University of Massachusetts Amherst ScholarWorks@UMass Amherst Doctoral Dissertations 1896 - February 2014 1-1-1998 Epistemologies of champions : a discoursive analysis of champions' retrospective attributions : looking back and looking within. Edward K. Norris University of Massachusetts Amherst Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.umass.edu/dissertations_1 Recommended Citation Norris, Edward K., "Epistemologies of champions : a discoursive analysis of champions' retrospective attributions : looking back and looking within." (1998). Doctoral Dissertations 1896 - February 2014. 1260. https://scholarworks.umass.edu/dissertations_1/1260 This Open Access Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by ScholarWorks@UMass Amherst. It has been accepted for inclusion in Doctoral Dissertations 1896 - February 2014 by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks@UMass Amherst. For more information, please contact [email protected]. EPISTEMOLOGIES OF CHAMPIONS: A DISCOURSIVE ANALYSIS OF CHAMPIONS' RETROSPECTIVE ATTRIBUTIONS; LOOKING BACK AND LOOKING WITHIN A Dissertation Presented by EDWARD K. NORRIS Submitted to the Graduate School of the University of Massachusetts Amherst in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY May 1998 School of Education © Copyright by Edward K. Norris 1998 All rights Reserved EPISTEMOLOGffiS OF CHAMPIONS: A DISCOURSIVE ANALYSIS OF CHAMPIONS' RETROSPECTIVE ATTRIBUTIONS; LOOKING BACK AND LOOKING WITHIN A Dissertation Presented by EDWARD K. NORRIS Approved as to style and content by C. Carey, Chair lement A. in. Member ^^lius Gundersheim, Member y W. Jackson, Deaii ol of Education To my sister, Lee, who knew about living fully and did so with great joy and laughter. To my mother, Sally, and my father, Edward; they possess qualities of patience, humor, strength, optimism, creativity and perseverence ... all the province of champions. To all my family. And to Kami, who believed, and kept believing. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I express my deepest gratitude to the members of my doctoral committee, without whom this project would not have been possible: Dr. John Carey, for his support of the idea, wise counsel, and suggestion that the project follow a timely schedule; Dr. Clement Seldin, for unparalleled support, encouragement, and delight with the process; Dr. Julius Gundersheim, for encouraging me, sharing related studies, and for opening the door to his personal library, and giving me the key. I am grateful to the many champions who have enthusiastically participated in this project; they are the heart of this study. They are: Jimmy Arias Jay Berger Don Budge Owen Davidson Cliff Drysdale Brian Gottfried Tom GuUikson Jose Higueras Johan Kriek Rod Laver Bob Lutz Dennis Ralston Eugene Scott Pancho Segura Stan Smith Fred StoUe V I would like to express my appreciation to some of the people who assisted the development of this project: Dr. Britton Brewer, Dr. John Lambdin, and Dr. Elizabeth McCauliff for their generous support with formative ideas about the work; to Kenneth R. Wagstaff, B.A., for reviewing the questions posed to champions, to Dudley S. Bell, M.S., Dr. Oscar F. Goncalves, and to Elinore Towle, M.A., the clinical director who has supported my goals, and demonstrates confidence; Dr. Paul Roetert, Administrator of Sport Science for the United States Tennis Association Player Development and Dr. Ron Woods, Director of Player Development for the U.S.T.A. I am grateful to Anne Downes, M.Ed, and Dr. John Adams for conversations that made conclusions seem possible, to D. Phillips Wells for facilitating player access, and to Richard Yoerg, B.S., for assistance with the production of a film which was an adjunct to this dissertation. I acknowledge Arthur Ashe who was the kind of hero a child can understand and an adult remembers. vi ABSTRACT EPISTEMOLOGIES OF CHAMPIONS; A DISCOURSIVE ANALYSIS OF CHAMPIONS' RETROSPECTIVE ATTRIBUTIONS; LOOKING BACK AND LOOKING WITHIN MAY 1998 EDWARD K. NORRIS, B.S., LYNDON STATE COLLEGE M.Ed., UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS AMHERST Ph.D., UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS AMHERST Directed by: John C. Carey The intent of this research project was to achieve greater understanding of the developmental and psychological processes of tennis champions. Phenomenological research design, employing the qualitative in- depth interview was used. Constant comparative analysis, as applied to grounded theory, was used to guide data collection and analysis. Champions were asked to describe their processes toward championship achievement, and what facilitated their athletic and psychological development. Of particular interest was how they traced their development, which included the following themes: The roles of parents, teachers, coaches and mentors, conceptualizations of mental toughness, process versus outcome orientations to competition, the zone, vii (riliniphino when not in (he /one, sporlsinanship, legulalion of emotion, sell-talk, self-knowledge, self-complexity, motivation, confidence, dreams and childhood imaging, goal setting, acting skills when competing, hmnoi, independent thinking, discipline, the history of their personal competitiveness, and their achievement of siiccessfnily contending with the psychological pressures of competition. Common to nearly all the participants was an enduring love of the game of tennis, the joy of competing, and a strong desire to do supremely well and work hard in whatever endeavor the champions pursued. Correlations with existent literature and previous lesearch were present in the domains of family and social factors, most of the experiential characteristics of peak performance, and the importance attributed to having a coach or mentor who had the ability to relate well personally and professionally. In contrast to some previous research about champions and high achievers, most of these champions had not met an abundance of pain and trauma in their personal lives. How champions define chain pit^n was an area of this research new to the literatme. Fmergenl from the interviews were three styles of definition: Hxternal, reflecting accomplishment; Hxlernal Internal, meaning accomplishment and exemplary self conduct, and Internal, reflecting both model self conducl--and the value that a champion is one who fully actualizes innate potential. Potential seeking is how most of the champions described their drive for championship develo|iment and their orientation to life. viii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS v ABSTRACT vii Chapter L INTRODUCTION ^ 1 Purpose of the Study 1 Significance of the Study 3 ^1 2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 8 Who Triumphs and Why? 8 Typology and Dimensions of Human Experience 13 Peak Experience 14 Flow 17 The Runner's High 21 Peak Performance 23 Common Characteristics and Discriminating Attributes 23 Academicians' Definitions and Descriptions of Peak Performance 24 The Elusiveness of Peak Performance 26 Peak Performance: The Athlete's Description 28 Various Nomenclature Athletes Use to Describe Peak Performance 29 Athletes' Descriptions of Superior Unconscious Operations.. 29 Present Focus 30 Calmness, Euphoria and Invincibility 30 Perfect Concentration and Calmness 31 Detachment 31 ix Power, Balance and Supreme Happiness 32 Quietness, Aliveness and Controlling Destiny 33 Effortlessness, Slowing of Time and Motion 33 Mental Toughness 34 Cognitive Variables and Peak Performance 36 Thinking and Self-Talk 38 Cognitive Control 45 Techniques for Controlling Negative Self-Talk 46 Irrational and Distorted Thinking 46 Constructing Affirmative Statements 46 Self Complexity 47 3. METHODOLOGY 51 Introduction 51 Phenomenological Research 51 Research Design 56 Selection of the Participants 56 Procedures and Interviews 57 Interviews 58 Analysis of the Data 64 Limitations of the Study 65 Researcher Bias 67 4. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA 69 Champions Define Champion 70 External Orientation 72 Number One 72 Winning 73 X 1 External-Internal Orientation 74 Good Winner, Good Loser 74 Internal Orientation 75 Potential Seeking 76 Other and Varied Responses 79 A Winner on Every Surface 79 Titles, Trophies, and Personal Conduct 79 Patriotism 80 Perspective of Humbleness 80 Genetic Epistemology 81 Championship Development 82 Family Influences 82 Parents 83 Siblings and Identity 86 Social Influences 89 Socioeconomic Influences 91 Qualities of a Champion 94 Genetic Natural Talent 95 Love to Play the Game 96 Fun 98 Competitiveness 98 Independent Thinking, Stubbornness 101 Mental Toughness 104 Psycho-Physiological Toughness 1 08 Stoicism 109 Acting Skills 1 1 xi Motivation 113 Eagerness 117 Confidence 120 The Killer Instinct; the X Factor 121 Regulation of Emotion 122 Ninety-Five Percent 125 Humor 125 Process versus Outcome 127 Dream Element 133 Goal Setting 136 Identity 137 Self-Knowledge 138 The Zone 141 In the Zone; the Phenomenology 142 Coping and Triumphing when not in the Zone 145 Sport Psychology 147 Visualization 158 Self-Talk 159 5. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH 162 Champions; Developmental Progressions 162 The Mark of a Champion 167 Dreams and Identity 168 Potential Seeking 168 Competitive and Priority Driven 169 Inventive, Creative 170 Competitive Abilities 171 Mental Toughness 171 Problem Solving and Successful Adaptation 171 Present Focus 172 Sportsmanship 172 xu• The Zone Application to Life 1 74 Sport Psychology I75 The Role of Coaches and Teachers I77 Correlations with Existent Literature and Previous Research 179 Implications for Future Research 183 APPENDICES