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Markets in the Mountains: Upland Trade-Scapes, Trader Livelihoods, and State Development Agendas in Northern Vietnam

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MARKETS IN THE MOUNTAINS: UPLAND TRADE-SCAPES, TRADER LIVELIHOODS, AND STATE DEVELOPMENT AGENDAS IN NORTHERN VIETNAM Christine Bonnin Department of Geography McGill University, Montréal Submitted October 2011 A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy © Christine Bonnin 2011 In loving memory of a dear friend, Radoslaw Stypczynski (Radek) and for his Sa Pa Sisters ii ABSTRACT In this dissertation I investigate market formation and integration in the northern uplands of Vietnam (Lào Cai province) through a focus on the everyday processes by which markets are created and (re)shaped at the confluence of local innovation and initiatives, state actions, and wider market forces. Against a historically-informed backdrop of the ‘local’ research context with regard to ethnicity, cultural practice, livelihoods, markets and trade, I situate and critique the broader Vietnam state agenda. At present, the state supports regularising market development often in accordance with a lowland majority model, and promoting particular aspects of tourism that at times mesh, while at others clash, with upland subsistence needs, customary practice, and with uplanders successfully realising new opportunities. State-led initiatives to foster market integration are often instituted without informed consideration of their effects on the specific nature and complexity of upland trade, such as for the realisation of materially and culturally viable livelihoods. Conceptually, I weave together a framework for the study that draws key elements from three main strands of scholarship: 1) actor-oriented approaches to livelihoods; 2) social embeddedness, social network and social capital approaches to market trade and exchange, and; 3) the commodity-oriented literature. Fieldwork was situated in the northern Vietnam province of Lào Cai, in five upland districts bordering China’s Yunnan province. The research draws primarily on ethnographic methods: conversational interviews, semi-structured interviews, life histories, participant observation, and market surveys. Research informants included ethnic Hmong, Yao, Kinh, Nùng, Tày and Giáy small-scale market traders, state officials, market management representatives, non-governmental organisations, and foreign and domestic tourists. Primary field sites encompassed 14 upland marketplaces in Lào Cai province, with additional visits to markets in neighbouring upland provinces and across the border in Yunnan to complement the data gathered. This thesis is broadly divided into two main results sections. Firstly, I explore upland markets as a critical social interface through which to understand the role that centripetal and centrifugal forces play within the contemporary restructuring of marketplaces, commodity networks, and trade dynamics in Lào Cai’s uplands. I iii investigate the role of the state in the current development and modernisation of marketplaces within the province, as well as how recent improvements in connective technologies such as roads, transportation, and communications are working to alter upland trade-scapes. In describing these structural changes, the specific and diverse responses of upland traders to these transformations are explored - such as accommodation, negotiation, as well as overt and implicit forms of resistance - in terms of how these groups seek to carve out a living through their own constructions of marketplace trade. In the second section, I devote three chapters to in-depth case studies of upland trade networks for key cultural commodities, historically produced and/or traded by Hmong and Yao ethnic minorities: water buffalo livestock, upland artisanal alcohols, and handmade and manufactured ethnic minority textiles. Through these investigations, I address how upland markers of social difference and social support networks work to influence trade and the way actors shape their exchange activities. Focus is placed on the particular strategies used by different groups of upland traders to engage with trade opportunities and negotiate constraints in order to enhance their livelihoods. In my thesis, I contend that there are a number of economic, social and cultural reasons for why Hmong and Yao uplanders are involved in specific types of marketplace trade to a degree that works to help them meet their own particular needs and objectives, which may differ dramatically at times from state upland development agendas. This study makes a vital contribution by explicitly paying attention to the production and trade of products which are of historical cultural and material relevance to upland ethnic minorities themselves, as well as to endogenous perspectives of upland marketplace trading. A focus on activities that have endured over the much longer term points to their relevance as resilient elements within Hmong and Yao economic practice. The research also makes an important contribution by unraveling the inter-linkages and socio-cultural and economic dynamics between locally-oriented commodity markets and externally-oriented markets, within the context of upland processes of market integration. iv RÉSUMÉ Ma thèse examine les mécanismes qui entrent en jeu dans le processus d’intégration des populations des hauts plateaux du nord du Vietnam (Province de Lào Cai) à l’économie de marché. Je démontre que les initiatives et les innovations individuelles, l’État ainsi que les forces du marché concourent à la création des marchés de montagne ou à leur adaptation à des conjonctures nouvelles. Je rappelle et je critique l’agenda de l’État vietnamien dans les hauts plateaux de même que ses politiques concernant les relations ethniques, les pratiques culturelles, les conditions et moyens de subsistance des populations montagnardes, les marchés de montagne et le commerce en général. L’État promeut actuellement un modèle de développement des marchés de montagne basé sur le modèle qui régit le commerce dans les basses terres abritant la majorité de la population du pays. L’État encourage aussi dans les hauts plateaux une forme de développement touristique bien précise. Parfois, ce développement accroît la capacité des montagnards à pourvoir leurs besoins de base et à maintenir leurs pratiques culturelles. Parfois, c’est l’inverse qui se produit. La volonté de l’État d’intégrer les populations des hauts plateaux à l’économie de marché et les politiques qui s’ensuivent tiennent rarement compte de la nature et de la complexité des circuits commerciaux traditionnels, de leur importance culturelle et de leur contribution au bien-être des populations montagnardes. Le cadre conceptuel de ma thèse combine des éléments issus de trois champs de recherche : 1) les approches orientées vers les acteurs et l’examen des conditions et moyens de subsistance d’une population donnée; 2) le rôle du capital social et des réseaux sociaux dans les échanges marchands; 3) les chaînes de valeurs. Mes recherches de terrain se sont déroulées dans cinq districts de la province de Lào Cai, située dans le nord du Vietnam et directement au sud de la province chinoise du Yunnan. La méthodologie préconisée dans la recherche met l’accent sur des méthodes ethnographiques telles que les entrevues conversationnelles et semi-structurées, l’histoire orale, l’observation participante et les sondages. Les participants à la recherche incluent des petits commerçants Hmong, Yao, Kinh, Nùng, Tày et Giáy de même que des fonctionnaires, des membres du personnel de gestion des marchés et d’organisations non-gouvernementales ainsi que des touristes étrangers et vietnamiens. Les principaux sites de la recherche comprennent 14 marchés de v montagne situés dans la province de Lào Cai. Des données complémentaires ont aussi été recueillies dans des marchés situés dans des provinces vietnamiennes voisines, de même que dans la province chinoise du Yunnan. Les deux principales sections de cette thèse présentent les résultats de ma recherche. Premièrement, je détermine que les marchés de montagne constituent un lieu de rencontre et d’échanges sociaux inédit. Les marchés de montagne et les échanges socioculturels et économiques qui s’y déroulent sont influencés par des forces centripètes et centrifuges. Ces forces exercent notamment un impact sur la restructuration des places commerciales, des chaînes de valeurs et des dynamiques de marché dans les hauts plateaux de Lào Cai. Je détermine le rôle que l’État joue dans le développement et la modernisation des marchés de cette province. Par exemple, l’amélioration des infrastructures de transport et des technologies de la communication a une influence notoire sur les réseaux et circuits commerciaux qui font l’objet de cette recherche. Je documente ces changements structuraux, de même que les différentes façons dont les commerçants des hauts plateaux s’en accommodent ou y résistent plus ou moins ouvertement afin d’en retirer le meilleur parti possible. Deuxièmement, je consacre trois études de cas approfondies à autant de produits commerciaux ayant une importance culturelle phare pour les communautés Hmong et Yao, c’est-à-dire les buffles, les alcools artisanaux et les broderies et étoffes faites à la main. Ces études déterminent comment la différentiation sociale et les réseaux sociaux affectent la façon dont les acteurs concernés conduisent leurs activités commerciales. Je m’attarde en particulier aux différentes stratégies mises de l’avant par les commerçants des hauts plateaux pour retirer le plus grand bénéfice
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