Medieval Bourgeois Tenement Houses As an Archetype for Contemporary Architectural and Construction Solutions: the Example of Historic Downtown Gda ´Nsk

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Article Medieval Bourgeois Tenement Houses as an Archetype for Contemporary Architectural and Construction Solutions: The Example of Historic Downtown Gda ´nsk

Antoni Taraszkiewicz, Karol Gr˛ebowski* , Karolina Taraszkiewicz and Jarosław Przewłócki

Faculty of Architecture, Technical University of Gda´nsk,80-233 Gda´nsk,Poland; [email protected] (A.T.); [email protected] (K.T.); [email protected] (J.P.) * Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: The basic urban tissue of medieval European cities consisted of brick townhouses. In the cities of northern Europe, these tenements were characterised by a block based on an elongated rectangular plan, covered with a gable roof with a ridge oriented perpendicularly to the street. The side walls of the tenement house were common for both neighbours and constituted a basic structural element. The gable façades were not loaded with ceilings, providing freedom in shaping them. The aim of this work is to determine the reasons why this method of shaping tenement houses in historical city centres has survived to the present day, becoming an archetype for contemporary architectural and construction solutions, despite the passage of time, numerous historical events, Citation: Taraszkiewicz, A.; war damage, changing architectural styles, fashions and building techniques and technologies. The Gr˛ebowski,K.; Taraszkiewicz, K.; historical centre of Gdańskhas become the research material in this paper, where by means of such Przewłócki, J. Medieval Bourgeois methods as historical source material analysis (iconographic), observation (operationalisation of Tenement Houses as an Archetype for Contemporary Architectural and preserved historical objects), comparative analysis of completed contemporary investments, and 3D Construction Solutions: The Example modelling of structural systems, an attempt has been made to determine the main factors determining of Historic Downtown Gdańsk. contemporary architectural and structural solutions. The reason for the extraordinary durability Buildings 2021, 11, 80. of this type of construction model can be found in the enormous rationality and efficiency of this https://doi.org/10.3390/ solution. It allows for very intensive use of land, easy access of all front elevations to the main buildings11030080 communication routes, cheapness of construction resulting from small spans and use of common structural walls for the neighbouring buildings, ease of shaping gable elevations, and fire safety. Academic Editor: Oleg Kapliński; Aesthetic considerations are probably also important here, although it should be assumed that their Agata Bonenberg; Wojciech significance began to grow only in the second half of the 19th century. However, it seems that the Bonenberg; Marco Lucchini most important factor which made the model of the mediaeval bourgeois tenement house become an archetype for contemporary architectural and construction solutions is the timeless message Received: 6 February 2021 contained in this model, a specific code allowing it to be unambiguously identified as a form of urban Accepted: 22 February 2021 Published: 25 February 2021 house—a place of safe living and at the same time a visible sign of the rich history of European cities, an element creating their cultural and spatial identity, a component of the living, constantly

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral transforming urban fabric. with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional afﬁl- Keywords: contemporary architecture in historical context; archetype; bourgeois tenement house; iations. cultural heritage

Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. 1. Introduction Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. Medieval towns in northern Europe were usually compact urban complexes sur- This article is an open access article rounded by fortiﬁcations, whose basic tissue consisted of burgher houses. The term distributed under the terms and tenement house is deﬁned in the paper as a brick, one-storey urban house, in a compact conditions of the Creative Commons development, separated in terms of space and ownership, and co-creating with the plot a Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// layout of a traditional urban block and a street [1]. The compact dense housing of many creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ European cities evolved from detached houses due to the legal and spatial reorganisation 4.0/).

Buildings 2021, 11, 80. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings11030080 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/buildings Buildings 2021, 11, 80 2 of 19

of these cities as described in [2]. Such buildings did not aspire to the role of spatial domi- nance, leaving this role to the monumental edifices of cathedrals, churches or town halls, however, thanks to their huge mass, they determined the spatial expression of individual streets and squares, and sometimes districts and entire cities. The history of building plots in early and late medieval towns in the Baltic Sea basin is described in [3]. Studies on the house in the medieval and modern city in Europe are presented in [4]. The origins of the tenement house, its function and form in Central Europe, are presented, among others, in [5] while for Northern Europe, various aspects of the tenement are included in [6]. The breakthrough stage of the building’s construction was replacing the walls of the timber-framed hallway house with a building with load-bearing brick walls. With time, the construction of the buildings changed from single residential buildings into compact buildings. In the Northern European countries, from The Netherlands through southern Scandi- navia to Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia, the dominant type was that of the tenement house with its gable to the street, in which the side walls played an essential role and the façade was only a screen [7]. As a rule, the building block was based on an elongated rectangular plan, covered with a gable roof of a wooden construction. The construction of wooden roof trusses of tenements, their typology and development in the region of Central and Northern Europe, are described in [8,9]. The individual buildings differed primarily in the architecture of their façades [10,11]. The masonry side walls of the tenement house were common to both neighbours, constituting the basic structural element and, at the same time, the fire separation wall. The gable façades were not loaded with ceilings, providing freedom in shaping them. An important feature of bourgeois tenements was the fact that they were built as compact buildings, forming a clear element of the street or square frontage [12]. The bourgeois houses in the medieval cities of southern Europe looked different. These were usually buildings with a near-square ground plan, with low-pitched roofs and ridges parallel to the street. And although this model has survived in south Europe to the present day, it is not as expressive as the model of the bourgeois house in northern European countries. The North European tenement form can be found in such cities as: Amsterdam (The Netherlands), Antwerp (Belgium), Copenhagen (Denmark), Lubeca, Frankfurt am Main, Bremen (Germany), Gdańsk,Toruń(Poland), and Tallinn (Estonia). For centuries, in those cities, next to Gothic tenements, Renaissance, and later Baroque, Classicist, or Eclectic buildings appeared, while the identical form of the structure and structural system described above remained unchanged [2,13]. An interesting study of tenement houses in modern times on the example of Gdańskwas conducted in [14]. The tenements were built on plots of similar widths and were of similar heights. The width of the plots ranged from several to a dozen or so metres, and their length reached even 100 m. They usually had from two to 4–5 levels and an attic. If someone wanted to enlarge the width of the tenement house, he had to buy the neighbours’ plot. In this way, the bordering buildings were combined into one larger one. Many publications have been devoted to the description of tenements in particular regions and cities of Northern Europe. For example, an analysis of housing estates in several European cities including Amsterdam can be found in [15]. The townhouses of the Klaipeda region (Lithuania) are described in [16], the architecture and reconstruction of the townhouses of Elbl ˛ag(Poland) is presented in [11], while various aspects of the townhouses of Gdańskare given in [13,17–19], etc. It is extremely interesting that this particular model of housing development managed to be maintained for six centuries (from the second half of the 13th century until the mid- 19th century) in the cities of Northern Europe, in an almost unchanged form, despite the passage of time, changing architectural styles, and the admittedly slow, but progressive development of construction techniques. In the 19th century, together with a rapid increase in the number of inhabitants of European cities and changing needs in relation to buildings situated along main streets, Buildings 2021, 11, 80 3 of 19

numerous attempts were made to replace the model developed in the Middle Ages with new, seemingly more adequate to the spirit of the introduced changes, forms of development. These attempts, however, ended in failure and the model of the medieval bourgeois tenement house, only functionally transformed into a tenement house, emerged from these attempts “victorious”, remaining as the dominant one in the urban tissue. A similar situation occurred after World War II [20]. The best example of this is Gdańsk,where after the destruction wrought by the war, despite many attempts to implement a completely new way of building, it was finally decided to shape the residential development on the basis of a modernised model, which, however, was still preserved from the Middle Ages. All this brings us finally to modern times. The housing investments currently under- taken in Gdańsk,but also in many other European cities, located in the zone of historic city centres, are a modernised (however to a very small extent) model of a medieval bourgeois tenement house. The departure from the original is of course visible in the contemporary functional layout, execution technology and materials used, but it does not concern the most important, decisive elements of the building’s spatial expression, such as its scale and the overground shape of its mass. Historically, townhouses by their very nature had the simplest and most optimal structural system possible: wooden roof trusses and wooden ceilings supported on masonry walls placed directly on stone or brick foundations, or on wooden piles. In general, safety evaluation for historical constructions is recommended by ISO [21] and ICOMOS [22]. Principles for the analysis or evaluation of historic wooden structures are given in ICO- MOS [23,24]. An interesting review of existing standards, guidelines and procedures available for the assessment of historic woodwork is presented in [25,26]. The most recent research on using advanced digital technologies (such as building information modeling– BIM, finite element method–FEM) in heritage preservation focuses on the analysing the current state of particular structures. This approach to the structural analysis of the tenement was used in [27]. BIM allows for excellent environmental sustainability results while helping to reduce design time and eliminate design errors. “To ensure that a project meets sustainability requirements, different software are used to verify energy consump- tion. These software take into account several factors such as thermal insulation, climate response, solar penetration, natural ventilation, mechanical ventilation HVAC systems, building dynamics and thermal mass” [28]. A complex assessment methodology and procedure for historic roof structures is proposed in [29]. Masonry structures are also most commonly analysed based on finite element methods. Reviews of methods applicable to the study of such structures have been presented in [30,31]. Unfortunately, there are few comprehensive studies devoted to the foundations of historical buildings [32,33]. Several examples of historical foundations, as well as past and contemporary preservation techniques, are also presented in the latter. Numerical analysis of stone foundations by the finite element method is given in [34]. A comprehensive structural analysis of the transformation of the tenement for the different building phases from the 13th to the mid-16th century was carried out in [35]. It considered a complex of three buildings on Mostowa Street in Toruń,which is one of the most interesting examples of bourgeois architecture, inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List. On the other hand, several cases of almost complete reconstruction of historical urban complexes are analysed in [36]. The model of the medieval bourgeois tenement has survived to the present day despite numerous historical events, war destruction, changing architectural styles, fashions, construction techniques and technologies [36], despite pro-environmental trends, the pursuit of sustainable development [37] and universal accessibility [38], and despite the progressive development of civilization and globalisation. The aim of the article is to determine the reasons for the great durability of this model, which has become an archetype for contemporary urban-architectural and structural solutions located in historical urban centres. The search for these causes was also based on the numerical structural analysis (FEM) of a medieval tenement house. Buildings 2021, 11, 80 4 of 19

Buildings 2021, 11, 80 4 of 19 2. Materials and Methods Among many elements of the current discourse on the protection of cultural heritage, 2.one Materials of the most and Methodsimportant seems to be the problem of coexistence or dialogue between contemporaryAmong many architecture elements ofand the the current existing discourse valuable on thehistorical protection buildings. of cultural This heritage, problem is onenot ofnew the and most seems important to have seems accompanied to be the problem architects of coexistence and builders or dialoguefor centuries, between during contemporarywhich they had architecture to decide andon the existingshape of valuable new buildings historical adjacent buildings. to the This existing problem ones. isNowadays, not new and however, seems to more have than accompanied in the past, architects this problem and builders has taken for centuries,on a new, during more pro- whichnounced they meaning. had todecide on the shape of new buildings adjacent to the existing ones. Nowadays,It seems however, that an excellent more than research in the past,material this for problem this type has of taken considerations on a new, is more a model pronouncedof a medieval meaning. bourgeois tenement house, which was and still is an archetype for many It seems that an excellent research material for this type of considerations is a model investment activities carried out in historical urban centres. In this paper, the historical of a medieval bourgeois tenement house, which was and still is an archetype for many centre of Gdańsk was examined. Using such research methods as analysis of historical investment activities carried out in historical urban centres. In this paper, the historical centresource ofmaterial Gdańskwas (iconography), examined. observation Using such (operationalisation research methods as of analysis preserved of historicalhistorical ob- sourcejects), comparative material (iconography), analysis of contemporary observation (operationalisation investments, and of3D preserved modelling historical of structural objects),systems, comparative an attempt analysiswas made of contemporaryto determine th investments,e main factors and determining 3D modelling the of structural architectural systems,and structural an attempt solutions was made of contemporary to determine thebuildings. main factors determining the architectural and structural solutions of contemporary buildings. 3. Medieval Bourgeois Tenement House in Gdańsk 3. Medieval Bourgeois Tenement House in Gda ńsk The type of bourgeois tenement house in Gdańsk was formed a bit later than in other northernThe type European of bourgeois countries—only tenement house at the in be Gdańskwasginning of formedthe 15th a century—however bit later than in other it did northernnot differ European in any way countries—only from the Dutch at theor German beginning model. of the This 15th was century—however because these itbuildings did notwere differ constructed in any way mainly from theby Dutchbuilders or Germanwho came model. from This other was countries because theseor by buildings Gdańsk citi- were constructed mainly by builders who came from other countries or by Gdańskcitizens zens who acquired their skills in constructing this type of buildings abroad. Thus, the who acquired their skills in constructing this type of buildings abroad. Thus, the burgher burgher house in Gdańsk (like its foreign prototypes) was characterised by the body of house in Gdańsk(like its foreign prototypes) was characterised by the body of the building basedthe building on a rectangular based on plana rectangular with a width plan of with approx. a width 5 to ca. of 7approx. m and a5 lengthto ca. 7 of m several and a tolength severalof several dozen to several metres, dozen adjoining metres, the street adjoining along the its shorterstreet along side (Figure its shorter1). side (Figure 1).

Figure 1.1. UphagenUphagen House, House, Gdańsk,12 Gdańsk, 12 Długa Długa Street, Street, ground ground floor floor plans, plan mezzanine,s, mezzanine, first and first second and sec- floorsond floors [39]. [39].

◦ TheThe blockblock waswas covered covered with with a gablea gable roof roof with with an inclinationan inclination of approx. of approx. 60 with60° with a a woodenwooden structurestructure usually usually covered covered with with ceramic cerami tilesc tiles and and a ridge a ridge situated situated perpendicularly perpendicularly to the street. The The side side walls walls of of the the tenement tenement were were made made of of brick brick or or earlier earlier stone stone and and com- commonmon to both to both neighbours, neighbours, providing providing the the basicbasic structuralstructural element element on on which which the ceilingsthe ceilings rested. These walls were also elements of ﬁre separation for individual buildings. Gable rested. These walls were also elements of fire separation for individual buildings. Gable Buildings 2021, 11, 80 5 of 19

elevations were not loaded with ceilings, providng freedom in their shaping. Due to the high level of groundwater in Gdańsk,the basements were shallow and the ground floor was elevated above the ground level. In order to determine the load transfer in the medieval roof structure and to determine stresses in the brick walls, a numerical model was made in the ABAQUS software version 6.13, 2013 (Figure2a). The analysis was performed on a 3D model of a medieval townhouse with dimensions of 700 × 800 cm and a wall thickness of 100 cm. The model was partitioned into 657,654 eight-node cubic reduced integration solid elements of linear shape function type C3D8R with a total number of nodes of 1,113,556. Calculations were performed for several finite element mesh sizes. The highest convergence was obtained for a grid with a side size of 10 mm. The load was modelled cinematically as an equal vertical Buildings 2021, 11, 80 displacement of the nodes of the upper surface of the elements forming the triple rafter6 of 19 roof framing. The load was collected from the entire roof area taking into account the dead weight of the elements and climatic loads.

(a) (b)

FigureFigure 2. 2. MedievalMedieval tenement househouse in in Gdansk: Gdansk: (a ()a numerical) numerical model model and and description description of the of structural the struc- turalmembers, members, (b) results (b) results of maximum of maximum stress mapsstress inmaps (kPa). in (kPa).

OnThe the numerical basis of the analysis obtained carried results, out isit intendedwas proven to compare that the medieval in a simpliﬁed triple way rafter the roof framingstatic schemes and brick and wall load would transfer satisfy between the ultimate medieval limit and modernstate and roof serviceability trusses. The conditions. studies Compressivedescribed in [stresses40,41] were of 2 usedMPa todid implement not lead theto cracks wood inputin the parameters.structure of Thethe follow-elements, whiching wood would parameters cause failure were of included the entire in structure. the model: longitudinal compressive strength XC =The 62.2 elevation MPa, longitudinal of the ground tensile floor strength above XtheT = ground 140.0 MPa, level transverse meant that tensile the ground strength floor wasYT =accessed 8.5 MPa, by transverse stairs through compressive porches, strength whic YCh =have 10.9 become MPa, shear a characteristic strength S = 35.0 element MPa, of Young’s modulus—length direction E = 9715.0 MPa, Young’s modulus—horizontal direc- this architecture. The height of buildings1 and the number of decorative elements applied tion E = 400 MPa, shear modulus G = 600 MPa, density ρ = 650 kg/m3, Poisson’s ratio on their2 façades depended on the social and, above all, material status of their owners. It v12 = 0.316, v23 = 0.469, v31 = 0.023, initial yield limit σ0k = 26 MPa. shouldThe be researchnoted here described that the in [decorations42] was used were to implement applied mainly the input to parametersgable façades of a located his- ontorical the street masonry side. wall. Gable The façade elastics located modulus from of the masonryside of quarter wall material interiors was were calculated not subject tousing decoration, the homogenization and side façades algorithm were described decorated in papersonly when [43,44 they]. In had order no to “neighbour” determine the and werestresses located in the along brick masonry,side streets. a plastic-degradation Very characteristic material elements with theof the following gable parametersfacades were (situatedwas included “at the in themeeting model: point” Young’s of the modulus neighbouring E = 2600 buildings) MPa, Poisson’s often ratio richly v =decorated 0.167, containersdensity ρ = for 2000 rainwater, kg/m3, dilatationconnected angle with = drain 16◦, eccentricity pipes running e = 0.07, along biaxial/uniaxial the facades. com- pressionIn spite plastic of changing strain ratio architectural 1.16, parameter stylesκc = and 0.667, the viscosity development 0.001,stress of buildingσc = 8.42 technolo- MPa gies, this method of building tenements was preserved in Gdańsk from the 15th to the middle of the 19th c. (Figure 3). Buildings 2021, 11, 80 6 of 19

inelastic strain ε = 0.009931, compressive degradation dc = 0.99 in elastic strain ε = 0.00931, stress σt = 0.848 MPa in crushing strain εc = 0.00527, tensile degradation dt = 0.97 in crushing strain εc = 0.00527 [45]. The current condition of the elements was also taken into account by lowering the value of the longitudinal modulus of elasticity. The results obtained during the numerical analysis in the form of stress maps are presented in Figure2b. On the basis of the obtained results, it was proven that the medieval triple rafter roof framing and brick wall would satisfy the ultimate limit state and serviceability conditions. Compressive stresses of 2 MPa did not lead to cracks in the structure of the elements, which would cause failure of the entire structure. The elevation of the ground floor above the ground level meant that the ground floor was accessed by stairs through porches, which have become a characteristic element of this architecture. The height of buildings and the number of decorative elements applied on their façades depended on the social and, above all, material status of their owners. It should be noted here that the decorations were applied mainly to gable façades located on the street side. Gable façades located from the side of quarter interiors were not subject to decoration, and side façades were decorated only when they had no “neighbour” and were located along side streets. Very characteristic elements of the gable facades were (situated “at the meeting point” of the neighbouring buildings) often richly decorated containers for rainwater, connected with drain pipes running along the facades. In spite of changing architectural styles and the development of building technologies, Buildings 2021, 11, 80 this method of building tenements was preserved in Gdańskfrom the 15th to the middle of7 of 19

the 19th c. (Figure3).

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

FigureFigure 3. Elevations ofof Gda´nsktenementGdańsk tenement houses: houses: (a )(a Gothic,) Gothic, (b) ( Renaissance,b) Renaissance, (c) Baroque, (c) Baroque, (d) Classi- (d) Clas- sicist,cist, (e ()e Eclectic) Eclectic [46 [46].].

4.4. Gda Gdań ´nskTenementssk Tenements from from the the Mid-19th Mid-19th to to the the Mid-20th Mid-20th Century Century TheThe 19th 19th century century in in Gdansk Gdansk was was initially initially a aperiod period of of economic economic and and construction construction stag- nationstagnation caused caused by warfare. by warfare. Later, Later, mainly mainly due dueto the to industrial the industrial revolution, revolution, came came a time a of time of prosperity and thus a period of population growth and a boom in construction, prosperity and thus a period of population growth and a boom in construction, including including housing. However, this did not change the way buildings were constructed. The housing. However, this did not change the way buildings were constructed. The architec- architecture of this period was full of historical borrowings and quotations, often based tureon very of this fashionable period was catalogues full of historical or architectural borrowings patterns. and The quotations, style of the often façades based of on the very fashionablebuildings was catalogues eclectic and or thearchitectural shape of the pattern mass clearlys. The continuedstyle of the the façades medieval of the traditions. buildings was eclectic and the shape of the mass clearly continued the medieval traditions. The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century in Gdańsk brought new challenges to the then urban development and a new look at the urban planning and aesthetics of the city. This prompted the citizens and authorities of Gdańsk to apply measures to modernise its appearance. Encouraged by the examples of other European cities, the citizens of Gdańsk began to undertake a number of actions aimed at “clearing” the urban tissue of buildings that did not meet the new challenges. A number of demolitions were carried out, unfortunately irrevocably destroying a significant number of valuable historical buildings. The demolished historical buildings were replaced with new ones, larger in scale and of a different, modern style, often characterised by flat roofs which were “alien here”. The city authorities tried to control the emerging spatial chaos by organising architectural competitions for the “façades of Gdańsk buildings”. These competitions were aimed at finding a solution or a model of a Gdańsk building realised in the historical area. The most widespread competition among architects was organised in 1902. This competition attracted 110 entries from all over Germany and produced totally surprising results [47]. Despite enormous pressure from the proponents of modernity, the works submitted for the competition and awarded were solutions that very directly referred to the historical legacy, using neo-stylistics, mainly the Dutch Neo-Renaissance. The residential buildings presented in the competition were again traditional, medieval townhouses clad in neo-decoration (Figure 4). Buildings 2021, 11, 80 7 of 19

The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century in Gdańskbrought new challenges to the then urban development and a new look at the urban planning and aesthetics of the city. This prompted the citizens and authorities of Gdańskto apply measures to modernise its appearance. Encouraged by the examples of other European cities, the citizens of Gdańskbegan to undertake a number of actions aimed at “clearing” the urban tissue of buildings that did not meet the new challenges. A number of demolitions were carried out, unfortunately irrevocably destroying a significant number of valuable historical buildings. The demolished historical buildings were replaced with new ones, larger in scale and of a different, modern style, often characterised by flat roofs which were “alien here”. The city authorities tried to control the emerging spatial chaos by organising architectural competitions for the “façades of Gdańskbuildings”. These competitions were aimed at finding a solution or a model of a Gdańskbuilding realised in the historical area. The most widespread competition among architects was organised in 1902. This competition attracted 110 entries from all over Germany and produced totally surprising results [47]. Despite enormous pressure from the proponents of modernity, the works submitted for the competition and awarded were solutions that very directly referred to the Buildings 2021, 11, 80 8 of 19 historical legacy, using neo-stylistics, mainly the Dutch Neo-Renaissance. The residential buildings presented in the competition were again traditional, medieval townhouses clad in neo-decoration (Figure4).

Figure 4.Figure Tenement 4. Tenement houses houses awarded awarded in ina acompetition competition for for the the facdes facdes of buildings of buildings in Gdańsk,1902 in Gdań [46sk,]. 1902 [46]. In the third decade of the twentieth century, the so-called “Project of Great Gdańsk” was being prepared. It was the first comprehensive zoning plan covering not only the his- In thetoric third downtown, decade but of also the its twentieth wide surroundings. century, Although the so-called this project “Project generally of Great assumed Gdańsk” was beingthe preservationprepared. It of was the old the buildings first comprehe in the citynsive centre, zoning it allowed plan for thecovering reconstruction not only the historic ofdowntown, many historical but partsalso ofits the wide city. surroundi The ideas ofngs. the modernAlthough movement this project in architecture generally assumed theand preservation modernist design of withthe flatold roofs, buildings columns, in and the strip city windows centre, beganit allowed to “invade” for the the recon- historic centre (Figure5). struction of many historical parts of the city. The ideas of the modern movement in architecture and modernist design with flat roofs, columns, and strip windows began to “invade” the historic centre (Figure 5).

Figure 5. Frontage of Długa Street in Gdańsk designed by Martin Kiessling [48].

Historic conservation officers, architects and urban planners of the time were engaged in fierce disputes over the transformation of the face of the city. One of the proponents of introducing changes in the way of building was an architect and respected builder, Martin Kiessling [49], whereas his opponent and defender of historical building principles was professor and rector of Technische Hochschule Danzig (now Gdańsk Uni- versity of Technology), architect Otto Kloeppel, who wrote in 1928: “For each city, there was a time when its proper style was constructed; this was the historical time when the most was built in a given city, thus creating its character. It was good if the newly constructed buildings were built in the same form language. Nevertheless, it is a fact that just Buildings 2021, 11, 80 8 of 19

Figure 4. Tenement houses awarded in a competition for the facdes of buildings in Gdańsk, 1902 [46].

In the third decade of the twentieth century, the so-called “Project of Great Gdańsk” was being prepared. It was the first comprehensive zoning plan covering not only the historic downtown, but also its wide surroundings. Although this project generally assumed the preservation of the old buildings in the city centre, it allowed for the recon- Buildings 2021, 11, 80 struction of many historical parts of the city. The ideas of the modern movement in archi-8 of 19 tecture and modernist design with flat roofs, columns, and strip windows began to “invade” the historic centre (Figure 5).

Figure 5. Frontage of DługaDługa Street in Gda´nskdesignedGdańsk designed byby MartinMartin KiesslingKiessling [[48].48].

Historic conservationconservation officers, officers, architects architects and and urban urban planners planners of the of timethe time were were engaged en- ingaged fierce in disputesfierce disputes over the over transformation the transformati of theon of face the of face the of city. the Onecity. ofOne the of proponents the propo- ofnents introducing of introducing changes changes in the wayin the of way building of building was an was architect an architect and respected and respected builder, Martinbuilder, Kiessling Martin Kiessling [49], whereas [49], hiswhereas opponent his o andpponent defender and ofdefender historical of buildinghistorical principles building wasprinciples professor was andprofessor rector and of Technische rector of Technische Hochschule Hochschule Danzig (now Danzig GdańskUniversity (now Gdańsk Uni- of Technology),versity of Technology), architect Otto architect Kloeppel, Otto whoKloeppe wrotel, who in 1928: wrote “For in each1928:city, “For there each was city, a there time Buildings 2021, 11, 80 when its proper style was constructed; this was the historical time when the most was built9 of 19 was a time when its proper style was constructed; this was the historical time when the inmost a given was built city, thusin a creatinggiven city, its character.thus creating It was its goodcharacter. if the It newly was good constructed if the newly buildings con- werestructed built buildings in the same were form built language.in the same Nevertheless, form language. it isNevertheless, a fact that just it is as a fact the that various just historicalas the various styles historical perfectly complementstyles perfectly each comp otherlement in our each old other cities, in so our there old is cities, also room so there for modernis also room forms, for provided modern forms, that the provided essence that of the the spatial essence art of of the the spatial old urban art of foundation the old urban is notfoundation violated” is [ 48not]. Inviolated” the end, [48]. the traditionalIn the end, medieval the traditional townhouse medieval won again.townhouse The space won ofagain. the historic The space downtown of the historic of Gdańskremained downtown of Gda quiteńsk uniform remained in its quite historic uniform style in and its thehis- modernisttoric style visionsand theof modernist Kiessling visions and his of ilk Kiessling were not and realised. his ilk Until were the not outbreak realised.of Until World the Waroutbreak II, the of bourgeois World housesWar II, locatedthe bourgeois in the historic houses downtown located in of the Gdańskremained historic downtown faithful of toGda theirńsk medieval remained original faithful (Figure to their6). medieval original (Figure 6).

FigureFigure 6.6.Długa Długa StreetStreet inin Gda´nsk,1935.Gdańsk, 1935. Source:Source: HistoricalHistorical MuseumMuseum ofof thethe CityCityof ofGda´nsk. Gdańsk.

5. War Destruction in 1945 and the Reconstruction of the City Gdańsk is one of the European cities that suffered the most damage as a result of warfare during World War II. It is estimated that the degree of destruction reached as much as 90% of the buildings existing before the outbreak of war (Figure 7) [50].

Figure 7. Photograph of damage in Gdańsk after the Second World War [50].

The reconstruction of such a badly damaged city was not an easy task, especially as it was carried out in the atmosphere of many discussions and disputes concerning the way it should be done. There were also opinions that Gdańsk should not be rebuilt at all, but only turned into a huge park with only “islands” of the most important monumental buildings. In turn, modernist visions of rebuilding Gdańsk envisaged building in its place a modern residential district with wide, sunny streets, green areas and gardens. Towards the end of 1946, however, the vision of a historic reconstruction of the city began to prevail and its supporters began to draw up increasingly clear plans for its implementation. A Buildings 2021, 11, 80 9 of 19

just as the various historical styles perfectly complement each other in our old cities, so there is also room for modern forms, provided that the essence of the spatial art of the old urban foundation is not violated” [48]. In the end, the traditional medieval townhouse won again. The space of the historic downtown of Gdańsk remained quite uniform in its historic style and the modernist visions of Kiessling and his ilk were not realised. Until the outbreak of World War II, the bourgeois houses located in the historic downtown of Gdańsk remained faithful to their medieval original (Figure 6).

Buildings 2021, 11, 80 9 of 19 Figure 6. Długa Street in Gdańsk, 1935. Source: Historical Museum of the City of Gdańsk.

5.5. War War Destruction Destruction in 1945 in and1945 the and Reconstruction the Reconstruction of the City of the City Gda´nskisGdańsk oneis one of the of European the European cities that cities suffered that thesuffered most damage the most as adamage result of as a result of warfarewarfare during during World World War II. War It is estimated II. It is thatestimated the degree that of destructionthe degree reached of destruction as much reached as asmuch 90% of as the 90% buildings of the existing buildings before exis theting outbreak before of the war outbreak (Figure7)[ 50of]. war (Figure 7) [50].

FigureFigure 7. Photograph7. Photograph of damage of damage in Gda´nskafter in Gdańsk the Secondafter the World Second War [World50]. War [50].

TheThe reconstruction reconstruction of such of a such badly a damaged badly damaged city was not city an easywas task, not especiallyan easy task, as it especially as was carried out in the atmosphere of many discussions and disputes concerning the way it shouldit was be carried done. There out in were the also atmosphere opinions that of Gdańskshouldmany discussions not be and rebuilt disputes at all, but concerning only the way turnedit should into abe huge done. park There with only were “islands” also opinions of the most that important Gdańsk monumental should not buildings. be rebuilt at all, but Inonly turn, turned modernist into visions a huge of rebuilding park with Gdańskenvisaged only “islands” building of the in itsmost place important a modern monumental residentialbuildings. district In turn, with modernist wide, sunny visions streets, of green rebuilding areas and Gdańsk gardens. envisaged Towards the building end in its place ofa 1946,modern however, residential the vision district of a historic with wide, reconstruction sunny streets, of the city green began areas to prevail and gard and ens. Towards its supporters began to draw up increasingly clear plans for its implementation. A great propagatorthe end of of 1946, this idea however, was an architect,the vision town-planner, of a historic and reconstruction scientist, Władysław of the Czerny,city began to prevail theand author its supporters of the first serious began plan to of draw rebuilding up increasingly Gdańsk.He claimed clear that plans all reconstructions for its implementation. A must be carried out on the basis of strict historical documentation, not allowing the creation of historical architectural fantasies. However, he allowed for the construction of tenement houses in contemporary forms provided that they could respect the “artistic custom and the custom of scale” [51]. Thus, the historic centre of Gdańskwas rebuilt, but this reconstruction was not a faithful and literal reconstruction of all of the pre-war elements. The most significant monuments were rebuilt, the main street lines were rebuilt, the city skyline was reconstructed, but at the same time, the urban tissue was radically changed, adapting it to the requirements of modern urban planning. A housing development has been built in the historic city centre. Therefore, during the reconstruction, the main emphasis was put on housing, i.e., again on tenement houses, which are the face of the city. These tenements, often built on historical foundations, in their general structure did not deviate in any way from the archetype of the medieval burgher house. They often had historical façades reconstructed on the basis of iconographic material, but even more often, they were buildings with a fascinating combination of historical structure and modernist and, in later years, socialist realist style [51]. Of course, it should be emphasised once again that it is the external spatial expression of these buildings and the basic layout of their structure that is at issue here, not the functional layout, which was completely transformed when adapted to the new requirements. It is extremely interesting that the “struggle” between the traditional form of the bourgeois tenement house and the new solutions lasted throughout the reconstruction of the city, Buildings 2021, 11, 80 10 of 19

great propagator of this idea was an architect, town-planner, and scientist, Władysław Czerny, the author of the first serious plan of rebuilding Gdańsk. He claimed that all reconstructions must be carried out on the basis of strict historical documentation, not allowing the creation of historical architectural fantasies. However, he allowed for the construction of tenement houses in contemporary forms provided that they could respect the “artistic custom and the custom of scale” [51]. Thus, the historic centre of Gdańsk was rebuilt, but this reconstruction was not a faithful and literal reconstruction of all of the pre-war elements. The most significant monuments were rebuilt, the main street lines were rebuilt, the city skyline was reconstructed, but at the same time, the urban tissue was radically changed, adapting it to the requirements of modern urban planning. A housing development has been built in the historic city centre. Therefore, during the reconstruction, the main emphasis was put on housing, i.e., again on tenement houses, which are the face of the city. These tenements, often built on historical foundations, in their general structure did not deviate in any way from the archetype of the medieval burgher house. They often had historical façades reconstructed on the basis of iconographic material, but even more often, they were buildings with a fascinating combination of historical structure and modernist and, in later years, socialist realist style [51]. Of course, it should be emphasised once again that it is the external spatial expression of these buildings and the basic layout of their structure that is at issue here, not the func- Buildings 2021tional, 11, 80 layout, which was completely transformed when adapted to the new requirements.10 of 19 It is extremely interesting that the “struggle” between the traditional form of the bourgeois tenement house and the new solutions lasted throughout the reconstruction of the city, i.e., until aroundi.e., until 1960. around However, 1960. However, the arch theetypical archetypical idea of idea a bourgeois of a bourgeois tenement tenement house house was was victorious invictorious this struggle in this each struggle time each (Figure time (Figure 8). 8).

FigureFigure 8. Eastern 8. Eastern frontage frontage of Grobla Iof Street Grobla in Gda´nsk:( I Streeta in) modernist Gdańsk: design (a) modernist from 1957 design [51], (b) from realisation 1957 in [51], the form(b) of tenementrealisation houses 1958. in the Source: form compiled of tenement by A. Taraszkiewicz.houses 1958. Source: compiled by A. Taraszkiewicz.

6. Second Stage of6. SecondReconstruction—An Stage of Reconstruction—An Archetype ArchetypeStill Relevant Still Relevant Despite the successful reconstruction of the city in 1945–1960, today’s historic down- Despite the successful reconstruction of the city in 1945–1960, today’s historic downtown of Gdańskstill requires new buildings to fill in the vacant spaces and complete the town of Gdańsk quartersstill requires and street new frontages buildings destroyed to fill in during the vacant World spaces War II. However,and complete contemporary the quarters and streetarchitects frontages and urban destroyed planners du operatering World in a very War different II. However, reality than contemporary their post-war pre- architects and urbandecessors. planners The Veniceoperate Charter, in a very adopted different in 1964 reality by the than Second their International post-war Congresspre- decessors. The Veniceof Architects Charter, and adopted Technicians in for1964 the by Construction the Second of International Monuments in Congress Italy, changed of the Architects and Techniciansrules for the for “handling” the Construction of monuments, of Monuments and in particular in Italy, drastically changed limited the rules the possi- bilities for their restoration and reconstruction. The Charter calls for the protection and for the “handling”preservation of monuments, of the original and in substance,particular structure drastically and limited materials the of historicpossibilities buildings for and their restoration andfor a reconstruction. clear distinction between The Charte all newlyr calls added for elementsthe protection and the and original preservation elements. Most of the original substance,relevant here structure is Article and 9 of themateri Charter,als of which historic states: buildings “The process and of restorationfor a clear is dis- a highly tinction between specializedall newly operation.added elements Its aim is and to preserve the original and reveal elements. the aesthetic Most and relevant historic here value of the monument and is based on respect for original material and authentic documents. It must stop at the point where conjecture begins, and in this case moreover any extra work which is indispensable must be distinct from the architectural composition and must bear a contemporary stamp. The restoration in any case must be preceded and followed by an archaeological and historical study of the monument”, and Article 10, which states: “Where traditional techniques prove inadequate, the consolidation of a monument can be achieved by the use of any modern technique for conservation and construction, the efficacy of which has been shown by scientific data and proved by experience” [52]. The provisions of the Venice Charter significantly restrict the possibility of faithful reconstruction of historical buildings, especially the creation of stylised forms. In spite of this, between 1960 and 2000, many new tenement houses were erected in Gdańskthat deceptively resembled historical buildings. These buildings, although constructed with modern technologies and materials, are architectural fantasies on the theme of Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque, or Classicist bourgeois houses in Gdańsk(Figure9). Buildings 2021, 11, 80 11 of 19

is Article 9 of the Charter, which states: “The process of restoration is a highly specialized operation. Its aim is to preserve and reveal the aesthetic and historic value of the monument and is based on respect for original material and authentic documents. It must stop at the point where conjecture begins, and in this case moreover any extra work which is indispensable must be distinct from the architectural composition and must bear a contemporary stamp. The restoration in any case must be preceded and followed by an archaeological and historical study of the monument”, and Article 10, which states: “Where traditional techniques prove inadequate, the consolidation of a monument can be achieved by the use of any modern technique for conservation and construction, the efficacy of which has been shown by scientific data and proved by experience” [52]. The provisions of the Venice Charter significantly restrict the possibility of faithful reconstruction of historical buildings, especially the creation of stylised forms. In spite of this, between 1960 and 2000, many new tenement houses were erected in Gdańsk that deceptively re-

Buildings 2021, 11, 80 sembled historical buildings. These buildings, although constructed with11 modern of 19 technologies and materials, are architectural fantasies on the theme of Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque, or Classicist bourgeois houses in Gdańsk (Figure 9).

FigureFigure 9. 9.Tenement Tenement houses houses on St on ˛agiewnaStreet Stągiewna Street in Gda´nsk.Source: in Gdańsk. Source: A. Taraszkiewicz. A. Taraszkiewicz.

ThisThis situation, situation, on on the the one one hand, hand, arouses arouses objections objections of architects of architects and conservators, and conservators, whowho understand understand the the incompatibility incompatibility of these of these actions actions with the with provisions the provisions of the Venice of the Venice CharterCharter and and who who are are reluctant reluctant to create to create so-called so-called “historic “historic buildings”. buildings”. On the other On the hand, other hand, it is received with great satisfaction by the community of contemporary Gdańskand the it is received with great satisfaction by the community of contemporary Gdańsk and the wider public, who perceive this type of development as fitting in perfectly with the historic landscapewider public, of downtown who perceive Gdańsk.As this a type result of of development the ongoing disputes, as fitting in 2004, in perfectly on the almost with the his- 100-yeartoric landscape anniversary of ofdowntown the 1902 competition Gdańsk. describedAs a result above, of the the ongoing city authorities disputes, organised in 2004, on the analmost international 100-year architectural anniversary competition of the 1902 for thecompetition 21st century described tenement above, house inthe Gdańsk. city authorities Thisorganised competition an international was intended architectural to provide specificcompetition guidelines for the for 21st the century implementation tenement house ofin contemporary Gdańsk. This housing competition located was in the intended historic downtown.to provide Thespecific competition guidelines was for very the imple- popular.mentation 94 applications of contemporary were received housing from located all over in the the world historic and 58downtown. entries were The finally competition submittedwas very [46 popular.]. The jury 94 awarded applications 3 prizes were (two received for projects from from all Poland over and the one world for a and work 58 entries from Germany) and several distinctions. Surprisingly, all of the awarded and commended were finally submitted [46]. The jury awarded 3 prizes (two for projects from Poland and works are solutions presenting a “typical” Gdańskbourgeois tenement house with its elongated,one for a rectangularwork from ground Germany) plan, and body several covered di bystinctions. a gable roof Surprisingly, with its ridge all situated of the awarded perpendicularlyand commended to the works street are and solutions a slender mainpresenting façade situateda “typical” along Gda theń street.sk bourgeois The only tenement differencehouse with from its the elongated, historical original rectangular was the ground very contemporary, plan, body clearlycovered international by a gable style roof with its solutionridge situated of the front perpendicularly façade (Figure to10 ).the It hasstreet to beand clearly a slender stated main here thatfaçade the architectssituated along the takingstreet. part The in only the competition difference forfrom the the 21st historical century tenement original house was the in Gdańskdecided very contemporary, that clearly itsinternational basic spatial structurestyle solution must deriveof the fromfront thefaçade historical (Figure pattern 10). It and, has as to it be was clearly done bystated here artiststhat the of past architects epochs, taking only its part front in façade the compet should testifyition for to thethe time 21st in century which it tenement was built. house in Contrary to the expectations of its organisers, the 2004 competition did not provide clear guidelines for spatial activities related to the development of residential buildings located in the historic centre of Gdańsk.These activities are still carried out quite freely, creating solutions directly related to history (Figure 11) as well as referring to contemporary achievements, reflecting the spirit of the times in which they were created (Figure 12). Structural solutions also vary, especially for elements such as roofs and basements. Roof slopes are still constructed as traditional, wooden rafter framing with the difference in relation to historical solutions that they are only one-tie structures. There are also lightweight steel rafters protected against fire with intumescent paint and even monolithic or prefabricated reinforced concrete slabs, laid with a slope of approx. 60◦ (Figure 13). Buildings 2021, 11, 80 12 of 19

Buildings 2021, 11, 80 12 of 19 Gdańsk decided that its basic spatial structure must derive from the historical pattern and, as it was done by artists of past epochs, only its front façade should testify to the time in which it was built. For particular roof construction solutions, i.e., wooden, steel and reinforced concrete Buildings 2021, 11, 80 rafter framing (all single-unit), as before, numerical models were made (Figure 13). The 12 of 19 parameters and material properties of the different models were adopted analogously as in Chapter 3. An elastic-plastic model was considered for the steel truss model, while a plastic-degradation model of concrete was used to model the reinforced concrete slab roof. InGda contrastńsk decided to the parameters that its basic of the medievalspatial structure tenement must house, derive the value from of the the longitudinal historical pattern and, modulusas it was of done elasticity by artists of the individualof past epochs, materials only was its notfront reduced. façade Theshould results testify of the to the time in analyseswhich it are was presented built. below in Figure 13.

Figure 10. Awarded project of a tenement house in Gdańsk of the 21st century. Authors: B. Dom- sta, J. Raniszewski, K. Lipińska, M. Jaśkowiec [46].

Contrary to the expectations of its organisers, the 2004 competition did not provide clear guidelines for spatial activities related to the development of residential buildings located in the historic centre of Gdańsk. These activities are still carried out quite freely, creating solutions directly related to history (Figure 11) as well as referring to contempo- FigureFigurerary 10.achievements, 10.Awarded Awarded project project reflecting of a tenement of a tenement the house spirit in house Gda´nskof of the in Gdatimes theń 21stsk in of century. whichthe 21st Authors: they century. were B. Domsta, Authors: created B. (FigureDom- J.sta,12). Raniszewski, J. Raniszewski, K. Lipi´nska,M. K. Lipi Ja´skowiec[ńska, M. Ja46ś].kowiec [46].

FigureFigure 11. 11.Tenement Tenement houses houses in inSw.´ Św. The The Church Church of of the the Holy Holy Spirit Spirit in Gda´nsk;in Gdań designedsk; designed by by P. W. P.Kowalski W. Kowalski [53]. [53 ].

Figure 11. Tenement houses in Św. The Church of the Holy Spirit in Gdańsk; designed by P. W. Kowalski [53]. Buildings 2021, 11, 80 13 of 19

Buildings 2021, 11, 80 13 of 19 Buildings 2021, 11, 80 13 of 19

Figure 12. Tenement houses at Targ Rybny in Gdańsk; designed by Kurylowicz &Associates [54].

Structural solutions also vary, especially for elements such as roofs and basements. Roof slopes are still constructed as traditional, wooden rafter framing with the difference in relation to historical solutions that they are only one-tie structures. There are also lightweight steel rafters protected against fire with intumescent paint and even monolithic or prefabricated reinforced concrete slabs, laid with a slope of approx. 60° (Figure 13). For particular roof construction solutions, i.e., wooden, steel and reinforced concrete rafter framing (all single-unit), as before, numerical models were made (Figure 13). The parameters and material properties of the different models were adopted analogously as in Chapter 3. An elastic-plastic model was considered for the steel truss model, while a plastic-degradation model of concrete was used to model the reinforced concrete slab roof. In contrast to the parameters of the medieval tenement house, the value of the longitudi-

nal modulus of elasticity of the individual materials was not reduced. The results of the Figure 12. Tenement houses at Targ Rybny in Gdańsk; designed by Kurylowicz &Associates [54]. analyses are presentedFigure below 12. Tenement in Figure houses 13. at Targ Rybny in Gda´nsk;designed by Kurylowicz &Associates [54]. Structural solutions also vary, especially for elements such as roofs and basements. Roof slopes are still constructed as traditional, wooden rafter framing with the difference in relation to historical solutions that they are only one-tie structures. There are also lightweight steel rafters protected against fire with intumescent paint and even monolithic or prefabricated reinforced concrete slabs, laid with a slope of approx. 60° (Figure 13). For particular roof construction solutions, i.e., wooden, steel and reinforced concrete rafter framing (all single-unit), as before, numerical models were made (Figure 13). The parameters and material properties of the different models were adopted analogously as in Chapter 3. An elastic-plastic model was considered for the steel truss model, while a plastic-degradation model of concrete was used to model the reinforced concrete slab roof. In contrast to the parameters of the medieval tenement house, the value of the longitudinal modulus of elasticity of the individual materials was not reduced. The results of the analyses are presented below in Figure 13.

(a) (b) (c)

FigureFigure 13. Numerical 13. Numerical model of model roof structures of roof structures of modern tenementof modern houses tenement in Gdansk: houses (a) woodenin Gdansk: rafter (a framing) wooden of one piece,rafter (b) steel framing rafter framing, of one piece, (c) roof ( madeb) steel of reinforcedrafter framing, concrete (c slabs;) roof stresses made inof (kPa).reinforced concrete slabs; stresses in (kPa). On the basis of the obtained results, it was stated that modern roof constructions fulfill the conditions of ultimate limit state and serviceability. The compressive stresses of 2 MPa are analogous to the results obtained from the analysis of the medieval roof. This allows us to conclude that for small spans, typically 5 to 7 m, the construction of roofs of tenement buildings carried out in the past (as well as at present) was economically justified and optimal for the safe transfer of loads. Underground parts of contemporary Gdańsktenements are also elements of very diverse construction solutions. Because modern engineers have acquired the ability to

(a) (b) (c) Figure 13. Numerical model of roof structures of modern tenement houses in Gdansk: (a) wooden rafter framing of one piece, (b) steel rafter framing, (c) roof made of reinforced concrete slabs; stresses in (kPa). Buildings 2021, 11, 80 14 of 19

On the basis of the obtained results, it was stated that modern roof constructions fulfill the conditions of ultimate limit state and serviceability. The compressive stresses of 2 MPa are analogous to the results obtained from the analysis of the medieval roof. This allows us to conclude that for small spans, typically 5 to 7 m, the construction of roofs of tenement buildings carried out in the past (as well as at present) was economically justified and optimal for the safe transfer of loads. Underground parts of contemporary Gdańsk tenements are also elements of very diverse construction solutions. Because modern engineers have acquired the ability to

Buildings 2021base, 11, 80buildings below the level of groundwater, the modern tenement house in Gdańsk no 14 of 19 longer needs (which was characteristic for centuries past) to have the ground floor elevated above the level of the ground or to have shallow cellars. Today’s engineers can deal with difficult groundbase buildingsand water below conditions the level, ofwhich groundwater, is why thethe modern basements tenement of tenement house in Gdańsk buildings are usuallyno longer realised needs as so-called (which was “white characteristic bathtubs”, for centuriesmade of past)waterproof to have concrete, the ground floor realised with the useelevated of cavity above walls the level or sheet of the groundpile walls. or to A have “white shallow bathtub” cellars. is Today’s the general engineers can name for a reinforceddeal withconcrete difficult structure ground andcons wateristing conditions, of a foundation which is whyslab the and basements walls made of tenement of waterproof concrete.buildings It combines are usually the realised supporting as so-called and “white sealing bathtubs”, function made and of is waterproof one of the concrete, solutions to the problemrealised of with foundations the use of cavity in unfavourable walls or sheet ground pile walls. and A “whitewater bathtub”conditions. is the A general name for a reinforced concrete structure consisting of a foundation slab and walls made characteristic featureof waterproof of such a concrete.structure It combinesis that, in the part supporting or in whole, and sealing it is externally function and loaded is one of the by ground water. solutionsThe “white to the bathtub” problem as of a foundations description in and unfavourable solution groundhas been and refined water conditions.for several decades, mainlyA characteristic in Germany feature and of such Central a structure Europe is that, [55]. in partThis or technology in whole, it is is externally used in loaded both single and multi-storeyby ground water. buildings. The “white It is bathtub”supposed as to a description protect the and object solution from has moisture been refined for without an additionalseveral sealing decades, layer. mainly Basement in Germanys constructed and Central in Europe this way [55]. Thisare often technology two isor used in both single and multi-storey buildings. It is supposed to protect the object from moisture three storeys high and serve modern commercial functions such as fitness centres or clubs without an additional sealing layer. Basements constructed in this way are often two or for the inhabitants,three but storeys they are high also and sometimes serve modern the commercial space of functions underground such as car fitness parks centres and or clubs the location of numerousfor the inhabitants, technical butrooms they (Figure are also 14). sometimes the space of underground car parks and the location of numerous technical rooms (Figure 14).

FigureFigure 14. Cross-section 14. Cross-section through through the quarter the of quarter buildings of buildings on Szeroka on Street Szeroka in Gdańsk;designed Street in Gdań bysk; A. designed Taraszkiewicz. Source:by A.A. Taraszkiewicz. Taraszkiewicz. Source: A. Taraszkiewicz. One thing, however, remains unchanged—the architectural expression of the above- One thing, however,ground part remains of the unchanged—th building, designede architectural and executed onexpression the basis of of a the pattern above- developed ground part of thein building, the Middle designed Ages. The and power executed of this on archetype the basis is of so a great pattern that developed so far it has in not been the Middle Ages. Thebroken power by the of changing this archetype styles, fashions is so great and technicalthat so far and it technological has not been progress broken over the by the changing styles,centuries fashions (Figure and 15)[ 56technica]. l and technological progress over the centuries (Figure 15) [56]. The medieval bourgeois tenement house located in the downtown of Gdańsk,transformed in the 19th century into a tenement house and finally in the 20th and 21st century The medievalinto bourgeois a multi-family tenement or even house multifunctional located in building,the downtown as was mentioned of Gdańsk, earlier, trans- has been formed in the 19thand century still is nowadaysinto a tenement a background house for and monumental, finally in historicthe 20th religious and 21st buildings century or centres into a multi-familyof or secular even power multifunctional as well as contemporary building, as public wasutility mentioned buildings earlier, or collective has been housing. and still is nowadays However,a background the phenomenon for monumental, of the tenement historic house religious archetype buildings also manifests or cen- its power tres of secular powerhere, as imposing well as its contemporary stylistics on larger public objects utility containing building a differents or collective function. hous- Narrow, high ing. and flat façades of medieval tenement houses in Gdańskhave become so strongly inscribed in the landscape of the historic city centre that none of the contemporary designers working in this area dare to disturb the existing order. And it doesn’t just apply to residential development. Completed in 2012 and awarded with numerous architectural prizes, the building containing the museum function of the Maritime Culture Centre in Gdańskis one of many examples of contemporary implementation of the gable form of a tenement house in a Buildings 2021, 11, 80 15 of 19

Buildings 2021, 11, 80 15 of 19

building with a completely different function (Figure 16). However, this does not give the impression of artificiality or alienation in this so clearly defined space. On the contrary, by fragmenting the elevation and referring to the medieval way of shaping high and narrow façade divisions topped with pitched roofs, the building perfectly fits into the historical urbanFigure landscape. 15. Tenement It creates houses a harmonious on Szeroka whole Street with it, in and Gda atń thesk; same designed time clearly by A. Taraszkiewicz. Source: Buildings 2021, 11, 80 emphasises its own modern distinctiveness through the use of contemporary materials15 and of 19 A. Taraszkiewicz. technologies and the application of minimalist architectural details (Figure 16).

However, the phenomenon of the tenement house archetype also manifests its power here, imposing its stylistics on larger objects containing a different function. Narrow, high and flat façades of medieval tenement houses in Gdańsk have become so strongly inscribed in the landscape of the historic city centre that none of the contemporary designers working in this area dare to disturb the existing order. And it doesn’t just apply to residential development. Completed in 2012 and awarded with numerous architectural prizes, the building containing the museum function of the Maritime Culture Centre in Gdańsk is one of many examples of contemporary implementation of the gable form of a tenement house in a building with a completely different function (Figure 16). However, this does not give the impression of artificiality or alienation in this so clearly defined space. On the contrary, by fragmenting the elevation and referring to the medieval way of shaping high and narrow façade divisions topped with pitched roofs, the building perfectly fits into the historical urban landscape. It creates a harmonious whole with it, and at the same time clearly

emphasises its own modern distinctiveness through the use of contemporary materials FigureFigure 15. 15.Tenement Tenement houseshouses onon Szeroka Street in Gda Gda´nsk;designedńsk; designed by by A.A. Taraszkiewicz. Taraszkiewicz .Source: Source: A. Taraszkiewicz. A.and Taraszkiewicz. technologies and the application of minimalist architectural details (Figure 16). However, the phenomenon of the tenement house archetype also manifests its power here, imposing its stylistics on larger objects containing a different function. Narrow, high and flat façades of medieval tenement houses in Gdańsk have become so strongly inscribed in the landscape of the historic city centre that none of the contemporary designers working in this area dare to disturb the existing order. And it doesn’t just apply to residential development. Completed in 2012 and awarded with numerous architectural prizes, the building containing the museum function of the Maritime Culture Centre in Gdańsk is one of many examples of contemporary implementation of the gable form of a tenement house in a building with a completely different function (Figure 16). However, this does not give the impression of artificiality or alienation in this so clearly defined space. On the contrary, by fragmenting the elevation and referring to the medieval way of shaping high and narrow façade divisions topped with pitched roofs, the building perfectly fits into the historical urban landscape. It creates a harmonious whole with it, and at the same time clearly emphasises its own modern distinctiveness through the use of contemporary materials and technologies and the application of minimalist architectural details (Figure 16).

FigureFigure 16. Maritime16. Maritime Culture Culture Centre in Gdańsk;designedCentre in Gda byńsk; Mirosław designed Fr ˛aszczak.Source: by Mirosław InfoG- Frąszczak. Source: InfoG- dańsk[dańsk57]. [57]. 7. Conclusions The spatial image of the European city is inextricably associated with a specific form of the urban house—the tenement house [6], the model of which originates from the Middle Ages, and despite enormous cultural, civilizational, and socio-economic changes,

Figure 16. Maritime Culture Centre in Gdańsk; designed by Mirosław Frąszczak. Source: InfoG- dańsk [57]. Buildings 2021, 11, 80 16 of 19

has survived until today. The reason for the extraordinary durability of this type of construction can be found in the enormous rationality and economic efficiency of this solution. Due to the continuity of the frontage, it allowed for very intensive use of the land. Thanks to the use of small construction spans and common for neighbouring buildings (up to today) construction walls (fire separation walls), it allows cheap and fast construction and fire safety. Thanks to unburdening of the gable elevations, this building model also allows the gable façades to be shaped very freely, which is very important especially nowadays when the tenement house often gains additional, not only residential, functions. The model of a bourgeois tenement house, thanks to a narrow street, paradoxically also allows for free shaping of the functional layout of the building. Inside the tract, limited by external walls, we are dealing with a “free plan”, using modernist nomenclature, which we can freely shape. Even at the present time, when two or three tracts of tenement houses are functionally connected, the structural elements located at the border of the modules (again thanks to small spans) are very small in size, not interfering with the functional solutions. The possibility of easy access of each building to the main communication routes in the tenement model is also functionally very beneficial. Also on the basis of numerical analyses, it was shown that the construction of roofs of tenement houses performed in the past, as well as in modern times, was and still is economically justified and optimal for the safe transfer of loads at small spans of 5 to 7 m. Aesthetic considerations, i.e., the possibility of shaping the face of the city according to the patterns accepted in a given epoch and the ease of implementing elements testifying to the aesthetic views and the social and financial status of particular investors in the front elevation, are probably also important in the consolidation of the model of the bourgeois tenement house. It seems, however, that the most important factor which made the model of the mediaeval bourgeois tenement house become an archetype for contemporary architectural and construction solutions is a timeless message contained in this model, a specific code allowing it to be unambiguously identified as a form of urban house—a place of safe living and at the same time a visible sign of the rich history of European cities, an element creating their cultural and spatial identity, a component of the living, constantly transforming urban tissue. The tenement seems to be a proven, flexible model of an urban building, perfectly fitting into the complexity of the downtown environment and possessing the features of a basic element of the urban-architectural composition of this environment. The building, both historical and contemporary, through its scale and archetypical form, fully respects the spatial context of its neighbourhood, forcing the designers to constantly reinterpret the legacy of past generations. The tenement house appears not only as a testimony to the magnificence of European culture, but through its contemporary architectural interpreta- tions, it gives the inhabitants of European cities an opportunity to preserve their identity, cultural continuity and specific local character. Especially in cities such as Gdańsk,where cultural continuity was broken [58] not only by the destruction of the material substance but also by the exchange of society, where customs could not be passed from generation to generation and there was no natural inheritance of tradition, signs such as the urban tenement, inscribed in the city landscape, have become carriers of local tradition, bridging the gap between generations of old and new inhabitants [59].

Author Contributions: Conceptualisation, A.T. and K.T.; methodology, A.T., J.P.; software, K.G., J.P.; validation, K.G., J.P.; formal analysis, K.G., J.P.; investigation, A.T., K.T.; resources, A.T., J.P.; data curation, A.T.; writing—original draft preparation, A.T.; writing—review and editing, J.P.; visualisation, A.T., J.P., K.G., K.T.; supervision, A.T., J.P.; project administration, A.T., J.P.; funding acquisition, A.T., J.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding: This research received no external funding. Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable. Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable. Buildings 2021, 11, 80 17 of 19

Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author. Conﬂicts of Interest: The authors declare no conﬂict of interest.

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