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Tethyan oceans
Gt~RARD M. STAMPFLI Institut de GOologie et Paldontologie, UniversitO de Lausanne, BFSH2-CH 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland (e-mail: [email protected])
Abstract: Diachronous subsidence patterns of Tethyan margins since the Early Palaeozoic provide constraints for paleocontinental reconstructions and the opening of disappeared oceans. Palaeotethys opening can be placed from Ordovician to Silurian times and corresponds to the detachment of a ribbon-like Hun Superterrane along the Gondwanan margin. Neotethys opening took place from Late Carboniferous to late Early Permian from Australia to the eastern Mediterranean area. This opening corresponds to the drifting of the Cimmerian superterrane and the final closing of Palaeotethys in Middle Triassic times. Northward subduction of Palaeotethys triggered the opening of back-arc oceans along the Eurasian margin from Austria to the Pamirs. The fate of these Permo-Triassic marginal basins is quite different from areas to area. Some closed during the Eocimmerian collisional event (Karakaya, Agh-Darband), others (Meliata) stayed open and their delayed subduc- tion induced the opening of younger back-arc oceans (Vardar, Black Sea). The subduction of the Neotethys mid-ocean ridge was certainly responsible for a major change in the Jurassic plate tectonics. The Central Atlantic ocean opened in Early Jurassic time and extended eastwards into the Alpine Tethys in an attempt to link up with the Eurasian back- arc oceans. When these marginal basins started to close the Atlantic system had to find another way, and started to open southwards and northwards, slowly replacing the Tethyan ocean by mountain belts.
There is still some confusion about what Stampfli & Mosar (1999). Regarding the Alpine Tethys existed at what time (e.g. Seng6r 1985). domain s.str., the reader is referred to Stampfli A consensus exists, however, regarding the (1993) and Stampfli & Marchant (1997), which presence of a mainly Palaeozoic ocean north of discuss the opening of the Piemont and Valais the Cimmerian continent(s): the Palaeotethys, Oceans. The Late Variscan evolution of the a younger Late Palaeozoic-Mesozoic ocean western Tethyan realm is discussed in Stampfli located south of this continent - the Neotethys (1996), a review paper with a large reference list - and finally a Middle Jurassic ocean - the about the southern Variscan domains. Alpine Tethys (Favre & Stampfli 1992; Stampfli & Marchant 1997), an extension of the Central Atlantic, which broke through the Pangea supercontinent. These three oceanic realms Some definitions form the Tethyan domain s.l. extending from The first geodynamically correct definition of Morocco to the Far East ($engOr & Hsti the main Tethyan oceans, based on extensive 1984). field work in the Middle East, was given by The subsidence history of these oceans to St6cklin (1974). He recognized a Late Palaeo- support this group's proposed paleocontinental zoic?-Triassic oceanic realm cutting through the reconstructions is discussed here. These recon- epi-Baikalian (Pan-African-Gondwanan) Plat- structions have been done in the frame of the form and separating the Iranian Plate from IGCP 369 project and the EUROPROBE- Arabia - which he called Neotethys - and PANCARDI project to serve as a basis for another older oceanic realm separating the discussion. Through the ongoing process of Iranian epi-Baikalian (Panafrican) domain data collection these reconstructions have from the Variscan Turan domain to the north - evolved and will, it is hoped, evolve further to which he called Palaeotethys. give a larger consensus about their validity. Following this proposal, an investigation of These reconstructions are presently displayed the eastern Alborz Range was begun (Stampfli on the website in Lausanne (www.sst.unil.ch), 1978), effectively defining it as a potential focusing mainly on the western Tethyan realm southern margin of St6cklin's (1974) Palaeo- and the Alpine domain. The arguments which tethys ocean. The opening of this Palaeozoic led to the present state of these reconstruction ocean was placed in Silurian time. At the are found in Stampfli et al. (1998 a, b, 2000) and same time, the ophiolites of Mashhad were
From: BOZKURT,E., WINCHESTER,J. A. & PIPER, J. D. A. (eds) Tectonics and Magmatism in Turkey and the Surrounding Area. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 173, 1-23.1-86239-064-9/00/$15.00 © The Geological Society of London 2000. Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 29, 2021
2 G.M. STAMPFLI recognized as most likely pertaining to the Precambrian basement; they can be regarded as Palaeotethys suture [see the review of Ruttner syn- to post-rift deposits of the northern margin (1993) concerning these ophiolites]. of Neotethys. The development of greenschist The drifting of the Irano-Afghan Block from facies metamorphic conditions in these areas Gondwana to Laurasia was then clearly recog- may be related to the Permian Neotethyan nized and constrained by the evolution of the rifting phase, or to younger intrusive events microflora of the Iranian Block from a Gondwa- (Berberian & Berberian 1981) when these nan affinity in Carboniferous time (Coquel et al. regions became part of the northern Neotethyan 1977; Chateauneuf & Stampfli 1979) to a Eur- active margin. asian affinity in Late Triassic time (Corsin & St6ckiin's (1974) original definition of Palaeo/ Stampfli 1977). The Eocimmerian Orogeny was tethys is therefore correct; it separates the also defined in Iran at that time, as a result of the Variscan domain from the epi-Baikalian (Pan- closing Palaeotethys and Middle Triassic col- African) domain and its closure in Triassic times lision of the Iranian Block with the Eurasian produced the Eocimmerian tectonic event Turan Block (Stampfli 1978). which is always found south of the Variscan This concept was later extended further west domain. The complete Triassic closure of (Turkey) and east (Tibet, Far East) by SengOr Palaeotethys on an Iranian transect was proven (1979, 1984); who defined the Cimmerian Block later on by paleomagnetic studies (e.g. Schmidt as a ribbon-like microcontinent separating Neo- & Soffel 1984; Lemaire 1997; Soffel & F6rster tethys from Palaeotethys ($eng0r & Hst~ 1984), 1984), confirming the conclusions reached pre- he also defined, at the same time, the Cimmer- viously based on floral and microfloral distri- ian deformation as non-Hercynian or post- bution (e.g. Corsin & Stampfli 1977). Hercynian. SengOr's definition of Palaeo- and As proposed by SengOr (1979), the Cimmer- Neotethys (e.g. Seng6r 1989) is similar to St6ck- ian orogenesis was of collage type and never lin's (1974), with a major deviation which produced a large mountain belt. This can be became clearer with time - Seng6r viewed the explained by the presence of intra-oceanic arcs, opening of the Neotethys as the spreading of a back-arc marginal seas and oceanic plateaus, back-arc ocean. This proposal implied that the located between the Cimmerian and Eurasian Gondwana margin was an active margin in Plates (see below), which strongly reduced the Permo-Carboniferous times and that margin effects of crustal thickening. In many cases the would then belong to the Variscan domain s.1. Palaeotethys suture zone was used for the open- [the Podataksasi zone of Seng6r (1990, 1991)]. ing of Jurassic marginal oceans during the This assumption was based on an erroneous subduction of the Neotethys (e.g. Caspian Sea, interpretion of the uplift and erosion of the izmir-Ankara Suture), complicating somewhat Neotethys rift shoulders of northern India, the image one can reconstruct of the former Oman, Iran and Turkey as proof of Variscan geometry of the Palaeotethyan margins. deformation within the epi-Baikalian (Pan-Afri- can) domain (e.g. Oman - Michard 1982; SengOr 1990: India - Fuchs 1982; Bagati 1990: Turkey - The reconstructions Demirtash 1984). The geometry of this Permian Presented here are a set of maps, together with unconformity, its age compared to the rifting subsidence curves, for key times in the Palaeo- period, the geochemistry of associated basalts, zoic and Mesozoic. The plate reconstructions the sedimentary record and the geodynamic were computed by the GMAP (Geographic context, imply a synrift thermal uplift and not a Mapping and Palaeoreconstruction Package) contemporaneous orogenic event, as clearly program developed by Torsvik & Smethurst demonstrated in all these areas by thorough (1994). These maps are based mainly on a field work done in the last ten years (e.g. Mann review of the following articles and books: & Hanna 1990; Pillevuit 1993; Vannay 1993; Garzanti et al. 1994, 1996; Pillevuit et al. 1997). • palaeomagnetics - Embleton (1984), Klitgord Similarly, Ricou (1974) and Braud (1987) never & Schouten (1986), Rowley & Lottes (1988), spoke of Variscan deformation or metamorph- Van der Voo (1993) and Powell & Li (1994); ism concerning the Sanandaj-Sirjan Zone (the • palaeoreconstructions - Zonenshain et al. Iranian part of the Podataksasi Zone); they (1985), Ziegler (1988b), Hutchison (1989), regarded the metamorphic rocks of this region Ziegler (1990), Zonenshain et al. (1990), as a retrogressed epi-Baikalian basement [this is Baillie et al. (1994), Khain (1994a), Niocaill also indicated on the 1:1 000 000 map of Iran & Smethurst (1994), Seng0r & Natal'in (Huber & Eftekhar-Nezhad 1978)]. Lower (1996), Stampfli (1996) and Torsvik & Eide Permian limestones and volcanics rest on this (1998). Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 29, 2021
TETHYAN OCEANS 3
Most of the references concerning the palaeo- new cycle of sedimentation usually starting in zoic evolution of the Alpine s.l. region have Cambrian times. Was the Prototethys a mainly been taken from recent compilations, e.g.: Late Proterozoic ocean or a mainly Cambrian ocean? This is still an open question. This • Societ?a-Geologica-Italiana (1979); group's reconstructions suggest that Baltica- • IGCP project 5 - Flt~gel et al. (1987) and Sassi Siberia could have drifted away from Gond- & Zanferrari (1989); wana, opening the Prototethys in Early Palaeo- • IGCP project 276 - Baud et al. (1991b) and zoic time, a model also proposed by Torsvik & Carmignani & Sassi (1992); Eide (1998). •von Raumer & Neubauer (1993); The Early Palaeozoic subsidence curves from • IGCP project 369 (started in September 1994) Iran and India (Fig. 2; curves 2 and 3), possibly - see web site www.sst.unil.ch or associated to the Prototethys thermal subsi- www. g eomin, unibo, it/o rgv/igcp/igcp.htm ; dence, could also be interpreted as resulting • PANCARDI project (a Europrobe project from the formation of a flexural foreland basin started in 1994) - see web site in view of the accelerating subsidence. This, www.ge@s, uu.se/eprobe/. together with other arguments presently in A Pangaea A fit is used since the Late Carbon- review, led this group to propose the accretion iferous (Stampfli 1996). The Pangaea B concept of an arc to the Prototethyan margin in Ordo- (Irving 1977) could be applied for the Early vician times. Followed here the idea of Seng6r Carboniferous period, it would then slowly & Natal'in (1996) concerning the development grades into a Pangaea A position towards the at that time of a large intra-oceanic arc complex end of the Carboniferous. A Triassic Pangaea B, south of Siberia, the Kipchak Arc now forming proposed by some palaeomagnetic studies the Kazakhstan Plate. This arc was extended to (Muttoni et al. 1996; Lemaire 1997; Torq 1997), the south of Baltica and included in it were all is certainly not supported by geological evi- the Alpine basement elements which comprise dence, mainly regarding the 3000 km dextral Ordovician granites, sometimes associated with strike-slip motion during the Triassic sup- remnants of oceanic crust or even eclogites of posedly passing through Morocco. The feature that age (yon Raumer et al. 1993, 1998). The generally used to transform the Pangaea B in A Rheic ocean is then viewed as the back-arc is the Tizi-n-Test Fault Zone of the High Atlas, ocean located between Baltica and this Panal- but this has proven not to be a dextral but a pine Arc. The Mauretanian ocean would open sinistral Tertiary shear zone, and only of local at the same time, possibly also as a back-arc importance (Jenny 1983). Also, the lasting basin due to the drifting away of Avalonia from marine sedimentation and calc-alkaline volcan- the west coast of Africa. In view of its obduction ism in southern Europe until the Late Carbon- onto the Baltica passive margin, the Iapetus iferous-Early Permian [see the review of field ocean is represented here as a suprasubduction data in Stampfli (1996)] favour a Pangaea A zone ocean opening at the expense of an older model, because the Pangaea B model would ocean. imply a total closure of Palaeotethys up to the Caucasus before the Permian, but Late Carbon- iferous granites (De Bono 1998), or sedimentary Palaeotethys sequences, of Greece (e.g. Phyllite-quartzite Group: Krahl et al. 1983, 1986; Krahl 1992) are The gentle docking of the 'Pan-Alpine' Ordo- not affected by Variscan metamorphism. vician arc was immediately followed by the southward subduction of the fast-spreading Rheic ocean. After subduction of its mid-ocean ridge, slab roll-back affected the remnant Rheic Prototethys ocean and triggered the opening of Palaeotethys This as yet little known oceanic realm bordering (Fig. 3). The ribbon-like continent being drifted Gondwana on its North African to Australian away from Gondwana is therefore a composite side in Late Proterozoic and/or Early Palaeo- terrane that this group term the Hun Super- zoic time will not formally be defined here. It terrane [it contains most of the areas devastated could be characterized by the deposition of the by Attila!; see Stampfli (1996) and von Raumer 'Sinian' sedimentary cycle in many areas located et al. (1998)]. This Hun Terrane includes all the in the vicinity of this ocean, as shown in Fig. 1 fragments accreted to Europe during the Var- (Morocco, Arabia, Iran, India, China). Most of iscan cycle and it extended eastwards to the these areas are also affected by Pan-African Karakum (Turan) and Tarim areas, and possibly deformation, followed by the deposition of a to the north China Block. Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 29, 2021
4 G.M. STAMPFLI
SIBERIA
tf
f. / ,/i • .
SOUTH / .[' POLE GONDWANA : ? f <) ;,¢:° t • ~>:
. .4~4s'"
Fig. 1. Early Ordovician reconstruction, 490 Ma. The drifting of Baltica (including Ta, Taymir) and Siberia took place either from the south American side of Gondwana or the Indian side of Gondwana. Palaeomagnetic data do not provide enough constraints to decide on this. An intra-oceanic arc extends from Siberia to the south of Baltica [Ki, Kipchak Arc of ~engOr and Natal'in (1996); and the Hun Cordillera terranes). The opening of the associated back-arc oceans resulted in the seafloor spreading of the Rheic and Khanti-Mansi Oceans at the expense of Prototethys. The drifting of Avalonia (E-Av, W-Av) off the coast of western Africa probably opened the Rheic-Mauretanian Ocean at the same time. In Early Palaeozoic Gondwana is bordered by the following blocks. Hun Cordillera terranes: Early Palaeozoic active margin of the Hun composite terrane from west to east: OM, Ossa-Morena; Ch, Channel terrane; Sx, Saxo-Thuringian; Is, Istanbul; Po, Pontides; Li, Ligerian; Md, Moldanubian; MS, Moravo-Silesicum; He, Helvetic; sA, south Alpine; Pe, Penninic; AA, Austro-Alpine; Cr, Carpathian; Tn, north Tarim. Hun Gondwana terranes: blocks forming the northern margin of Palaeotethys, from west to east: Ib, Iberic; Ar, Armorica; Mo, Moesia; Ct, Cantabria; Aq, Aquitaine; A1, Alboran; Ia, intra- Alpine (Adria, Carnic, Austro-Carpathian); DH, Dinaric-Hellenic; Kr, Karakum-Turan; Pa, Pamirs; Ts, south Tarim; Qa, Qantang. The Cimmerian terrane: blocks forming the southern margin of Palaeotethys that were detached during the Late Permian opening of Neotethys, from west to east: Ap, Apulia s.str.; HT, Hellenides- western Taurides externides; Me, Menderes-Taurus; Ss, Sanandaj-Sirjan; A1, Alborz; Lt, Lut-Central Iran; Af, central Afghanistan; sT, south Tibet; SM, Sibu Masu. Anamian blocks: defining the future northern and southern branch of Paleotethys: nT, north Tibet; IC, Indochina and Borneo; sC, south China. Numbers 1-4 refer to the position of the subsidence curves of Fig. 2. Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 29, 2021
TETHYAN OCEANS 5
Ma 500 400 300 200 100 0
0-~ -v.o + ~I'' ' ..... +i+::+~: ...... ~ ...... ,' ~ - ~~-o--l--o /~+o------o iI N- F -.-.--o+ iii+i+ -o__. I ._.°T++s
~ 0 ~------~+~ ...... [ ...... ____J Eocimmerian 4-.~ _ I /~_ I I g ,b collision 1 +++ °°~eo-o.._._.oeo-o O.~ol_ .,.,1./ +i'++ ALBORZ 2 ~ \ I ~ I I+++ ~ 'wr',~ ++ --I \1 ~ I l++:i+++~ l- O,-.-.,.%-¢oloo-%+-% ~3 siden e e.---..o....% u 1 ;hretmtaelthybs 1 / / r- - ,e:i!ii~ I- --'-" ...... ++;++++++ IPO~-'II ++ii IO+'"OO-o'o- "-----O--o O.O@ LAHUL - ,~% , G+:
i+~+ O CANN,NG
@ ¢~ ,m
Fig. 2. Geohistory of the northern and southern margins of the Neotethys (southern margin of Palaeotethys) since the Cambrian. The stratigraphic data were collected for: curve 3 near the Neotethyan margin shoulder of northwest India, c. 100 km south of the Indus Suture Line in High Lahul (Vannay 1993); for curve 2 from the southeastern border of the Caspian Sea (Eastern Alborz Belt) near the Palaeotethyan margin shoulder in the Iranian Cimmerian Block (Stampfli 1978); and for curve i in the Central Taurus in Turkey, between the Palaeotethyan suture and the East Mediterranean oceanic realms (Demirtash 1984, 1989) (see palaeogeographic position in Ngs 1 and 3-5). The data for the Canning Basin are from AGSO (1995) and the timescale is from Gradstein & Ogg (1996).
Subsidence patterns of selected areas along Avalonia (east and west, including the Brabant the Palaeotethyan margins show that the ther- Terrane) drifted away from Gondwana before mal subsidence of this ocean was diachronous, the Hun Terranes. In contrast, the Armorican starting in the Early Ordovician from the east Terrane remained close to Gondwana until the (Australia-India) to Early Silurian in the west Ordovician (Perroud et al. 1984), when it (Turkey). From faunal (e.g. Robardet et al. accelerated its journey to collide with Laurussia 1994) and palaeomagnetic data, it appears that in the Devonian. Therefore, Armorica s.l. Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 29, 2021
6 G.M. STAMPFLI
~:7~" .+~-~ ..... •-SIBERIA ~c~--~~ -
• ~(~ BALTICA
. ~
P ; !/
POLE GONDWANA
! /" / +,:~Y ....
~, ,:~.
:\....~:J':~"
Fig. 3. Early Silurian reconstruction, 435 Ma. Baltica and Avalonia have been accreted to Laurentia-Barentsia (Ba) and the Pan-Alpine Arc accreted to Gondwana. The opening of Palaeotethys separated the Hun Superterrane from Gondwana. This opening took place in a context of diachronous back-arc spreading and slab roll-back of the Rheic Ocean. See Fig. 1 for the legend of the terranes. 1-4, Position of the subsidence curves of Fig. 2.
(Brioveria) is included in the Hun Superterrane similar stratigraphic evolution to that of the and is placed north of North Africa based on Gondwana margin in Iran (Alborz) or Turkey palaeomagnetic data (see Torsvik & Eide 1998), (Taurus) from the Silurian to the Carboniferous; which show a separation of Armorica from they are interpreted as representing the north- Gondwana not before Early Silurian. ern Palaeotethyan margin (Stampfli 1996). Therefore, the Hun Superterrane is spread During the Carboniferous, terranes derived over a relatively large palaeolatitudinal area from the Hun Superterrane developed pelagic (from 60 ° south to the equator); large changes sedimentation followed by flysch deposits of facies are expected between Armorica and before being accreted to the Avalonia-Baltica terranes now found in the Alps (e.g. Carnic and margin. On the contrary, carbonate platform Austroalpine domain). For terranes located sedimentation continued along the Gondwana within the tropical zone (Alps, Spain, southern margin until the Namurian-Moscovian in North France) it can be shown that they present a very Africa (Lys 1986; Vachard et al. 1991), with Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 29, 2021
TETHYAN OCEANS 7
pelagic sedimentation persisting until Permian 4), the Permian margin of southeast Europe is of time in the Sicanian basin located north of Sicily a transform type and little subduction took (Catalano et al. 1988, 1992; Kozur 1990). East of place along that margin at that time. However, a Palaeo-Apulian promontory [southern the slab roll-back of Palaeotethys rapidly Greece, Turkey, Iran; see Vai (1991)], the car- induced 'back-arc' rifting along the whole bonate platform lasted until Early-Middle margin after Late Permian times. East of the Triassic. This shows a diachronous closure of palaeo-Apulian promontory, this back-arc rift- Palaeotethys from Moscovian to Early Triassic ing graded into seafloor spreading of the time from Morocco to Greece, along what was Maliak-Meliata marginal ocean (Kozur 1991). certainly a very oblique convergence zone. The western end of the Meliata Rift (Southern Alps-Ivrea) aborted in Late Permian, whilst its eastern part (Maliak-Meliata-Dobrogea) The Variscan and Eocimmerian event spread [e.g. Early Triassic mid-ocean ridge basalt (MORB) pillow lava of N-Dobrogea; and the marginal oceans Niculitel formation: Cioflica et al. (1980), In Europe, the 'Variscides collisional processes' Seghedi et al. (1990) and Nicolae & Seghedi are generally regarded as extending from the (1996)]. This Early Triassic seafloor spreading is Early Devonian to the Late Carboniferous, and accompanied by a marked thermal subsidence the 'Tethyan cycle' (opening of the Alpine along the Pelagonian northern margin (Fig. 7, Tethys-Central Atlantic system) as not starting curve 6). At Meliata, the oceanic series are not before mid-Triassic times. An apparent lack of older than mid-Triassic (Kozur 1991), but these major tectonic events during the Permian and oceanic remnants represent the accretion- Triassic southwestern Europe, or in the Appala- obduction of the Meliata Ridge during its chian domain, documents the welding of Gond- subduction, implying an older age for the onset wana with Laurasia to form the Permian of seafloor spreading. Pangaea. But the Variscan domain extends In the Dinaro-Hellenide domain (Fig. 6), the over the whole Alpine area and even further in Late Carboniferous arc (Pelagonia) collided the Dinarides and Hellenides, northern Turkey directly with the Gondwanan margin (Stampfli and the Caucasus. It also extends in time, with et al. 1995, 1998a; Vavassis et al. 1997). On the deformations becoming younger, possibly grad- contrary, the Karakaya domain in northern ing into Eocimmerian (Triassic) deformations Turkey ($eng6r et al. 1980; Okay & Mostler southwards and eastwards. As shown in Fig. 4, 1994) is a complex Cimmerian deformation in the Late Carboniferous, the Palaeotethyan zone representing first the closure of Palaeo- domain was not fully closed in southeast Europe tethys between an oceanic plateau (Nil0fer and even persisted till the Early Triassic in the Formation) and the Gondwana margin, then Hellenides [phyllite-quartzite Group; Krahl et the closing of the Karakaya Back-arc and its al. (1983, 1986), Krahl (1992) and Stampfli et al. northward thrusting on the Variscan Sakarya (2000)], and Middle Triassic times further East margin of Eurasia (see Okay 2000). Therefore, (e.g. Alborz Chain in Iran) (Fig. 5). the Karakaya and K0re back-arc sequences Stampfli et al. (1991) and Stampfli (1996) (Usta6mer & Robertson 1994, 1997, 1999) are discussed this diachronous closure of the large not remnants of the Palaeotethys s.str. (see Palaeotethys ocean, insisting on the likely de- Kozur 1997b) but they represent a Mariana- velopment of back-arc oceans or basins within type marginal ocean developing south of the the Permo-Triassic Eurasian margin. From the Sakarya margin. During the Cimmerian col- Palaeo-Apulian promontory eastwards it is lision event, the Late Permian-Early Triassic quite clear that an Eocimmerian domain of Karakaya-K0re back-arc ocean subducted deformation is found just south of a relatively southwards ($eng6r et al. 1980; T0ysiiz 1990; undeformed Variscan domain, which is repre- Pickett & Robertson 1996), but the former sented by a Late Carboniferous-Early Permian subduction of Palaeotethys was to the north, arc and clastic sedimentation of Verrucano type, under Eurasia, as clearly demonstrated in Iran mainly affected by extension. In contrast, the (Stampfli 1978; Ruttner 1993), Afghanistan Cimmerian deformations are accompanied by (Boulin 1988) and in the Pontides (see Triassic flysch, m61anges and volcanics (Stampfli Usta6mer & Robertson 1999). et al. 1995, 1998a) and even collisional-type Late Permian-Middle Triassic back-arc intrusive events (Reischmann 1998), marking basins are also known eastwards in the Cau- the closing of either Palaeotethys or the mar- casus (Nikishin et al. 2000), northeast Iran [e.g. ginal oceans. the Agh-Darband sequence; Baud & Stampfli As shown by the plate reconstructions (Fig. (1989) and Baud et al. (1991a)], northern Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 29, 2021
8 G.M. STAMPFLI
.....:¢iih~':/. /
~::~i~~z~: /" /" 7 ~ ~.~:~ / / //
- -- i'L..... ,,:L /4
,] " / / .X _A-- ~--
'!::i /GONDWANA /
~ p-.
Fig. 4. Carboniferous-Permian boundary reconstruction, 290 Ma. As the Palaeotethys mid-ocean ridge is moving eastward, slab roll-back of the western Palaeotethys induces the collapse of the Variscan Orogen in southern Europe. This led eventually to the opening of back-arc rifts in the active Eurasian margin (see Fig. 5). See Fig. i for legend. Kz (Kazakhstan) is derived from the Kipchak Arc. 1-4, Position of the subsidence curves of Fig. 2.
Afghanistan (Boulin 1988) and in the Pamirs sides of the suture in Turkey - where they rest (Khain 1994a, b; Leven 1995). Due to the unconformably on older sequences [Karakaya collision of the Cimmerian blocks with the or Sakarya basement in the Pontides - Koqyi~it Eurasian margin (e.g. Stampfli et al. 1991; Alavi (1987) and Altlner et al. (1991): Triassic or et al. 1997; Fig. 6), these back-arc basins dis- Palaeozoic strata in the Taurus - Monod & appeared during the Late Triassic. Along the Akay (1984)]. In Iran they are represented by Cimmerian orogen, development of a carbon- the Shemshak Formation which also extends ate platform resumed in the Norian or Liassic, northwards on the Turan Plate (Stampfli 1978). marking the end of this orogenic cycle. The For the opening and oceanization of the Upper Late Triassic-Liassic deposits usually Meliata Rift, the main geodynamic factor used start with continental clastics derived from the is the thermal subsidence, which affected the Cimmerian elevations - they are found on both whole Austro-Alpine domain and other internal Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 29, 2021
TETHYAN OCEANS 9
Fig. 5. Permian-Triassic boundary reconstruction, 248 Ma. The slab roll-back of the whole Palaeotethys induced the opening of back-arc oceans in the active Eurasian margin [Meliata, Karakaya (Ka) and Agh- Darband (Ag)] and the strong slab-pull force is opening the Neotethys Ocean. This opening is separating the Cimmerian Superterrane from Gondwana. See Fig. 1 for legend. 1-4, Position of the subsidence curves of Fig. 2. parts of the Alps since the Permian-Triassic subsidence curves 7 and 8 in Fig. 7). This Middle boundary, implying a rifting phase just before Triassic tectonic pulse is well established in the that time (Fig. 7). This subsidence induced the Dolomites where it is also accompanied by the deposition of a more or less complete Triassic emplacement of diapirs (Castellarin et al. 1996). sequence, usually conformable on an Upper Without the presence of the Maliak-Meliata Permian clastic sequence, presenting a large Ocean it would be difficult to explain the diversity of facies and thicknesses locally ap- development of such a large-scale carbonate proaching 3-4 km (e.g. Bernoulli 1981; Haas et platform and marginal sequences before the al. 1995). This diversity is also linked to the opening of the Atlantic-Alpine Tethys system counter-effect of the Eocimmerian deformation in the Early-Middle Jurassic. As can be seen which induced local inversion or flexure of pre- from figure 7, this opening had no effect on all existing basins, mainly in the southern margin of these peri-Apulian regions. Meliata, and in the aborted part of the rift (e.g. Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 29, 2021
10 G.M. STAMPFLI
Fig. 6. Carnian reconstruction of the western Tethyan area. AL, Alborz; Ap, Apulia s.str.; Bd, Bey Da~lan; Cn, Carnic Alps; Do, Dobrogea; eP, east Pontides; GR, autochthonous of Greece; Is, Istanbul; La, Lagonegro; LT, Lut-Tabas; Mn, Menderes, Taurus; Mo, Moesia; Rh, Rhodope; Si, Sicannian Basin; Sk, Sakarya; SS, Sanandaj- Sirjan; Tu, Tuscan Nappes. * Magmatic arc activity north of Neotethys and post-collisional volcanism south of Meliata. The Palaeotethys Suture is represented by a dashed line. 5-9, Position of the subsidence curves of Fig. 7.
Neotethys A new interpretation showing that the East Mediterranean domain corresponded to an Although the geodynamic evolution of the oceanic basin since the Late Palaeozoic has Neotethys Ocean is now relatively well con- been proposed by Stampfli (1989). Sub- strained, mainly through the recent findings of sequently, new plate tectonic reconstructions well-dated Wordian MORB in Oman (Pillevuit considering this basin as part of the Neotethyan 1993; Pillevuit et al. 1997), its relationship with oceanic system have been developed (Stampfli the East Mediterranean Basin is more debat- et al. 1991, 2000; Stampfli & Pillevuit 1993) able. The Neotethys separated the Cimmerian (Figs 5 and 6). This is supported by: (1) geo- microcontinent(s) from Gondwana between the physical characteristics of the Ionian Sea and latest Palaeozoic and the earliest Tertiary, fol- East Mediterranean Basin (isostatic equilib- lowing a diachronous opening from east to west rium, seismic velocities, elastic thickness), (Figs 2 and 5). Depending on the authors, the excluding an age of the seafloor younger than East Mediterranean-Ionian Sea basin is re- Early Jurassic; (2) subsidence patterns of areas garded as opening in the Late Palaeozoic (Vai such as the Sinai margin, the Tunisian Jeffara 1994) or as late as the Cretaceous (e.g. Dercourt Rift, and Sicily and Apulia s.str. (Stampfli et al. et al. 1985, 1993). Most people would regard this 2000) (Fig. 7), confirming a Late Permian onset ocean as opening in Late Triassic or Early of thermal subsidence for the East Mediter- Jurassic (e.g. Robertson & Woodcock 1980; ranean and Ionian Sea basins and the absence Garfunkel & Derin 1984; Seng6r et al. 1984; of younger thermal events; (3) Triassic MORB Finetti 1985) and therefore possibly being found in Cyprus in the Mamonia complex related to the Alpine Tethys-Atlantic opening. (Malpas et al. 1993), certainly derived from the However, as shown in Fig. 7, the Alpine Tethys East Mediterranean sea-floor, although a more opening has no tectonic or thermal effect on exotic nature of these basalts (from the Neo- areas located around the Ionian Sea, although a tethys) cannot be excluded; and (4) Upper Jurassic extensional phase is clearly recognized Permian Hallstatt-type pelagic limestone, simi- along the Levant Transform margin (Gaffunkel lar to those found in Oman where they some- 1998; Stampfli et al. 2000). times rest directly on MORB (Pillevuit 1993; Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 29, 2021
TETHYAN OCEANS 11
I 200 I 150 100 50 0 t'Vl~ I o.o. I [ ..... IN I 0
i!!i!i!i~ili!i!i!i!i!i!' • ~il iil;il (!!} PELAGONIA 1
DRA PLATFORM 3 s ..... s ...... i ~'U ...... ~ ...... i ...... ~ C } DOLOMTES , i!iii~iiii~i!i!iiiiiii~ iiiiiiiiiiiii~i!ii:i iiiiil;iiiiii! iiii~iilL~i[:il)i:)~ iiiii!iiiiiii!i?i ...... o ) ~i ~:i~ AMANDA 1 1 2 I '~ NN .@i ~LIA 1 - GARGAN( DEEP MIXED 2 m~ . iNi o ~%~ GELA 1 2 3 4 Fig. 7. Circum-Apulia tectonic subsidence curves modified from Stampfli & Mosar (1999). The curves for Pelagonia are from De Bono (1998) and the timescale is from Gradstein & Ogg (1996). Niko et al. 1996), have also been reported from a Late Permian direct deep-water connection the Sosio Complex (Kozur 1995) in Sicily. This of the East Mediterranean Basin with the Late Permian pelagic macrofauna presents affi- Neotethys. nities with both Oman and Timor, and implies Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 29, 2021 12 G.M. STAMPFLI The Alpine Tethys, the Central Atlantic spreading and thermal subsidence in this and the Vardar Maghrebide Ocean is well exemplified by the subsidence curve from the Rif area (Favre & Field work in the Canary Islands and in Mor- Stampfli 1992; Favre 1995) (Fig. 9). occo (Favre et al. 1991; Favre & Stampfli 1992; The rotation of Africa relative to Europe Steiner et al. 1998) has allowed the onset of after the Late Triassic induced the subduction seafloor spreading to be dated as Toarcian in of the Meliata Ocean under the young Neo- the northern part of the central Atlantic. Similar tethys oceanic crust. This intra-oceanic subduc- subsidence patterns between this region and the tion gave birth to the Vardar Ocean, which had Lombardian Basin (Figs 9 and 11) led to the totally replaced the Meliata Ocean by the end of proposal of a direct connection between these the Jurassic. The Vardar Ocean obducted south- two areas (Fig. 8). The Lombardian Basin ward onto the Pelagonian margin in the Late aborted (Bertotti et al. 1993) as it could not link Jurassic (Fig. 7), then subducted northward up with the Meliata Ocean whose already cold under Moesia, finally opening the Black Sea in oceanic lithosphere was rheologically unbreak- the Late Cretaceous, and it represents the third able relative to surrounding continental areas. generation of back-arc opening in that region. Therefore, the Alpine Tethys rift opened along the Meliata northern margin separating the future Austro-Carpathian domain from The North Atlantic and the Valais Europe. Thermal subsidence and spreading Ocean started in Aalenian time in the west (Fig. 9) [the Brianqonnais margin of Stampfli & March- Since the Early Cretaceous (Fig. 10), there has ant (1997) and Stampfli et al. (1998b)] and been no possibility for the Atlantic mid-ocean Bajocian time eastward [the Austro-Alpine ridge to link up eastwards with another ocean. margin of Froitzheim & Manatschal (1996) and A last attempt was made through the opening Bill et al. (1997)]. The Alpine Tethys was linked of the Valais and Biscay Oceans, but by the to the Eurasian back-arc basins located further end of the Santonian the break-up between east through the Moesian-Dobrogean Trans- North America and Greenland had taken place form. and then, in Campanian time, the Biscay A transform ocean linked up the central Ocean aborted (Ziegler 1988a, b). Closing of Atlantic and the Alpine Tethys delayed seafloor the Valais Ocean took place during the opening Fig. 8. Sinemurian reconstruction of the western Tethyan area. AA, Austro-Alpine; CA, Inner Carpathian; IzAnSi, Izmir-Ankara Ocean; MO, Moesia; Va, Vardar. *, Magmatic arc activity. Palaeogeography modified after Ziegler 1988a. 9-21, Position of the subsidence curves of Figs 7, 9 and 11. Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 29, 2021 TETHYAN OCEANS 13 250 230 210 190 170 150 130 110 90 70 Ma t ° i, ~:~ PR£ALPES MEDIANES ~2 ¢ Arbostora i3 om i~i~ LOMBARDBASIN Generoso =m 0 "~ o m ~ RIF MARGIN 0.5 °~ ~ ~ o.5 ~.~ii;:~ARGANA S 1 / ' 1.5 ~-S AI L Cl ~ S~P~ To IA[ Bi Igt C O]OKIT,'~V Bj-H~AD], AI CelT[CSI CI Fig. 9. Subsidence pattern of the Central Atlantic, Alpine Tethys system. Curve 10 (Pr6alpes M6dianes Basin) is from Mosar et aL (1996); curves 11 (Lombard Basin) are modified from Greber et al. (1997); curve 12 (Rif) is from Favre (1995); and curves 13 have been calculated from the data of Ambroggi (1961), Adams et al. (1980) and Du Dresnay (1988). The timescale is from Gradstein & Ogg (1996). of the Gulf of Biscay and subduction of the the inversion phase of pre-existing fault- Alpine Tethys certainly started at the same bounded basins in many areas in Europe time (Stampfli & Marchant 1997; Stampfli et al. (Ziegler 1990). 1998b). Figures 10 and 11 show how different parts of Therefore, spreading of the Valais Ocean was southwest Europe or Iberia have been affected short lived (Fig. 11). Its closure during the by these diverse rifting phases: the interpret- opening of the Biscay Ocean was only partial ation of these curves, however, requires a (there was no collision of the Brian~onnais good knowledge of their initial position, some Peninsula with the Helvetic margin in the Late areas being mainly thermally influenced Cretaceous), but this event marks the onset of whereas others are more affected by faulting Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 29, 2021 14 G.M. STAMPFLI an~al~ 34) \(~!iiii~i!i!iiiiiii!ii!:~!i.. Fig. 10 Santonian reconstruction of the western Tethyan area. 10-21, Position of the subsidence curves of Fig. 11. and extension of the upper crust. Generally ophiolites (Semail Nappe in Oman) which speaking, all the areas shown on these figures obducted onto that margin. These peri-Arabian have been affected by the opening of the North ophiolites correspond to the obduction of a Atlantic and Valais Ocean system in Late younger intra-oceanic Cretaceous offspring of Jurassic times. Neotethys (the Semail Ocean). Therefore, the northern margin of that Semail Ocean is the former northern active margin of Neotethys. Around the Arabic promontory (e.g. Maden Discussion - Tethys sutures in Turkey Complex; Aktas & Robertson 1984) and in Figure 12 shows a simplified tectonic map of the Cyprus (Robertson & Xenophontos 1993), this Aegean-Mediterranean area with the major younger ocean closed during the Palaeogene. In sutures indicated as broad lines. The present Oman this ocean is not yet closed (Sea of back-stop of the East Mediterranean subduction Oman) and is still subducting under the zone (e.g. Cyprus, Crete) is regarded as the Makran active margin. western extension of the Neotethys suture as As the East Mediterranean subduction zone found along the peri-Arabian ophiolitic zone (Aegean active margin) is certainly not older (Ricou 1971) in Syria (e.g. Delaune-Mayere than Miocene, it does not represent the western 1984), southern Turkey (e.g. Michard et al. continuation of the Neotethys active margin. In 1984), Iraq and Iran (e.g. Ricou 1974; Braud our structural scheme, a possible extension of 1987), and Oman (e.g. Bernoulli & Weissert this Late Cretaceous-Palaeogene active margin 1987; Robertson & Searle 1990; Pillevuit et al. westward under the Lycian Nappes, linking up 1997). This obvious connection actually implies the Antalya Suture with the Axios Vardar Zone, that the Neotethys ocean does continue into the is proposed. This connection is necessary to East Mediterranean Basin, as discussed above, provide a western limit to the Greater Apulian and provides a direct link between the pelagic Block (Apulia; autochthonous and para-autoch- Permian deposits from Sicily and their equiva- thonous units of the Dinarides and Hellenides, lent in Oman. Bey Da~larl Block). This limit corresponds to Actually, the Neotethys suture is composite the former transform that separated Neotethys and it contains the remnants of the southern from Meliata (Figs 6 and 8). passive margin of Neotethys (Hawasina Basin in In this scheme, the Izmir-Ankara Suture Oman), as well as remnants of Cretaceous represents a Jurassic back-arc ocean related to Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 29, 2021 TETHYAN OCEANS 15 Ma25o 200 50 0 0 N-AmericanT e~~:.~. JEANNE D'ARc plate 1000 ~ BASIN 2000 1 Atlant. eading 3000 _~i~'!~LUSlTANIAN ' "~ BASIN 4000m 1 Iberic plate 0 !~'i LJANTABRIAN E= ~0 ~I BASIN c- o x.o ¢ spreading E~ ~i~$ AQUITAINE %$"~ BASIN ,.~.- PARIS BASIN SENNELY ._o ~ c~ 00 • PROVENCE BASIN European plate @ ~PROVENCE PLATFORM, NICE ii~iii~!i4ii!i:i iFiiilii ~-%#_ SWISS PLATEAU HELVETIC EAST -I g-~ • I ~ :~I ~j ~e • "',e,.L ~ii~ ii = I / i~ii iili ~ ~:i~PRI~ALPESMEDIANES Central Atlantic ii ~~ ~'~BASIN thermal subd. ~I / Iberic-Brian~onnais Alpine Tethysi. ~'~'e= / thermal subs.i~ • plate Valais spreading Fig. 11. Circum Iberia subsidence curves, modified from Borel (1998), curves 14 and 15 are modified from Wildi et al. (1989). The timescale is from Gradstein & Ogg (1996). Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 29, 2021 16 G.M. STAMPFLI Front of Axios-Vardar obduction Meliata Balkan suture 1 ~~" _N~s-Va 46 ~::. - ure• -\ 42 Izmir ,Ankara suture 40 F~D 32 200km 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 3'0 32 34 36 Mercator projection Fig. 12. Tectonic map of the eastern Mediterranean area showing major suture zones. Black areas represent major ophiolitic outcrops. A more complete coloured map can be found at this group's website (www- sst.unil.ch). the northward subduction of Neotethys since margin. In that sense, the izmir-Ankara Suture Late Triassic, this back-arc basin opened within is not the Neotethys suture. the complex Karakaya-Palaeotethys Suture The intra-Pontides (Okay et aL 1996), Zone. It followed the collapse of the Eocimmer- Meliata-Balkan Suture is of Cretaceous age ian Orogen and reseparated the Cimmerian and corresponds to the collision of a Vardarian Tauric-Menderes Block from Eurasia. This arc with the Rhodope-Moesian Plate inducing suture, characterized by its 'coloured m61anges' the folding and northward thrusting of the (Gansser 1960), can be followed up to the Balkanide units (Georgiev et al. 1997; Tari et al. Iranian border. In Turkey, closure of the 1997). The Axios-Vardar Suture is the final izmir-Ankara Ocean postdates the Late Cre- Late Cretaceous-Palaeocene suture of the taceous ophiolite obduction found on its Vardar. The latter obducted onto the Pela- southern passive margin (Gutnic et al. 1979; gonian margin in Late Jurassic times - the front Okay et aL 1996; Demirel & Kozlu 1998; Collins of this obduction is shown in Fig. 12. The Axios- & Robertson 1998). Development of a new Vardar Palaeogene Suture was somehow con- accretionary wedge along its northern margin is nected to the Izmir-Ankara Suture of similar placed in the Middle Campanian and the final age, although, the two domains were separated closure in the Eocene (e.g. Norman 1984; by the former Meliata-Neotethys transform. Koqyi~it 1991). Similar coloured m61anges are In Fig. 12, the transported Palaeotethys also found in Iran where they grade into Palaeo- suture in the Dinaro-Hellenides Zone is shown gene flysch, followed by the main Eocene un- by a dashed line following the Budva-Pindos conformity; they separate the Sanandaj-Sirjan Zone under which it is hidden (De Bono 1998). Block from the central and north Iranian blocks The Palaeotethys Suture Zone in Turkey is (StOcklin 1968,1974, 1977, 1981). Therefore, the possibly found in Chios and the Karaburun Cretaceous coloured m61anges in Turkey and Peninsula (Kozur 1997a); further east it would Iran are clearly disconnected from the Neoteth- be located in the vicinity of the izmir-Ankara yan suture, and are located within the Eurasian Suture Zone. Following Late Triassic or Jurassic margin to the north of the Neotethys active opening of the latter, Palaeotethyan elements Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on September 29, 2021 TETHYAN OCEANS 17 could have been dispersed on both sides of the described oceans in the eastern Mediterranean [zmir-Ankara Rift. So far, most Palaeotethyan area. It clearly shows that the Neotethys suture elements have been described from the north- s.str, is located to the south of Turkey. The ern side of that suture. [zmir-Ankara Suture is not the Neotethys suture, it is the suture of a marginal ocean located within the Neotethyan active margin. In a southeast transect of Europe, it can be Conclusions seen how the Variscan Orogen evolved into Palaeocontinental reconstructions show that a Early and Late Cimmerian deformations. The large oceanic space (Palaeotethys) remained rather clear situation found in the Appalachians open south of the Variscides until Late Palaeo- cannot be extrapolated much further than wes- zoic time. The Devonian-mid-Carboniferous tern Iberia, where Laurentia and Gondwana collisional processes in Europe were related to collided in the Carboniferous-Early Permian. accretion of the Hun Superterrane to Avalonia- In the rest of Europe, this collision never Baltica. This terrane presents strong affinities happened as such. There was a collision be- with the Palaeotethyan passive margin tween the Eurasian active margin and terranes sequences found, for example, in northern Iran derived from Gondwana. One has to wait for (Alborz). The latter is regarded as representing the anticlockwise rotation of Africa in the Cre- the southern margin of this ocean, the Hun taceous to see a collision between Europe and Superterrane the northern margin. This north- Africa, giving birth to the Alpine Orogen. ern margin was separated from Gondwana in Ordovician-Silurian times. After the accretion I would like to acknowledge helpful input from G. of the Hun Superterrane to Europe, between Borel, C. Steiner and A. De Bono for the subsidence the Late Devonian and Early Carboniferous, curves for the Alpine and Hellenide regions, and Jon subduction jumped south into the Palaeotethys. Mosar for the elaboration of the palaeoreconstruc- tions. This is a contribution to the FNRS project 2000- Northward subduction of the Palaeotethys is 53646.98 'Geodynamics of Tethyan margins'. A. H. F. responsible for Upper Carboniferous calc-alka- Robertson and A. i. Okay reviewed this manuscript, I line intrusions and volcanism found everywhere thank them for their constructive remarks and for in the Variscan Alpine domain. Closure of the sharing their knowledge of the Mediterranean area Palaeotethys was achieved after the Namurian with me. north of Africa but was diachronous going east- wards. East of a Palaeo-Apulian promontory, subduction continued into the Permian and generated the opening of the Maliak-Meliata References and Karakaya-Ktire marginal Oceans. ADAMS, E., AGER, D. V. & HARDING, A. G. 1980. Concomitant Late Permian opening of the G6ologie de la r6gion d'Imouzzer des Ida-ou- marginal Meliata Ocean (within the Eurasian Tanane (Haut Atlas occidental). Notes Service margin) and Neotethys (within the northern gdologique Maroc, 41/285, 59-80. Gondwana margin) accelerated the closure of AGSO 1995. Preservation of old accumulations - key the Palaeotethys in the Dinaro-Hellenide to Canning hydrocarbon exploration. AGSO region. 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