not took highly place at neutral at z =(LBG) 6.6. candidates in the Subaruwith Deep the Field results (SDF). of Their LAEs Ly surveys at z high- to low-density environments, as suggested by an inside-out reionization model. eration of stars able to reionize the universeimages at z found that the∼ source UDF 033238.7-274839.8 – a post–starburst galaxy with a mass at the paper by Toshikawacontaining et at al. least (2012). eightfield cluster They image member reported of galaxies the the with discovery SDF.Ly of spectroscopic They a confirmations found protocluster no in at significant the z difference wide- in the observed properties, such as Ly observations of LBGs can provide unique constraints on both the UV and Ly Multifrequency Astrophysics datasets is that reionization started early, z dropout galaxies in the SDFfractions and of Ly Great Observatories Origins Deep Survey’s northern field. The Ouchi et al. (2009b) reported(IRAC) the counterpart discovery near of the a reionization giant epochnot LAE at yet with z clearly a understood, = this Spitzer/Infrared 6.595. could Arrayonto Although be Camera a the an massive nature important halo, of object or this for forming-massivereionization object studying galaxies and cooling is with metal clouds significant enrichment accreting outflows of contributing intergalactic to medium. cosmic neutral hydrogen possibly left at the last stage of cosmic reionization at z PoS(MULTIF2017)001 30 ∼ T ∆ or 5 − 10 Franco Giovannelli ≈ T/T ∆ was published by Zaroubi (2013). 33 at the annual meeting of American Physical Society in ◦ 7 ∼ The epoch of reionization A sketch of reionization epoch (after Xiangping Wu’s Talk at the Summer School on "Cosmic , which is about three times higher than that predicted by the standard cold dark matter 1 − Observations of the cosmic microwave background temperature anisotropies have revolution- On April 23, 1992, the COBE team announced the historical discovery of the anisotropies of An interesting review about Tiny inhomogeneities in the early Universe left their imprint on the microwave background However, although there is rather good agreement about the epoch of reionization, how really Figure 28 shows schematically the updated experimental situation about cosmic sources (galax- K on angular scales larger than µ ized and continue to revolutionize our understanding of the universe. The observation of the CMB Washington, D.C. (Smoot et al., 1992). cosmic microwave background radiation with characteristic anisotropy in the form of small anisotropiesbasic cosmological in parameters, its particularly temperature. the These total anisotropies energy density contain and information curvature about of the universe. reionization occurs is still objectobservations of show debate. that the Indeed, measured Dopitato rates et produce of al. reionization, star suggest (2011), formation the consideringcould in presence be that the of the recent early fast another accretion universe source shocks are of formed insufficient ionizing around the photons. cores of This the source most massive haloes. 4.9 Background Radiation in the Universe ies, GRBs, QSOs, SNe) detected at highof redshifts. z The during light–red which rectangle the marks the reionization possible occurred. range Reionization" at the KIAA-PKU , Beijing, China, July 1-11, 2008). model. This discrepancy couldof be the attributed eight protocluster to members. theeither They distinguishing discussed the three-dimensional two protocluster distribution possible is explanations already for mature,composed this of with discrepancy: three old subgroups galaxies merging at to theof become center, z a or = larger it 6.01 cluster. is galaxies In in still eitheruniverse. case, the immature this SDF and concentration may be one of the first sites of formation of a galaxy cluster in the Figure 28: km s Multifrequency Astrophysics PoS(MULTIF2017)001 eV, 20 to 10 9 − Franco Giovannelli -ray energy bands has γ 10 GeV, respectively. The domain ≈ 34 The Grand Unified Photon Spectrum of the Diffuse Extragalactic Background Radiation (after But the cosmic background radiation, although is peaked in the microwave region, permeates Henry (1999, 2002) thoroughly discussed the experimental situation of the cosmic background Durrer (2015) in her interesting review describes the discovery of the cosmic microwave back- through the whole electromagnetic spectrum and isRAdiation known as (DEBRA). the It Diffuse Extragalactic is Background possiblesource: to the consider whole Universe. the Such DEBRA a as background radiation a from radiation radio produced to HE by a cosmic Figure 29: Ressell & Turner, 1990). Multifrequency Astrophysics anisotropies angular power spectrum with itstail plateau, have acoustic established peaks, a and standard high cosmological frequencytry, model with damping consisting contents of being mainly a dark flat energy –In and critical this dark density matter successful – and geome- a model smallinstability the amount acting of dark ordinary on and matter. the ordinary quantumCurrent matter fluctuations and formed future generated observations its during will structure test the thiswith very through model spectacular early and gravitational precision determine inflationary its and epoch. key confidence cosmologicalan parameters (see exhaustive review the about Nobel the Lecture Cosmic Background of Radiation George Anisotropies). F. Smoot (2007) for been deeply discussed by RessellThe analysis & of Turner the (1990), different and components(GUPS), in of covering DEBRA 29 GSG2004 orders leads and of to the magnitude the references of Grand the Unified therein. electromagnetic Photon spectrum, Spectrum from 10 at higher energies is now exploredvatory by (up numerous to experiments 300 space–based, GeV) likeCTA and Fermi (Cherenkov ground–based, LAT Telescopes obser- like Array). Whipple, Veritas,GUPS HESS, All diagram Magic, prepared these by and experiments Ressell the & will coming Turner (1990) provide where to only upper fill limitstill the were 2000. reported. zone of the ground radiation in 1965 and its impact on cosmology in the 50 years that followed. as shown in Fig.gles 29 indicate the (after domains Ressell with & energies Turner, less 1990). or greater The than light–red and the light–indico rectan- PoS(MULTIF2017)001 54) ob- absorp- . 10 GeV. γ 0 – ∼ γ ≃ Franco Giovannelli -ray energy band, γ –rays than before believed (Coppi γ ) against EBL photons with wave- –rays with energy above − γ e + –ray sources above a critical energy (e.g. γ 35 -ray energy band completely explored with the new generation ground– and γ m has never been determined directly from galaxy spectral energy distribution (SED) The HE-VHE µ The last decade has been foreboding of a full coverage of the HE-VHE Domíguez et al. (2011) started from the fact that the overall spectrum of the EBL between 0.1 Direct measurements of the EBL are difficult due to bright local foregrounds. A powerful The intergalactic space is filled with the light produced by all the stars and accreting compact & Aharonian, 1997). observations over a wide redshift range.the They redshift took range into from account 0.2 a to sample 1(AEGIS) of from about by the 6000 fitting All-wavelength galaxies Extended Spitzer in Groth Wide-Area Strip Infraredculated International Extragalactic the Survey evolution Survey of (SWIRE) the templates, luminosity and densitiesrate cal- from density the UV of to the the Universe, IR,galaxy the the populations evolving evolving including star formation contribution AGN galaxies towere and the compared the bolometric with buildup EBL those of from from the the a EBL. semi-analytic different Their model, EBL another calculations observationally based model and space–based experiments. and 1000 Costamante, 2012; Buson, 2014). Figure 30: tion of high-energy photons. Actually pair production (e This process introduces an attenuation in the spectra of thanks to the many ground–These and experiments have space–based provided high a sensitivity largeredshift experiments, amount (e.g. as of data shown Costamante, from in 2012). many Fig. extragalactic Thanks emitters 30. at to high measurements of the quasar 3C 279 (z approach for probing these diffuse radiation fields in the UV to far-IR bands is through objects that populated thecosmic observable background Universe from throughout IR the tolong whole before UV cosmic known is as history. DEBRA called (Ressel This the & relic diffuse Turner, 1990). Extragalactic Background Light (EBL), Multifrequency Astrophysics 4.9.1 Extragalactic Background Light lengths from ultraviolet to infrared is effective at attenuating tained with the MAGIC experiment (Albert et al.,including 2008), Gamma and Ray with Bursts the (GRBs) many measured sources with athas the high been FERMI redshift, observatory demonstrated (Abdo that et the al., Universe 2010), is it more transparent to PoS(MULTIF2017)001 -rays (Log E γ Franco Giovannelli ) as a function of the 1 − sr 2 − in units of nW m ν I -ray spectra of bright blazars with an absorp- ν γ 36 -ray astronomy are needed in order to reduce the uncertainties in γ m using a small aperture telescope observing either from the outer Solar µ Intensity of the extragalactic background ( 13 eV) have filled the zone marked with the light–indico rectangle in the Fig. 29, where no The CMB remains the best measured spectrum with an accuracy better than 1%. The mea- Cooray (2016) reviews the Extragalactic Background Light Measurements and Applications. − 9 -rays to radio in the electromagnetic spectrum over 20 decades in wavelength. Figure 31 shows surements related to thelight Cosmic Optical associated Background with (COB) interplanetaryCOB are dust come impacted in from by the an the inner indirect large Solar technique zodiacal involving System. The best measurements of Figure 31: This review covers the measurementsγ related to the extragalactic backgroundsuch light EBL intensity from measurements thatis updated important those to reported remark by that Ressel the numerous & measurements Turner in (1990) the (Fig. range of 29). the VHE It Multifrequency Astrophysics observational data. The results are thatindependent the efforts EBL from is IR well and constrained fromthe the far-IR. UV to the mid-IR, but energy (after Cooray, 2016). tion feature resulting from pair-production(CIB) off established of COB an photons. energetically important Thetical background cosmic background. with infrared This an background discovery intensity paved comparableobservations the resulting to way in for the the large op- discovery aperture oftion far-infrared dusty, and and starbursting evolution sub-millimeter remains galaxies. an Their active area role(EUV) of in background research galaxy remains in forma- mostly modern-day unexplored astrophysics. and TheGalactic will extreme background UV be and a absorption challenge of toEUV/soft extragalactic measure photons X-ray due by energies. to the the She intergalactic high medium alsoangular at summarizes power spectra these our of understanding intensity of fluctuations.COB the between She spatial 0.1 motivates anisotropies and a 5 and precise direct measurement of the measurements or only upper limits were available in the 1990-ies. ≈ PoS(MULTIF2017)001 CDM CDM, Λ Λ 2 (Tanvir et . 8 ∼ Franco Giovannelli 37 3 considering the Swift GRBs tracing the star formation history and . 8 ≃ 30 s (75%) (e.g. Kouveliotou et al., 1993). The counterparts for all bursts ∼ - it could be that a "second component" of the diffuse FUV background persists shortward α Important implications on the origin of the highest redshift GRBs are coming from the de- Although big progress has been obtained in the last few years, GRBs theory needs further Theoretical description of GRBs is still an open strongly controversial question as discussed Gamma-ray burst (GRBs) were discovered in 1967 – thanks to the four VELA spacecrafts, Henry et al. (2015) discussed the diffuse cosmic background radiation in the Galaxy Evolution 2 s (25%), and . 0 tection of the GRB 080913 at z = 6.7 (Greiner et al., 2009), GRB 090423 at z investigation in the light of the experimental data coming from old and new satellites, often co- elsewhere (e.g. Giovannelli & Sabau-Graziati, 2008; Giovannelli,been 2013). published Many about review papers GRBs. have 2004; Among them Meszaros, we 2006); can Woosley & cite2010; Bloom, those Inoue 2006; published et in al., Granot, 2013). the 2007,Berger last Recently 2009; (2014). an decade Granot interesting (Piran, & review Ramirez-Ruiz, about short GRBs has been published by quintessence, quintessence with a time-varying equationmodel of is state the and preferred brane-world which models. is however compared with other results. originally designed for verifying whetherBan the Treaty Soviet – Union when abided 16 strong the eventsGRBs 1963 were have Limited detected remained (Klebesadel, Nuclear Strong a Test & puzzle Olson,the for 1973). problem the of Since GRBs then community originated of thousands hightation articles most (e.g. energy of astrophysicists. the them review devoted For by to Mazets this theirtherein). & physical reason Golenetskii, interpre- BATSE/CGRO 1988; experiment the detected reviewcreased by 2704 GSG2004 with GRBs and new the from generation references satellites 1991FERMI). (BeppoSAX, to From RossiXTE, the 1999. HETE, BATSE and INTEGRAL, KONUS This SWIFT, isotropicgin and distribution number have of in- been GRBs demonstrated. and their GRBs cosmological may∼ ori- be classified into two groups dependingcan on be their observed duration: in allPerley wavelengths et (X, al., UV, 2014). opt, IR, radio): the afterglow (e.g. Kann et al., 2010; of the Lyman limit and is the cause of the4.10 reionization of Gamma the Ray universe. Bursts Explorer far-ultraviolet (FUV, 1300-1700 ). Theyradiation deduced that originates the only UV partially diffuse in cosmic theof background dust-scattered a radiation substantial of fraction FUV-emitting of stars: theabout the our FUV source limited background knowledge radiation of the remains cosmic aof diffuse mystery. background Ly at They ultraviolet also wavelengths shortward discussed the cosmic metallicity evolution in different background cosmological models including Multifrequency Astrophysics System, at distances of 5 AU orimproving more, our or understanding out of of the the eclipticand background plane. CIB. at Other future TeV applications energies include and spectral distortions of CMB al., 2009), and GRB 090429Bapproaching at to z the = possibility 9.4 ofstars (Cucchiara detecting appeared. et GRBs al., Izzo at 2011). et the090423 al. end This within of means (2010) their Dark that discussed fireshell really Era, successfullytion we model. where a rate are the theoretical (SFR) first Wang interpretation up & Pop of to III Dai the z GRB (2009) studied the high-redshift star forma- PoS(MULTIF2017)001 Franco Giovannelli The Physics of Gamma-Ray Bursts & Relativistic 38 The recent review by Bernardini (2015) discussed how the newly-born millisecond magnetars Indeed, in a recent review, D’Avanzo (2015) discussed the observational properties of short Thanks to the NASA’s Swift satellite we assisted to ten years of amazing discoveries in time Such compact binary coalescences generate strong GWs in the sensitive frequency band of The idea that GRBs could be associated to gravitational waves (GWs) emission is now popular. Kumar & Zhang (2015) in a review paper For this reason we believe useful to read the very interesting scientific-social remark made by discussed what we have learned about relativistic collisionless shocks and particle acceleration can compete with blackreservoir. holes They as may be source formed of both intron the the star core-collapse GRB or of power, white massive stars, dwarf mainly and binaries,a with in or plausible the their progenitor in merger for the rotational of long accretion-induced neu- and energy collapse short of GRBs, a respectively. She white reviewed dwarf, the being major observational thus GRBs and showed how theprogenitors study and of provide these properties information canemission. on be The the used increasing nature as evidence of a forof tool the compact the to object central most unveil binary promising engine their progenitors sources powering elusive experiments. makes of the short gravitational observed GRBs waves one for the forthcoming Advanced LIGO/Virgo domain astronomy. Its primary missionand is other to transients chase includes GRBs. thecurate The long-lived list localization X-ray of of afterglows major and short discoveriesCannizzo, flares in GRBs, 2015). GRBs from the And GRBs, essentially discovery the thanksreal of first to nature ac- these GRBs of discoveries GRBs. at we are high now redshift closer to (z understand > the 8) (Gehrels & Earth-based gravitational wave detectors1989). (Blanchet, Iyer Aasi & et Joguet, al.by the 2002; InterPlanetary (2014) Blanchet Network searched (IPN) & in forVirgo’s first, Damour, 2005-2010 gravitational second, during and waves LIGO’s third fifth associated science and withwith runs. sixth any 223 No science of evidence runs GRBs the of and IPN detected a GRBs gravitationalsignals in wave associated the signal with sample, associated the nor GRBs evidence for has a been population found. of weak gravitational wave Indeed, short GRBs are believedbinaries to (Nakar, be 2007) produced by and(Tanvir the et the al., mergers recent 2013; of Berger, observation either Fong & of double Chornock, NSs a 2013) or lends kilonova support NS-BH associated to this with hypothesis. GRB130603B Jets from GRB afterglow studies,prompt and emission the phase. current They pointed understandinge.g. out of how star radiation these formation, explosions mechanism may metaland during be enrichment, galaxies used the reionization in to the history, study Universe. as cosmology, well as the formation of first stars Arnon Dar at the end(Barbiellini of & the Longo, paper 2003). discussed by Guido Barbiellini at the Vulcano Workshop 2002 Multifrequency Astrophysics ordinated, such as BeppoSAX oror BATSE/RXTE or SWIFT ASM/RXTE or or AGILE IPN or orliterature since HETE FERMI the or or discovery INTEGRAL of MAXI. GRBs, Indeed, theis problem in jet’s of spite their composition? energy of emission thousands (kinetic isdeceleration papers still radius?); or elusive: appeared iii) i) magnetic?); in how what is ii) the (Zhang, radiation where 2013a,b). generated? is (synchrotron, dissipation Inverse occurring? Compton, hadronic?) (photosphere? PoS(MULTIF2017)001 and Franco Giovannelli critical test of gamma-ray burst theories 39 In our opinion the problem of the models for explaining the behaviour of GRBs can be con- Figure 32 shows, as example, the fits of light curves of GRB 060729, GRB 061007, GRB Finally, Dado & Dar (2016) discussed on the Recently Arnon Dar (2017) proposed again to the attention of the international community his Piron (2016) in his review discussed the updated knowledge of GRBs at very high energies. Ghirlanda et al. (2015) discussed about the apparent separation of short and long GRBs in sidered closed. The CB modelthe is GRBs. the best in absolute for the description of the physics governing 160625B, and GRB 130427A by using the CB model. demonstrated definitively the validity of the CB model against the popular FB model (Piran, 1999). Cannonball (CB) model for explainingafterglows are the produced physics by of the GRBs. interactionordinary of matter with In bipolar the jets the radiation and of CB matter highlyejected along model, relativistic their in plasmoids GRBs trajectory. accretion Such (CBs) and jetted episodes of CBs their of arecore-collapse presumably fall-back supernovae material (SNe) on of the Typesystems, newly Ic, formed and in compact in merger stellar phase of objectRujula, transitions compact in 2000; in stellar Dado compact objects & stars indifferent Dar, close (Shaviv SWIFT 2013a). & binary GRBs, showing Dar, that Dado, 1995; theDar Dar Dar, CB (2013b) & model discussed 1997; De fits the Dar all Rújula jet &to their break (2009) other broadband De in properties discussed light the of a curves. the X-ray X-ray long afterglow Dadoare afterglow of & series and at GRBs the odds of prompt that with gamma appears those ray predicted tocontrary emission, by be they but the the are correlated correlations conical in fireball good agreement, (FB) however, model with of those GRBs predicted (Piran, by 1999). the CB On model the of GRBs. Their huge luminosities involve theativistic presence collimated of outflow, a which newborn accelerates stellar-mass particlesthe black and radio hole produces domain emitting non-thermal emissions a to from rel- theGRB highest jet energies. physics above He 100 MeV, reviewedphysical based recent implications on of progresses Fermi these in observations observations of the and bright their understanding GRBs, impact of on and GRB discussed modeling. the the hardness ratio vs durationthe difference plot. between these This two separation populations.confirmed has with The origin larger been GRB of considered samples this as diversity, butGRBs however, not a has have fully been direct similar understood. only evidence They luminosities of average concluded and durations). that Then, short different it and energetics seems long that (i.e.long the GRBs results could are proportional be pointing produced toward to by the differenttheir the possibility progenitors prompt that but ratio emission the short might emission and of be mechanism similar. their responsible for Multifrequency Astrophysics evidences for the possible presenceand of short a GRBs. newly-born She magnetar then discussed asand about the she the central possibility proposed engine that a all for unification GRBsnected both are scheme to long powered that the by different magnetars, accommodates properties both andfrom magnetars energetics direct of and electromagnetic GRBs. black observations, Since holes, she the con- reviewedmagnetars central the hosted engine predictions from remains for GRBs, hidden the and the GW observational emission perspectives from with advanced interferometers. PoS(MULTIF2017)001 Franco Giovannelli . b 40 The 0.3-10keV X-ray light-curve measured with the Swift XRT (Evans et al., 2009), and the Accretion is a universal phenomenon that takes place in the vast majority of astrophysical objects. The progress of ground-basedgreat and amount space-borne of observational facilities information has ondecades. resulted various The in accreting accretion the is astrophysical accompanied objects,on by collected the the process within surface of the of extensive last energyother an release elements accreting that of takes object the place flow and pattern.of in accretion The various theory, results gaseous which, of in envelopes, observationsphysical turn, inspired accretion conditions enabled the disk, in us intensive the jets development to surrounding study and intensive environment. unique study properties One is of of the accreting the most objects fact interesting and that outcomes accretion of processes this are, in a sense, self-similar on various spatial comparison between Swift observations andfor: their CB-model top description left (adapted GRB from 060729,This Dado top right latter & GRB Dar, figure 2016) 061007, reports bottomChandra data left (green GRB from triangles) 160625B, different (De bottom Pasquale experiments: right etet GRB al., Swift al., 130427A. 2016), 2014) XRT and at (black the t circles), two = MAXI 3257 XMM data s Newton points and (blue t and squares) = (Maselli 8821 s.5. The BAT trigger Accretion time Processes is marked with t Figure 32: Multifrequency Astrophysics PoS(MULTIF2017)001 have Franco Giovannelli 41 Accretion Processes in Cosmic Sources: Young Stellar Objects, Accretion processes in different cosmic sources (Giovannelli & Sabau-Graziati, 2016b, after An international workshop on The most important questions about the possible origin of life in our Universe became a real Figure 33 shows a sketch of cosmic systems where accretion processes occur (Giovannelli & A deep discussion about this fundamental problem has been published by Giovannelli & Cataclysmic variable stars are unique natural laboratories where one can conduct the detailed This fact gives us new opportunities to investigate objects that, by various reasons, are not scientific question in the lastmust couple orbit decades other when stars. itoptical appeared And astronomers a detected yet, near small it changes certainty in could thata stellar not other few, emission and planets be which now revealed proven, many, the planetary untildistinguish presence systems them the of around from first early our other own 1990’s. stars. solar systemareas/exoplanet-exploration/). We Then, neighbors call (http://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/focus- radio these planets and "exoplanets" to Sabau-Graziati, 2016b, after Scaringi, 2015). Sabau-Graziati (2016a) and references therein. We can briefly summarize in the following. observational study of accretion processes and accretion disks. Cataclysmic Variables and Related Objects, X-ray Binary Systems, Active Galactic Nuclei 6. Habitable Zone in the Milky Way and Exoplanets available for direct study. Figure 33: Scaringi, 2015). been organized. The proceedings will discusscosmic in sources details the shown physics in of Fig. accretion 33 processes (Giovannelli in & all Sabau-Graziati, the 2017). Multifrequency Astrophysics scales from planetary systems to galaxies. PoS(MULTIF2017)001 4 The ∼ Franco Giovannelli 1 kpc, as evaluated . Therefore, if in a 3 ≈ 10% of the total number ≈ 330 kpc ∼ " (Cleeves et al., 2014) has carried the knowledge 42 11 kpc, as shown in Fig. 34 (Giovannelli & Sabau-Graziati, 2016a ∼ Earth-like planets. It is evident that the probability of finding numerous 6 10 × there are 808 Earth-like planets detected, in the habitable zone of our Galaxy we 3 133 ≈ 2 pc Habitable zone of a Milky Way-like galaxy (Giovannelli & Sabau-Graziati, 2016a after ≈ A strong support on the possibility of having numerous habitable planets is coming from the For years, the search for manifestations of extraterrestrial civilizations has been one of hu- An intriguing question about the probability of finding a number of civilization in the Galaxy The presence of numerous exoplanets in the vicinity of solar system – within a distance of The research of potential habitable exoplanets has been strongly supported during last two 8 pc – plays an important role in speculating about the possible number of such exoplanets . 0 discovery of "usual" presence of waterhas in been the transported universe. by We small knew bodies that such all as the comets water and found asteroids. on On Earth, the contrary, the work " manity’s most ambitious projects. Major efforts are now focused on the interception of mes- Figure 34: arises. It is now evident that Drake’s formula (Drake, 1962) must be object of a robust revision. kpc and an external radius of after Lineweaver, Fenner & Gibson,is 2004), represented where in the green. habitable zone The in number a of Milky stars Way-like contained galaxy in this zone is Lineweaver, Fenner & Gibson, 2004). ancient heritage of water ice inone the step solar further. system Itother is solar understood system that bodies, the has remainedmedium. water virtually now This unchanged present means with that in respect this Earth’s toallows water oceans, that us has in and to not the is changed understand interstellar present during thatunique, the in the i.e. process initial not of conditions dependent planet on that formation. the havecommon unique This in favored characteristics space. the of emergence our solar of system. life They are can, not however, be ∼ within the whole habitable zone of our galaxy. Such habitable zone has an internal radius of decades. Indeed, this field of astrophysicsplanets is Earth-like now could probably open the a most serious exciting debate since about the the discovery of possibility of life outside of solar system. Multifrequency Astrophysics of stars in the Galaxy.by Taking the into differential account rotation that of thevolume the of thickness Galaxy, of the the habitable disk volume is is could expect habitable planets becomes very high.provide Next valuable information generation about instruments this ground– intriguing and problem. space–based will PoS(MULTIF2017)001 m to 20 mm, " is, not only we discussed µ Franco Giovannelli briefly commented 43 Bridge between the Big Bang and Biology Habitable Zone in the Milky Way and Exoplanets Great example of synergy between Astrophysics and History This research has made use of: The NASA’s Astrophysics Data System; the NASA Exoplanet Archive, whichunder is contract operated with by the National the Aeronautics CaliforniaExploration and Institute Program. Space of Administration under Technology, the Exoplanet Abbott, B.P. et al.: 2016a, PRL 116, 061102. Abbott, B.P. et al.: 2016b, PhRvL 116,1103. Aaij, R. et al.: 2015, arXiv:1507.03414v2 [hep-ex] 25Aasi, Jul. J. et al.: 2014, PhRvL 113, 011102. Aad, G. (The ATLAS Collaboration): 2012, PhL B 718, 369-390. It is important the In this review paper we have discussed several arguments that in our opinion are fundamental A final section about the We discussed about the small and big space- and ground-based experiments that provide mea- • • [4] [5] [1] [2] [3] References the fundamental problem about thescience we research could of finally life prove in that the the " Universe. With this new-born field of for the comprehension of the physics of ouruse Universe. of wisdom We have in emphasized physics. with We some hope examplesduring to the the have given preparation some of hints their to papers. the readersoriginal Moreover in we papers order invite to in our adopt order colleagues wisdom to tostyle, use avoid the dangerous as citations of chains largely the of commented references(1994) coming in in usually the which from "Concluding the hescience. Remarks" current discussed of about the the review methodology paper of by the Giovannelli investigation and on the ethics in 7. Conclusions surements necessary for the advancement of theto knowledge these of results the we physics discussed of the ourfar present Universe. from situation Thanks the about completeness the due problems to resolved our and limited knowledge. those till open, Multifrequency Astrophysics sages from extraterrestrial civilizations, and(Dyson,1960). the millimeter The range Millimetron is spacetions promising observatory to for is probe these aimed a purposes at broad conductingincluding range the astronomical of search objects observa- for in extraterrestrial the life Universe (Kardashev in et the al., wavelength 2014, range and the 20 references therein). for demonstrating that Sedov’s formulato for the determining recalibration the of the age age ofan of SNRs historical the can document. SNR Vela be Jr revisited, (Aschenbach, thanks 2016) experimentally supported by obviously existing, but really can be traveled over. Acknowledgments PoS(MULTIF2017)001 . , F. , F. 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