DOCSLIB.ORG

1 Rents and Welfare in the Second Industrial Revolution

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
1 Rents and Welfare in the Second Industrial Revolution Rents and Welfare in the Second Industrial Revolution: Evidence from New York City Rowena Gray1 Note: Preliminary Draft, Do not Cite. Abstract: This paper presents new archival evidence on housing rents in New York City for the period 1880-1910 from newspaper advertisements. The rental information was geocoded and linked to information on local amenities and disamenities using historical maps of Manhattan Island and the software program GIS. This allowed additional linkage with ward and district-level census and health study data. With this comprehensive dataset, a quality-adjusted index of rents is developed and the capitalized value of each feature estimated, adjusting for spatial correlation at the sub-city level. The resulting index shows an overall increase in quality-adjusted nominal rents in the city of 39%, with a ramp up in average rents during the 1880s, to a peak in the early 1890s and further increase and increased volatility in the 1900s. More data is being added to the current sample to build a clearer picture of the evolution of rents over this period, a key component of estimates of standard of living which are typically ignored or ill- measured. 1 Rowena Gray, Department of Economics, University of California, Merced, 5200 N. Lake Road, Merced, CA 95343. Email: [email protected]. 2 I acknowledge the support of an EHA Cole Grant which facilitated the collection of rental data, and a UC Merced Committee on Research Grant which facilitated geocoding of the data. Excellent research assistance provided by Frank Chou, Cecilia Garcia, Sewon Kim, Jason Lee, Charles Martin, Jacob Miller, Jose Ulloa and Richard Wright. I also thank participants at the 2013 EHS, EHES and Swedish Economic History Meetings and the 2015 WEAI Conference for useful discussions 2 I acknowledge the support of an EHA Cole Grant which facilitated the collection and suggestions. I acknowledge Carlos Villarreal who built the of rental data, and a UC Merced Committee on Research Grant which facilitated geocoding of the data. Excellent research assistance provided by Frank Chou, Cecilia Garcia, Sewon Kim, Jason Lee, Charles Martin, Jacob Miller, Jose Ulloa and Richard Wright. I also thank participants at the 2013 EHS, EHES and Swedish Economic History Meetings and the 2015 WEAI Conference for useful discussions and suggestions. I acknowledge Carlos Villarreal who built the historical GIS maps of Manhattan Island and geocoded the first round of observations. 1 Introduction This paper presents a new dataset of rental prices for New York City housing for the period 1880-1910. This address-level rental information is geocoded on a historical map of Manhattan Island and thus linked to a very detailed set of locational characteristics. The paper then uses hedonic regression techniques, a standard in the housing literature, to generate a quality-adjusted rental index for those years and to investigate the value of each apartment characteristic and locational amenity/disamenity in the rental market. The aim is to devise new estimates of the urban housing cost around the turn of the twentieth century and to inform measures of the urban standard of living more generally at that time. Haines (1989, p. 8) describes housing costs as “one of the more difficult components of cost of living to obtain”. He used the Aldrich Report of 1890 to construct measures of housing costs in U.S. cities and to then compile cost of living indices for that year. It was possible to include housing in only 5 out of 68 cities. For Drelichman and Gonzalez Aguda (2012, p. 38), housing costs are “the neglected child of price history”. Existing estimates of costs of living have focused on prices of consumption goods and have typically assumed a quite low fraction of income was spent on housing (5-10% in Allen (2001)) and indeed this seems too low for a study of large urban areas.2 Often housing estimates that are used to compile overall CPI measures are based on very few observations that are not quality-adjusted. This paper is part of a growing literature that seeks to improve our knowledge of housing costs and conditions across a wide range of countries and time periods, some of which is discussed below. Measuring this key component in the consumer price index more accurately also facilitates a much better understanding of the real value of any given nominal wage during our sample period. Changes in rental values should have had large welfare implications on the New York population since rental units have comprised the majority of the Manhattan housing market since the nineteenth century. Only 9.63% of household heads 2 Drelichman and Gonzalez Aguda (2012) found that it was only half the true value for pre-industrial Toledo. 2 reported real estate holdings in 18703, which decreased to 1.7% owner-occupied dwellings by 19404. Rents were a large part of household budgets—in 1901, estimates of the share spent on rent range from 16.7% to 22.3%.5 Literature Review A number of recent publications explore historical real estate markets. Nicholas and Scherbina (2013) construct a quality-adjusted index of real estate sales for Manhattan, before and during the Great Depression, based on transaction-level data collected from archival sources, and show that high-end Manhattan real estate prices followed the stock market closely but ultimately property proved a less lucrative investment over this period. Similarly, Raff et al (2013) present a new, quality-adjusted, house price index for historical Beijing over the long run, 1644-1840. These papers explored the sales market, which is historically less important in terms of the budget of the average person in large U.S. cities than the rental market. The literature on rental markets in history is more sparse. For England and Wales, Clark (2002) collected data on 11,188 rental contracts over the very long run (1640-1909) from the records of charity groups. He used the observations on which there were multiple transactions to compute a quality- adjusted rental index and used this to construct estimates of trends in housing quality, showing that quality increased little during the Industrial Revolution even while rents increased. His findings add to the conclusion of the literature on this period that living standards could not have increased substantially even as technological change proceeded rapidly. Margo (1996) constructed a quality-adjusted index of rents for New York City and its surroundings for the period 1830-1860, using newspaper advertisements for this period. His sample contained fewer than 1,000 observations and so 3 1% Sample of the Population Census by IPUMS. 4 1940 Housing Census. 5 Rees, Albert (1961) Real Wages in Manufacturing: 1890-1914 (Princeton University Press: Princeton), p. 114. 3 could not be used to construct neighborhood-level indices, but was comprehensive enough to estimate the capitalized value of various unit-level characteristics as well as the distance to City Hall. The coefficients on the year dummies were used to construct a rental price index, which showed that the urban cost of living increased more over this period than had been shown in previous work which used less comprehensive rental information. Rees (1961) had also used newspaper advertisements as a source of housing rental information—he chose the New York World because of its working class target audience, and this paper makes use of this publication as well, as outlined below. Eichholtz et al (2012) use annual data for Amsterdam for the years 1550-1850 to construct a constant-quality rental index using the repeated measures approach. They focus on periods where rents change to try to identify market rents, although they acknowledge that this approach may overstate the true market volatility. The paper further examines the correlation between rents and business cycle forces, finding a strong correlation for this period. Drelichman and Gonzalez Aguda (2012) constructed a new dataset of rents for Toledo, Spain, over the years 1489-1600 based on the records of the Cathedral Chapter of the city. They were able to measure costs separately by social status and analyze the evolution of rents compared to population and economic growth trends as well as the timing of plagues and subsistence crises. As we do in our paper, they have to proxy the size of units rented in their sample due to a lack of full data on that aspect of the transaction-- they use building footprints combined with census information to complete this task. A recent study by Kholodilin (2015) presents monthly data on asking rents in Berlin gathered from newspaper advertisements, from 1909 to 1917, and explores the determinants of trends in the time series during and after World War I and the consequent population and building fluctuations. It is, to our knowledge, the only other study that has geocoded rental information from historical newspapers and computed a hedonic rent index controlling for detailed locational as well as unit characteristics. 4 Historical Housing Market in New York City The beginning of the sample period, 1880, signaled the development of the market for apartments for middle class and wealthy people in New York City, where previously such families would only reside in houses.6 Another trend in the 1880s was the use of cooperative building owning arrangements. Furthermore, the city moved northwards as transportation improved and new areas of the city (like the Upper West Side) became increasingly acceptable and fashionable over the sample period. Over time, competition became tougher for tenants and luxury apartment buildings became more common. In general, housing was fairly unregulated during this period, with no zoning in New York City until 1916 and no rent control. Building standards were the main form of regulation.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Wooden Porches of Houses from the Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries
    Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences - SGGW Forestry and Wood Technology № 94, 2016: 67-73 (Ann. WULS - SGGW, For. and Wood Technol. 94, 2016) Wooden porches of houses from the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries DARIA BRĘCZEWSKA-KULESZA1, GRZEGORZ WIELOCH 2 1/ University of Science and Technology, Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering and Architecture , Architecture Department Bydgoszcz, Poland, 2/ University of Life Science, SGGW, Faculty of Wood Technology, Wood Mechanical Processing Department, Warsaw, Poland, Abstract: Wooden porches of tenement houses from the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries At the turn of the XIX and XX centuries with the industrial revolution and the development of capitalism one can observe the rapid development of multi-family housing for rent in the form of multi-family tenement. It was connected with the processes of transformation of urbanization and the introduction of new materials for building such as concrete, cast iron, reinforced concrete or steel. Still, wooden forms existed all the time as elements of construction of adjacent objects and decorations of facades. Porches were usually made of wood. The paper presents examples of porches found in Poland in tenement houses from the turn of the XIX and XX centuries. Keywords: tenement houses, wood, porches, INTRODUCTION On the turn of XIX and XX centuries together with modernization of European countries caused by industrial revolution and development of capitalism one can observe quick development of multi-family housing which was connected with the process of transformation of urbanization. Both were determined by the socio-economic (e.g. increase of wealth, migrations to towns) as well as with the spatial situation of towns.
    [Show full text]
  • Tenement Toolkit Your Step by Step Guide to Organising Shared Repairs to Your Property Part 1: Factsheets
    Tenement toolkit Your step by step guide to organising shared repairs to your property Part 1: Factsheets Your DIY guide to STEP 1 STEP 2 Identify shared Find out what getting your areas and who’s needs repaired. repairs sorted. liable. Click on a step to find out more. STEP 3 STEP 4 STEP 5 Let owners know Organise an Vote on your repair options. about the repair. owners’ meeting. STEP 6 STEP 7 STEP 8 Let owners Organise your Get your repairs know the repair money. done. decision. Contact us for free information and advice: Helpline: 0131 529 6778 www.edinburgh.gov.uk/sharedrepairs Edinburgh Shared Repairs Service Identify shared areas and who’s liable The first step in getting your repairs organised is to find out which areas of your building are shared and who is responsible for their upkeep. Tracing owners can seem complicated when flats in your building are unoccupied or owned by a landlord. This fact sheet will help you to find out: ▪ what the common or shared areas of your property are ▪ who’s responsible for maintaining what ▪ who the other owners are in your block (if you are unsure). Useful Hints and Tips ✓ Check your title deeds to find out about your shared areas Your deeds should give details of your shared areas and how to work out your share of a bill. ✓ Don’t know how to get your title deeds? Contact your property manager, solicitor or lender for a copy. You can also get a copy (for a fee) from Registers of Scotland.
    [Show full text]
  • Glasgow City Council 20Th November 2018 Neighbourhoods, Housing and Public Realm City Policy Committee
    Item 1 Glasgow City Council 20th November 2018 Neighbourhoods, Housing and Public Realm City Policy Committee Report by Executive Director of Regeneration and the Economy Contact: Patrick Flynn Ext: 79920 Condition of Pre 1919 Tenement Stock- Interim Report Purpose of Report: To provide members with information on the issues affecting our pre 1919 tenement housing stock and highlight the work that will be undertaken over the next 12 months to determine the condition of the stock. Recommendations: That Committee considers the content of this report and notes that detailed findings, outlining the condition of the city’s pre 1919 tenement stock will be reported back to committee in 12 months’ time. Ward No(s): Citywide: Local member(s) advised: Yes No consulted: Yes No PLEASE NOTE THE FOLLOWING: Any Ordnance Survey mapping included within this Report is provided by Glasgow City Council under licence from the Ordnance Survey in order to fulfil its public function to make available Council-held public domain information. Persons viewing this mapping should contact Ordnance Survey Copyright for advice where they wish to licence Ordnance Survey mapping/map data for their own use. The OS web site can be found at <http://www.ordnancesurvey.co.uk> " If accessing this Report via the Internet, please note that any mapping is for illustrative purposes only and is not true to any marked scale 1. Policy Background 1.1 Statutory powers have been available to local authorities since the Housing (Scotland) Act 1969 to address private sector repair issues in flatted dwellings in common ownership with the focus in Glasgow always being on the older pre 1919 tenement stock.
    [Show full text]
  • A Spatial History of Independent Art Spaces in Krakow from the 1970S to 2019
    arts Article A Spatial History of Independent Art Spaces in Krakow from the 1970s to 2019 Jarosław Działek Institute of Geography and Spatial Management, Faculty of Geography and Geology, Jagiellonian University, ul. Gronostajowa 7, 30-387 Krakow, Poland; [email protected] Abstract: Independent art spaces not only play an important role in exploring frontiers in the visual arts but are often also pioneers discovering new artistic territories within cities. Due to their subordinate position in the field of art, they often occupy marginal spaces in terms of their location within the urban structure and/or in terms of their physical visibility within the built environment. Their location outside the established artistic cores reflects, at the same time, their weaker economic standing and wish to distinguish themselves from previous generations of cultural producers. Post- socialist cities offer the opportunity to study the spatial history of independent art spaces under different political and economic systems. In this paper, I have used a detailed database of private art galleries in the period from the 1970s to 2019 and content analysis of press and internet texts about them to uncover the stages of development of independent art venues in Krakow, Poland, an example of a post-socialist city with a rich cultural heritage. They included periods of dispersion within the wider inner-city followed by cycles of concentration in rather neglected quarters that were emerging as epicentres of alternative artistic life only to dissipate due to unfavourable economic conditions and the appearance of the next generations of artists who wanted to mark their distinctive presence both in the art world and in the urban space.
    [Show full text]
  • Working Group on Maintenance of Tenement Scheme Property Final Recommendations Report
    Working Group on Maintenance of Tenement Scheme Property Final Recommendations Report rics.org rics.org Foreword Housing affects all of us. After all, we all have to live somewhere. But it gets precious little attention in the media unless things go wrong. As someone who used to work in the media I have always thought that’s a real shame. One time when something went wrong was in June 2000. Christine Foster, an Australian, was working in an Edinburgh city centre pub when masonry fell from the roof, through an awning, and hit her. She died from serious head injuries. She was just 26. Christine’s father, Michael, called on the government to lay down tougher regulations to help ensure safer construction in Scotland. Very little has happened since to ensure that buildings, such as the one involved in that tragic case, are maintained properly; evidenced by recent figures from the City of Edinburgh Council that indicated over 20 reported incidents of falling masonry every month. We know from the most recent housing condition survey that 68% of all dwellings have some degree of disrepair. Disrepair to critical elements stood at 50%, while 28% of dwellings had some instance of urgent disrepair, and 5% had some extensive disrepair. These figures have not moved in a year. Nearly a fifth of all our housing is pre-1919 – that’s 467,000 homes – and 68% of those have disrepair to critical elements, and 36% have critical and urgent repair needs. This is why MSPs of all parties started to discuss the issue of tenement maintenance over a year ago.
    [Show full text]
  • III. Housing Market Prices
    III. Housing Market III.1. Primary housing market in Krakow In 2010, we observed a natural correction due to earlier investment limitations – the market waited for the surplus of completed houses Housing statistics to be absorbed. Additionally, developers positively assessed market developments in the following quarters, commencing construction The year 2010 was very interesting from the perspective of Krakow’s of 9,158 flats (an increase of 47.7 %) and obtaining a building permit housing statistics. On the one hand, compared to the previous year, for a another 12,180 flats (an increase by 95.3 %). The figures are we have observed a clear drop in the number of flats commissioned. similar to the ones in 2007 that led to record results of the con- The preliminary data from the Statistical Office in Krakow shows struction industry in the years 2008–2010. Thus, unless we observe that 4,710 flats were commissioned in 2010, while in the peak severe deterioration of other indices determining the demand and year 2009 – as many as 10,332 houses. A year-on-year decrease housing growth, i.e. credit availability, costs of investment comple- amounted to nearly 55 %. We cannot speak about a crisis, though, tion, inflation rate, unemployment indices and general economic since the number of flats commissioned in 2010 was lower than situation, in the years 2011–2012 an increase in the number of flats the average in the years 2004–2008 only by a few hundred flats. commissioned can be expected. Number of flats commissioned, for which building permits were issued, and construction of which was commenced in Krakow in the years 2007–2010 2007 2008 2009 2010 The number of flats commissioned 4,922 6,621 10,332 4,710 The number of flats whose construction was commenced 10,499 7,583 6,199 9,158 The number of flats for which building permits have been issued 11,168 12,051 6,238 12,180 Source: Statistical Office in Krakow 24 III.
    [Show full text]
  • Chicago Flat Type Planning: Sustainability and the 1902 Tenement House Ordinance
    1st Residential Building Design & Construction Conference – February 20-21, 2013 at Sands Casino Resort, Bethlehem, PA PHRC.psu.edu Chicago Flat Type Planning: Sustainability and the 1902 Tenement House Ordinance R. Gnat1 1School of Architecture, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, Box 454018, 4505 S. Maryland Parkway, Las Vegas, NV 89154-4018; PH (702) 895-1906; FAX (702) 895-1119; email: [email protected] ABSTRACT This paper examines the planning flexibility and the passive ventilation and day- lighting potential of the various multi-unit apartment types developed in response to the 1902 Tenement House Ordinance in Chicago. Instead of thinking about the future of sustainable multi-family housing design as built upon current planning strategies, this paper examines a historic planning precedent that may be more applicable, or appropriate, based upon the criteria of the new sustainability paradigm. Beyond explaining the history and requirements of the Ordinance, this paper illustrates how basic planning strategies adapted from the Chicago two-flat apartment building could be combined and repeated to form ever larger, taller and complex apartment buildings. Today, many “sustainable” multi-unit apartment buildings are planned in a manner that requires constant mechanical ventilation and artificial lighting even during daylight hours. This is done without asking whether a building that requires energy to be habitable should even be considered sustainable. Air-conditioning for housing was not technically or economically feasible until after 1930 so these Chicago flat type apartment buildings relied upon passive planning strategies to ventilate and light each unit. In an era of increasingly expensive energy, the advantages of planning every unit to accommodate the passive ventilation and lighting strategies inherent in these pre-air conditioned designs becomes apparent.
    [Show full text]
  • Calendar No. 542
    Calendar No. 542 105TH CONGRESS REPORT 2d Session SENATE 105±303 "! LOWER EAST SIDE TENEMENT NATIONAL HISTORIC SITE ACT OF 1997 SEPTEMBER 8 (legislative day, AUGUST 31), 1998.ÐOrdered to be printed Mr. MURKOWSKI, from the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, submitted the following REPORT [To accompany S. 1408] The Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, to which was referred the bill (S. 1408) to establish the Lower East Side Tene- ment National Historic Site, and for other purposes, having consid- ered the same, reports favorably thereon without amendment and recommends that the bill do pass. PURPOSE OF THE MEASURE The purpose of S. 1408 is to establish the Lower East Side Tene- ment National Historic Site, in New York City, as an affiliated area of the National Park System. BACKGROUND AND NEED Between 1880 and 1921, millions of immigrants flooded New York, entering through Ellis Island and finding their way to thou- sands of dwellings in the Lower East Side of New York City. These dwellings, called tenements, were designed and constructed to pro- vide affordable shelter to the incoming masses of poor immigrant workers. The tenement located at 97 Orchard Street in New York City was built in 1864 during the first immigration rush to provide housing for immigrants. The brick building, rising five stories with a raised basement, housed more than twenty families on a lot planned for a single-family residence. Each floor had four three- room apartments, with two windows in one room and none in the others. The privies and water spigot for all residents were located 59±010 2 outdoors and immediately adjacent to the building.
    [Show full text]
  • Webster Hall, 119-125 East 11 Street, Manhattan, Built: 1886; Architect
    Webster Hall, 119-125 East 11th Street, Manhattan, Built: 1886; Architect: Charles Rentz. Proposed Landmark site: Borough of Manhattan, Tax Map Block 556, Lot 68 Webster Hall was constructed in 1886 to the design of Charles Rentz; a massive seventy by one hundred foot, three-story ballroom and concert hall, constructed of Philadelphia Brick with stone accents, and un-glazed red terra- cotta that originates from an 1884 Boston Terra Cotta Company catalogue. Designed in the Renaissance Revival style, the building is adorned with a fluted bracketed cornice and Corinthian pilasters, decorative terra-cotta panels incorporating foliate motifs, gryphon, putti, and musical instruments. In 1892, a twenty by ninety-eight foot lot at No.125 was annexed and an addition was constructed for a bar, sitting rooms and living quarters for the owner. The addition used the same decorative motifs to create a seamless association between the two buildings. Webster Hall is one of the largest public gathering halls left in New York City, and has gone through many incarnations during it existence. Halls for hire or “Pleasure Gardens” have helped sustain the city's civic life, offering large interior spaces for use by many different social and political groups. Used primarily as a dance hall during the 1880s and 1890s, the building is one of the only dance halls still extant on the Lower East Side. At the end of the 19th century, it was estimated that there were over 130 dance halls, mostly located on the Lower East Side, because of the large working-class immigrant population that helped to popularize the Pleasure Garden.
    [Show full text]
  • Chapter 2: Land Use, Zoning and Public Policy
    Special West Chelsea District Rezoning and High Line Open Space EIS CHAPTER 2: LAND USE, ZONING, AND PUBLIC POLICY A. INTRODUCTION The proposed action would not result in significant adverse land use impacts and would be consistent with zoning and public policies in West Chelsea and adjacent areas. A detailed assessment of land use, zoning, and public policy is appropriate if an action would result in a significant change in land use or would substantially affect regulations or policies governing land use. The proposed action would result in substantial land use changes on Tenth and Eleventh Avenues, between W. 16th and W. 22nd Streets and W. 24th and W. 30th Streets. West Chelsea is currently occupied by art galleries, parking lots, auto-repair facilities, manufacturing and storage uses, and bars and nightclubs. By 2013, with the proposed action, West Chelsea would be transformed into a mixed-use community, with much of the area occupied by primarily residential buildings with commercial, including retail and gallery uses, community facilities such as museums and a new linear open space on the High Line. While the anticipated changes are significant, they are not expected to result in significant adverse land use impacts. In recent years, the adjacent Chelsea neighborhood east of Tenth Avenue has experienced an increase in residential development, in the form of new construction and conversions and enlargements of existing buildings. Similarly, the northwest corner of the West Village, directly south of West Chelsea has experienced a rise in residential and commercial redevelopment, as former industrial buildings have converted to residential and commercial uses.
    [Show full text]
  • The Case for Investing in Tenement Housing November 2019 About GWSF Glasgow and West of Scotland Forum of Housing Associations (GWSF)
    GWSF Glasgow and West of Scotland Forum of Housing Associations The case for investing in tenement housing November 2019 About GWSF Glasgow and West of Scotland Forum of Housing Associations (GWSF) GWSF is the leading membership and campaigning body for local community-controlled housing associations and co-operatives (CCHAs) in the west of Scotland. The Forum represents 67 members who together own almost 88,000 homes. Along with providing this decent, affordable housing CCHAs also deliver factoring services to around 33,000 owners, mostly in mixed tenure housing blocks. For over 40 years CCHAs have been at the vanguard of strategies which have helped improve the environmental, social and economic wellbeing of their communities. www.gwsf.org.uk • Tel: 0141 946 0645 • Follow us on Twitter @GWSForum • @DavidGWSF Contents Executive summary ............................................................................p3 1. The scale of the problem .................................................... p4 2. How should private tenemental improvement be funded? ...................................................p6 3. Legislative issues ......................................................................p9 4. Conclusion – a new approach from the Scottish Government ...................................................p10 5a. Case studies – supporting housing association acquisitions .......................................................p11 Southside HA ...............................................................................p11 Paisley HA
    [Show full text]
  • Locating the Manhattan Housing Market: GIS Evidence for 1880-1910
    A Service of Leibniz-Informationszentrum econstor Wirtschaft Leibniz Information Centre Make Your Publications Visible. zbw for Economics Gray, Rowena; Bowman, Rocco Working Paper Locating the Manhattan housing market: GIS evidence for 1880-1910 QUCEH Working Paper Series, No. 2020-01 Provided in Cooperation with: Queen's University Centre for Economic History (QUCEH), Queen's University Belfast Suggested Citation: Gray, Rowena; Bowman, Rocco (2020) : Locating the Manhattan housing market: GIS evidence for 1880-1910, QUCEH Working Paper Series, No. 2020-01, Queen's University Centre for Economic History (QUCEH), Belfast This Version is available at: http://hdl.handle.net/10419/214637 Standard-Nutzungsbedingungen: Terms of use: Die Dokumente auf EconStor dürfen zu eigenen wissenschaftlichen Documents in EconStor may be saved and copied for your Zwecken und zum Privatgebrauch gespeichert und kopiert werden. personal and scholarly purposes. Sie dürfen die Dokumente nicht für öffentliche oder kommerzielle You are not to copy documents for public or commercial Zwecke vervielfältigen, öffentlich ausstellen, öffentlich zugänglich purposes, to exhibit the documents publicly, to make them machen, vertreiben oder anderweitig nutzen. publicly available on the internet, or to distribute or otherwise use the documents in public. Sofern die Verfasser die Dokumente unter Open-Content-Lizenzen (insbesondere CC-Lizenzen) zur Verfügung gestellt haben sollten, If the documents have been made available under an Open gelten abweichend von diesen Nutzungsbedingungen
    [Show full text]