Protected Areas Are One of the Earliest and Most Widespread Conservation Tools Used by Human Societies

10/1/2015

This Week: EVOLVING STORY

Long-term history of societal protection of some resources for aesthetic, food security, religious purposes

Mismanagement and corruption in resource consumption – giving rise to roots of conservation in North America (not possible to arise just anywhere)

Environmental values rising to a greater dominance in industrialized countries 1

Today’s Outline of Topics

1. Differences between large scale, top-down control, versus small scale, bottom-up control, of protected areas? 2. What resources do sacred groves provide communities? 3. Why have sacred groves persisted to today? 4. Why did the National Park model develop in post colonial US? 5. How US citizens drive the development of the National Park model? How did the ARTS contribute to the formation of the US conservation movement? 6. So what do 2 guys have to do with the formation of the first US National Park model? Why does a worm have to do with the conservation movement first being implemented in the US [even though the ideas developed in Great Britain, Germany, India?] 7. Why did the conservation movement not develop in Spain or Portugal? 8. Introduce idea why Parks as protected areas continue to face many problems in achieving their conservation goals? 2

Protected Areas are one of the earliest and most widespread conservation tools used by human societies

Wintu Sacred Site, Medicine Lake, CA 3

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Today’s Outline of Topics

1. Differences between large scale, top-down control, versus small scale, bottom-up control, of protected areas

4 http://dealerserviceacademy.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/204-King-Crown.png

Protected Area: Small scale, bottom up control Sacred groves = • few trees to several acres of forests or natural vegetation dedicated to local folk deities or tree spirits; • set-up & controlled by local communities, village

NOTE: People believe that any kind of disturbance or upsetting local deities or spirits will offend them

RESULT of Disturbing spirits: they will cause diseases, natural calamities or failure of crops 5

Protected Area: Small scale, bottom up control

TYPES OF SACRED GROVES:

1. Traditional Sacred Groves –place where village deity resides and protects community, also has survival resources that community controls, protects its uses

2. Temple Groves –created around a temple and conserved

3. Groves around burial or cremation grounds

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1. Traditional Sacred Groves

Once widespread practice to establish sacred groves outside all settlements

Last remnants of primary forest left in Southern Nigeria; abode of fertility goddess 7 http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/public-speaking-practice-and- ethics/section_18/35e8bd11efe30d8b6b38b8a576175401.jpg

Osun Sacred Grove has last remnants of primary forest in southern Nigeria. Grove lands have many sanctuaries, shrines, sculptures and art works in honor of Osun - fertility goddess - and other Yoruba deities. Is probably last sacred grove in Yoruba culture. NOTE: primary forest means is old forest that has not been cut down - not young forest that has regrown back and looks old! 8 http://www.joannalipper.com/sites/default/files/gallery-images/46dee1032b0e6c62e812949ced7933d0.jpeg; http://nigerianwiki.com/images/2/2d/Oshogbo1.jpg

2. Temple Groves

Suan Mokh monastery, Thailand Sacred Forest Shrine, India

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2. Temple Groves

India still has ~13,270 sacred groves existing today

QUESTION? What does this tell you about whether they are still revered today?

Above Ayyanar idols near Gobi, Sri Lanka • Located at boundaries of rural villages • Guardian deities eternally fights demons, evil spirits Ayyanar temple near that threaten a village Pondichery, India http://m9.i.pbase.com/o3/75/648575/1/121939169.L1arHdm6.Ayyanartemplene http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Ayyanar_i10 arSalem4.JPG dols_near_Gobichettipalayam.jpg

3. Groves around burial or cremation grounds

Burial cairn at Dunchraigaig, Argyll, Scotland • housed many burial chambers [one opened had bones, many ancient artifacts] • can be 5,000 years old • always surrounded by a grove of trees

Dunchraigaig, Scotland 11 http://www.megalithic.co.uk/a558/a312/gallery/Spirit_of_Place/Middle- earth/NLargieS.jpg

Protected Areas: Large- scale, top-down control Emperor Ashoka Mauryan Empire, 273-232 BCE India 321-185 BCE

Strong military – largest empire at this time, united region of what is present day India under one flag http://bladams.tripod.com/empire/mauryan_g/Picture015.jpg

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Protected Areas: Large- scale, top-down control Ashoka converted to Buddhism - established edicts for how to interact with nature • developed a policy of protecting natural resources

• assigned specific officials tasked with protection duty

• first ruler in history to advocate conservation measures for wildlife Emperor Ashoka

http://www.mrdowling.com/images/612chandragupta%20.png

Protected Areas: Large-scale, top-down control

Reference to his edicts are inscribed on 34 stones

http://en.wikipedia.org/w iki/Edicts_of_Ashoka#/m edia/File:EdictsOfAshok a.jpg 15

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Protected Areas: Large-scale, top-down control Ashok’s Edict on Fifth Pillar:  Protect parrots, ruddy geese, wild ducks, bats, queen ants, terrapins, boneless fish, fish, tortoises, porcupines, OR squirrels, deer, bulls, wild translated asses, wild pigeons, domestic pigeons, etc and all four-footed creatures that are neither useful nor edible  Forests not to be burnt or creatures killed without reason  One animal is not to be fed to another

Large-scale, top-down control

Pliny the Elder (23-79 CE) tells us: Roman Emperor Hadrian (117-138 CE) worried about dwindling timber supply of the Lebanese and Ammanus Mts [will hear about later - Epic of Gilgamesh]. He declared a portion of this area as: “Timber Reserve of the Roman Empire.” “ARBORUM GENERA EST CETERA PRIVATA”

Bronze head from a statue of Hadrian, British Museum

17 https://www.google.com/

Large-scale, top-down control

“Timber Reserve of the Roman Empire.” “ARBORUM GENERA EST CETERA PRIVATA”

Rock Boundary of the forests of Emperor Hadrian said: “four tree species are reserved, the rest are for private use”

Imagine! A timber reserve! BUT not to conserve the environment & timber didn’t belong to Hadrian

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Today’s Outline of Topics

2. What resources do sacred groves provide communities?

Sacred groves resource uses & protected

Materials collected or protected in Traditional Sacred Groves were human survival resources:

 Non-timber products: grazing for domesticated animals, honey, beeswax, medicinals (Forestris, Germany, 556 CE)

 Hunting grounds - Normans England 1079, China, Persia, Romania 1457

 Conservation of soil and water : (1) Japan 1500’s; (2) Switzerland and Austria 1800’s

Community rules conserved an intact forest.

Allowed community to collect or harvest from Protected Areas:  SOME SACRED GROVES: No dry foliage & fallen fruits to be touched  Deadwood or dried leaves may be picked, but no cutting of live tree Sacred Forest or branches Shrine, India  Hunting and logging usually strictly prohibited  Honey, medicinal plants can be collected by the community

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TODAY many ECOLOGICAL BENEFITS OF SACRED GROVES:

• Conservation of Biodiversity – NOTE: often the last refuge of endemic species in a geographical region

• Recharge of aquifers – Ponds, streams or springs to meet water requirements of local people. The vegetative cover helps recharge aquifers.

• Soil conservation – Vegetation cover in groves improves soil stability & prevents soil erosion.

ECOLOGICAL BENEFITS OF SACRED GROVES:

Benefits of protected areas still being provided to society …

1/3 of the worlds largest cities rely on protected watersheds for their water supply

Parts of West Africa, the only forest remaining is in

protected areas (Furniss 2005)

Where do you think the city of Seattle gets its water???

Today’s Outline of Topics

3. Why have sacred groves persisted to today?

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Globally, sacred groves have survived for more than two thousand years

Sacred Forest Shrine, India http://www.e- pao.net/education/images/Scientific_paper/2009/Groov es_200910.jpg; http://www.sacredland.org/wp- ~13,270 in India today content/gallery/sacred-groves/sacred-groves-map.jpg

Why Early Protected Areas Survived:

Locally controlled by small, flexible societies

Community members protect the grove

Protection of sacred sites and natural resources inseparable

Regulated by cultural taboos, constraints passed down through oral history 26

Today’s Outline of Topics

4. Why did the National Park model develop in post colonial US?

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Large-scale, top-down control

OUR NEXT STORY: Why did the National Park idea develop in the US and not in some other country?

The Park Concept vs Sacred Groves : • Parks designed as public space using public lands held in trust by a government • Parks designed for public recreation, or as wilderness areas - not to protect locally consumed resources by local communities • Parks are large scale, top-down controlled

THE STORY: Why US is Credited with Developing the Model of Parks still Used Today

We have to go back to European colonial period in North American!!!

Lets pick up these threads and connections ….

THE STORY: Why US is Credited with Developing the Model of Parks still Used Today

2 NEGATIVES: Colonization of North America by European colonialists [1] did not pay attention to indigenous community rights (stole their lands & resources) [2] was over-exploiting publicly owned forests & resources in un-environmental way 1850 1810 1775

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THE STORY: Why US is Credited with Developing the Model of Parks still Used Today

1st NEGATIVE: Indigenous Peoples were Dispossessed

SLIGHT DETOUR to understand 2nd Negative To control new conquered lands, US government gave federal or public domain: • Land given away in place of money • Land given away to US citizens to settle it for the US government: sovereignty – Dispossess land from American Indians – Establish and control borders against the Spanish, Mexicans, French, British, and Canadians • Privatization: minimize government control of citizens

How the land was disposed off is what stimulated the development of conservation values!!!

Title: "Horse Shoe Curve." On Burlington and Missouri River. Buckhorn Mountains in background Bird's-eye view of a train on tracks, just beyond a marked curve. 1891. Repository: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, D.C. 20540 #

Title: The last large bull train on its way from the railroad to the Black Hills Summary: Train of oxen and three wagons in open field. 1890. Repository: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, D.C. 20540 # Which mode of transportation will get you faster to the west? Which approach will take months of travel?

33 http://blogs.denverpost.com/captured/2011/02/23/from-the-archive-frontier-life-in-the-west/2713/

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SLIGHT DETOUR to understand 2nd Negative One Approach to Dispose Federal Lands was: Railroad Land Grants - 1850-1871

SLIGHT DETOUR positive impact of 2nd Negative

Yellowstone images commissioned by railroads for travel brochures depicted beautiful & wide vistas. Who would not be captured by the thought of living or visiting lands that were visually so heavenly? Photos . Images of Yellowstone commissioned by the railroads (//plainshumanities.unl.edu/peattie/images/figures/ep.nov.jtw.intro.06.jpg)

What is MISSING in these photos?? 35

Impact of Railroad Land Grants: • Corruption and misallocation – Give-aways to railroads – Lands not given away according to best use • Deforestation – Railroads sold land to timber barons – Timber barons had a cut and run policy • Fires – Drought – Sparks from train engines – Slash (waste) from timber harvest created additional fuel 36

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THE STORY: Why US is Credited with Developing the Park Model

2nd NEGATIVE: Resource use un-environmental, corruption widespread, public land resources benefited a few individuals

RESULT: This caused public outcry and call for change & conserving resources

Today’s Outline of Topics

5. How US citizens drove the development of the National Park model?

How did the ARTS contribute to the formation of the US conservation movement?

The arts raised people’s consciousness of nature and its aesthetic value which supported the idea of establishing public PARKS!!!

This was still not sufficient to get the public to vote for setting up parks but showed that people were developing nature values for public lands

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Art became one of the threads that connects us to our beginnings – to the “eternal nature”:

Nature To make a prairie it takes a clover and one bee- One clover, and a bee, And revery. The revery alone will do If bees are few.

Emily Dickinson 1830 - 1886

Art became one of the threads that connects us to our beginnings – to the “eternal nature”:

Art: The Hudson River School

e.g. Thomas Cole (1801- 1848)

Art became one of the threads that connects us to our beginnings – to the “eternal nature”:

Literature, e.g. James Fennimore Cooper

“The last of the Mohicans” 1826. To the delight of several generations of young readers who were to see the wilderness in a new light.

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Art became one of the threads that connects us to our beginnings – to the “eternal nature”:

Music too was part of our link with nature: e.g. Amy Beach, American composer 1867-1944

The Gaelic Symphony “…I had visions of nature, forests, sometimes vast open spaces, sometimes mountains, always idyllic, organic; I became aware of my

soul..." (Dallas News 2003)

Today’s Outline of Topics

6. So what do 2 guys have to do with the formation of the first US National Park model?

Why does a worm have to do with the conservation movement first being implemented in the US [even though the ideas developed in Great Britain, Germany, India]? 44

BUT Establishing First US National Park was not a easy sell to the public in 1860s

Despite: the US public was fed up with un- environmental uses of public lands wide-scale corruption with few people making lots of money they had more time for recreation, i.e., to become a tourist in nature!!

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Establishing First US National Park was not a easy sell to the public in 1860s

Evidence of Lack of Public Support:

Bills to create the Park Service failed continually in Congress

Public didn’t know about parks or care about their condition

Public visitation was low.

Establishing First US National Park was not a easy sell to the public in 1860s

BUT OUR STORY changed in 1870s due to 2 men!!

RESULT 1st Park: Yellowstone National Park established in 1872

First reservation of wildlands to be visited for recreation purposes only

Park system only happened because two men managed to get US Congress to visit these lands with lavish outings/ picnics. Horace Albright – Stephen Mather – the administrator Congress charmer

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However, Establishing Yellowstone National Park in 1872 was a war on Native Americans • Established on federal government set aside land, i.e., public domain lands • Native Americans were relocated who had used the park area going back more than 11,000 years (NPS 2012)

But who owned public domain lands before the Euro- American settlers arrived? 49

Since US federal government was at war with Native Americans, military enforced access to new Park territories. . US Calvary managed, guarded gates & borders of Yellowstone until 1917 . Native Americans were not allowed to enter Yellowstone National Park to practice their traditional culture until 12 years ago

Left picture: War Department Station at Old Faithful; Haynes; ~1917. ); Right picture: Colonel Gardiner - took part in the Nez Perce retreat across Yellowstone National Park; Photographer unknown; ~1877 (Source: NPS 2012) 50

Since federal troops sent to protect resources of the first national parks were cavalry troopers, including the 9th Cavalry's Black "Buffalo Soldiers, “park rangers adopted the cavalry soldier's campaign hat as a symbol of authority. Campaign hats still worn by US National Park Service rangers

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Official park regulations discouraged tourists feeding bears, but Albright realized it was a popular attraction needed to develop public support for Parks.

Eventually, to preserve wildlife in natural state, bears were weaned from tourist handouts & nightly Horace Albright & feeding bears, Yellowstone feedings at National Park, 1922 garbage dumps. http://www.pbs.org/nationalparks/parks/yellowstone/3/ Yellowstone's superintendent & Director of the National Park Service 52

So the US got its 1st National Park but what did it take to implement the 1st conservation movement in the US? It took a WORM!!

British needed to find a solution to Shipworms shipworms! are mollusks that live in wood: their shell is modified into a wood- drilling bit that eats wood as a food 54

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So how did the British Navy deal with the shipworm problem?

THE SOLUTION: They found a tree species, Teak [Tectona grandis], resistant to fungi, insects, shipworms that was native & in plentiful supply in India and Burma –

in conquered forests of the British Empire!

In studying history, we know that important events are connected

So what did the British Navy have to do with Germany and India, and the development of a US conservation movement ??

NOTE: Remember Native Americans already had strong conservation values that were ignored by the European colonizers

TWO OF THE CONNECTIONS: One of the most respected German foresters (Dietrich Brandis (1824-1907) was appointed Inspector General of Forests by Queen Victoria (became Sir Dietrich Brandis!)

Empress of India Sir Dr. Dietrich Brandis57

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Why does Great Britain care about Indian forests? ANSWER: -Scarcity of timber supplies to build ships -Ships did not last long because of the shipworm

Brandis in setting out to intensively manage the teak forests of India established large management areas which he called “Conservancies”

Forest officers in charge in charge of the conservancies, he called “Conservators”

In 1899, the young American, Gifford Pinchot, met Dietrich Brandis, now retired

Pinchot formed a firm, devoted attachment to Dr. Brandis that lasted until his death in 1907

Pinchot started “ Conservation Movement” In 1907, Pinchot was appointed by Teddy Roosevelt as Chief of the new U.S. Forest Service 59

Today’s Outline of Topics

7. Why did the conservation movement not develop in Spain or Portugal?

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Big point: There is the inherent right of Latin American people to enter and hold government land or neighboring land (even by force). If the land is held long enough title is given to the holder.

= SQUATTERS RIGHTS

How did this “Squatters Rights” come about?

Squatters Rights = basis of subsistence farming

To understand Latin American squatters right’s we have to go back in time to the 1st century through 15th century in Spain and Portugal

The Moors of Northern Africa invaded the Iberian Peninsula in 710 In 710, a scouting party of 7000 Muslim Berbers led by a general named Tariq iban Ziyad entered southern Spain and met with little resistance as they established control of the coastline. He captured Roderic’s of The Moorish Castle’s Spain’s kingdom Tower of Homage, without a large army. symbol of Muslim Tariq iban Ziyad rule in Gibraltar "The Moorish Castle" by James Cridland from London, UK - The Moorish Castle. Licensed under CC BY 2.0 via Commons - https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Mooris And they stayed there for 800h_Castle.jpg#/media/File:The_Moorish_Castle.jpg years!! 63 "Tariq-ibn-Ziyad---w" by Original: ?Modifications: Cornischong at Luxembourgish Wikipedia - Transferred from lb.wikipedia to Commons.Source:http://www.histoiredesjuifs.com/articles.php?lng=fr&pg=1333 (ënner Creative Commons). Licensed under CC BY- SA 1.0 via Commons - https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tariq-ibn-Ziyad---w.jpg#/media/File:Tariq-ibn-Ziyad---w.jpg

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Alhambra, Grenada, Spain http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alhambra

Spain

Alhambra Green area owned Castle and fortress by The Caliphate complex of Cordova c. constructed during 1000 - Part of the mid 14th present day century by the Portugal & Spain Moorish rulers of the Emirate of Granada 64 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umayyad_conquest_of_Hispania#/media/File: Al_Andalus_-_2.png

65 Years

Conclusion: after 800 yrs or 30 generations (700 - 1500), Spain & Portugal became nations of fighters: the best and most brutal fighters the world had ever known!

One example: (1) Francisco Pizzaro and a few soldiers destroyed the entire Inca Empire (2)

A legacy: any person could hold on to land by force if necessary and lay claim to the land 66

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So now you know why the Conservation Movement could not have originated in Spain or Portugal and in the lands they conquered

Today’s Outline of Topics

8. Introduce idea why Parks as protected areas continue to to face many problems in conservation?

Lets go back to the unique MODEL of PARKS Developed in America: FACT:

1960’s to present - GLOBAL Exportation of National Park Model around the world; MANY DEVELOPING COUNTRIES TRYING TO MIMIC THIS MODEL today

See Reading: With U.S. as a Model, China Envisions Network of National Parks – NYT June 10, 2015 http://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/11/world/asia/china-envisions-network-of-national-parks-with-us-as-a- model.html?_r=0

SO why does the PARK MODEL need to change??

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Results of US PARK MODEL concept:

Parks viewed as scenic vistas & 1. People separate from public protected areas. Top- playgrounds, down management, no wilderness local knowledge 2. Parks became biological islands

TODAY Protected Areas cover 13% of the earth’s surface today (March 2010) but not including local people in its management has been disastrous for conservation

Despite 13% of the world in protected area designations in 2010, biodiversity continues to decline on a global scale -IUCN World Parks Congress

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EVOLVING STORIES

Mismanagement and corruption in resource consumption – roots of conservation movement in North America Environmental values rising to a greater dominance for some 1st Park in US but excluding people since assumed they only degrade environments, on public lands, no local rules Protected areas provided early people materials to construct first shelters to live as a community and energy [fire], food, water for their survival 73

Next class FEAR of forest and their Over-exploitation by Foreigners