Computer Aided Design of Electronic Devices

Home , Altium Designer, Circuit design, Colin Simpson (author), Comparator, DipTrace, LTspice

TOMSK POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY

O.A. Kozhemyak, D.N. Ogorodnikov

COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN OF ELECTRONIC DEVICES

It is recommended for publishing as a study aid by the Editorial Board of Tomsk Polytechnic University

Tomsk Polytechnic University Publishing House 2014 1

UDC 621.38(075.8) BBC 31.2 K58

Kozhemyak O.A. K58 Computer aided design of electronic devices: study aid / O.A. Kozhemyak, D.N. Ogorodnikov; Tomsk Polytechnic University. – Tomsk: TPU Publishing House, 2014. – 130 p.

This textbook focuses on the basic notions, history, types, technology and applications of computer-aided design. Methods of electronic devices simulation, automated design of power electronic devices and components, constructive- technological design are considered and discussed. Some features of the popular electronics CADs are also shown. There are a lot of practical examples using CADs of electronics. The textbook is designed at the Department of Industrial and Medical Electronics of TPU. It is intended for students majoring in the specialty „Electronics and Nanoelectronics‟.

UDC 621.38(075.8) BBC 31.2

Reviewer Cand.Sc, Head of Laboratory, Tomsk State University of Control Systems and Radioelectronics Aleksandr V. Osipov

Introduction. CAD around Us ...... 5 What is CAD? ...... 5 Overview ...... 6 History ...... 7 Uses ...... 9 Types ...... 10 Technology ...... 11 Electronic Design Automation ...... 12 Modern EDA Software ...... 15 Chapter 1 General Information on Design ...... 28 1.1 Definition of Design ...... 28 1.2 The description of the automated designing process ...... 31 1.3 Process Approach in Electronic Design Automation ...... 33 1.4 Structure of CAD systems ...... 35 1.4 General Description of CAD ...... 38 1.5 Decision-making in CAD. Choosing the Criterion of Optimality ...... 42 1.6 Application of Experiments Planning Methods in CAD ...... 45 Chapter 2 Simulation of Electronic Devices ...... 48 2.1 Methods of Electronic Devices Simulation ...... 48 2.2 Kinds of simulation on design stages of electronic devices ...... 51 2.3 Circuit Simulation ...... 55 2.4 Functional-logic Simulation of Digital Devices ...... 61 Chapter 3 Automated Designing of Power Electronic Devices and Components ...... 62 3.1 Designing Devices of Power Electronics ...... 62 3.2 Modeling example of rectifier designing ...... 65 3.3 Methods of formation of static models elements of power electronics 68 Chapter 4 Designing of Low-Current Electronic Devices...... 73 4.1 Methods and Algorithms of Designing ...... 73 4.2 Automated Synthesis of Control Systems ...... 77 4.3 Procedures of Minimization at the Design of Electronic Devices ...... 79 4.5 Reliability Control of the Developed Electronic Device ...... 81 Chapter 5 Constructive-Technological Designing ...... 83 5.1 Constructive-technological designing ...... 83 5.2 The Design Analysis of Electromagnetic Compatibility of Electronic Devices ...... 84 Chapter 6 Design of DC-DC Buck Converter ...... 86 6.1 Technical project ...... 86 6.2 Analysis of the technical project ...... 86 3

6.3 Calculation of DC-DC converter ...... 90 6.4 Designing and calculation of circuit components ...... 91 6.4.1 Calculation of smoothing inductor ...... 91 6.4.2 Calculation of power transistors ...... 93 6.4.3 Calculation of electrolytic capacitors for smoothing filter circuits ... 96 6.4.4 Calculation of diode blocks ...... 98 6.4.5 Calculation of circuit parameters ...... 99 6.4.6 Calculation of load parameters ...... 100 6.4.7 Calculation of control circuit parameters ...... 100 6.4.8 Calculation of converter‟s efficiency and weight ...... 101 6.5 Simulation ...... 102 6.5.1 Simulation circuit and conditions ...... 102 6.5.2 Current and voltage waveforms ...... 103 6.5.3 Testing protocol ...... 108 Conclusion ...... 111 Bibliography ...... 112 Appendix A ...... 114 Appendix B ...... 116

Introduction. CAD around Us

This chapter focuses on the basic notions, history, types, technology and applications of computer-aided design systems. It is general information about CADs.

What is CAD?

Computer-aided design (CAD) is the use of computer systems to assist in the creation, modification, analysis, or optimization of a design. CAD software is used to increase the productivity of the designer, improve the quality of design, improve communications through documentation, and to create a database for manufacturing. CAD output is often in the form of electronic files for print, machining, or other manufacturing operations. Computer-aided design is used in many fields. Its use in electronic design is known as Electronic Design Automation, or EDA. In mechanical design is known as Mechanical Design Automation, or MDA, it is also known as computer-aided drafting which describes the process of creating a technical drawing with the use of computer software. CAD software for mechanical design uses either vector based graphics to depict the objects of traditional drafting, or may also produce raster graphics showing the overall appearance of designed objects. However, it involves more than just shapes. As in the manual drafting of technical and engineering drawings, the output of CAD must convey information, such as materials, processes, dimensions, and tolerances, according to application- specific conventions. CAD may be used to design curves and figures in two-dimensional (2D) space; or curves, surfaces, and solids in three-dimensional (3D) space. CAD is an important industrial art extensively used in many applications, including automotive, shipbuilding, and aerospace industries, industrial and architectural design, prosthetics, and many more. CAD is also widely used to produce computer animation for special effects in movies, advertising and technical manuals, often called DCC Digital content creation. The modern ubiquity and power of computers means that even perfume bottles and shampoo dispensers are designed using techniques unheard of by engineers of the 1960s. Because of its enormous economic importance, CAD has been a major driving force for research in computational geometry, computer graphics (both hardware and software), and discrete differential geometry. 5

The design of geometric models for object shapes, in particular, is occasionally called computer-aided geometric design (CAGD). While the goal of automated CAD systems is to increase efficiency, they are not necessarily the best way to allow newcomers to understand the geometrical principles of Solid Modeling. For this, scripting languages such as PLaSM (Programming Language of Solid Modeling) are more suitable.

Overview

Beginning in the 1980s computer-aided design programs reduced the need of draftsmen significantly, especially in small to mid-sized companies. Their affordability and ability to run on personal computers also allowed engineers to do their own drafting and analytic work, eliminating the need for entire departments. In today's world, many students in universities do not learn manual drafting techniques because they are not required to do so. The days of hand drawing for final drawings are virtually over. Universities no longer require the use of protractors and compasses to create drawings, instead there are several classes that focus on the use of CAD software. Current computer-aided design software packages range from 2D vector-based drafting systems to 3D solid and surface modelers. Modern CAD packages can also frequently allow rotations in three dimensions, allowing viewing of a designed object from any desired angle, even from the inside looking out. Some CAD software is capable of dynamic mathematical modeling, in which case it may be marketed as CADD. CAD is used in the design of tools and machinery and in the drafting and design of all types of buildings, from small residential types (houses) to the largest commercial and industrial structures (hospitals and factories). CAD is mainly used for detailed engineering of 3D models and/or 2D drawings of physical components, but it is also used throughout the engineering process from conceptual design and layout of products, through strength and dynamic analysis of assemblies to definition of manufacturing methods of components. It can also be used to design objects. Furthermore many CAD applications now offer advanced rendering and animation capabilities so engineers can better visualize their product designs. 4D BIM is a type of virtual construction engineering simulation incorporating time or schedule related information for project management. CAD has become an especially important technology within the scope of computer-aided technologies, with benefits such as lower product development costs and a greatly shortened design cycle. CAD enables

6 designers to layout and develop work on screen, print it out and save it for future editing, saving time on their drawings.

History

Designers have long used computers for their calculations. Digital computers were used in power system analysis or optimization as early as proto-“Whirlwind” in 1949. Circuit design theory, or power network methodology would be algebraic, symbolic, and often Vector based. Examples of problems being solved in the mid-1940s to 50s include, Servo motors controlled by generated pulse (1949), The digital computer with built- in compute operations automatic co-ordinate transform to compute radar related vectors (1951) and the essentially graphic mathematical process of forming a shape with a digital machine tool (1952) were accomplished with the use of computer software. The man credited with coining the term CAD. Douglas T. Ross stated “As soon as I saw the interactive display equipment, [being used by radar operators 1953] I said “Gee, that's just what we need””. The designers of these very early computers built utility programs so that programmers could debug programs using flow charts on a display scope with logical switches that could be opened and closed during the debugging session. They found that they could create electronic symbols and geometric figures to be used to create simple circuit diagrams and flow charts. They made the pleasant discovery that an object once drawn could be reproduced at will, its orientation, Linkage [flux, mechanical, lexical scoping] or scale changed. This suggested numerous possibilities to them. It took ten years of interdisciplinary development work before SKETCHPAD sitting on evolving math libraries emerged from MIT`s labs. Additional developments were carried out in the 1960s within the aircraft, automotive, industrial control and electronics industries in the area of 3D surface construction, NC programming and design analysis, most of it independent of one another and often not publicly published until much later. Some of the mathematical description work on curves was developed in the early 1940s by Robert Issac Newton from Pawtucket, Rhode Island. Robert A. Heinlein in his 1957 novel The Door into Summer suggested the possibility of a robotic Drafting Dan. However, probably the most important work on polynomial curves and sculptured surface was done by Pierre Bézier (Renault), Paul de Casteljau (Citroen), Steven Anson Coons (MIT, Ford), James Ferguson (Boeing), Carl de Boor (GM), Birkhoff (GM) and Garibedian (GM) in the 1960s and W. Gordon (GM) and R. Riesenfeld in the 1970s.

It is argued that a turning point was the development of the SKETCHPAD system at MIT by Ivan Sutherland (who later created a graphics technology company with Dr. David Evans). The distinctive feature of SKETCHPAD was that it allowed the designer to interact with his computer graphically: the design can be fed into the computer by drawing on a CRT monitor with a light pen. Effectively, it was a prototype of graphical user interface, an indispensable feature of modern CAD. Sutherland presented his paper Sketchpad: A Man-Machine Graphical Communication System in 1963 at a Joint Computer Conference having worked on it as his PhD thesis paper for a few years. Quoting, “For drawings where motion of the drawing, or analysis of a drawn problem is of value to the user, Sketchpad excels. For highly repetitive drawings or drawings where accuracy is required, Sketchpad is sufficiently faster than conventional techniques to be worthwhile. For drawings which merely communicate with shops, it is probably better to use conventional paper and pencil.” Over time efforts would be directed toward the goal of having the designers drawings communicate not just with shops but with the shop tool itself. This goal would be a long time arriving. The first commercial applications of CAD were in large companies in the automotive and aerospace industries, as well as in electronics. Only large corporations could afford the computers capable of performing the calculations. Notable company projects were at GM (Dr. Patrick J.Hanratty) with DAC-1 (Design Augmented by Computer) 1964; Lockheed projects; Bell GRAPHIC 1 and at Renault (Bézier) – UNISURF 1971 car body design and tooling. One of the most influential events in the development of CAD was the founding of MCS (Manufacturing and Consulting Services Inc.) in 1971 by Dr. P. J. Hanratty, who wrote the system ADAM (Automated Drafting And Machining) but more importantly supplied code to companies such as McDonnell Douglas (Unigraphics), Computervision (CADDS), Calma, Gerber, Autotrol and Control Data. As computers became more affordable, the application areas have gradually expanded. The development of CAD software for personal desktop computers was the impetus for almost universal application in all areas of construction. Other key points in the 1960s and 1970s would be the foundation of CAD systems United Computing, Intergraph, IBM, Intergraph IGDS in 1974 (which led to Bentley Systems MicroStation in 1984) CAD implementations have evolved dramatically since then. Initially, with 3D in the 1970s, it was typically limited to producing drawings similar 8 to hand-drafted drawings. Advances in programming and computer hardware, notably solid modeling in the 1980s, have allowed more versatile applications of computers in design activities. Key products for 1981 were the solid modelling packages - Romulus (ShapeData) and Uni-Solid (Unigraphics) based on PADL-2 and the release of the surface modeler CATIA (Dassault Systemes). Autodesk was founded 1982 by John Walker, which led to the 2D system AutoCAD. The next milestone was the release of Pro/ENGINEER in 1988, which heralded greater usage of feature-based modeling methods and parametric linking of the parameters of features. Also of importance to the development of CAD was the development of the B-rep solid modeling kernels (engines for manipulating geometrically and topologically consistent 3D objects) Parasolid (ShapeData) and ACIS (Spatial Technology Inc.) at the end of the 1980s and beginning of the 1990s, both inspired by the work of Ian Braid. This led to the release of mid-range packages such as SolidWorks in 1995, Solid Edge (then Intergraph) in 1996 and Autodesk Inventor in 1999.

Uses

Computer-aided design is one of the many tools used by engineers and designers and is used in many ways depending on the profession of the user and the type of software in question. CAD is one part of the whole Digital Product Development (DPD) activity within the Product Lifecycle Management (PLM) processes, and as such is used together with other tools, which are either integrated modules or stand-alone products, such as:  Continuous acquisition and life cycle support (CALS) – continuous information support of life cycle of a product  Electronic design automation (EDA) the automated designing of electronic devices  Computer-aided engineering (CAE) and Finite element analysis (FEA)  Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) including instructions to Computer Numerical Control (CNC) machines  Photorealistic rendering  Document management and revision control using Product Data Management (PDM)  Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) resource management of the enterprise.

CAD is also used for the accurate creation of photo simulations that are often required in the preparation of Environmental Impact Reports, in which computer-aided designs of intended buildings are superimposed into photographs of existing environments to represent what that locale will be like were the proposed facilities allowed to be built. Potential blockage of view corridors and shadow studies are also frequently analyzed through the use of CAD. CAD has been proven to be useful to engineers as well. Using four properties which are history, features, parameterization, and high level constraints. The construction history can be used to look back into the model's personal features and work on the single area rather than the whole model. Parameters and constraints can be used to determine the size, shape, and other properties of the different modeling elements. The features in the CAD system can be used for the variety of tools for measurement such as tensile strength, yield strength, electrical or electro-magnetic properties. Also it‟s stress, strain, timing or how the element gets affected in certain temperatures, etc.

Types

There are several different types of CAD, each requiring the operator to think differently about how to use them and design their virtual components in a different manner for each. There are many producers of the lower-end 2D systems, including a number of free and open source programs. These provide an approach to the drawing process without all the fuss over scale and placement on the drawing sheet that accompanied hand drafting, since these can be adjusted as required during the creation of the final draft. 3D wireframe is basically an extension of 2D drafting (not often used today). Each line has to be manually inserted into the drawing. The final product has no mass properties associated with it and cannot have features directly added to it, such as holes. The operator approaches these in a similar fashion to the 2D systems, although many 3D systems allow using the wireframe model to make the final engineering drawing views. 3D "dumb" solids are created in a way analogous to manipulations of real world objects (not often used today). Basic three-dimensional geometric forms (prisms, cylinders, spheres, and so on) have solid volumes added or subtracted from them, as if assembling or cutting real-world objects. Two- dimensional projected views can easily be generated from the models. Basic

3D solids don't usually include tools to easily allow motion of components, set limits to their motion, or identify interference between components. 3D parametric solid modeling requires the operator to use what is referred to as “design intent”. The objects and features created are adjustable. Any future modifications will be simple, difficult, or nearly impossible, depending on how the original part was created. One must think of this as being a “perfect world” representation of the component. If a feature was intended to be located from the center of the part, the operator needs to locate it from the center of the model, not, perhaps, from a more convenient edge or an arbitrary point, as he could when using “dumb” solids. Parametric solids require the operator to consider the consequences of his actions carefully. Some software packages provide the ability to edit parametric and non- parametric geometry without the need to understand or undo the design intent history of the geometry by use of direct modeling functionality. This ability may also include the additional ability to infer the correct relationships between selected geometry (e.g., tangency, concentricity) which makes the editing process less time and labor intensive while still freeing the engineer from the burden of understanding the models. These kinds of non-history based systems are called Explicit Modellers or Direct CAD Modelers. Top end systems offer the capabilities to incorporate more organic, aesthetics and ergonomic features into designs. Freeform surface modeling is often combined with solids to allow the designer to create products that fit the human form and visual requirements as well as they interface with the machine.

Technology

Originally software for Computer-Aided Design systems was developed with computer languages such as Fortran, ALGOL but with the advancement of object-oriented programming methods this has radically changed. Typical modern parametric feature based modeler and freeform surface systems are built around a number of key C modules with their own APIs. A CAD system can be seen as built up from the interaction of a graphical user interface (GUI) with NURBS geometry and/or boundary representation (B-rep) data via a geometric modeling kernel. A geometry constraint engine may also be employed to manage the associative relationships between geometry, such as wireframe geometry in a sketch or components in an assembly. Unexpected capabilities of these associative relationships have led to a new form of prototyping called digital prototyping. In contrast to physical prototypes, which entail manufacturing time in the design. That said, CAD 11 models can be generated by a computer after the physical prototype has been scanned using an industrial CT scanning machine. Depending on the nature of the business, digital or physical prototypes can be initially chosen according to specific needs. Today, CAD systems exist for all the major platforms (Windows, Linux, UNIX and Mac OS X); some packages even support multiple platforms. Right now, no special hardware is required for most CAD software. However, some CAD systems can do graphically and computationally intensive tasks, so a modern graphics card, high speed (and possibly multiple) CPUs and large amounts of RAM may be recommended. The human-machine interface is generally via a computer mouse but can also be via a pen and digitizing graphics tablet. Manipulation of the view of the model on the screen is also sometimes done with the use of a Spacemouse/SpaceBall. Some systems also support stereoscopic glasses for viewing the 3D model. Technologies which in the past were limited to larger installations or specialist applications have become available to a wide group of users. These include the CAVE or HMD`s and interactive devices like motion-sensing technology.

Electronic Design Automation

Electronic design automation (EDA or ECAD) is a category of software tools for designing electronic systems such as printed circuit boards and integrated circuits. Electronic circuit simulation uses mathematical models to replicate the behavior of an actual electronic device or circuit. Simulation software allows for modeling of circuit operation and is an invaluable analysis tool. Due to its highly accurate modeling capability, many Colleges and Universities use this type of software for the teaching of electronics technician and electronics engineering programs. Electronics simulation software engages the user by integrating them into the learning experience. These kinds of interactions actively engage learners to analyze, synthesize, organize, and evaluate content and result in learners constructing their own knowledge. Simulating a circuit‟s behavior before actually building it can greatly improve design efficiency by making faulty designs known as such, and providing insight into the behavior of electronics circuit designs. In particular, for integrated circuits, the tooling (photomasks) is expensive, breadboards are impractical, and probing the behavior of internal signals is extremely difficult. Therefore almost all IC design relies heavily on

12 simulation. Probably the best known digital simulators are those based on Verilog and VHDL. The most well-known analog simulator is SPICE. SPICE (Simulation Program with Integrated Circuit Emphasis) is a general-purpose, open source analog electronic circuit simulator. It is a powerful program that is used in integrated circuit and board-level design to check the integrity of circuit designs and to predict circuit behavior. Circuit simulation programs, of which SPICE and derivatives are the most prominent, take a text netlist describing the circuit elements (transistors, resistors, capacitors, etc.) and their connections, and translate this description into equations to be solved. The general equations produced are nonlinear differential algebraic equations which are solved using implicit integration methods, Newton's method and sparse matrix techniques. SPICE was developed at the Electronics Research Laboratory of the University of California, Berkeley. SPICE1 was first presented at a conference in 1973. SPICE1 was coded in FORTRAN and used nodal analysis to construct the circuit equations. SPICE1 had relatively few circuit elements available and used a fixed-timestep transient analysis. The real popularity of SPICE started with SPICE2 in 1975. SPICE2, also coded in FORTRAN, was a much-improved program with more circuit elements, variable timestep transient analysis using either the trapezoidal (second order Adams-Moulton method) or the Gear integration method, equation formulation via modified nodal analysis. SPICE became popular because it contained the analyses and models needed to design integrated circuits of the time, and was robust enough and fast enough to be practical to use. As an early open source program, SPICE was widely distributed and used. Its ubiquity became such that “to SPICE a circuit” remains synonymous with circuit simulation. SPICE inspired and served as a basis for many other circuit simulation programs, in academia, in industry, and in commercial products. The first commercial version of SPICE was ISPICE, an interactive version on a timeshare service, National CSS. The most prominent commercial versions of SPICE include HSPICE (originally commercialized by Shawn and Kim Hailey of Meta Software, but now owned by Synopsys) and PSPICE (now owned by Cadence Design Systems). The academic spinoffs of SPICE include XSPICE, developed at Georgia Tech, which added mixed analog/digital “code models” for behavioral simulation, and Cider (previously CODECS, from UC Berkeley/Oregon State Univ.) which added semiconductor device simulation. The integrated circuit industry adopted SPICE quickly, and until commercial versions became well developed many IC design houses had proprietary versions of SPICE. Today a few IC 13 manufacturers, typically the larger companies, have groups continuing to develop SPICE-based circuit simulation programs. Among these are ADICE at Analog Devices, LTspice at Linear Technology (available to the public as freeware), Mica at Freescale Semiconductor, and TINA at Texas Instruments. The birth of SPICE was named an IEEE Milestone in 2011; the entry mentions that SPICE “evolved to become the worldwide standard integrated circuit simulator”.

Some electronics simulators integrate a schematic editor, a simulation engine, and on-screen waveforms, and make “what-if” scenarios easy and instant. They also typically contain extensive model and device libraries. These models typically include IC specific transistor models such as BSIM, generic components such as resistors, capacitors, inductors and transformers, user defined models (such as controlled current and voltage sources, or models in Verilog-A or VHDL-AMS). Printed circuit board (PCB) design requires specific models as well, such as transmission lines for the traces and IBIS models for driving and receiving electronics. While there are strictly analog electronics circuit simulators, popular simulators often include both analog and event-driven digital simulation capabilities, and are known as mixed-mode simulators. This means that any simulation may contain components that are analog, event driven (digital or sampled-data), or a combination of both. An entire mixed signal analysis can be driven from one integrated schematic. All the digital models in mixed- mode simulators provide accurate specification of propagation time and rise/fall time delays. The event driven algorithm provided by mixed-mode simulators is general purpose and supports non-digital types of data. For example, elements can use real or integer values to simulate DSP functions or sampled data filters. Because the event driven algorithm is faster than the standard SPICE matrix solution, simulation time is greatly reduced for circuits that use event driven models in place of analog models. Mixed-mode simulation is handled on three levels: (a) with primitive digital elements that use timing models and the built-in 12 or 16 state digital logic simulator, (b) with subcircuit models that use the actual transistor topology of the integrated circuit, and finally, (c) with In-line Boolean logic expressions. Exact representations are used mainly in the analysis of transmission line and signal integrity problems where a close inspection of an IC‟s I/O characteristics is needed. Boolean logic expressions are delay-less functions that are used to provide efficient logic signal processing in an analog 14 environment. These two modeling techniques use SPICE to solve a problem while the third method, digital primitives, use mixed mode capability. Each of these methods has its merits and target applications. In fact, many simulations (particularly those which use A/D technology) call for the combination of all three approaches. No one approach alone is sufficient. Another type of simulation used mainly for power electronics represent piecewise linear algorithms. These algorithms use an analog (linear) simulation until a power electronic switch changes its state. At this time a new analog model is calculated to be used for the next simulation period. This methodology both enhances simulation speed and stability significantly.

Modern EDA Software

Some types of modern electronic design automation software are described below.

Advanced Design System (ADS) is an electronic design automation software system produced by Keysight EEsof EDA, a division of Keysight Technologies. It provides an integrated design environment to designers of RF electronic products such as mobile phones, pagers, wireless networks, satellite communications, radar systems, and high-speed data links.

Figure 0.1. Advanced Design System window 15

Keysight ADS supports every step of the design process – schematic capture, layout, design rule checking, frequency-domain and time-domain circuit simulation, and electromagnetic field simulation – allowing the engineer to fully characterize and optimize an RF design without changing tools. Keysight EDA has donated copies of the ADS software to the electrical engineering departments at many universities, and a large percentage of new graduates are experienced in its use. As a result, the system has found wide acceptance in industry.

Altium Designer is an electronic design automation software package for printed circuit board, FPGA and embedded software design. It is developed and marketed by Altium Limited of Australia. Altium Designer version 6.8 from 2007 was the first to offer 3D visualization and clearance checking of PCBs directly within the PCB editor.

Figure 0.2. Altium Designer window

Altium Designer is productivity focused electronics design software for professionals, incorporating unified stress-free schematic and Printed Circuit Board CAD functions with design verification, validation and formal release 16 and reuse capabilities. Altium Designer is used by PCB designers and engineers to create new electronic gadgets for entertainment, industry, defence, and the well-being of people and society. Altium Designer is powerful and flexible, making it much easier to do highly constrained PCB designs faster. By keeping the schematic and PCB in sync, all design domains share a common interface increasing usability and reducing effort. Collaboration beyond PCB layout is essential in today‟s engineering teams: Native 3D, importers, formal validation and PCB release process will give you big efficiency gains.

AutoTRAX DEX is a MS-Windows XP/MS-Windows Vista 7/8 schematic design and PCB layout program with built-in Spice simulator and 3D part and board visualization. It is not to be confused with the simple PCB CAD package originally developed by Protel (now Altium) in the 1980s and 1990s and which is still available as a free download from Altium's website at www.altium.com.

Figure 0.3. AutoTRAX DEX window

Unlike other EDA program, AutoTRAX DEX integrated all of the schematic and PCB design into a single XML project file. It uses parametric parts which define the parts schematic symbols, PCB footprint and 3D package models using numeric parameters. This allow a simple parametric model to be quickly changed to represent an of a family of similar parts, e.g. DIP and BGAs. AutoTRAX Design Express (DEX) has now replaced AutoTRAX EDA. It is based on Microsoft .NET 4 and has both a Microsoft Office 2007 and 2010 interface as well as a classic Dropdown menu with toolbars. Unlike the Protel version, AutoTRAX DEX uses the Microsoft Windows platform and runs on Windows XP, Windows Vista and Windows 7. The file format is open and viewable with any text editor as it is XML based, and the XML schema is fully documented.

CircuitLogix is a software electronic circuit simulator which uses PSpice to simulate thousands of electronic devices, models, and circuits. CircuitLogix supports analog, digital, and mixed-signal circuits, and its SPICE simulation gives accurate real-world results. The graphic user interface allows students to quickly and easily draw, modify and combine analog and digital circuit diagrams.

Figure 0.4. CircuitLogix window

CircuitLogix was first launched in 2005, and its popularity has grown quickly since that time. In 2012, it reached the milestone of 250,000 licensed users, and became the first electronics simulation product to have a global installed base of a quarter-million customers in over 100 countries. CircuitLogix was developed by Dr. Colin Simpson, an electronics professor at George Brown College, in Toronto, Canada, and John (Bud) Skinner, a computer programmer. The electronics program has won awards including the Award of Excellence from the Association of Canadian Community Colleges (ACCC). CircuitLogix is used exclusively as the electronic circuit simulation tool for the George Brown College Electronics Technician distance education program, which is the largest Electronics technician program in the world with over 4,000 students in 37 countries. The professional version of CircuitLogix (CircuitLogix Pro) includes over 10,000 device models, as well as 8 virtual instruments. It also includes 3DLab, which is a software product that combines an interactive 3- dimensional learning environment and electronic devices and tools to enhance the user's comprehension of electronics. 3DLab virtual components include batteries, switches, motors, lamps, resistors, inductors, capacitors and instruments including oscilloscopes, Signal generators, and frequency counters.

DipTrace is EDA software for creating schematic diagrams and printed circuit boards. The first version of DipTrace was released in August, 2004. The latest version as of July 21, 2014 is DipTrace version 2.4.0.2. The interface and tutorials are multi-lingual (currently English, Czech, Russian and Turkish). DipTrace includes modules: Schematic Design Editor; PCB Layout Editor; Component Editor; Pattern Editor; Shape-Based Autorouter; 3D PCB Preview, using Wings 3D format. A version of DipTrace is freely available with all the functionality of the full package except that it is limited to 300 pins and non-commercial use or 500 pins (non-commercial use, for a moderate charge) and 2 signal layers. Power and ground plane layers do not count as signal layers, so the free versions can create 4-layer boards with full power and ground planes.

Figure 0.5. DipTrace window

SmartSpice is a commercial version of SPICE developed by Silvaco. SmartSpice is used to design complex analog circuits, analyze critical nets, characterize cell libraries, and verify analog mixed-signal designs. SmartSpice is compatible with popular analog design flows and foundry- supplied device models. It supports a reduced design space simulation environment, and is a popular choice in the electronics industry for such applications as Dynamic Timing Analysis. Key features:  HSPICE-compatible netlists, models, analysis features, and results;  can handle up to 400,000 active devices in 32-bit and 8 million active devices in 64-bit version;  supports multiple threads for parallel operation;  multiple solvers and stepping algorithms;  collection of calibrated SPICE models for traditional technologies (bipolar, CMOS) and emerging technologies (e.g., TFT, FRAM);

Figure 0.6. SmartSpice window

 provides an open model development environment and analog behavioral capability with Verilog-A option;  supports the Cadence analog flow through OASIS;  offers a transient non-Monte Carlo method to simulate the transient noise in nonlinear dynamic circuits.

Micro-Cap is a SPICE compatible analog/digital circuit simulator with an integrated schematic editor that provides an interactive sketch and simulate environment for electronics engineers. It is developed by Spectrum Software and is currently at version 11. The eleventh generation blends a modern, intuitive interface with robust numerical algorithms to produce unparalleled levels of simulation power and ease of use.

Figure 0.7. Micro-Cap window

The name Micro-Cap was derived from the term Microcomputer Circuit Analysis Program. The forerunners to the Micro-Cap simulator were the Logic Designer and Simulator. Released in June 1980, this product was the first integrated circuit editor and logic simulation system available for personal computers. Its primary goal was to provide a “circuit creation and simulation” environment for digital simulation.

NI Multisim (formerly MultiSIM) is an electronic schematic capture and simulation program which is part of a suite of circuit design programs, along with NI Ultiboard. Multisim is one of the few circuit design programs to employ the original Berkeley SPICE based software simulation. Multisim was originally created by a company named Electronics Workbench, which is now a division of National Instruments. Multisim includes microcontroller simulation (formerly known as MultiMCU), as well as integrated import and export features to the Printed Circuit Board layout software in the suite, NI Ultiboard. 22

Figure 0.8. Multisim window

Multisim is widely used in academia and industry for circuit education, electronic schematic design and SPICE simulation. Multisim is an industry-standard, best-in-class SPICE simulation environment. It is the cornerstone of the NI circuits teaching solution to build expertise through practical application in designing, prototyping, and testing electrical circuits. Using the intuitive graphical environment of Multisim, students can quickly place electronic components and simulate behavior to understand fundamental concepts. The component library includes resistors, capacitors, inductors, power sources, switches, bipolar junction transistors, and field effect transistors while the environment comprises oscilloscope instruments, probes, and SPICE analyses to truly build analog electronics expertise. Complete integration with the NI myDAQ and NI Educational Laboratory Virtual Instrumentation Suite (NI ELVIS) platforms help students learn through hands-on exploration.

OrCAD is a proprietary software tool suite used primarily for electronic design automation. The software is used mainly by electronic design engineers and electronic technicians to create electronic schematics and electronic prints for manufacturing printed circuit boards. The name OrCAD is a portmanteau, reflecting the company and its software's origins: Oregon+CAD.

Figure 0.8. Multisim window

Founded in 1985 by John Durbetaki, Ken and Keith Seymour as “OrCAD Systems Corporation” in Hillsboro, Oregon, the company became a supplier of desktop electronic design automation software. Since 1999, OrCAD's product line has been fully owned by Cadence Design Systems. OrCAD Layout has been discontinued. The latest iteration of OrCAD CIS schematic capture software has the ability to maintain a database of available integrated circuits. This database may be updated by the user by downloading packages from component manufacturers, such as Analog Devices and others. Another announcement was that ST Microelectronics will offer

OrCAD PSpice models for all the power and logic semiconductors, since PSpice is the most used circuit simulator. Intel offers reference PCBs designed with Cadence PCB Tools in the OrCAD Capture format for embedded and personal computers.

Oregano is a graphical software application for schematic capture and simulation of electrical circuits. The actual simulation is performed by the ngspice or Gnucap engines. It makes use of GNOME technology and is meant to run on open source Unix environments like Linux or FreeBSD. Oregano was first developed by Richard Hult, who worked on it until 2002. Most of the design ideas and a lot of the current code are still his. He released various versions, up to version 0.23. All of them were based on the Spice engine, and supported only the old GNOME libraries.

Figure 0.9. Oregano window

TopSpice is a true analog/digital/behavioral mixed-mode circuit simulator for the PC. It offers the most advanced SPICE simulator in its price range, compatibility, and an easy to use integrated design environment from schematic capture to graphical waveform analysis. With TopSpice you have the choice to design from schematic drawings, text netlist (SPICE) files or both. All design and simulation functions are available from either the schematic or netlist editor front-ends.

Figure 0.10. TopSpice window

TopSpice includes a native full-featured mixed-mode mixed-signal circuit simulator capable of simulating circuits containing any arbitrary combination of analog devices, digital functions and high-level behavioral blocks. With TopSpice you can verify and optimize your design from the system to the transistor level. By using the built-in logic simulator to simulate the digital sections of your circuit instead of analog equivalents, mixed-mode simulation times can be reduced by orders of magnitude. TopSpice offers industry standard PSpice and HSPICE compatible simulation. TopSpice works with most PSpice netlists, manufacturer SPICE 26 model libraries and IC foundry HSPICE libraries.

Quite Universal Circuit Simulator (Qucs) is an open source electronics circuit simulator software released under GPL. It gives you the ability to set up a circuit with a graphical user interface and simulate the large-signal, small-signal and noise behaviour of the circuit. Pure digital simulations are also supported using VHDL and/or Verilog.

Figure 0.11. Quite Universal Circuit Simulator window

Qucs supports a growing list of analog and digital components as well as SPICE sub-circuits. It is intended to be much simpler to use and handle than other circuit simulators like gEDA or PSPICE. The following categories of components are provided: lumped components (R, L, C, amplifier, phase shifter, etc.); sources; probes; transmission lines; nonlinear components (diodes, transistors, etc.); digital components; file containers (S-parameter datasets, SPICE netlists); paintings. There is also a Component library that includes various standard components available in the market (bridges, diodes, varistors, LEDs, JFETs, MOSFETS, and so on).

Chapter 1 General Information on Design

1.1 Definition of Design

Design is a process of drawing up of the description that is necessary for creation of non-existing object in the specified conditions. On the basis of the initial description of the object and (or) algorithm of its functioning in the designing process, there is a transformation (in some cases numerous) of the initial description, optimization of the set characteristics of the object, elimination of an incorrectness of the initial description and consecutive representation of descriptions (if necessary) in various languages. The result of design is the description of the object that will be used for its manufacture. History of the development of designing methods: I. Traditional designing methods (evolution of domestic industries – gradual adjustment of products); II. A drawing way of designing (this method appeared at the stage of a mechanical production). The basic feature of drawing methods – only one concept of the whole is considered. III. Modern ways of designing. These ways allow considering the set of concepts of the whole due to expansion of decisions space in which the search for new structures is conducted. New methods of designing are formal schemas, allowing dividing a designing problem into parts and specifying connections between them. The volume of the information necessary for decision-making at each level can be provided only on the basis of modern information technologies.

General features of modern designing methods

Designing strategy includes three basic stages: 1. Analysis: gathering a set of alternative decisions and preparation of models for research. 2. Synthesis: simulation and rejection of unnecessary models. 3. Estimation: elimination of internal contradictions and definition of one sample solution that satisfies all criteria. The designing strategy can be linear: when each subsequent action depends on an outcome of previous action, but does not depend on an 28 outcome of the subsequent action. Otherwise the strategy becomes cyclic or ramified. To formalize the process of generation of the variety of model structures the following methods can be used: 1. Brainstorming – method of initiation of collective creativity. Processes of ideas generation and their critical estimation are separated in time. 2. Synectics – active application of analogies. 3. Liquidation of impasses. 4. Morphological cards (usually made up as tables).

Intermediate decisions Key parameters (functions) 1 2 3 4 A X B X C X

The purpose of application of a morphological card is the solution of a design problem. The plan of action: 1. To define basic parameters or functions of the product. 2. To list a wide spectrum of possible solution, i.e. alternative means of realization of each function. 3. To choose solution for each function.

The designing process should cover all stages of product life cycle: 1. The formation of requirements to the system and development of the requirement description. 2. Designing. 3. Manufacturing, test and operational development of pre-production models. 4. Serial production. 5. Operation and target application. 6. Recycling.

The system approach to designing of electronic devices

The system approach to designing of electronic devices includes: 1. The establishment of the projected system borders as a whole, i.e. its allocation from the environment. 29

2. The definition of the purposes of the system, criteria of quality of its functioning and methods of their calculation. 3. Decomposition of the system on components or subsystems. 4. Studying the system in all required aspects. The classical approach is based on the idea that properties of the whole are determined by the properties of its parts. The system approach is also based on that the parts are determined by the whole within that they function. Moreover, the system has properties which are not presented by its parts. There are five principles of the system approach in designing of power electronic devices: 1. The electronic device is considered not in itself, but in aggregate with the power supply on an input and loading on an output. 2. The necessary set of criteria of quality and functioning of the electronic device is determined, and existing techniques of its calculation are examined. 3. Decomposition of the device is made for simplification of its analysis and calculation. For example, any converting device should realize the following functions:  Transformation of the current type (circuit).  Regulation of parameters of the transformed energy (pulse modulation, physical effects in linear and nonlinear circuits).  Matching of voltages levels of the power supply and a load.  Galvanic decoupling.  Electromagnetic compatibility.  Conditioning input and output parameters (filtration).

First two operations are performed by means of semiconductor switches, the following two – with the help of transformers, and the last two – with the help of filters. Two levels of decomposition:  The top level - the system is divided into elementary basic cells.  The bottom level - elementary basic cells are considered as the set of elements. 4. At the analysis of electromagnetic processes in electronic devices the following classes of assumptions are accepted:  All elements of the circuit are ideal; sources provide unlimited power; load is idealized.

 Real parameters of elements of the circuit are taken into account; loading remains idealized.  All elements of the circuit are replaced by real models with real parameters. 5. During designing the account of interrelations between design procedures (the strategy is not always linear) is carried out.

1.2 The description of the automated designing process

The automated designing is determined as the process at which separate transformations of the description of the object, and also representation of the description in various languages, is carried out by interaction of the person with a computer. Up to 90% of all design operations can be performed in automated mode. Other 10% can be considerably intensified due to the automated directory service. The person in such a system is the person that makes decisions. Block-hierarchical approach is a basic in automated design process. It is based on decomposition of a developing system in accordance to systems complexity levels (see Fig. 1.1).

Level of system groups

Level of systems

Level of products (devices)

Level of components (units)

Figure 1.1. Systems complexity levels

The hierarchical approach at each system level includes: 1. Structural-parametric designing during which conceptual structural and constructive problems are determined, as well system (external) connections of the designing object. 31

2. Functional-constructive designing during which key parameters and characteristics for each structural variant are determined. For the further consideration perspective variants are selected. 3. Constructive-technological designing at which several fully detailed solutions are considered and the final variant is selected. The designing process consists of stages, design procedures, design operations.

The basic stages of the designing process

1. Pre-project researches and development of the requirements specification. 2. Development of the prototype project. 3. Development of work project. 4. Manufacturing and preliminary test of a pre-production model. 5. Hand-over test of a pre-production model.

At the stage of the technical project the complex of requirements to the device is determined. At the stage of prototype project electrical circuit of the device is synthesized and the computation of its performance characteristics is carried out. At the stage of the work design the constructive and technological specifications for the device are developed.

Design stages (sequence of design stages is determined by the contract)

1. Development and endorsement of requirements specification. 2. Development and endorsement of electrical circuit. 3. Manufacturing a prototype and carrying out of laboratory tests. 4. Development of reliability program. 5. Development of the test circuit and test equipment. 6. Development of the technical conditions. 7. Development of working drawings. 8. Development of the operational documentation. 9. Development of the technological documentation. 10. Development of adjustment instructions. 11. Development of pre-test program. 12. Manufacture of pre-production models for pre-tests. 13. Carrying out preliminary tests. 14. Release of the pre-tests report and updating of the design documentation. 15. Assignment of the letter of readiness for manufacture to design documentation. 32

16. Manufacturing, acceptance tests and serial production.

One of the main stages of the designing process is a design procedure - formalized set of resulting in design solution. Procedure includes design operations that are invariable for this procedure.

Design procedures of stage 2

 Specification and selection of elements of electrical circuit. It is finalized by the release of the bill of materials.  Specification and selection of electric connections between elements. It is finalized by the model, prototype, drawing.  Description of the electrical circuit in standard forms.

The design solution is the intermediate or final description of the designing object which is necessary and sufficient for consideration and definition of the further direction in designing. Design document is a document prepared under the given form and including some design solution.

1.3 Process Approach in Electronic Design Automation

In electronic design automation the process approach is realized. The process approach is a management strategy. When managers use a process approach, it means that they manage and control the processes that make up their organizations, the interactions between these processes, and the inputs and outputs that tie these processes together. It also means that they manage these process interactions as a system. A process is a set of activities that are interrelated or that interact with one another. Processes use resources to transform inputs into outputs. They are interconnected because the output from one process often becomes the input for another process. The new standard defines an output as the “result of a process” and then goes on to list four general types of outputs: services, software, hardware, and processed materials. However, ISO's very broad definition suggests that there are many more types of outputs. If an output is the result of a process, then many kinds of outputs (results) are possible including not only tangible outputs like products but also intangible ones. So outputs could include not only services, software, hardware, and processed materials, but also decisions, directions, instructions, plans, 33 policies, proposals, solutions, expectations, regulations, requirements, recommendations, complaints, comments, measurements, and reports. Clearly, an output could be almost anything. Since the output of an upstream process often becomes the input for a downstream process, outputs and inputs are really the same thing. When you think about all the processes that could make up a quality management system and then think about all the possible input-output relationships that tie these processes together, you soon realize how big and complex such a system is. Because of this, you may find it difficult to create a single map or diagram of your entire process-based quality management system. There are just too many processes and too many input-output relationships. For this reason, we suggest that you diagram one process at a time using a single flowchart on a single page. This will allow you to specify the most important input-output relationships without getting buried in complexity. The box in the center is the process you want to diagram. That is your focus. Upstream processes provide outputs for the central process and downstream processes receive inputs from them. Arrows represent inputs and outputs and the associated text describes them. These arrows also show that an input-output relationship is sometimes a two-way street. Sometimes inputs go one way and outputs go the other way. About documentation ISO 9001 says that you must maintain the documents that you need in order to support your processes and retain the records that you need in order to show that process plans are actually being followed. Process is a system of actions of an input-output transformation. Processes transform the state of the subject. Each process has the purpose and it is realized by procedures. Procedure is a way in which works are carried out to perform the process, the way of realization of the process. Efficiency of the process – the resources that are used to achieve the purpose.

Management cycle PDCA (Planning - Do - Check - Action).

Control

Input Process Output

Call Resources

Figure 1.2. Process symbolic representation

Requirements to documents: 1. Systematization (references) 2. Functionality (completeness) 3. Adequacy (correspondence to the standard) 4. Identification (by kinds of documents) 5. Addressing (for whom) 6. Simplicity 7. Urgency (the account for changes)

1.4 Structure of CAD systems

CAD-system is an organizational-technical complex, consisting of a large number of interrelated and interacting elements. The process scheme aided design and CAD functional diagram shown in Fig. 1.3 and Fig. 1.4. The basic purposes of CAD: 1. Improvement of quality and technical and economic level of production. 2. Decrease of expenses for its creation and operation. 3. Reduction of terms, decreasing of labor input for designing. 4. Improvement of the quality of design documentation.

These purposes in CAD are realized for the account of: 1. Ordering and perfection of designing processes on the basis of application of mathematical methods, effective mathematical models and means of computer technique. 2. Complex automation of design works and improvement of quality of management by designing process. 3. Uses of multiple choice methods of designing and optimization. 4. Automation of routine designing. 5. Replacements of natural tests by simulation. 35

6. Creations of uniform database (supply with information). 7. Unifications and standardizations of designing methods.

Restrictions

Reception of design solutions Input Design data Variable Design solutions parameters procedures

Estimation of designing results

Designing documentation

Figure 1.3. Chart of automated designing process

Monitor is a design process control system - DesPM (Design Process Manager), which organizes the interaction between all the components of CAD. As a monitor PLM-PDM systems are used. They implement the management of all product information, procedures and processes of its development and technological preparation of production, combining all the basic information about the product lifecycle and organizing an access to data for all users. In an integrated CAD the design process is carried out from entering the initial description of the object up to the issuance of the project with the required documentation. In any automated design system regulates the following parts (types of support): o technical, which includes a variety of hardware (computers, peripherals, communication lines, network switching equipment). On a functional basis, the following groups of technical support:

 devices for data preparation and data entry (keyboard, magnetic media, scanners, digitizers, digital photo cameras and telecameras),  data transmission facilities (repeaters, hubs, switches, modems, multiplexers, NICs),  data processing facilities (computer, processor),  data display and documentation facilities (alphanumeric and graphic displays (monitors, terminals), printers, plotters, magnetic media devices, devices for special purposes (photoplotters),  archive facilities of design solutions - set of tools for storage, monitoring, restoration and reproduction of data; includes all the devices listed above devices.

Soft Soft

Special User I/O Data transform Monitor hardware- software means

Database

Reference and Current project Archive data normative data data

Figure 1.4. Block circuit of a CAD system o mathematical, combining mathematical methods, models and algorithms to perform design; o software, representing by a computer CAD programs, including documents with program texts, programs on storage media and operational documents to them. The software is divided into system software - operating systems, compilers, etc. and application software - application packages intended for design solutions; 37

o information - documents describing the typical elements, components, materials, and other data, as well as files and blocks on storage media with a record of such documents. Components of information support are based on the maximum use of information retrieval systems (IRS) and standard data banks with structuring data on formal grounds, permissions and data protection. To access the data in the database the SQL language (Structured Query Language) is used; o linguistic, speaking in the language of communication between designers and computers, programming languages and data exchange between CAD technical facilities; o methodical, including materials, which set out the theory, methods, mathematical models, algorithms, design techniques, terminology, standards, provides a methodology of designing in CAD, reflected the composition of the selection rules and operation of computer-aided design; o organizational - a set of rules and orders, job descriptions and other documents regulating the organizational structure of business units and their interaction with the complex of computer-aided design, as well as the rights, duties and responsibilities of participants of automated design process. The basic structural units of CAD are the subsystem ensuring the implementation of a complete design procedure to obtain design decisions and documents. Subsystem classified into object-oriented and invariant (management, information processing) subsystem. According the purpose all CAD systems and subsystem can be classified as systems, providing different aspects of design: design CAD systems – CAD-D, often referred to simply as CAD-systems; technological CAD – CAD-T, otherwise known as the automated systems of technological preparation of production systems or CAM (Computer Aided Manufacturing).

1.4 General Description of CAD

CAD includes both problem and object oriented subsystems and base program methodical complexes. Subsystems of CAD for electronic devices: 1. A subsystem of calculation of circuits of electronic devices and components designing. 2. A subsystem of simulation (PSPICE). 38

3. The automated system of reliability maintenance. 4. A subsystem of designing of printed-circuit-boards (PCAD). 5. A subsystem of release of the design documentation. 2. A subsystem of development and release of the technological documentation, including programs for technological automatic devices. The subsystem of reliability maintenance can include: 1. A subsystem of reliability calculation. 2. Information-search system of the choice of elements. 3. A subsystem of thermal calculations. Information connection of subsystems is based on the principle of one- time entering of the information.

Review of professional CADs

CAD of a circuit engineer. Making the circuit diagrams is implemented in a graphics editor Schematic of P-CAD (Fig. 1.5). All the elements are selected from libraries and placed on the drawing and then electrical connections between the terminals of the components are conducted. After creation of the circuit diagram the file .sch contains all graphics and text information necessary for the production of design documentation: Circuit diagram, Engineering BOM, List of products to buy. In addition, a list of networks, including information about the used components and packaging, pin connections, serves as the initial data for the schema package in PCB-editor. With the help of programs EBOM.dot and LIistProd.dot circuit engineer can automatically generate an engineering bill of materials (EBOM) and List of products to buy to the circuit diagram in Microsoft Word.

Enterprise standard Circuit Diagram List of wires Technical task To design Enterprise the circuit standard

PCAD Circuit To design Engineering BOM .SCH the EBOM Components Database Microsoft Engineer Word Engineer Enterprise EBOM.dot standard

To create List of Circuit the List of products .SCH products to buy to buy

An electronic document Microsoft A paper version Engineer SCH Schematic format Word PCB Printed circuit boards format ListProd.dot

Figure 1.5. CAD structure diagram for a circuit engineer

CAD of a design engineer. After receiving the file with schematic diagrams from circuit engineer in P-CAD creates a list of networks, produces packaging of the circuit in graphical editor PCB. Then, a constructive can be developed and graphic design documentation is available: drawing of printed circuit board (PCB) assembly drawing (AD). Specification and technical requirements for the assembly drawing are formed using Specif.dot in Microsoft Word (Fig. 1.6). Calculation of the area of metallization (PCB plating area) is produced in the program for the photomask production CAMtastic. The layout of the unit is carried out in the AutoCAD on the base of prototypes from previous projects either in the system for 3D solid modeling SolidWorks, which uses a library of 3D-models of parts and assembly units. Graphic design documentation for mechanical parts and assemblies (part drawings, assembly, installation-owned, dimensional drawings) is made in the AutoCAD, text documentation (specification, connection list, the table of pins and terminals) is prepared in Microsoft Word.

Figure 1.6. CAD structure diagram for a design engineer

1.5 Decision-making in CAD. Choosing the Criterion of Optimality

The problem of designing is divided into two parts: • problems of synthesis; • problems of analysis. Synthesis is the creation of a system on the requirement description. The problems of synthesis are linked to the creation of design documents and the project itself. The analysis is the determining the system functioning under its description. The task of the analysis is the estimation of design decisions. In CAD for synthesis of devices the multivariate analysis is frequently used. Synthesis can be: • structural; • parametrical.

The synthesis refers to as optimization if the best structures and value of parameters are determined. At designing on basis CAD it is possible to obtain the set of decisions. Allocation of some subset of decisions concerns to the problem of the choice and decision-making. There are two types of problem: 1. The problem of choice – when all set of decisions is unknown. 2. The problem of optimization – when all set of variants and criterion are known. Decision-making process at designing is characterized by presence of the purpose and alternative variants of the projected object, in view of essential factors which refer to as terminators. If at designing it is possible to allocate one parameter as the basic it is accepted then for criterion function (criterion), thus the part of parameters can fall under the category of restrictions. Fx  – simple criterion. The problem of designing on several criteria refers to as multi criterion problem (the task of vector optimization).

Fx   Ф Fin x... F x – is the generalized (integrated) criterion, where Ф – some functional. The basic kinds of integrated criteria:

1. The additive criterion - is formed by addition of the normalized values of simple criteria.

n Fxi   F x   Ci , (1.1) i0 Fx0i   where: Ci – weight factor (determines the degree of importance of the criterion), F0 – a normalizing divider of the criterion (a base parameter). 2. The multiple criterion m Ci F xF   x i  , (1.2) i1

3. The minimax criterion – such combination of x is searched at which all simple criteria become equal among themselves.

Fxi   CKi  . (1.3) Fx0i  

Methods of weight factors determining: 1. The quantity of parameters n are recorded in order of importance, and their meaning is defined by:

ni1 Ci  . (1.4) nn 1

e.g. n  3; C1  0.5; C2  0.32; C3  0.17. 2. All weights can be accepted equal:

1 Ci  . (1.5) n

3. The method of interrogation of experts with the average estimation is used, in which:

n Ci 1. (1.6) i1

Let's consider the example of optimization of independent system of power supply by the criterion of total weight minimum.

Input supply Converter Load source

PL 1000W

 ISS  25kg kW

1. Pconv 200 W ; Мconv 10kg .

2. Pconv 100 W; Мconv 11kg.

W  L – power efficiency. M ISSconv М

МММ ; МР   25kg ISS L Р L L ISS

МРР  conv   ISS

1. М1 25  5  10  40kg

2. М2 25  2.5  11  38.5kg – preferable variant.

At designing the converter of electric energy they use the concept of the resulted weight including own weight of the converter and the attached weight of the initial source.

MTotalММ conv Р

МTotal  min – criterion.

1. МTotal1 5  10  15kg

2. МTotal2 2.5  11  13.5kg – preferable variant.

F12 x  Mconv; F x  Р conv It is possible to show, that at 85% by the criterion of the resulted weight mPi  i  ISS   min it is possible to project not only the converter,

44 but also its separate components. Thus the uncertainty interval does not exceed of 5%.

1.6 Application of Experiments Planning Methods in CAD

Planning of experiments pursues two basic purposes: 1. Reduction of total amount of tests. 2. Increase of information from each experiment. The factorial space is a set of external and internal parameters of the model which are supervised in the experiment. Since the factors can have both quantitative and qualitative character, their value is underlined by levels. Each of factors has the top and bottom levels located symmetrically concerning some zero level. The point of factorial space corresponding to zero levels of all factors refers to as the center of the plan. The number j which addition gives the top level, and subtraction – bottom level refers to as an interval of variation of the factor. Usually the plan of experiment is under construction concerning one target parameter y which refers to as an observable variable. At planning experiment two problems should be solved: 1. Identification of factors. 2. The choice of levels of factors. Identification of factors is factor ranging on the level of importance. There are initial and secondary factors. The initial factors are those the influence of which is examined. Secondary factors are those the influence of which one cannot be ignored. The choice of factors levels: 1. Levels of factors should block all possible range of change of factors. 2. The total number of factor levels should not result in excessive volume of modeling.

Kinds of experiments

1. Full factorial experiment. NL K , where N – number of experiences, L – number of levels (it is identical to all factors), 45

K – number of factors. e.g. If there are three factors on three levels then N  27 . 2. Random plan. Assumes the choice of values of factors in the casual way. Such plans are used for complex multifactorial systems. 3. Latin plan. Here the experiment with one initial factor and several secondary factors is carried out. e.g. A - initial; B, C - secondary ( N 16).

Value В Value of the factor С С1 С2 С3 С4 В1 А1 А2 А3 А4 В2 А2 А3 А4 А1 В3 А3 А4 А1 А2 В4 А4 А1 А2 А3

4. The experiment with change of factors one by one. One of factors "runs" all L levels, and the others are supported by constants. Research of each factor separately is provided.

N l1  l 2  l 3 .

For example, in the previous table: N 12. Between factors there should not be mutual coupling. 5. Fractional factorial experiment (full for two levels). N  2K (283  ). Let's construct a matrix of fractional experiment for three factors ( N  8).

Number of X X X experiment 1 2 3 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 1 3 0 1 0 4 0 1 1 5 1 0 0 6 1 0 1 7 1 1 0 8 1 1 1

6. The orthogonal plan. Its graphic interpretation:

NK2K  2  1. Tops – 8; sides – 6; the center – 1 (level3; N 15).

Example of planning

The power supply. Control Vout. Two factors: Vps, Iload.

Vps Iload Max. (+1) (+1) Nom. (0) (0) Min. (-1) (-1)

1. Full factorial experiment 2 N 39

2. Fractional factorial experiment We exclude one level (nominal) 2 N 24

3. Experiment with change of factors one by one N  6 Vout(Iload), Vout(Vps).

Chapter 2 Simulation of Electronic Devices

2.1 Methods of Electronic Devices Simulation

A model is a rough picture of a real physical system in which only the main details "are drawn". At designing and research of the electronic devices the following kinds of simulation are applied:

MDA AS

ADCS PhM

Electrical Computer modeling simulation

SNM DC NE ММ Experi- ment Theory

MM – mathematical simulation. DC – digital computers. ADCS – analog-digital computing systems. AC – analog computers. MDA – model of direct analogy. PhM – physical models (prototype). SNM – subnatural model. NE – natural experiment.

First four kinds of simulation are computer simulations. The others four kinds are electrical modeling. The mathematical model of a technical object is the set of mathematical objects (numbers, variables, matrixes, etc.) and

48 relations between them (mathematical circuits) which adequately reflect properties of the technical object. There are two terms:  Mathematical modeling – the process of model drawing up.  Simulation – the process of realization of the mathematical description with the help of technical means and process of research on a model. The basic methods of research of mathematical models are: 1. Analytical research. 2. Imitating simulation. Analytical (symbolical) models are those models in which only formulas (symbols) are used for representation of the process. The analytical model gives the decision in the closed kind (formula). Thus analytical simulation is a theoretical research of an object or its characteristics. Imitating model is the description of objects including algorithm forms, thus it is reflected both the structure of the system, and the process of functioning of the structure in time, i.e. the sequence of events. Imitating models are not capable to form the decision in that kind as in analytical model, and can serve only as a tool for the analysis of system, i.e. imitating simulation is not the theory, but methodology of the decision of a problem (the means of virtual experiment).

Example Distortion factor calculation: 1. By an analytical method (with an assumption about ideal fronts of switching)

A frequently-used measure of harmonic levels is total harmonic distortion THD (or distortion factor), which is the ratio of the rms value of the harmonics (above fundamental) to the rms value of the fundamental, times 100%, that is 49

n 2 U D i2 THDF  , (2.1) U1 So, we have

U D 1 4 U  D1  2 8 UU2 22  1 2 8 THD DD1   48% F U 2 8 8 D1 2

2. With an imitating model:

n 2 U D i2 THDF  2 , U1

where n is the limited number of harmonics. During mathematical simulation there is a task of an estimation of conformity of mathematical models used for research to real object. This task is solved by the following methods: 1. Verification – check of conformity of logic of model to logic of object behavior. 2. An estimation of adequacy – check of conformity between model behavior and a real object. The correct organization of work with a model supposes: 1. Formation of a model and delimitation of its applicability. 2. Strategic planning – planning of experiment which should give the full information on the system (the program of tests). 3. Tactical planning – definition of the way of carrying out of each series of tests stipulated by the program (a technique of tests). 4. Simulation – the process of reception of the required data. 5. Interpretation – construction of conclusions on the received data. 6. Documenting – registration of the course of creation of model and realization of the project. 50

2.2 Kinds of simulation on design stages of electronic devices

Design stage Simulation method 1. Design of the block diagram (its Structural – parametrical simulation calculation and designing of on the basis of static models of components) elements. 2. Design of a functional diagram Functional simulation on the basis of functional models. 3. Design of the circuit diagram Simulation on the basis of component dynamic models (circuit simulation).

1. The circuit of connections. 2. The structural (block) circuit. Its units: rectifiers, converters, filters, regulators, stabilizers, etc. 3. A function circuit. Its units (operations): averaging, amplification, shielding, etc. 4. The basic electric circuit. Elements of the circuit: transistors, diodes, condensers, resistors, transformers, etc. 5. The equivalent circuit: impedance, and other parameters of elements.

Functional simulation

This is the research of transformation process of a signal at its promotion from an input to an output of system. The circuit is broken into separate blocks, each of which carries out this or that functional transformation. At functional simulation the assumption about the concordance of input and output parameters of the blocks is done. Solution of the equations of balance is not required. All equations describing electric processes in the circuit are divided into componential and topological equations (the equations of balance). At functional simulation separate blocks of the circuit are often described by transfer functions. It is easy to use methods of decomposition, - when the mathematical model of the complex circuit is split on independent subsystems. There is an example of the necessity of the concordance of circuit elements characteristics.

Divider Amplifier x

R G y-? U1

R 2R R U1 y U1

R 2R R/2

if G

3 XR() RR*3 3 3 RR ; UX 4 ; 3 RR 34 RR 7 4

 3 2R 2 Y 33 U XX() ; UY 1 1 7 7 3R 7 27 2 32 2 YX ; YX 77 3

If RDRAout()() in , YX .

Circuit simulation 52

At circuit simulation the componential dynamic elements are used. The decision of the equations of balance and the componential equations is required. For the analysis of logic and digital devices functional – logic simulation is used (PSpice A/D).

Classification and application of functional models

The functional model is simpler in comparison with model at componential level model of the circuit or its part, reproducing its behavior at the level of input, output and transfer characteristics and taking into account the most important for concrete kinds of calculations of the characteristic and reaction of the circuit to external influence. Three ways of formation of the functional model: 1. Simplifying macromodels. At their formation the reduction of the circuit is used on the basis of exception of insignificant elements.  Use of the idealized models.  Replacement of blocks of the circuit with equivalent sources of current and voltage.  Exception of separate components of the circuit. 2. Formal macromodels (model of a black box). These models are based on approximation of external characteristics of elements of circuit. Circuit elements of such models have no similarity to elements of the system. Model realization:  The differential equations - models of mathematical operations.  Models of «black box». These models are characterized by approximation of characteristics by the built – in functions and formal models on the basis of controlled sources of current and voltage.  Functional models of units of the circuit - logic models. 3. Mixed logic-circuit simulation. The simulation package contains the program combining circuit and functional - logic simulation, i.e. combines two various mathematical bases. Between both parts the information is transferred through translators, converting electric signals into their logic equivalents and visa verse.

Ways of realization of various forms of the model representation 53

Forms of representation of model Way of realization

1. Differential equation, transfer With the help of the built – in models function WP  of solving amplifiers or integrators on the basis of controlled sources of current. 2. Models of «a black box» With the help of the built – in functions or formal circuits. 3. Functions of transformation of a Dependent or independent sources of signal (replacement of a part of the voltage or current. circuit with an equivalent source)

Examples of models

IG It is Volt-Ampere characteristic of the tunnel diode.

1 The model of the tunnel diode: GR 10 TABLE {V (GR) = (0,0)… (U1, I1)…}

0 The Equation System x1  0.5 x 1  x 2 x2 0.25  4 x 1  0.6 x 2 x1 0  0 x2 0  0.4

The model of the equation system

1 2

R1 GX2 GX1 C1 C2

0 1 dUC xU1 C1 UiCC dt  iC  С С dt xU2  C2

GX1 01 POLY (2) (1, 0) (2, 0) 0 -0.5 1 GX2 02 POLY (2) (1, 0) (2, 0) .25 4 -0.6 C1 … 1 C2 … 1 R1 … 1E9 R2 … 1E9 IC V(1)=0, V(2)=0.4

2.3 Circuit Simulation

This is a simulation of electric processes in electronic devices represented as basic electric circuits, i.e. connection of symbols of elements. For increase of accuracy an equivalent circuit is used. At circuit simulation component dynamic models of elements are used. The equations of balance (topological - first and second laws Kirchhoff), and the component equations (the equation of separate elements of the circuit) are required to solve. The purpose of circuit simulation – exact definition of the form and parameters of a signal in all points of the circuit. For this case the typical tasks are solved: 1. Calculation of a mode of a circuit on a direct current (DC) 2. The analysis of sensitivity of characteristics of a circuit to a variation of parameters of elements 3. The analysis of characteristics linearized circuits in frequency area (AC) 4. The transients analysis

5. The spectral analysis of currents and voltage with the help of Fourier transformation 6. The statistical analysis at which casual value of each parameter is calculated under the formula:

xxnom (1   ) , (2.2) where ε – a random variable on a piece from –1 up to +1; Δ – the relative deviation parameter x. 7. The worst case analysis

xxnom  (1) . (2.3)

On the basis of the solving of these tasks it becomes possible:  To check conformity of electric modes of elements to the calculated ones.  To check conformity of modes of elements to the allowable ones in transitive and emergency processes.  To check static accuracy, spectra and quality of characteristics of target signals, stocks of stability of system.  To check sensitivity of the circuit to the parameters change of its elements. Programs of circuit simulation contain: 1. The description of the circuit (text and graphic redactor). 2. Library of models. 3. The task for simulation. 4. Options (management). 5. A virtual digital oscilloscope (Probe).

Models of bipolar transistors and diodes

Key parameters:  BF – forward common-emitter current gain.  BR – reverse common emitter current gain.  RC – ohmic resistance of collector.  RB – ohmic resistance of base.  CJC – capacity of collector junction.  CJE – capacity of emitter junction.  TF – time constant of capacities diffusion of emitter junction. 56

 TR – time constant of capacities diffusion of collector junction. For calculation of resistance of base points of current and voltage are chosen under the input characteristic of the transistor in the circuit with common emitter at Uce 0 10V. Ib

Ube

For calculation of resistance of a collector two points of current and voltage on a linear site of the output characteristic are chosen. For calculation of BR the relation is used:

I BR BF e , (2.4) Ic where I is the initial current. Capacities CJE and CJC are taken from the specifications.

BF TF 2  fc , (2.5) h21 where fc is a cutoff frequency.

t TRtS , (2.6) II S lnbb12 Ibc2  I BF

Parameters of the diode:  RS – ohmic resistance.  TT – a constant of time of renewal of return resistance.  CJO – capacity.  BV – a reverse breakdown voltage.

Model of a field-effect transistor

For model of the field-effect transistor with pn transition the following parameters are determined:  VTO – a cut off voltage.  BETA – a specific steepness.  LAMBDA – factor of modulation.  RD – resistance of a drain.  RS – resistance of a source.  CGD – capacity (gate).  CGS – capacity (source). From the specifications an initial current of a drain ( ISN ) is chosen.

I BETA  SN , (2.7) UZIO2 where UZIO – a voltage gate – a source of cut off.

Model of an inductance

The inductance is represented by the model:

L r0

where r0 – winding resistance, L – inductance, Rs – simulation of core losses. Nonlinearity of inductance is described by polynomial of the second order, as follows 2 L L01  a 1 i 1  a 1 i 2 . (2.8)

Model of a transformer

The transformer is described by model coupling inductance or with the use core model.

r01 2 r02 1 3 4

Rc W1 W2

0 0

Equivalent circuit of a transformer model

* Description of a transformer model Ro1 1 2 0.1 Ro2 3 4 0.1 Rc 2 0 5K L1 2 0 50 L2 3 0 100 K1 L1 L2 0.9999 M2000 model M2000 CORE ( MS=334e3 A=4050 K=166 C=0.05 + AREA=0.064 PATH=2.25 )

Model of a capacitor

The capacitor is represented by a three-component model.

Rc C

Models of controlled sources

E F

H G

E – the voltage source controlled by voltage. F – the current source controlled by current. G – the current source controlled by voltage. H – the voltage source controlled by current.

V1...  a  aV  a V 2  out 0 1 1 2 1 (2.9) 22 Vout 2...  a0  aV 11  aV 22  aV 31  aVV 412  aV 52 

The problem of convergence takes place at the analysis of circuits with different constants of time. In that case it is recommended to increase the quantity of iterations on one step of calculation. It is possible to worsen static accuracy of calculation or to reduce a step of calculation. It is possible a bias point calculation off, thus it is necessary to set initial conditions (IC). It is necessary to exclude from the circuit capacitor contours and inductive stars.

Simulation programs: • MultiSIM (Workbench) • Pspice • Circuit Maker

• Micro-Cap • Matlab-Simulink • SystemViev • Workview Office • Labview

2.4 Functional-logic Simulation of Digital Devices

For development of logic circuits it is used: 1. Typical functional decisions and a direct (intuitive) way of synthesis. 2. The automated synthesis. Process of the automated synthesis consists of stages: 1. Formation of a logic condition of the circuit operating. 2. Minimization of logic function is made. 3. Under the simplified logic formula the basic circuit of the device is constructed. The minimal number and uniformity of logic elements is preferred to. The correctness of the developed circuits is estimated by simulation. Loading ability of elements is checked, transients are investigated, tests for the device check are generated. Two methods of simulation: 1. Synchronous (time delays are not taken into account), ranging the circuit is made. 2. Asynchronous (time delays are taken into account).

Chapter 3 Automated Designing of Power Electronic Devices and Components

3.1 Designing Devices of Power Electronics

Generally the problem of designing of power electronic devices is complicated by rational distribution of weight and power losses within the elements of the circuit. Greatest effect at designing can be achieved if the development is conducted at the system level in view of characteristics of power supply and parameters of the load. It is possible to point out two approaches to designing. Method of complex optimization. Provides formation of functional dependence of a file of key parameters (independent variables of designing X1.... Xn) and a parameter of quality F(x) and definition of values of these parameters providing minimum of a parameter of quality. Mathematically task is formulated as follows. To find a vector X = (x1, x2..., xn), providing the minimal value of the quality function F(X)  F(x1,x2....,xn), at performance of system restrictions

g x1, x 2, ... xn  0, i (3.1) xj12 x j x j , where i=1,2..., m; j=1,2..., n; D-area of allowable values of the vector X. To find an optimum variant the algorithmic methods of the search of extremum of the obtained function are used. A full model of power electronic devices is formed individually for each designed device. Such approach allows determining combination of the parameters X providing extreme value of criterion function, but due to complexity of the task the part of parameters is not taken into account even at the level of restrictions. Therefore such circuit is of little use for practical designing and is usually used only for tentative estimations on the basis of the simplified models (specific characteristics). In CAD the task is solved on the basis of application of methods of decomposition and development of original algorithms and programs of optimum designing of power electronic devices. The solution of the problem of rational distribution of weight and power losses within circuit elements is 62 facilitated if to accept an assumption on independence of any element operation on changing of the ratio between weight and power losses on other elements. Such design method can be defined as method of nodal design on condition mPii    min with the interval of uncertainty (a deviation 21  from optimum value)  . It is obvious, that at  > 0.9 we obtain 3 quite comprehensible value  < 0.7. Such approach is stacked in CAD structure as it is based on decomposition of the task of the device designing into the tasks of components designing using universal programs (models). These programs do not depend on the kind of the circuit and the organization of procedures of the comparative analysis of variants by the set criterion. At such designing the quantity of varied variables is limited, and the direction and borders of their variation are determined by the features of physical processes in the circuit, that essentially simplifies the task. Such approach allows using available design procedures of circuits of electronic devices. These programs are original on each device. At designing of power electronics devices using CAD according to the general strategy of designing it is possible to allocate the following basic stages: 1. Formation of the file of the initial data. 2. Formation of the file of alternative structures. 3. Definition of designing criterion, independent variables and restrictions. 4. Definition of algorithm of variation of independent variables to achieve an extremum of the set criterion. 5. Comparative analysis of structures by results of their designing. Basic data for designing of electronic device are: • load and its range of change; • output voltage or current and parameters of their quality; • perturbation action on a system from the load, power supply and control unit; • operation conditions; • power supply characteristics. Results of designing are: • chosen circuit of the device; • calculation of static values of currents and voltages in the circuit; • chosen elements of the circuit. Generalized algorithm of designing is shown on Fig. 3.1.

Begin

Input of the initial data

Calculation of the circuit; Models of cir- formation of the RD on cuits (calculation designing of components programs)

The "Polus" analysis Designing of components; Static models of results,  components correct calculation М , the data Synthesis of structure and Functional parameters of control models "PSpice" Circuit dynamic The analysis static and models transients moods

End

Fig. 3.1 Block diagram of the algorithm of electronic device designing.

After designing of the circuit the initial values of parameters of circuit elements and their electrical modes are determined. These data are the requirement description of elements choice. After designing of circuit elements the weight and power losses in the device are determined. Then synthesis of the structure and parameters of control unit are determined, and testing of the circuit using modeling should be done. Iterative character of this process is presented on block diagram (see Fig. 3.1) with block “Analysis of results, updating of data and parameters”. During designing for the chosen structure it is necessary to determine the parameters of elements and the variants of their design performance providing achievement of set criterion and correspondence to requirements description. Designing of the components is based on the use of designing programs of basic elements of the circuit (transformers, inductance, condensers, power switches). These programs (models) are invariant to the circuits of power electronics. 64

Synthesis of structure and parameters of the control unit is based on the assumption that it is possible to choose the control unit without change of parameters power unit. At this stage the functional model of the device is used. At the analysis stage the correspondence of the developed circuit to the requirements description, correspondence of elements operating modes to the requirements of specification correspondence of the modeling modes of operation to the calculated ones, the statistical control and boundary tests are checked.

3.2 Modeling example of rectifier designing

This section is devoted to the description of the designing of controlled rectifier for DC-motor. Task description. It is necessary to design the rectifier to maintain the start-up of DC-motor with a current value within rated current of a rotor and to provide its continuous operation with the nominal moment (current) at rated rotary speed with constant magnetic flux. Parameters of the DC- motor: PL 100 kVA , UR. nom  440V , nL 1000turns / min . Allowable current ripple of the rotor is no more than 7 % of IdH . Voltage of exciting winding is Uw  220V . It is required to define parameters of the network transformer, parameters of the rectifier switches in the rotor circuit, parameters of exciting winding, and parameters of the rectifier smoothing inductors. The limiting requirement: power factor of the rectifier in nominal mode of operation should be not lower 0.8. Power supply: a three-phase network 220/380 V (+10 % –15 %) with accessible null. Capacity of short circuit of a network in unit of connection of the converter SSC  5000 kVA, i.e. KSC  50 . Designing of the new rectifier includes two stages: 1. Stage of structural synthesis on which the structure (the basic circuit) of the rectifier is defined; 2. Stage of parametrical synthesis on which parameters of elements of the chosen structure (the basic circuit) of the rectifier are calculated. Results of calculation are checked by mathematical modeling of the designed circuit of the rectifier.

Choice of the rectifier circuit (stage of structural synthesis) Procedure of synthesis of the circuit of the rectifier can be reduced to a choice of the proper circuit from the typical topologies that are known. This procedure can be formalized having created an expert system based on the specific knowledge on power electronics. When it is impossible to choose the suitable circuit of the rectifier from among known, it is required to create a new circuit or update the design assignments of the rectifier. By the results of analysis of basic circuits of rectifiers of single-phase and three-phase voltage the summary table is completed (Table 3.1). In view of multidimensionality of a vector of properties of each circuit, formed in the parameters of columns of the table, the choice of the circuit at designing of new rectifier with required target parameters is ambiguous. Therefore the algorithm of choice of the rectifier circuit based on three

output parameters of the rectifier ( PUIddd00,,) is necessary. The algorithm specifies also the usage of power switches with the maximum value of reverse voltage up to 1000 … 1500 V and the voltage margin of 1.5…2. The algorithm of a choice of the rectifier circuit is represented below (see Fig. 3.2). Table 3.1. Parameters of basic rectifier circuits Rectifier

Circuit U d 0 Id qm2  Kп(1) THDF KUт / 1 KIт / 1

m121, m  2, q  1 With center-tapped 2 0.9 1.11 0.9 0.667 0.24 transformer m m 1, q  2 12 2 0.9 1.11 0.9 0.667 0.24 Bridge rectifier m m 3, q  1 12 3 1.17 1.21 0.79 0.25 0.06 Delta–star m m 3, q  1 12 3 1.17 1.48 0.83 0.25 0.06 Star–zig-zag

m123, m  6, q  1 With smoothing 6 1.17 2.56 0.955 0.057 0.0067 inductor m m 3, q  2 12 6 2.34 1.28 0.955 0.057 0.0067 Larionov's circuit

Table 3.1. (continued) Switches Transformer Circuit * К * * * * Ia f Ка Ub max S2 S1 Sт

mmq121,2,1 With center-tapped 0.5 2 2 3.14 1.57 1.11 1.34 transformer m mq 1,2 12 0.5 2 1.57 1.11 1.11 1.11 Bridge rectifier m mq 3,1 12 0.33 3 3 2.09 1.48 1.21 1.345 Delta–star m m 3, q  1 12 0.33 3 2.09 1.71 1.21 1.46 Star–zig-zag mmq3,6,1 12 1.26 With smoothing 0.166 6 2.09 1.48 1.045 +0,07 inductor m mq 3,2 12 0.33 3 1.045 1.045 1.045 1.045 Larionov's circuit

m – number of phases; q – number of half-cycles; mq – pulse number; THDF – harmonic factor in a DC part of the circuit; ka – amplitude factor of anode current; kf – form factor of anode current;  – power factor of the rectifier; Ub max – maximum reverse voltage across the switches.

According to algorithm it is possible to draw the following conclusions: 1. According to the design assignment the rectifier should be three-phase

Pd 0 100kVA and full-wave (the bridge circuit) as output voltage must be high enough. 2. The rectifier for an excitation winding of the drive is also three-phase, but since the value of the output voltage is rather low the rectifier can be performed in accordance to half-wave circuit as a transformation factors and required output voltage of these circuits differ twice. 3. The variant of power supply for both circuits from one system of secondary windings of the transformer is also possible.

Figure 3.2. Intellectual algorithm of a choice of the circuit of the rectifier

4. Taking into account that Km of the transformer is more than unity, but rather close to it (step-down transformer), the variant of power supply for rectifiers directly from the network is possible (without the transformer of the rectifier). Thus, for the designer an expert system offers three alternative solutions, and by results of detailed calculation and modeling it is necessary to choose one.

3.3 Methods of formation of static models elements of power electronics

Static models are used in software of power elements designing. Static models are intended for calculations with the use of RMS or average values of currents and voltages and the algebraic equations. They serve for calculation of circuits in static modes. 68

To form static models methods of the analytical or tabulared description of input, output and transfer characteristics of elements are used together with methods of regression analysis. Regress y on x is any function f (x), approximately representing statistical dependence y(x). For the description of one variable function the polynomial is used:

2 y a0  a 12 x  a x .... (3.2)

For the description of two variables function the polynomial is used:

22 ya0  ax 11  ax 22  ax 31  axx 412  ax 52 . (3.3)

The degree of polynomial is determined by the kind of researched characteristics and can reflect physical features of the electronic element. For the diode: I

UUirVDd0

The model of the element in this case is represented by a set of the factors determined by the least-squares method. Besides the model should contain the description of parameters: α U type of the case, dimensions, weight, thermal parameters.

The model of the bipolar transistor should include the description:

B ic , q

Uibe q c , 

Uice q c ,  i iqc b B B t C  . (3.4) 1 VT 2fc

tqonVT , 

tqoffVT , 

tqSVT , 

Models of transformers and inductances include the description of the following characteristics:

PfC0 () – dependence of specific losses on frequency.

loglogP a b f C0 . (3.5) tg  a0  a 1 f  a 2 H  a 3 Hf

In the basis of the model of electrolytic capacitors there are specifications data or experimental data:

z,, tg f T  . (3.6) ITUleak , C 

Equivalent circuit and vector diagram:

Uc Lc Ul

Urc

U rс

Rleak δ С φ

Let's simplify: LC  0.

We shall write down ratio:

tg  rC  C z XzC   cos 1tg 2 ztg . (3.7) rzC sin   1tg 2 1 X  C C

z f, T  Initial ratio: tg f, T 

The tests circuit is used to obtain the parameters:

Gin G2

- =

In this circuit there are:

UR z  Vs2 f U V1 . (3.8)      f 2

Frequency characteristics of electrolytic capacitors:

Capacitance, F 1000 470 100 10 Resonant Frequency, 0,05 0,12 0,25 3 МHz

Chapter 4 Designing of Low-Current Electronic Devices

4.1 Methods and Algorithms of Designing

The problem of structure optimization at designing of electronic devices in a general view can be solved by comparison of possible variants to the best one. Such approach is possible at the development of algorithms and programs for separate classes (linear circuits) or even subclasses (filters, amplifiers) of electronic devices. Process of synthesis becomes simpler if for the construction of structures on the set circuit function the type of elements (functional converters) for use is certain. But even in CAD the quantity of considered structures in most cases is limited because of great labour- consuming character, and the problem is usually solved by direct method of synthesis consisting of three stages:  formalization of the description of the device characteristics to obtain the circuit functions description,  choice of the circuit model from the library of typical structures or constructing a new circuit model, allowing to perform circuit functions description,  parametrical optimization of the variant. On the modern level of CAD development the variant of synthesis based on association of methods of direct synthesis and parametrical optimization finds wide application. Parametrical optimization in this case consists in structurally-parametrical correction of the initial circuit according to algorithm (Fig. 4.1). For structure optimization a purposeful change of the initial elements (inclusion or exclusion of the elements) and correcting parts is carried out with the subsequent parametrical optimization. For this purpose CAD- program should include an archive that allows usage of typical functional decisions. The degree of the process automation can be various: – the developer specifies correcting units, priority and sequence of connection of various correcting units, – the developer specifies correction units but the choice of correcting parts and their connection is carried out automatically. Effective means of the organization of parametrical optimization is application of methods of experiment planning.

The designing criterion is determined according to the basic concept of designing as follows: the device should reproduce with demanded accuracy the circuit functions at minimum quantity of functional converters and correcting and concordance parts. For estimation of accuracy of functional converters it is not always simple to generate integrated criterion. There are tasks of approximation of the characteristics set on points, tasks of achievement of the extreme and others. In such cases cad software should include modules of processing of target characteristics and functions of quality calculation. For example, for minimization of monotonous transients it is possible to use a linear integrated estimation:

 SY0  t dtn () , (4.1) 0 where Y (t) is the transitive characteristic.

For estimation of the quality of reproduction of a sinewave signal the integrated estimation in the form of the harmonic factor is used:

 * 2 THDUFv   , (4.2) 2

* U where U  is relative value n-th harmonic. U1

For an estimation of quality of the amplifier the amplification factor К0 as well as the frequency range (level 0.7 К0) is used. At the organization of synthesis process it is necessary to avoid extra formalistic approach, but to use an iterative trial and error method. The developer gives the direction to tests, determining the purpose, function of quality, parameters of search, restriction. Realization of such approach is possible if CAD-program contains analysis tools, first of all, universal software for simulation of electronic functional converters.

Table 4.1 Type of Type of conversion Note element

Example: Analogue-to- x y f y = f(x) analogue

Example: Analogue-to- x y  = f(x(t)) pulse f

Example: Pulse-to- x y y = kA(t) analogue f

Example: Analogue-to- x y f N(t) = kx(t) digital N(t) Example: Digital-to- x y f y(t) = kN(t) analogue N(t) Example: Analogue-to- x y y = 0.5 ; 1 ; 1.5 logical f

x y Logical-to- y ={y1 , y2 , y3 analogue f - levels}

x y Example: Digital Ny = f(Nx) f Nx Ny

x y Example: Logical L y = L(x1 , x2) x1 , x2 y

Example: Logical-to- x y L N = L(x1 , x2) digital x1 , x2 N

Example: Logical-to- x y if L pulse x1 , x2 L(x1 , x2) = 1

Start

Choice of initial circuit and initial parameters

Analyzing block

Satisfies Ye condition s description?

Possibilities of Ye PS are s finished? Possibilities of PSS are No finished? Parametrical synthesis Ye block s No Block of partial structural synthesis (PSS)

Receiving circuit decisions

End

Figure 4.1 Block diagram of algorithm of partial structural synthesis (PSS)

4.2 Automated Synthesis of Control Systems

Generally the process of synthesis consists of the following steps: 1. Liberalized model of the system should be composed. 2. Control law should be chosen. 3. Parametrical synthesis of the system is carried out. 4. The analysis and specification of the designing results with the account of nonlinear characteristics is carried out.

Requirements to the control circuit: 1. System stability: limyt   0, where yt  is a signal of an error. t 2. Controllability and observability: there should be input vector Ut  , allowing to transfer output vector of the system from the initial condition into the final condition for the set time. Supervision of output vector is possible. 3. Control quality: allowable dynamic error of the transient process should be less than the set one. 4. Noise stability: error of reproduction of the set input signal at the noise should not exceed the set size. 5. "Roughness": Maintenance of system serviceability at uncertainty of the set parameters.

Control system should provide: 1. The set factor of amplification and linearity of characteristics. 2. Maximum control range. 3. Maximum operation frequency. 4. External synchronization. 5. Noise immunity. 6. Galvanic coupling. 7. Soft start. 8. Multiple-loop control:  Parallel operation of modules.  Load current limitation.  Voltage stabilization 9. Remote control. 10. Pulse balancing (push-pull output). 11. Protection systems.

Automated synthesis of control system can be carried out: 77

1. Under the frequency response of open-loop system with maintenance of the set position of its poles. 2. Under the transient characteristic of closed-loop system with maintenance of the set transient performance. For systems with nonlinearity it is possible to determine steadiness as damping of transient processes. Requirements for synthesis of control system are typical: dynamical error is no more than 20 %; damping ratio is more than 0.4.

The order of synthesis under the frequency characteristic

Nyquist criterion

For stability of the closed-loop system, that is stable in the open-loop state, it is necessary and enough that frequency hodograph of complex factor of transfer function for open-loop system at the frequency range from 0 up to ∞ would not cover the point (-1, 0). KjReIm .

-1, 0 Im

Bode criterion

1. System that has positive phase margin in a cross point of the phase- frequency characteristic and a circle of single radius is stable, whereas system with negative phase margin is unstable

2. For stability of the system rate of change of an open-loop gain should be 20 dB per decade in the vicinity of cut-off frequency at which the complex factor of transfer function of an open-loop systems is equal to 1.

80 60 дБ дек

20дБ 20 дек 4CP

0.5CP CP -20 40дБ дек

 low  0.5 c

 high  4 c

Synthesis procedure: the structure and parameters of correction units should be varied until the required transient performance is achieved.

4.3 Procedures of Minimization at the Design of Electronic Devices

Electronic devices design starts with an assumption that the circuit consists of ideal elements. In the real circuit the response differs from an ideal one because of losses, parasitic parameters, instability of parameters of elements and etc. Hence, there is a necessity of minimization of deviations with the help of following procedures: 1. Multiple analysis: reiterated calculations of output parameters for the set variants of internal parameters. 2. Sensitivity analysis: sensitivity is understood as reaction of the circuit to small change of parameters of its elements. Factor of sensitivity is a quantitative estimation. Sensitivity analysis is necessary at definition of requirements to accuracy of parameters of circuit elements at their choice, and also at designing the circuits working in complex

conditions of operation when elements are subjected to the accelerated ageing.

y Y x1,,, x 21 ,xi 2  x i x nn  Y x x x   , (4.3) xxii where n is a number of parameters, (n+1) – number of experiences. 3. Worst case method The purpose of this method is definition of the worst value of output parameter among all possible. Estimations obtained with the help of this method are overestimated, since they are calculated without taking into account the density of distribution. Example:

R1 R111R  K0  , (4.4) RR2 21R 2 

Algorithm of calculation for the worst case:  The analysis of sensitivity is carried out. As the result, signs of sensitivity factors are defined.  The worst values are assigned to internal parameters x:

y x x  sign   x (4.5) P H i xi

 A circuit analysis is carried out with the accepted parameters.

4. The statistical analysis. Random value of each parameter can be calculated:

xxP nom 1  , (4.6)

where  – random variable from the range (–1, 1).

4.5 Reliability Control of the Developed Electronic Device

The basic methods of the development of the electronic equipment with high reliability are: 1. Application of components in the facilitated modes. 2. Protection of the circuit elements against environmental hazard. 3. Circuit protection. 4. Acceptance test of the circuit elements. 5. Reservation at the circuit level, at a structural level, at a system level. 6. Test and training of device during the time when constructive refusals are shown. The analysis of reliability guarantees best choice of the structure, element base and operating modes. Characteristics of reliability of elements are intensity of various types of failure at work or storage. For example, the transistor is characterized by three types of failure: open circuit, short circuit, disruption of operation. The input data for calculation of reliability: measured electric and thermal modes of elements, normative modes. Each type of electronic device is characterized by the certain set of parameters, normative and actual values of which are used for analyses of operating modes and definition of calculated values of failure rate – .

  0 1     ;P t  exp  t . (4.7)

Probability of non-failure operation of the element:

KP QPee1  . (4.7)

where KP 1 – non- reserved element, KP  2 means double reservation.

Types of reservation of blocks: 1. Non-loaded (cold). 2. Loaded (hot). 3. Facilitated (thermal). 4. Non-loaded with switching. 5. Loaded with switching. 81

At parallel operation of blocks (m+1) the average time of non-failure operation is calculated:

1 1 11 Tnfo  1...   . (4.8)  2 31 m

At the analysis of reliability the following documents are issued: 1. A card of conditions of operation – tables with the set of parameters (normative (allowable) and measured), which are used for the analysis of conditions of elements operation. 2. Cards of electric modes. The same tables for the analysis of electric operating modes of elements. 3. Tables of failure rate in the measured modes. 4. The block diagram of reliability, calculation of reliability. 5. The report on reliability.

Parameters of search of elements in component information systems (CIS): 1. Parameters of operating conditions. 2. Presence in restrictive lists on application. 3. The list of electric parameters which are necessary for a choice of elements of each class. 4. Parameters from specifications.

Chapter 5 Constructive-Technological Designing

5.1 Constructive-technological designing

At the stage of constructive-technological designing the basic electric circuit is transformed into the units which carry out its realization. Thus the kinds of descriptions turned out at the previous stages are supplemented with additional kinds of the description. The designer should provide requirements of reliability in the set operating conditions due to corresponding thermal modes, vibration (chatter) stability, and possibility of repair. The designer should provide the set weight and dimensions, requirements of electromagnetic compatibility. According to principles of modular construction of the equipment elements are united on the circuit boards, boards – in the block, blocks – in the device. First of all constructive design is intended for:  Designing of two-layer and multilayered printed circuit boards.  Banded cables.  Case-shaped parts.  Release of the design documentation and development of programs for manufacturing of photo masks for printed circuit boards, drilling, control of installation, test control of functioning. Typical tasks of constructive-technological designing are: 1. Configuration of blocks. 2. Accommodation of components in the block. 3. Wiring. The automated designing of technological processes includes:  Development of the basic circuit of technological process.  Designing technological processes of manufacturing of details.  Designing of technological operations. The initial data at designing of technological processes are: 1. Component drawing. 2. Specifications on manufacturing. 3. Annual programs of release.

5.2 The Design Analysis of Electromagnetic Compatibility of Electronic Devices

Port of the case Ports of an electric supply of an alternating current The electronic Ports of input-output of signals

device

Ports of an electric supply of a direct Ports of grounding current

The port is a border between the electronic device and the external electromagnetic environment (a clip, a socket, the plug, a joint, etc.). The port of the case – physical border of the electronic device through which electromagnetic fields can be radiated or external electromagnetic fields can penetrate. Ports of power supplies can be input and output. Ports of input-output – ports of data transmission, control, etc. Through the ports of power supplies conductive interferences circulate. These are interferences which circulate on wires. On power ports indirect conductive interference can circulate.

Z1 The pulse load Zin

…

Radiated electromagnetic interferences can be reduced by screens and the case of the device. Electrostatic screens effectively reduce electric components of interference: power electric lines are connected on the surface of the screen, and the induced charges are removed into the ground. The less the resistance between the screen and the ground, the better the effect. Copper screens are widely used. 84

Magnetostatic screens are based on the connection of magnetic power lines in the screen. They are carried out from materials with high magnetoconducting (nickel, permalloy). Efficiency improves at increase of thickness of the screen and magnetoconducting. Magnetostatic screens are are effective up to 10 kHz. In the field of high frequencies the screen operates in electromagnetic mode. The electromagnetic screen is based on repeated reflection and attenuation of an electromagnetic wave in thickness of the screen. Attenuation is caused by thermal losses on eddy currents in the screen and counteraction of the fields caused by these currents.

Methods of decrease of interferences

1. Balancing and reduction of the areas of electric loops. 2. Application of the braided and shielded conductors. 3. Rational accommodation of elements and units. 4. Closing up sockets.

The block diagram of the procedure of the design analysis of electromagnetic compatibility

Estimation of requirements description Ranging of interference

Development of models of electric circuit, screen, susceptibility

The analysis of Calculation of The analysis of indirect interference processes with the set susceptibility step

The analysis of The analysis of radiated interference conductive The analysis interference излучаемых handicapes 85

Chapter 6 Design of DC-DC Buck Converter

6.1 Technical project

Using programs OrCAD and POLUSE, design auxiliary power supply. Initial data are given below.

DC input voltage Vin, V 30 – 40 DC output voltage Vout, V 27 Load power Pload, W 70 – 100 Ripple factor Kr, % 1.0 Power factor cosφ 1.0 Tolerance δ, % less 0.5 Operating conditions are normal. Other conditions: minimum weight.

6.2 Analysis of the technical project

In order to enable the widening of the search area for the solution of the project problem, i.e. the generation of the great variety of possible structures of the designed object, we will use the morphological card (Table 6.1) during the drawing of which:  The basic parameters and functions of the goods are determined.  The possible decisions, i.e. alternative ways of each function implementation are described.  The sequence of decisions which gives possibility to get the highest quality of the designed project according to the set categories is chosen.

Table 6.1. Conversion Functions Variants type

DC-DC Circuit type Buck Boost Boost- Half- Full- converter buck wave wave

Control PWM PFM Relay control

Smoothing LC-filter LC-filter LR - filter

(common) (complex)

Protection short-circuit over-voltage overheating

The analysis of requirements of the technical project allows to choose the basic circuit of the step-down (buck) DC-DC converter (Fig. 6.2). The block diagram (Fig. 6.1) of the DC-DC converter might be presented in the form of the set of the electronic switch, which transforms the direct input voltage Vin into the sequence of unipolar pulses. Filter is required to smooth most of the output voltage pulsation. The regulation of the output voltage Vout is carried out by means of changing the duty cycle.

Vin Switch Vout Element Filter Load

Control System

Figure 6.1. Block diagram of DC-DC converter

POLUSE is a special electronic CAD programme with very simple interface. POLUSE includes subprogrammes for calculation of different parts of power converter circuit. Typical window of POLUSE programme you can see in Figure 6.3.

D0 L1 Q1 R2 Vout V1 R1 C1 R3 R5 EU D1 R4

Vout C2 R9 C3 PWM Comp. Rd1 VP+ R6 Error Amp. R10 R12 Rd2 R7 X1 R11 X2 EU VOP R8 VP- EPOLY

VGPN

Figure 6.2. Buck converter circuit (with the control system)

Figure 6.3. POLUSE programme demonstration

6.3 Calculation of DC-DC converter

Initial data: Choose the next action: 1. Input of initial data 2. Exit : 1 Predicted efficiency of power circuit  = 0.9 Operating frequency of pulse device (Hz): f = 25000 Output voltage (V) : Vout = 27 Maximum rating amplitude of output voltage ripples (V):

K 1% VV22  27 r     0.54 out_ ripple out 100%100%

Maximum input voltage (V): Vin max = 40 Minimum input voltage (V): Vin min = 30 0.5% Output voltage accuracy (0.5%), (V): VV  2 = 0.27 outout 100% Maximum power (W): Pload max = 100 Minimum power (W): Pload min = 70 The Zener voltage of a diode (V): VZ = 0 Re-enter the data? (yes – 1, no – 0): 0

INPUT DATA .900 158.771 25000.000 27.000 .270 .540 40.000 30.000 100.000 70.000 .000

CALCULATION RESULTS

REQUIRED AND CALCULATED GAINS OF THE OPEN-LOOP SYSTEM 27.57143 39.64552

REQUIRED CAPACITANCE OF INPUT CAPACITORS FOR GIVEN AMPLITUDE OF RIPPLE: CBX= .000045(F)

CONTINUES CURRENTS MODE

INDUCTANCE .000068(Н), CAPACITANCE .000320(F) 90

FILTER PARAMETERS RO= .482403(Ω), КСИ= .873, ТФ= .000140(sec)

MAXIMUM, AVERAGE AND RMS CURRENT OF INDUCTOR 14.22113(A) 3.70370(A) 6.29630(A)

LOAD CURRENT, CURRENT RIPPLE OF INDUCTOR 3.70370(A) 5.18519(A)

MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM DUTY FACTOR .67500 .94500

TRANSIENT TIME (sec) TP = .000737

6.4 Designing and calculation of circuit components

6.4.1 Calculation of smoothing inductor

Initial data: Choose the next action: 1. Input of initial data 2. Exit : 1 Input the data for inductor design: Select the type of inductor: 1. Smoothing inductor 2. AC inductor : 1 Number of cores : 2 Core material: 1. ОСТЧ-60 2. ОСТЧ-32 3. МП-140 4. МП-160 : 3 Type of the wire: 1. ПЭВ-2 2. ПСДКТ-Л 3. ПЭТВ-2 4. ПЭТ-155 91

5. ПНЭТ-ИМИД 6. ПЭВШО-ОС 7. ПЭТВШО-С-ОС : 1 Ambient temperature (degree Celsius) : 25 Permissible overheating (degree Celsius) : 50 Operating frequency of pulse device (Hz) : f =25000 Required inductance (Henry) : L = 0.000068 I Ripples amplitude of inductor current (A): I  L = 2.592595 Lripple 2 Load current (A) : Iload = 3.70370

INPUT DATA

MARK OF THE CORE MATERIAL -П140 TYPE OF THE WIRE - ПЭB-2

TEMPERATURE T = 25.00 OVERHEATING DT = 50.00

LOAD CURRENT IM = 3.70 CURRENT RIPPLE DI= 2.59

FREQUENCY F = 25000.00 REQUIRED INDUCTANCE LT = .0000680

DOUBLE CORE IS CHOSEN - 7.* 15.* 6.7*2

------CALCULATION RESULTS

INDUCTION (B) .284 TESLA NUMBER OF TURNS (WY) 20 LIMITING INDUCTION (BD) .720 TESLA NUMBER OF TURNS IN LAYER (WCL) 14.197 CURRENT DENSITY J = 6.738 A/ MM 2 NUMBER OF WINDING LAYERS (NC) 1.436 CURRENT DENSITY (RMS) (JD) 6.664 A/ MM NUMBER OF LAYERS (LP) 1.000 LOSSES IN MAGNET CIRCUIT (DPC) .220 W WIRE SECTION (Q) .567 MM 2 WINDING LOSSES (DPM) .424 W WIRE DIAMETER (D1) .850 MM STRENGTH (HM) 2080.481 A/M 92

WIRE LENGTH (L1) 788.305 MM STRENGTH (HN) 441.648 A/M PACKAGE FACTOR OF WIRE (KYKL) .900 REQUIRED INDUCTANCE (LY) .0000680 H AVERAGE LENGTH OF WIRE LAYER (LCP) 14.828 MM INITIAL INDUCTANCE (LH) .0001063 H AVERAGE LENGTH OF WINDING TURN (LCR1) 38.656 MM RMS VALUE OF CURRENT (DM) 3.779 A WINDING RESISTANCE (R2) .030 Ω ALTERNATIVE CURRENT (IND) .748 A THICKNESS OF WINDING WITH ISOLATION 1.576 MM OVERHEATING OF INDUCTOR (DTD) 48.085 DEGREES CELSIUS LIMITED DIAMETER OF THE WINDOW SPACE MARK (6) 2.600 MM TANGENT (TG) .037 REAL DIAMETER OF THE WINDOW SPACE (DD) 3.447 MM WEIGHT OF INDUCTOR (GD) 20.125 GRAMS OUTPUT DIAMETER OF INDUCTOR (DH) 16.834 MM WEIGHT OF INDUCTOR (GK) .254 GRAM HEIGHT OF INDUCTOR (HD) 16.953 MM WEIGHT OF WINDING (GOB) 3.974 GRAM HEIGHT OF THE CARCASS (HK) 13.800 MM WEIGHT OF ISOLATION LAYER GIS GRAM .497 REAL SPACE FACTOR OF A WINDING (KOKD) .300 AVERAGE LENGTH OF MAGNET LINE LCR 34.557 MM LOSS RATIO (NUD) .519 WEIGHT OF LAYING (GR) .000 GRAM WEIGHT OF CORE (GO) 15.400 GRAM ********************************************************* PARAMETERS OF INDUCTOR MODEL FOR PSPICE-PROGRAM ********************************************************* Inductance: 6.8E-005 H Resistance of windings: 2.96E-002 Ω Equivalent loss resistance of core: 3484.8 Ω

6.4.2 Calculation of power transistors

Initial data: Choose the next action: 93

1. Input of initial data 2. Exit : 1 Calculation of the power transistor blocks Design or checking (0 or 1) : 0 There are transistor‟s models in library: 1. 2T808 2. 2T808-2T630 3. 2T862Д 4. 2T828A Select the number of the transistor : 1 Specify the type of the transistor : 2T808 Specify the type of a bypass diode (0 – no diode, 1 – 2Д212, 2 – 2Д213) : 0 Power factor : 1 (means active load) Select the method of transistor control (active switching off – 1, passive switching off – 0) :1 Maximum collector-emitter voltage (V): VVToff = 40 RMS collector current (A): ICrms = 3.70370 Average collector current (A): ICav = 3.70370 Maximum collector current (A): ICmax = 6.29630 Switch-on transistor current (A): IVTon = 1.2 Switch-off transistor current (A): IVToff = 6.29630 Transistor operating frequency (Hz): f = 25000 Specific weight of the 1 cm2 of a heat sink (gram): 3 Specify overheating (degree Celsius) : 40 Set the coefficient of current overlap : 1 Duty cycle (max) : 0.945 How many cycles do we have? (single-cycle – 1, two-cycle – 2) :1 Minimum case temperature (degree Celsius): 10 Specific added mass (gram/watt) : 0

INPUT DATA

TRANSISTOR TYPE 2T808 TYPE OF FREE-WHEELING DIODE ZERO DIODE POWER FACTOR 1.000 TYPE OF CONTROL ACTIVE CUTOFF CUTOFF TRANSISTOR VOLTAGE 40.000000 V RMS VALUE OF COLLECTOR CURRENT 3.703700 A 94

AVERAGE VALUE OF COLLECTOR CURRENT 3.703700 A MAXIMUM COLLECTOR CURRENT 6.296300 A CUT-ON AND CUTOFF TRANSISTOR CURRENT 1.200000 A, 6.296300 A OPERATING FREQUENCY OF TRANSISTOR 25000.00000000 HZ RELATED WEIGHT OF 1 CM2 HEAT SINK 3.000000 GRAM OVERHEATING OF TRANSISTOR 40.00 DEGREES CELSIUS FACTOR OF OVERLAPPING OF THE CURRENT 1.00 DUTY FACTOR .94 NUMBER OF CIRCUIT CYCLES 1.00 MINIMUM TEMPERATURE OF THE BOX 10.00 DEGREES CELSIUS RELATED VALUE OF THE ATTACHED WEIGHT .000 GRAM/W

CALCULATION RESULTS

MINIMUM WEIGHT FOR N = 4 AND FOR Q = 2.40 MINIMUM AREA FOR HEAT SINK (ST) 96.789310 CM2 RELATED VALUE OF HEAT SINK AREA (STO) 25.000000 CM2 /W OVERALL SQUARE OF N TRANSISTORS (SG) 36.000000 CM2 TOTAL LOSS (PS) 3.8052 W SWITCHING LOSS (PTD) 1.7391 W STATIC LOSS (PCT) 1.4464 W RESISTANCE OF TRANSISTOR BASE CIRCUIT (RB) 9.7543 Ω POWER LOSSES OF RB (PR) .6197 W RMS VALUE OF COLLECTOR CURRENT 1.06481 A AVERAGE VALUE OF COLLECTOR CURRENT 1.06481 A MAXIMUM COLLECTOR CURRENT 1.81019 A BASE CURRENT .12964 A CUT-ON AND CUT-OFF TRANSISTOR CURRENT .3450 A, 1.8102 A CONTROL SIGNAL VOLTAGE (UC) 2.10765 V AVERAGE VALUE OF FREE-WHEELING DIODE CURRENT .000000 A TOTAL WEIGHT (G) 378.3680 GRAMMS HEAT SINK WEIGHT (GT) 290.3680 GRAMMS TRANSISTOR WEIGHT (GTP) 88.0000 GRAMMS TRANSISTOR PARAMETERS: IKO = .0030A B = 13.9627 95

UBASE = .8431 A UC_E = .1767 V ROUT = .0690 Ω TON = .000000506 SEC TOFF = .000000442 SEC TS = .000002602 SEC UC = .250139 V

6.4.3 Calculation of electrolytic capacitors for smoothing filter circuits

Initial data:

Choose the next action: 1. Input of initial data 2. Exit : 1 Calculation of electrolytic capacitors Design or checking (1 or 2) : 1 Specify the type of the capacitor as shown 50 29 Select current waveform: 1 – triangle wave 2 – sine wave 3 – square wave : 1 Minimum ambient temperature (degree Celsius) : 10 Maximum ambient temperature (degree Celsius) : 45 Permissible overheating (degree Celsius) : 15 DC voltage (V): VC = Vout = 27 Cutoff frequency of the filter (Hz): 1 1 1 f    = 1079.5 off 66 Tf 2 LC 2 68  10  320  10 Frequency of voltage ripple (Hz): f = 2500 Required capacitance at cutoff frequency (F): Coff = 320 I Amplitude of current ripples (A): I  L = 2.592595 Lripple 2 Limited amplitude of voltage ripple (on the side), (V):

VVout  out 0.01= 0.27 Duty cycle (max): 0.945 Utilization factor of the lateral surface of the capacitor bank: 0.6 96

Specify the optimization parameter (1 – volume optimization, 2 – weight optimization) : 1

INPUT DATA

CAPACITOR TYPE K50-29 CURRENT WAVEFORM TRIANGLE MINIMUM TEMPERATURE 10.0 DEGREES CELSIUS MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE 45.0 DEGREES CELSIUS LIMITED OVERHEATING 15.0 DEGREES CELSIUS DC VOLTAGE 27.00 V CUTOFF FREQUENCY OF THE FILTER 1079.50 HZ FREQUENCY OF VOLTAGE RIPPLE 25000.00 HZ REQUIRED CAPACITANCE ON CUTOFF FREQUENCY 320.00 µF AMPLITUDE OF RIPPLE CURRENT 2.59 A LIMITED AMPLITUDE OF VOLTAGE RIPPLES (ON A SIDE) .270 V DUTY CYCLE .945 FACTOR TAKING INTO ACCOUNT USE OF A LATERAL SURFACE OF THE CAPACITOR BANK .60 ------

OPTIMUM ALTERNATIVE

3 CAPACITORS HAVE BEEN CHOSEN; TYPE K50-29- 63.0 V- 100.0 µF

CAPACITORS WEIGHT (GS) .0135000 KG CAPACITORS VOLUME (VS) .0000054 CUBIC METERS SQUARE OF LATERAL SIDE (SS) .0015381 SQUARE METERS CAPACITANCE ON A CUTOFF FREQUENCY AT MINIMUM TEMPERATURE (CSUM) 300.21590 µF CAPACITANCE ON A RIPPLE FREQUENCY (CS) 275.96880 µF RESISTANCE ON A RIPPLE FREQUENCY (RS) .0280749 Ω RESISTANCE ON A RIPPLE FREQUENCY (RP) .0263601 Ω MAXIMUM LIMITED VOLTAGE RIPPLE (DUMD) .1302572 V RATED AMPLITUDE OF VOLTAGE RIPPLE (DUSM) .0836087 V AMPLITUDE OF RIPPLE (DUSM1) .0771141 V RMS CURRENT (ID) .7484177 A LEAKAGE CURRENT (IUT) .0004292 A POWER LOSSES (PP) .0263546 W 97

RATED OVERHEATING (DTRAS) 2.2406320 DEGREES CELSIUS REQUIRED HIGH FREQUENCY CAPACITANCE (CW) .59030 µF

6.4.4 Calculation of diode blocks

Initial data: Choose the next action: 1. Input of initial data 2. Exit : 1 Calculation of the diode blocks Design or checking (0 or 1) : 0 There are diode‟s models in library: 1. 2D212A 2. 2D212B 3. 2D213A 4. 2D213B 5. 2D2997A Select the number of the diode : 3 Specify the type of the diode : 2D213A How many cycles do we have? (single-cycle – 1, two-cycle – 2): 1 RMS diode current for pulse advance interval (A) : IVD = 3.70370 Average diode current for pulse advance interval (A) : IVDav = 3.70370 Maximum diode current (A) : IVDmax = 6.29630 Switch-on diode current (A) : IVDon = 6.29630 Switch-off diode current (A) : IVDoff = 1.2 Reverse diode voltage (V) : VVDoff = 40 10 10 Pulse time of maximum diode current (sec): t  = 0.0004 VD max f 25000 Operating frequency (Hz) : f = 25000 Specific weight of the 1 cm2 of a heat sink (gram): 3 Specify overheating (degree Celsius) : 40 Duty cycle : γ = 1– γmin = 1- 0.675 = 0.325 Specific added mass (gram/watt) : 0

INPUT DATA DIODE TYPE 2D213A REVERSE DIODE VOLTAGE 40.00000 V RMS DIODE CURRENT 3.70370 A AVERAGE DIODE CURRENT 3.70370 A 98

MAXIMUM DIODE CURRENT 6.29630 A CUT-ON DIODE CURRENT 6.29630 A CUTOFF DIODE CURRENT 1.20000 A NUMBER OF CIRCUIT CYCLES 1 PULSE WEIGHT OF MAXIMUM DIODE CURRENT .0004000 SEC OPERATING FREQUENCY 25000.00000 HZ WEIGHTS OF 1 SQUARE CENTIMETER HEAT SINK 3.0000 GRAM DIODE OVERHEATING 40.000 DEGREES CELSIUS DUTY CYCLE .3250 RELATED VALUE OF THE ATTACHED WEIGHT, GRAM/W .00 ------CALCULATION RESULTS

MINIMUM WEIGHT DIODE NUMBER M = 2 DIODE: TD = .00000030 SEC UD = .68667 V RD = .03000 Ω U0 = .62000 V MAXIMUM DIODE CURRENT 3.77778 A RMS DIODE CURRENT 2.22222 A AVERAGE DIODE CURRENT 2.22222 A CUT-ON DIODE CURRENT 3.77778 A CUTOFF DIODE CURRENT .72000 A TOTAL WEIGHT 68.64882 GRAMS MINIMUM REQUIRED HEAT SINK AREA 20.21627 CM 2 STATIC LOSSES OF M DIODES .92441 W SWITCHING LOSSES OF M DIODES .08640 W TOTAL DISSIPATION POWER 1.01081 W OVERALL SQUARE (AREA) OF M DIODES 7.84000 CM

6.4.5 Calculation of circuit parameters

L1 = 68 µH R1 = RB/N = 9.7543/4 = 2.43 Ω, where N is the number of transistors in parallel R2 = 29.7 mΩ R3 = 3.5 kΩ R4 = 0.28 Ω 99

C1 = 320 µF V2 (Direct Current) = 1 V Eu = V2 + Uy = 1 + 2.1 = 3.1 V Eu 3.1 K =   0.31 10 10

6.4.6 Calculation of load parameters

2 2 Maximum load resistance (): Rload_max = Vout / Pload min = 27 /70 = 10.4

2 2 Minimum load resistance (): Rload_min = Vout / Pload max = 27 /100 = 7.29

6.4.7 Calculation of control circuit parameters

X1 – operational amplifier HA 2540/HA, X2 – comparator LM119. Resistors: R6 = R7 = R10 = R11 = 10 k Balancing capacitor C2 (usually from 5 to 30 nF):

LC1 1 68  1066  320  10 C21.47 10  14.7   8 nF R6 10 103

Resistors R8 = R9 (usually from 15 to 150 k):

VV12 RRKRVR8 9 FBm  VGPN 66  _  = 74.5 k Emin

Balancing capacitor C3 (usually from 0.25 to 5 nF):

0.1LC 1  1 0.1  68  1066  320  10 C3   1.98  1010 0.198 nF R9 74.5 103

Reference voltage VOP = 9 V Power supply voltage: VP+ = 15 V VP– = –15 V Ramp generator VGPN (2V amplitude) (Period): 40µS Resistor R13 = 10 k Comparator feedback resistor R12 (required from 0.5 to 2 M): 1 M

100

6.4.8 Calculation of converter’s efficiency and weight

Efficiency: P  load max  P PS  DPC  DPM  PP load max 100 100    0.948 100+3.8052+ (0.0263546+1.01081) +0.644 105.486

Weight of the device Gtotal can be calculated as sum of all circuit element weights. We also used the coefficient allowing the design features: Kd = 1.5

Gtotal  Kd  GD  GS  GT  GTP GVD= 1.5(20.125+13.5+(378.3680)+68.64882) = 720.963 g

101

6.5 Simulation

6.5.1 Simulation circuit and conditions

R2 L1 Q1

R12 R3 R4

Vin

R1 D1 R5

R13 0

V+ C3

V- C2 R9 0

R21

R6 11 R10 11 5 4

+ V+ X1 + V+ X2 R14 10 12 R7 OUT R11 OUT 4 5 3

- V- - V- G

R22 6 6 0 R8 EU VOP VSVG + -

Figure 6.4. Buck converter simulation circuit

Setting the zero initial conditions in the circuit, the system is run and the waveforms and the tables below shows the results of the simulation in the static and dynamic modes of operation.

102

6.5.2 Current and voltage waveforms

30A (98.438u,24.733)

20A

10A

(1.6768m,3.0939)

-10A 0s 0.2ms 0.4ms 0.6ms 0.8ms 1.0ms 1.2ms 1.4ms 1.6ms 1.8ms 2.0ms I(L1) Time Figure 6.5. Inductor current (minimum load and minimum input voltage)

30A (107.951u,24.872)

20A

10A

(1.5574m,3.0738)

-10A 0s 0.2ms 0.4ms 0.6ms 0.8ms 1.0ms 1.2ms 1.4ms 1.6ms 1.8ms 2.0ms I(D1) Time Figure 6.6. Diode current (minimum load and maximum input voltage)

103

30V

8.250u,28.931) (1.2810m,28.922)

20V

10V

(1.3574m,-1.1392)

-10V 0s 0.2ms 0.4ms 0.6ms 0.8ms 1.0ms 1.2ms 1.4ms 1.6ms 1.8ms 2.0ms V(D1:2) Time Figure 6.7. Diode voltage (minimum load and maximum input voltage)

40V

(100.051u,32.373) (1.7579m,30.139)

30V

20V

10V

(1.7957m,32.270m)

0V 0s 0.2ms 0.4ms 0.6ms 0.8ms 1.0ms 1.2ms 1.4ms 1.6ms 1.8ms 2.0ms V(V1:+,Q1:e) Time Figure 6.8. Collector-emitter transistor voltage (minimum load maximum input voltage)

104

30A (98.388u,25.579)

20A

10A

(1.5930m,3.4351)

(1.5178m,202.610n)

-10A 0s 0.2ms 0.4ms 0.6ms 0.8ms 1.0ms 1.2ms 1.4ms 1.6ms 1.8ms 2.0ms IC(Q1) Time Figure 6.9. Transistor collector current (minimum load and minimum input voltage)

30V

(1.9166m,27.119)

20V

10V

0V 0s 0.2ms 0.4ms 0.6ms 0.8ms 1.0ms 1.2ms 1.4ms 1.6ms 1.8ms 2.0ms V(R4:2) Time Figure 6.10. Output voltage (minimum load and minimum input voltage)

105

30V

(1.6365m,27.119)

20V

10V

0V 0s 0.2ms 0.4ms 0.6ms 0.8ms 1.0ms 1.2ms 1.4ms 1.6ms 1.8ms 2.0ms V(R4:2) Time Figure 6.11. Output voltage (maximum load and minimum input voltage)

30V

(1.9564m,27.123)

20V

10V

0V 0s 0.2ms 0.4ms 0.6ms 0.8ms 1.0ms 1.2ms 1.4ms 1.6ms 1.8ms 2.0ms V(R4:2) Time Figure 6.12. Output voltage (minimum load and maximum input voltage)

106

30V

(1.7965m,27.119)

20V

10V

0V 0s 0.2ms 0.4ms 0.6ms 0.8ms 1.0ms 1.2ms 1.4ms 1.6ms 1.8ms 2.0ms V(R4:2) Time Figure 6.13. Output voltage (maximum load and maximum input voltage)

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6.5.3 Testing protocol

Table 6.2.

V , R , t , V , V , V , V , RF, V , , in L s out. av out  out  OV V  ms V % V V % V %

30 10,4 0,85 27,067 0,248 27,119 27,015 0,192 27,90 3,07

30 7,3 1,18 27,067 0,248 27,117 27,017 0,184 27,91 3,11

40 10,4 0,95 27,068 0,253 27,123 27,014 0,201 27,95 3,25

40 7,3 1,48 27,067 0,248 27,119 27,015 0,192 27,89 3,04

Where: - input voltage - maximum

RL - load resistance - minimum - transient time RF - ripple factor - average output voltage - overvoltage - output voltage ripple amplitude  - tolerance

Useful formulas:

VV VVout out VV V out out. av 100%; RF  ;  OV out. av Vout 2Vout. av Vout. av

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Table 6.3.

Measured value Circuit Calculated Steady – Parameter Start Limit component value state mode mode

Q1 IC max , A 1.8 23.58 4.06 10 40 32.40 30.3 120 VCE max , V

D1 Iav , A 3.70370 7.3 0.23 10 40 28.96 28.89 200 Vr ,V

C1 Vdc , V 27 27.2 26.9 63 0.27 – 0.25 6.3 Vac max , V

L1 Iav , A 3.70370 17.2 3.7 – I , A 2.592595 14.4 1.0 –

Table 6.4.

Circuit parameter Calculated value Measured value Given value

Efficiency 0.948 – –

Weight, grams 720.963 – –

The correspondence of parameters of the designed device to the functional assignment and technical project requirements is depicted in tables 2, 3 and 4 of this chapter. From the table above it can be seen that the 109 minimum number of diodes required for the circuit to work optimally is 2. This can be realized by connecting them in parallel. As for the transistors, a minimum of 4 is required. It should be mentioned that efficiency of the designed device equals to 0.948 and the weight of this devise is 720.963 gram. From the results obtained and calculated, this system has not too much loss hence a large value of efficiency. It can therefore be said that we have a highly efficient device. Thus, the device corresponds to the requirements of the project.

110

Conclusion

This textbook focuses on the basic notions, history, types, technology and applications of computer-aided design. Methods of electronic devices simulation, automated design of power electronic devices and components, constructive-technological design are considered and discussed. Some features of the popular electronics CADs are also shown. There are a lot of practical examples using CADs of electronics. The textbook is designed at the Department of Industrial and Medical Electronics of TPU. It is intended for students majoring in the specialty 210100 „Electronics and Nanoelectronics‟. Authors hope their work will help students who choose electronics for future.

111

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15. Tetelbaum I.M., Schneider Ju.R. Praktika analogovogo modelirovaniya dinamicheskih sistem: spravochnoe posobie - M.: Energoatomizdat, 1987.- 384 s. 16. Automatizaciya proektirovaniya radioelectronnyh sredstv. O.V. Alexeev. M. Vysshaya shkola, 2000. - 479 s. 17. Кazancev U.M. Automatizirovannoe proektirovanie elektronnyh ustroystv. Uchebnoe posobie. - Tomsk: TPU, 1999. - 88 s. 18. Vlah I, Singhal K. Mashinnye metody analiza i proektirovaniya elektronnyh shem. M.: Radio i svyaz, 1988. – 560 s. 19. Razevig V. D. Sistema skvoznogo proektirovaniya electronnyh ustroystv DesignLab 8.0., M.: Solon, 1999. - 698 p. 20. Avetysyan D.A. Automatizaciya proektirovaniya elektricheskih sistem. M. Vysshaya shkola, 1998 – 331s. 21. Analog and digital electronics: a first course / Beards H. Peter. – 2nd. ed., 1996, Prentice Hall Europe. – 1073 p. 22. A practical introduction to electronic circuits / Jones H. Martin. – 3d. ed., 1995, Cambridge University Press. – 548 p. 23. L. Faulkenberry An introduction to operational amplifiers with linear IC applications. Texas State Technical Institute. 2nd. ed., 1982. 24. The essence of Analog Electronics / C. Lunn. – Harlow: Prentice Hall, 1997. – 325 p.: il 25. The art of electronics / Paul Horowitz, Winfield Hill. – 2nd ed., 1989. – 1105 p. 26. Electronics: a complete course / Nigel P. Cook. – 2nd ed., 2004. – 1037 p. 27. Electronics / D.I. Crecraft, D.A. Gorham. – 2nd ed., 2003. – 428 p. 28. Electronics: a system approach / Neil Storey. – 3rd ed., 2006. – 645 p.

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Appendix A

Symbols, SI units and Abbreviations

Symbol Representing Unit (SI) A Area square meter A, AV Voltage gain (open loop) of an amplifier dimensionless AC, a.c. Adjective applied to alternating voltages and currents B Magnetic flux density tesla b, B Base of a bipolar transistor BW Bandwidth hertz C Capacitance farad c, C Collector of a bipolar transistor CMRR Common-mode rejection ratio dimensionless d Distance meter D Drain of a MOSFET or JFET DC, d.c. Adjective applied to non-alternating voltages and currents (direct current) e, E Electromotive force (e.m.f), e.m.f. source volt e, E Emitter of a bipolar transistor f Frequency hertz G Closed-loop gain of feedback amplifier dimensionless G Conductance; reciprocal of resistance Siemens G Gate of a MOSFET or JFET H Strength of magnetic field ampere/second or oersted I Current; d.c. value; or amplitude or r.m.s. value ampere of a.c. current IB Input bias current of an amplifier ampere IF Forward current for a diode ampere IH Holding current of a thyristor ampere IS Diode saturation current ampere i Magnetizing current ampere L Inductance henry n N-region of a semiconductor Np, Ns Primary, secondary turns in a transformer dimensionless P Power watt

114 p P-region of a semiconductor q, Q Instantaneous value of charge, Charge coulomb R D.C. resistance of a resistor ohm r Slope resistance, small-signal resistance ohm RF Ripple factor dimensionless r.m.s. Root-mean square value of current or voltage Rin, Rout Input, output resistance of a circuit ohm RL Load resistance connected to a circuit ohm S Source of a MOSFET or JFET SF Stabilization factor dimensionless SR Slew rate volt per second t Time second T Period (Total time) second V Voltage: d.c. value or amplitude or r.m.s. value volt of a.c. voltage V Instantaneous value of voltage volt Vav , v Average value (of voltage or current) VCC Supply voltage (continuous current) volt VF Forward voltage drop for a diode volt

VP Pinch-off voltage of a JFET volt VR Reverse voltage for a diode volt Vref Reference voltage volt VS Source voltage volt VZ Zener voltage volt X Reactance ohm Z Impedance Ohm  Efficiency dimensionless  Damping ratio dimensionless

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Appendix B EDA Glossary A analog simulator An EDA software tool which simulates the behavior of analog signals. analysis tools EDA software tools or tool suites which may display simulator output for analysis (as in waveform analyzers) or which may analyze the reliability, electromagnetic interference, metal migration, signal integrity, or thermal characteristics of a design. The tools in this category may work at any level of abstraction – behavioral, register-transfer-level (RTL), gate-level, or with the physical layout of an IC device or electronic system. application A computer program which is intended to perform a specific task. An application includes an executable file which is invoked to run the desired program. See also tool.

B behavioral modeling System-level modeling consisting of a functional specification plus modeling of the timing of an implementation. A behavioral model consist of an HDL description of a device or component which is expressed at a relatively high level of abstraction (higher than the register-transfer level or gate level). It uses underlying mathematical equations to represent the functional behavior of the component. See also functional modeling. benchmark A design test case which is used to measure the capabilities, limitations, and breakthroughs reported for newly proposed and existing algorithms and tools. block A group of interconnected cells. A block may contain instances of other blocks. bottom-up design A design methodology whereby the designer starts with the most basic or primitive components and incrementally builds up the system into higher- level components. 116

breadboard A printed circuit board on which experimental electronic circuits can be developed; so-called from the time when radios were constructed at home on a breadboard.

C CAD (Computer-Aided Design) The electronic design automation of projects that were previously under manual methods considered to be drafting functions; typically refers to PCB layout, wire harness design, or mechanical design.

CAE (Computer-Aided Engineering) The electronic design automation of projects that were previously under manual methods considered to be electronic engineering functions, such as the design of integrated circuits and computing devices.

CAM (Computer-Aided Manufacturing) Electronic design automation applied to the manufacturing process. Involves the planning, scheduling, simulation, and control of advanced manufacturing systems. chip Semiconductor components which provide the memory, logic, and virtually all other intelligence functions in an electronic system. Also known as a microchip, chip, integrated circuit or IC. See also IC.

CIS (Component Information System) An EDA or supply chain application which allows users to locate components and suppliers, view parametric information about the component, conduct procurement transactions, and in some cases to even obtain design views of the selected components that can drive their particular EDA design tools of choice. Also referred to as CSM (Component Supplier Management). convergence Achievement of a final design solution in which all design constraints have been successfully met. Often this involves balancing and trading off two or more requirements that are in opposition with one another, such as timing delay versus area. 117

D design cycle The period of time required to complete an electronic design of any type, from concept to production. design entry The process of creating a new design of any type – chip, board, module, or system – using textual and/or graphical tools such as schematic capture or other high-level graphical methods, hardware description languages, Boolean equations, or other methods. Also referred to as design capture. design flow A series of connected processes for performing a complete design cycle. design management EDA software tools which automatically manage design data and the design process by controlling the operation of one or more EDA tools. design specification A summary of the features and performance targets that are intended for a new electronic product. This specification drives the requirements and/or constraints that must be met during the design and manufacturing processes.

DFT (Design For Testability) The practice of defining an ASIC manufacturing test strategy at the start of the design process rather than at the end.

DSP (Digital Signal Processor) A specialized semiconductor device which is specialized for performing conversions between analog and digital signals. DSPs are widely used in products involved with audio and video, such as sound cards, fax machines, modems, cellular phones, hard disks, and digital TVs. DSP chips are used on sound cards for recording and playback as well as speech synthesis.

E EDA (Electronic Design Automation) The industry which is involved in developing and supplying highly specialized software- and hardware-based tools for the automated design of electronic products of all kinds. EDA products and services are essential for 118 the design of electronic products that enable many other high-tech sectors of the economy, such as computers, communications, consumer, industrial, military/aerospace, semiconductors, and transportation.

EDIF (Electronic Design Interchange Format) A textual language designed to enable the transfer of all forms of electronic design information between different CAD systems. Currently implemented for netlist and schematic descriptions, although there are still significant differences between different tool vendor implementations which may impair portability. embedded system An application-specific computing system that is designed into a product so invisibly it is not apparent to end users that they are using a computer. Examples are found in automotive anti-lock braking systems, microwave ovens, and automatic dishwashers. The computing processor inside an embedded system typically makes use of a real-time operating system which does not require a waiting period to boot up.

EMC (Electromagnetic Compatibility) Describes how an electronic device will behave in a "real world" setting of EMI, as defined by the environment and the intended application. Different EMC/EMI standards and specifications are imposed based on the classification of an electronic device and its environmental application.

EMI (Electromagnetic Interference) The electronic noise in an environment that can affect an electronic device, or is being produced by an electronic device, or both. EMI analysis tools are used to verify EMC compliance during the design of high-speed PCBs and IC packages. The traditional EMI remedies involve the addition of extra components, metal shields, metal plans, or even redesigning the entire system. Synonym: radio-frequency interference. emulation The process by which a device under development and its native software is prototyped before its manufacture. emulators A class of EDA products which includes both specialized computing hardware and software. Emulators are used to prototype a design and exercise 119 its native software prior to its manufacture. Many emulators can also be used to perform hardware acceleration of simulation runs. encapsulation 1) The preparation of a tool for integration into design frameworks without any changes to the source code for the tool. 2) The preparation of a block of SIP for integration into systems without any changes to the source code for the SIP. equivalency checking A formal verification technique which verifies the integrity of each design step by proving the functional equivalence between two implementations.

ERC (Electrical Rule Checker) EDA software tools for checking the electrical integrity of complex digital, memory and mixed-signal circuitry. event-driven simulator An EDA software tool that simulates the behavior of a logic design which has been described at some level of abstraction (behavioral, RTL, or gate- level), considers timing information in the simulation process, and thus must schedule events and evaluate signals between clock cycles.

F formal verification Use of various types of formal methods (abstract calculus) to verify the correctness of IC logic or system interactions. Equivalency checking is the most common formal verification method, which is used to compare the design that is being created against a design that is already proven accurate. Model checking is another method that ascertains the behavior of a specific signal at a certain time. Semi-formal is a newer method which combines formal verification and simulation. framework A computing architecture for integrating products from multiple vendors which includes data representation, design data management, methodology management, a user interface, an extension language, and inter-tool communication.

120 functional modeling System modeling that specifies input/output behavior without specifying its timing. See also behavioral modeling. functional verification tool An EDA software application that verifies the functional correctness of a hardware design by employing logic simulation techniques.

G GDSII A term often used in a generic sense to refer to graphical IC or PCB layout data in an interchange format. In the generic sense, the term GDSII is frequently used even if the source data format is GDSIV or other graphical format.

H hardware modeling The process of defining the functionality of a component using an actual chip rather than a software description. Often employed in the early life of a chip when physical prototypes are available, but a software model is not. hardware/software co-design Software tools that perform or support hardware/software partitioning, performance evaluation, and design entry for system-level designs that are comprised of both hardware and software elements, as in embedded systems. Includes tools and interfaces that link the design and evaluation steps with code compilation models.

HDL (Hardware Description Language) One of several specialized high-level languages used by semiconductor designers to describe the features and functionality of chips and systems prior to handoff to the IC layout process. HDL descriptions are used in both the design implementation and verification flows. Currently, the two standard HDLs in use worldwide are Verilog HDL and VHDL. Several proprietary HDLs also exist, mainly for describing logic that is targeted for vendor- specific programmable logic devices. hierarchical design A design methodology where portions of large designs are divided into manageable sections or sub-blocks that may be created, represented 121 symbolically, designed, and then connected together when completed. This methodology allows different parts of the design to be worked on in parallel.

I implementation The result of the design synthesis process, in which an abstract description of a design entity is converted into gates and the electrical connections between them (signals). An implementation is rendered using components from the foundry-specific design library that represents the target semiconductor process technology. Many of the physical analysis algorithms that were previously found only in standalone physical analysis tools are now being integrated into the implementation flow to help drive the synthesis process. instance A copy of a library cell or block which has been called into a design and made specific by naming it and connecting it to other logic in the design. This process is known as instantiation.

I/O (Input/Output) An input, output, or bidirectional buffer cell used to connect design interface signals directly to package pins.

L layout For ICs, the process of floorplanning, implementing, and verifying the location of transistors and their connections within a chip design. For PCBs, the process of entering, placing, routing, and verifying the location of physicial components and their connections within a board design. layout verification The process of verifying that the layout topology of circuits which have undergone placement, routing, and compaction does not violate any fabrication process rules. Includes Design Rule Checkers (DRS), Electrical Rule Checkers (ERC), and Layout-Versus-Schematic Checkers (LVS). library A collection of design objects that are related in some way, such as simulation models, symbols, or footprints. The objects may be part of a single design, in which case it would be a design library. The objects could

122 be standard-cell elements for IC design, or components for PCB design, in which case it would be a reference library.

M mixed-signal simulators Software tools that simulate the behavior of mixed analog and digital portions of a design. Includes interface packages for linking analog and digital signals. model A functional representation of a device or system that is delivered in object code format. This software representation contains the basic structure and characteristics of a design object which is used to perform design verification. During the development of an electronic system, models are exercised along with signals entering from the outside environment (vectors) to simulate the behavior of the system in software and ensure that it will operate properly before being manufactured in hardware. model checking A formal verification technique which compares the functionality of a design to a set of user-specified properties or characteristics. Determines whether a set of conditions or properties hold true or are contained within a given implementation of a design. Also referred to as property checking. module generators Tools used exclusively to generate SIP from regular parameterizable physical structures that are based on a fixed set of base leaf cells. Includes tools to create integration views for SIP blocks created by the Module Generator. Module generators (which are also termed target compilers) produce physical blocks from a set of design parameters that are based on physical and electrical design rules.

N netlist A textual file representing an ASIC design as a set of library-specific cells along with their interconnections.

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O optimization Use of a computing algorithm to achieve the most efficient design of a product. Various types of optimization are performed by different tools in the design flows for chips, boards, and systems.

P parameter A means by which an application or user can customize the behavior or characteristics of a model instance when it is created. A parameter is set to a constant value during design entry. parasitic extraction tools Software tools that translate IC layout data into networks of electrical circuit elements (transistors, resistors and capacitors) and parasitic elements (interconnect capacitance and resistance). These tools are used to model the timing, power, and signal behavior of an IC design. Also included in this category are network reduction tools and delay calculators. pattern An arrangement of services that collectively model a communication path from sender to receiver. Patterns support the modeling of communication between software and hardware, hardware and software, software and software, or hardware and hardware.

PCA (Printed Circuit Assembly) The manufacturing assembly of printed circuit boards, multichip modules, and hybrids of these two. Includes printing, pasting, component placement, reflow, wave soldering, cabling, and test.

PCB (Printed Circuit Board) An electronic interconnect product which is the foundation of most electronic systems. PCBs are used to mount and interconnect chips, capacitors, resistors, and other discrete components required in a piece of electronic equipment. The base material of a PCB is called a dielectric and is generally made of rigid fiberglass, rigid paper, or flexible thin plastic laminates. Those dielectric substrates are then coated with copper and may be fabricated into rigit single- or double-sided, multilayer, or flexible circuits. Also referred to as printed wiring board.

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PCB libraries and library tools Descriptions of design elements used for designing PCBs or larger systems. Includes component models for simulation or analysis, symbols, component information systems, library development tools, library management tools, and design libraries for PCB or system-level design. performance model A model that estimates one or more physical or temporal characteristics such as signal delay, power usage, area, temperature, electromagnetic interference, etc. placement & routing The process of placing and routing the circuitry of an integrated circuit (IC) or application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) using tools for designing gate arrays, embedded arrays, standard cells, and irregularly sized macrocell or mega-cell blocks. placement rules User-defined rules which force a special placement group. May be defined for a given technology library or a specific netlist.

PLD (Programmable Logic Device) 1) A high-level term for all types of programmable semiconductor chips, including the FPGA (Field-Programmable Gate Array), CPLD (Complex Programmable Logic Device), EPLD (Erasable Programmable Logic Device), simple PLD, and others such as the EPROM and EEPROM. 2) A simple PLD (archaic). ports Objects in design description that allow the model and the application to interact during simulation. Ports may be of the types Input, Output, or I/O (bidirectional). power analysis tools EDA software tools that analyze, optimize, or diagnose power problems, or provide automatic power reduction in electronic circuits. primitive An instance of a cell at the lowest logic level on a circuit. Multiple instances of the same cell may exist in a design. 125

production test The process of verifying that a device has been manufactured correctly before it leaves the manufacturing facility. product lifecycle tools Supply chain tools which are used to track the entire lifecycle of a finished product once it leaves the manufacturing facility. Includes installation, training, field support, and sales tracking. property checking A formal verification technique which verifies that a design does or does not conform to a specified property under all possible sets of legal input conditions. See model checking.

Q quality conformance inspection Sample tests performed on a periodic basis that determine conformance of quality and reliability standards and ensure a continuing level of quality for the device type under test.

R random logic Components and signals which exist at a low level of hierarchy, outside of the major blocks of logic in a design. Sometimes referred to as glue logic because its function may be to connect the major hierarchical blocks. See also primitive. routability The level of effort required to automatically route the connections (or nets) in a design based on the available routing resources, such as space between components, grid width, numbers of layers, etc.

RTOS (Real-Time Operating System) One of various computer operating systems that are typically used in embedded systems which do not require a waiting period to start up.

126

S schematic capture A graphical design entry process used to create gate-level schematics which represent logic in a design. signal integrity analysis tools EDA software tools that analyze electrical signal behavior of wiring networks on printed circuit boards (PCBs), integrated circuits (ICs), IC packages and sockets, multi-chip modules (MCMs), and other structures such as hybrids. May include two-dimensional or three-dimensional field solvers. simulation The process of verifying an electronic design using EDA software which reads in models and input/output vectors, exercises the device under test, and records the resulting behavior and timing for the purpose of identifying and debugging any incorrect or unexpected behavior.

SIP (Semiconductor Intellectual Property) A block of a design or testbench that can be reused. Also known as a virtual component.

SPICE (Simulation Program with Integrated Circuit Emphasis) An industry-standard analog simulation language which contains models for most circuit elements and can handle complex nonlinear circuits. Also refers to a freely distributed simulation tool which simulates circuitry described in the SPICE language. symbol A graphical representation of a component that contains information about the ports of the component. Each symbol has a corresponding textual interface file that contains the same information as the graphical representation. Both the symbol and interface files are views of the component. synthesis An EDA process which reads a high-level electronic design description and implements it at a lower level of abstraction. Synthesis tools typically include algorithms for logic optimization and technology retargeting. Legacy synthesis tools produce a gate-level implementation, at which point the design netlist is handed off to the IC layout process. More recent 127 developments have synthesis becoming more tightly integrated with the IC layout process in order to better achieve convergence of goals such as timing.

T technology flow A specific manufacturing line from design, fabrication, assembly, packaging, through to test in a given technology. testbench A custom model of the system environment used during the verification of a design to provide simulation inputs and respond to simulated outputs from the design under test. timing-driven design A methodology to achieve circuit performance goals, encompassing tools across the entire design flow. tool In the electronic design automation industry, a shorthand term for an EDA product. Generally consists of a software application, but in some cases may include specialized hardware, as in emulation, hardware acceleration, and rapid prototyping systems.

U user A person who uses application software and who is not the system administrator. In EDA, this person is generally an electronic engineer or a layout designer.

V VC (Virtual Component) A reusable block of semiconductor intellectual property (SIP). VCs may be soft (synthesizable), firm (parameterizable), or hard (where the layout is fixed, with only the I/Os visible to the design tools). verification The process of verifying the functional and performance requirements of a design, be it a chip, board, or system. Many different kinds of verification tools are in use today, including simulation, formal verification, various types of physical analysis tools, emulation, and rapid prototyping. Most design 128 verification strategies employ many or all of these approaches to assure the reliability of the final product prior to its manufacture.

W workstation A desktop computer which has sufficient capabilities to run as a standalone system, but which is typically connected to a network to gain access to other computing resources, peripherals, and communications.

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Educational Edition

Национальный исследовательский Томский политехнический университет

КОЖЕМЯК Олеся Анатольевна ОГОРОДНИКОВ Дмитрий Николаевич

АВТОМАТИЗИРОВАННОЕ ПРОЕКТИРОВАНИЕ ЭЛЕКТРОННЫХ УСТРОЙСТВ

Учебное пособие Издательство Томского политехнического университета, 2014 На английском языке

Published in author’s version

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