Why Are Japanese Women Having Fewer Children?

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

Why Are Japanese Women Having Fewer Children? Gender, Family and Fertility: Why are Japanese Women Having Fewer Children? Kazue Kojima PhD University of York The Center for Women’s Studies 2013 September Abstract Japanese women are having fewer children than ever before. There have been many quantitative studies undertaken to attempt to reveal the reasons behind this. The Japanese government has been concerned about the future economic decline of the country, and has been encouraging women to have more children. Although the Japanese government has been supporting women financially, it has not focused on gender equality, making it more difficult for women to be able to pursue their chosen careers. Japanese women have greater access to higher education than ever before, yet the Japanese patriarchal social structure still compels women to rely on men and all but eliminates their independence. The Japanese male-dominated society is resistant want to change. Family ties are still very strong, and women are expected to take care of the household and do unpaid work, while men work outside the home and earn a paid salary. In the labour force, women do not enjoy the same level of equality and opportunity as their male counterparts, as it is naturally marry, have children, and take care of the family. The system is skewed in favor of the males. Women are not able to pursue the same career path as men; even from the start, women are often considered as candidates for potential wives for the male workers. In the course of this research, I conducted a total of 22 interviews of single and married Japanese women. I set out to explore and discover the causes behind why Japanese women are choosing to postpone marriage and have fewer children, as well as touching upon the much deeper issue of gender inequality due to the Japanese patriarchal social structure. Women cannot live how they want to and only for themselves; they must always put their families first. This study reveals the struggles of Japanese women and how many are confused, and how some resist the patriarchal system. Many women waste their education, careers, knowledge and experience, all in the name of maintaining family ties and the patriarchal social structure. 2 Table of Contents Abstract 2 Table of Figures 7 List of Tables 9 Acknowledgements 10 Author Declaration 11 Introduction 12 Chapter 1: Fertility in Context 15 Japanese Fertility in Context 15 1. Postponing Having Children 19 2. Shorter Window of Time for Childbearing 20 3. Overall Life Course 21 4. Financial Costs and Time Costs 21 5. Birth Control 22 6. Ideal Number and Social Ideal Number of Children Decreasing 22 7. Responsibility to Have an Affordable Number of Children 23 Gender Inequality in Japan 24 1. Hierarchy and Patriarchy 24 2. Single Life 27 3. Women’s Difficulties in Keeping a Job 31 4. Lack of Support 37 5. Cohabitation and Married Parenthood 39 6. Contraception and Health Insurance 42 Question for Research 45 Chapter 2: Gender, Family and Fertility: Why are Japanese Women Having Fewer Children? 46 Research Design 46 Why qualitative research? 46 Research Strategy 49 Sampling and Participants 52 Scheduling 56 Choosing the Location 60 Interviews and Etiquette 61 The Interview Process 63 3 Creating Rapport 63 Asking Questions 67 Pre-interviews 70 Interviews 73 Sensitive Issues 76 Analysing and Writing Up 81 Reflection on the Research Process 88 Chapter 3: Gender Inequality 90 Introduction 90 Cultural and Behavioural Differences 93 Behavioural Differences 93 Girls’ Day and Boys’ Day 98 Women’s Responsibilities and Decisions 101 Keeping a job or not being able to keep a job 101 Lack of Support 110 Retirement 114 Balancing Work and Home Life 116 Expectations of being a Woman 123 The Traditional Japanese Wife and Woman 123 Intimacy & Sex Life 131 Summary 137 Chapter 4: Marriage and Family Values 139 Introduction 139 Marriage 139 Advantages of Being Married 139 The Advantages of being Single 144 Ren’ai: Love Marriage 148 Omiai: Arranged Marriage and Dating Agencies As a New form of Marriage 154 4 Why Marriage? 159 Norms and Cultural Acceptance 159 Parental Pressure 161 Family Values 165 Pressure and Relationships with parents-in-law 165 Visiting Parents-in law 167 Divorce 174 History of divorce and attitude towards divorce in Japan 174 Being patient and remaining married 176 Summary 179 Chapter 5: Economic Resources 183 Introduction 183 Gender Discrimination in the Work Force 184 Job Opportunities 184 Against Gender Appropriate Behaviour 187 Inequality Between Full- and Part-Time Workers 190 Education Expenses 194 Housing Expenses 203 Women’s Responsibility for the Household Finances 206 Summary 211 Chapter 6: Care and Welfare Policy 213 Introduction 213 Financial Support 214 Male-Dominated System 219 Breadwinner 219 Lack of Shared Responsibilities 220 Women’s Job Security 226 5 Difficulty of Keeping a Job and Career 226 Working Conditions: Inequality, Tax System and Part-Time Work 228 Maternity Rights and Protection 235 Nursery Facilities 240 Responsibilities of Child Care: ‘Good’ Mothers and ‘Bad’ Mothers 242 Summary 245 Chapter 7: Conclusion 249 Appendix 262 Appendix I: Questions for Pre-Interview 262 Appendix II: Interview Questions 264 Appendix III: Vignettes 267 Appendix IV: Sample Tax Calculation 268 Bibliography 269 6 List of Figures Figure 1: Total Fertility Rate between 1950-2010 in Japan 17 Figure 2: Education Achievements of Japanese Women and Men 28 Figure 3: Japanese, South Korean and Hong Kong women in the Labour Force by Age 33 Figure 4: Percentage of the Japanese Population with Part-Time and Temporary Jobs, by Age and Gender 36 Figure 5: Paper type of Hokensho (National Insurance Card in Japan) Using One for Whole Family Type 43 Figure 6: Card Type of Hokensho (National Insurance card in Japan) Individual Card Type 44 Figure 7: Partriarchal Society: A Vicious Circle 92 Figure 8: Differences in Ways of Sitting by Gender 96 Figure 9: Pictures of Displays for Girls’ and Boys’ Days 98 Figure 10: Participants’ Difficulties in Keeping a Job After Marrying 103 Figure 11: Naishoku 109 Figure 12: Satisfaction with Work-Life Balance 117 Figure 13: Kuromin 118 Figure 14: A Nadeshiko flower 124 Figure 15: The Benefits of Being Married 140 Figure 16: From the Patriarchal System to Gender Role Responsibility to Fewer Children 145 Figure 17: Advantages of Being Single 146 Figure 18: Akai Ito 149 Figure 19: Strong Family Ties to Low Fertility 153 Figure 20: Kisei-Rash 168 Figure 21: Bus Girl 186 Figure 22: Elevator Girl 186 Figure 23: Part-time Employment as a Proportion of Total Employment for Women in 2011 190 Figure 24: The Gender Wage Gap and Incidence of Low Pay 193 7 Figure 25: Relative Proportion of Public School Expenditure as a Percentage by Level of Education 196 Figure 26: Shataku 203 Figure 27: Kiyomi’s Vicious Circle after Marriage 218 Figure 28: My Other Respondents’ Vicious Circle (except Kiyomi) due to Male-Dominated Structures 234 8 List of Tables Table 1: Total Fertility Rates 16 Table 2 : Paid and Unpaid Work among Women and Men 38 Table 3: Proportion of Unmarried Women with a Child or Children 40 Table 4: Perceptions of Responsibilities of Contraception 42 Table 5: Interview Subjects 54 Table 6: Saki’s Daily Activities 59 Table 7: Daily Duties for Kiyomi, Her Husband and Her Parents 102 Table 8: Saki’s Weekend Activities 120 Table 9: Explanation of Sex Industries 133 Table 10: The Level of Education of Males and Females in One Dating Agency 157 Table 11: Average Incomes by Age Group 157 Table 12: Japanese Divorce Rates 175 Table 13: The Average Expenses of Education Fee Private and Public School, from Nursery till High School in Japan 195 Table 14: Annual Cost of Supplemental Education among Japanese Children per Year 199 Table 15: Annual Taxation for Wives 229 Table 16: Maternity leave and Paternity Leave 236 9 Acknowledgement First, I would like to thank to my supervisor, Stevi Jackson, for giving me the opportunity to study in the Centre for Women’s Studies at the University of York and to complete my thesis. She has always been patient with me and has always encouraged me, especially whenever I have felt discouraged with the seemingly endless process of writing and revising the thesis. I also would like to thank Professor Gabriele Griffin, Professor Sharon MacDonald and Professor Karen Munford who advised me and who provided valuable comments and feedback. I would also like to mention Professor Karen Munford, who always gave me warm words of encouragement. I am very grateful for the women who took part in this study and who graciously agreed to be participants in my interviews. I admired them and learned from their experiences. I felt very fortunate to be a part of The Centre for Women’s Studies. What I have learned from there has affected and changed my life. I would especially like to thank Ms. Harriet Badger for making it such a welcoming place. Lastly, I wish to thank all my family members, especially my mother, Chiyoko Kojima; and my father, Kosaku Kojima. Without their support and love, I probably would not have been able to finish my dissertation and to realise my dream of pursuing an academic career. 10 Author’s Declaration I certify that this thesis is solely my own work and carried out in accordance with the Regulations of the University of York. This thesis has not been used for any other degree or professional qualification. 11 Introduction Since I first became interested in low fertility rates in Japan, it has become a very topical issue. As the economic decline of Japan has deepened into a crisis, the low fertility rates there have been studied by those in many fields: scholars in the fields of economics, health, demographics, statistics, social sciences, and politics have all focused their attention on low fertility (Katayama et.
Recommended publications
  • Japan's Secretive Death Penalty Policy
    Japan’s Secretive Death Penalty Policy: Contours, Origins, Justifications, and Meanings♦ David T. Johnson I. ABSTRACT...................................................................................................62 II. “REIKO IN WONDERLAND” .....................................................................63 A. SECRECY AND SILENCE ..............................................................................70 III. ORIGINS .......................................................................................................76 A. MEIJI BIRTH ...............................................................................................76 B. THE OCCUPATION’S “CENSORED DEMOCRACY” ........................................80 C. POSTWAR ACCELERATION..........................................................................87 IV. JUSTIFICATIONS ........................................................................................97 V. MEANINGS.................................................................................................109 A. SECRECY AND LEGITIMACY......................................................................109 B. SECRECY AND SALIENCE ..........................................................................111 C. SECRECY AND DEMOCRACY.....................................................................117 D. SECRECY AND LAW ..................................................................................119 VI. CONCLUSION.............................................................................................123
    [Show full text]
  • Sex and Reproduction
    vv ISSN: 2690-0815 DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.17352/ijsrhc LIFE SCIENCES GROUP Mohamed Nabih EL-Gharib* and Sherin Barakat Albehoty Review Article Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, Faculty of Medicine, Tanta University, Tanta, Egypt Sex and Reproduction Received: 10 March, 2018 Accepted: 11 April, 2018 Published: 12 April, 2018 Abstract *Corresponding author: Mohamed Nabih EL-Gharib, Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, Faculty of Sexual intercourse is a union between two people of different sexual acting in a social context in Medicine, Tanta University, Tanta, Egypt, accordance with their physiological and psychological needs. Sexual relationship provides a physical E-mail: closeness which gives the comfort and support which is essential for all relationships. Keywords: Sexual intercourse; Pregnancy; Positions Many years ago, Aristotle was aware of a woman’s ability to conceive in any coital position. The time of sexual intercourse of ovulation is the main determinant of conception, not coital position. As regards pregnancy, it is not a safe thought to stop coitus until the time of ovulation because one might overlook it. https://www.peertechz.com Pregnancy often has an infl uence on a couple’s sexual activity, although it has no uniform effect on sexual feelings or function. Some women will fi nd that their sex drive signifi cantly increases during their pregnancy, while others will experience a decreased interest in sex. Lastly, we answered the question what are the best coital positions during pregnancy. Introduction Although sexual activity has, until very lately, being essential to breeding, this did not preclude the non- In biological terms, the urge to reproduce is one of the reproductive importance of sexual relationships and non- strongest basic drives.
    [Show full text]
  • Journal of Family Issues
    Journal of Family Issues http://jfi.sagepub.com/ Marriage, Abortion, or Unwed Motherhood? How Women Evaluate Alternative Solutions to Premarital Pregnancies in Japan and the United States Ekaterina Hertog and Miho Iwasawa Journal of Family Issues published online 5 June 2011 DOI: 10.1177/0192513X11409333 The online version of this article can be found at: http://jfi.sagepub.com/content/early/2011/06/03/0192513X11409333 Published by: http://www.sagepublications.com Additional services and information for Journal of Family Issues can be found at: Email Alerts: http://jfi.sagepub.com/cgi/alerts Subscriptions: http://jfi.sagepub.com/subscriptions Reprints: http://www.sagepub.com/journalsReprints.nav Permissions: http://www.sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav >> Proof - Jun 5, 2011 What is This? Downloaded from jfi.sagepub.com at Oxford University Libraries on October 29, 2011 JFIXXX10.1177/0192513X11409333 409333Hertog and IwasawaJournal of Family Issues © The Author(s) 2011 Reprints and permission: http://www. sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav Journal of Family Issues XX(X) 1 –26 Marriage, Abortion, © The Author(s) 2011 Reprints and permission: http://www. or Unwed Motherhood? sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/0192513X11409333 How Women Evaluate http://jfi.sagepub.com Alternative Solutions to Premarital Pregnancies in Japan and the United States Ekaterina Hertog1 and Miho Iwasawa2 Abstract In this article, the authors argue that to understand the very low incidence of outside-of-marriage childbearing in contemporary Japan one needs to take into account perceptions of all possible solutions to a premarital pregnancy: marriage, abortion, and childbearing outside wedlock. To demonstrate the particular impact of these perceptions in Japan, the authors compare them with those in the United States, a country where many more children are born outside wedlock.
    [Show full text]
  • Topics in Human Sexuality: Sexuality Across the Lifespan Adulthood/Male and Female Sexuality
    Most people print off a copy of the post test and circle the answers as they read through the materials. Then, you can log in, go to "My Account" and under "Courses I Need to Take" click on the blue "Enter Answers" button. After completing the post test, you can print your certificate. Topics in Human Sexuality: Sexuality Across the Lifespan Adulthood/Male and Female Sexuality Introduction The development of sexuality is a lifelong process that begins in infancy. As we move from infancy to adolescence and adolescence to adulthood, there are many sexual milestones. While adolescent sexuality is a time in which sexual maturation, interest and experience surge, adult sexuality continues to be a time of sexual unfolding. It is during this time that people consolidate their sexual orientation and enter into their first mature, and often long term, sexual relationships. This movement towards mature sexuality also has a number of gender-specific issues as males and females often experience sexuality differently. As people age, these differences are often marked. In addition to young and middle age adults, the elderly are often an overlooked group when it comes to discussion of sexuality. Sexuality, however, continues well into what are often considered the golden years. This course will review the development of sexuality using a lifespan perspective. It will focus on sexuality in adulthood and in the elderly. It will discuss physical and psychological milestones connected with adult sexuality. Educational Objectives 1. Discuss the process of attaining sexual maturity, including milestones 2. Compare and contrast remaining singles, getting married and cohabitating 3.
    [Show full text]
  • Incidence Survey of Kawasaki Disease in 1997 and 1998 in Japan
    Incidence Survey of Kawasaki Disease in 1997 and 1998 in Japan Hiroshi Yanagawa, MD*; Yosikazu Nakamura, MD, MPH‡; Mayumi Yashiro‡; Izumi Oki, MD‡; Shizuhiro Hirata, MD‡; Tuohong Zhang, MD§; and Tomisaku Kawasaki, MDʈ ABSTRACT. Objective. To describe the results of a been finalized. This article reports the basic analysis nationwide epidemiologic survey of Kawasaki disease of the survey. for the 2-year period 1997 and 1998. Design. We sent a questionnaire to all hospitals with METHODS 100 beds or more throughout Japan (2663 hospitals) re- The participants of this survey are KD patients who were questing data on patients with Kawasaki disease. Study diagnosed at hospitals with 100 beds or more during the 2-year items included name, sex, date of birth, date of initial study. A questionnaire form was sent to the hospitals with a hospital visit, diagnosis, address, recurrence, sibling pamphlet describing the diagnostic criteria of the disease includ- cases, gammaglobulin treatment, and cardiac lesion in ing color pictures of typical lesions of the skin, eyes, hands, and the acute stage or 1 month after onset. feet. The mailing list of the hospitals for this survey was obtained Results. Of the 2663 hospitals, 68.5% responded, re- from the 1998 hospital directory edited by the Ministry of Health porting 12 966 patients—7489 males and 5477 females. Of and Welfare of the Japanese Government. The number of hospitals the total patients reported, 6373 (incidence rate of 108.0 thus obtained was 2663. per 100 000 children <5 years old) occurred in 1997, and Items included in the questionnaire were name, sex, date of birth, date of initial hospital visit, diagnosis, address, recurrence, 6593 (111.7) in 1998.
    [Show full text]
  • Statistical Handbook of Japan 2009 Is Also Available at the Following Address
    STATISTICAL HANDBOOK OF JAPAN 2009 Statistics Bureau Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications JAPAN © 2009 by Statistics Bureau Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications Japan All rights reserved. Edited by Statistical Research and Training Institute Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications Japan Published by Statistics Bureau Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications 19-1 Wakamatsu-cho, Shinjuku-ku Tokyo 162-8668 Japan Printed in Japan ISSN 0081-4792 On the Internet Statistical Handbook of Japan 2009 is also available at the following address: http://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/handbook/index.htm Preface This handbook is designed to provide a clear and coherent overview of present-day Japan through statistics. It provides statistical tables, figures, maps and photographs to portray conditions in modern-day Japan from a variety of perspectives, including demographics, economic and social trends, and culture. Most of the comments and statistical data for this purpose have been drawn from principal statistical publications available from government and other leading sources. For more in-depth statistical information on Japan, readers are invited to peruse the Japan Statistical Yearbook and the Japan Monthly Statistics. We hope that this booklet will serve as a guide in your search for knowledge about Japan. We are always happy to receive opinions or requests from readers. You can also view the contents of this booklet on the website of the Statistics Bureau. August 2009 Shigeru KAWASAKI Director-General Statistics Bureau Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications Japan Notes for Users 1. The present issue contains statistics that became available by June 30, 2009.
    [Show full text]
  • Clinical Practice Guideline for Care in Pregnancy and Puerperium
    Clinical Practice Guideline for Care in Pregnancy and Puerperium CLINICAL PRACTICE GUIDELINES IN THE SPANISH NHS MINISTRY OF HEALTH, SOCIAL SERVICES AND EQUALITY CONSEJERÍA DE IGUALDAD, SALUD Y POLÍTICAS SOCIALES CPG FOR CARE IN PREGNANCY AND PUERPERIUM a Clinical Practice Guideline for Care in Pregnancy and Puerperium CLINICAL PRACTICE GUIDELINES IN THE SPANISH NHS MINISTRY OF HEALTH, SOCIAL SERVICES AND EQUALITY MINISTERIO MINISTERIO DE ECONOMÍA DE SANIDAD, SERVICIOS SOCIALES Y COMPETITIVIDAD E IGUALDAD CONSEJERÍA DE IGUALDAD, SALUD Y POLÍTICAS SOCIALES This CPG is an aid to decision making in healthcare. The compliance of this guide is not mandatory, nor does it replace the clinical judgement of the healthcare personnel. Edition: 2014 Edited by: Ministry of Health, Social Services and Equality. Edited by: Andalusian Agency for Healthcare Technology and Assessment. Regional Ministry of Equality, Health and Social Policy - CONSEJERÍA DE IGUALDAD, SALUD Y POLÍTICAS SOCIALES NIPO: 680-13-122-7 This CPG has been produced under the collaboration agreement signed by the Carlos III Health Institute, an autonomous body of the Ministry of Science and Innovation and the Fundación Progreso y Salud of the Ministry of Gender, Health and Social Policies of the Regional Government of Andalusia in the framework of developing activities of the Spanish Network of Agenciesfor Health Technology Assessment and NHS benefits, financed by the Ministry of Health, Social Services and Equality. Suggested citation Working Group of the Clinical Practice Guidelines for Care in Pregnancy and Puerperium. Clinical Practice Guideline for Care in Pregnancy and Puerperium. Ministry of Health, Social Services and Equality. Agency for Healthcare Technology Assessment of Andalusia; 2014.
    [Show full text]
  • Asia Program Special Report
    JULY 2008 AsiaSPECIAL Program REPORT No. 141 Japan’s Declining Population: Clearly a LEONARD SCHOPPA Japan’s Declining Population: The Problem, But What’s the Solution? Perspective of Japanese Women on the “Problem” and the “Solutions” EDITED BY MARK MOHR PAGE 6 ROBIN LEBLANC Japan’s Low Fertility: What Have Men ABSTRACT Got To Do With It? In this Special Report, Leonard Schoppa of the University of Virginia notes PAGE 11 the lack of an organized female “voice” to press for better job conditions which would KEIKO YAMANAKA make having both a career and children easier. Robin LeBlanc of Washington and Lee Immigration, Population and University describes the pressures facing Japanese men, which have led to their postpon- Multiculturalism in Japan PAGE 19 ing marriage at a higher rate than women, while Keiko Yamanaka of the University of JENNIFER ROBERTSON California, Berkeley, reluctantly concludes that Japan is not seriously considering immigration Science Fiction as Domestic Policy in as an option to counteract its declining population. Jennifer Robertson of the University Japan: Humanoid Robots, Posthumans, of Michigan, Ann Arbor, focuses on a uniquely Japanese technological solution to possibly and Innovation 25 PAGE 29 resolve the problem of a declining population: robots. INTRODUCTION MARK MOHR apan’s population is shrinking. Its fertility total exactly one. Whether this remaining citizen rate is an alarmingly low 1.3; 2.1 is the rate will be male or female, the study did not say. Jnecessary for population replacement. At the Japan is thus facing a major demographic cri- current fertility rate, Japan’s population, which sis: not enough workers to support an increasingly currently totals 127.7 million, will decrease by aging population; not enough babies to replace over 40 million by 2055.
    [Show full text]
  • Dansō, Gender, and Emotion Work in a Tokyo Escort Service
    WALK LIKE A MAN, TALK LIKE A MAN: DANSŌ, GENDER, AND EMOTION WORK IN A TOKYO ESCORT SERVICE A thesis submitted to The University of Manchester for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Humanities 2018 MARTA FANASCA SCHOOL OF ARTS, LANGUAGES AND CULTURES Table of Contents List of Figures and Tables ...................................................................................................... 5 Abstract .................................................................................................................................. 6 Declaration and Copyright Statement .................................................................................... 7 Acknowledgments .................................................................................................................. 8 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 9 Significance and aims of the research .................................................................................. 12 Outline of the thesis ............................................................................................................. 14 Chapter 1 Theoretical Framework and Literature Review Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 16 1.1 Masculinity in Japan ...................................................................................................... 16 1.2 Dansō and gender definition
    [Show full text]
  • Introduction
    Chapter 1 Introduction Key Questions The Nihon Keizai Shimbun, a Japanese business daily, reported on Janu- ary 26, 2003, an interesting episode regarding the ongoing phenomenon of nonprofi t organization (NPO) incorporation following the 1998 NPO Law (formally the Law to Promote Specified Nonprofit Activities, enacted in 1998) in Japan. The paper said that one of the most profi t- able industries in the currently sluggish Japanese economy is the hanko business. Hanko is a seal that is symbolic of formal approval among both individuals and corporations in Japanese society. Its function is equivalent to that of the signature in Western countries. The number of franchise shops manufacturing hanko has nearly doubled in the past three years. Traditionally, making hanko required high-level engraving skills. Today, however, the introduction of the computer in the hanko industry has streamlined production. In Japanese society, hanko is often required in the administrative procedures of the government. According to the newspaper article, individuals usually have only fi ve hanko over a lifetime. The current demand should therefore be limited. If this is the case, then why is the business thriving? The business daily attributed the surge to the dramatically increasing number of NPOs created under the 1998 NPO Law. Since the law’s enactment, more than 30,000 NPOs have been incorporated (as of March 31, 2007), as Figure 1.1 shows, and the number is still increasing at a relatively constant and consistent pace across the country.1 In the process of gaining recognition as an NPO, an organization is required to submit documents to the government with a hanko.
    [Show full text]
  • University of Hawaiii Library a Path Toward Gender
    UNIVERSITY OF HAWAIII LIBRARY A PATH TOWARD GENDER EQUALITY: STATE FEMINISM IN JAPAN A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE DIVISION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF HAWAI'I PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN POLITICAL SCIENCE DECEMBER 2002 By Yoshie Kobayashi Dissertation Committee: Yasumasa Kuroda, Chairperson Kathy E. Ferguson James A. Dator KateZhou Takie S. Lebra ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am indebted to many individuals and institutions for help with the writing of this dissertation. Singled out first for thanks are five professors at the University of Hawai'i, Manoa, who assisted me to shape the content of this dissertation. I am especially grateful to Yasumasa Kuroda, who was the supervisor of my dissertation and provided me essential intellectual and moral support and advice throughout the dissertation project. In a variety of ways, Kathy Ferguson's insightful criticism, comments, and copious and tireless editing during the dissertation process monitored the direction and clarified my arguments. James Dator and Kate Zhou were sources of substantive insight and personal encouragement throughout this dissertation project. I was also privileged to benefit from Takie S. Lebra's expertise in connecting a theoretical scheme with empirical findings. I also thank them for their support during my graduate school years. I appreciate the institutional support at the University of Hawaii, Manoa­ the Department of pOI~1 science and the Center for Japanese Studies. I gratefully acknowledge academic support from teachers of my undergraduate and master programs, although they were not directly involved in this work. For his comments and advice, I would like to express appreciations to Tanaka Yasumasa, who was my teacher of political science in GakushUin University, Tokyo and encouraged me to study in graduate programs in the United States.
    [Show full text]
  • Memories and Aporias in the Japan-Korea Relationship 日本・ コリア関係における記憶と内部矛盾
    Volume 8 | Issue 14 | Number 3 | Article ID 3337 | Apr 05, 2010 The Asia-Pacific Journal | Japan Focus Memories and Aporias in the Japan-Korea Relationship 日本・ コリア関係における記憶と内部矛盾 Alexis Dudden War of 1905 Memories and Aporias in the Japan- Korea Relationship This condition collapsed, of course, in total defeat in 1945. With the end of American Alexis Dudden occupation in 1952, however, Japan was supposed to have regained its independence, or 2010 is the centennial year of Japan's takeover so the national story goes, as do rather of Korea. The history of this event is of significant supporting international frameworks enormous significance to the 20th century, and such as the United Nations and the not simply because it garnered Japan a foothold International Monetary Fund. Yet despite the on mainland Asia. Although Koreans see it very phoenix of Japan's postwar rise from the ashes, differently, for Japan, the 1910 annexation of the renewed 1960 security pact with the United Korea established Japan's entry as a power on States — and its substantial 1990s the world stage. readjustments — blatantly compromised Japan's sovereignty and extended Japan's occupation-era dependence on the United States in open and hidden ways. Many have long contended this, especially in Okinawa. Today, however, the voices questioning the nature of Japanese sovereignty come from wildly divergent corners and point in radically competing ways. The mounting crisis surrounding the relocation of American bases and marines in Okinawa as well as the revelations about the security pact's so-called secret deals between Washington and Tokyo allowing the US to bring nuclear weapons into Japan, have made all of this more salient.
    [Show full text]