SPECIAL REPORT

August 2012 — Issue 48

Educating for the profession of arms in Australia

by Hugh Smith and Anthony Bergin

Executive summary

This Special Report examines professional • Efforts should be made to fill the military education (PME) in Australia—the approximately 10-year gaps between career-long process of developing the qualities the Australian Defence Force Academy Australian Defence Force (ADF) personnel (ADFA) and the Australian Command and require as members of the profession of Staff College (ACSC), and between ACSC arms. First, it sets out reasons why PME is and the Centre for Defence and Strategic crucial to Australian security and outlines Studies (CDSS). some recent criticisms of the system. Second, • The eventual co-location of all Australian it examines the organisational, personnel Defence College (ADC) centres of learning and pedagogic challenges that all PME is supported as contributing to the systems must deal with. Third, it analyses creation of a critical mass of teaching the principal institutions that provide PME staff and a more diverse student body, as in Australia, taking note of their strengths well as to economies of scale and more and weaknesses. integrated delivery of courses. The final section of the report sets out a series of recommendations, which are 2. A flexible system: students and summarised below. methods

1. A coherent and unified PME system • Further efforts should be made to reach out to members of the ADF Reserve who • The ADF should develop a clear definition bring civilian skills and attributes into of PME and set out the objectives that the ADF. PME is intended to achieve. • An increase in the number of reservists • Clear minimum standards should be set taking full-time ACSC and CDSS for the different levels of Joint PME. courses should be sought, given the growing reliance on reserve forces by all three services. 2 Special Report

• The delivery of courses and modules by • ACSC and CDSS should introduce lectures distance methods is supported. and/or electives relating to behavioural science in general and military sociology 3. A relevant system: operational art in particular.

• The ADF should introduce an • ADC should include a behavioural Operational Warfiighting Command scientist in its resident faculty. Course comparable to the UK’s Higher 5. A few good academics (in uniform) Command and Staff Course. An annual course lasting around three months • The ADF should adopt a policy of might cater for 8–15 ADF officers and increasing the number of personnel with a small number of Defence public higher postgraduate qualifications. servants and representatives from relevant agencies. Such a course might be • The ADF should examine ways and developed in cooperation with Canada means of securing for selected officers and New Zealand and conducted on a a one- or two-year master’s degree at rotating basis. a civilian university with a significant component of research. • The ADF should examine the need for a centre of studies on joint warfare. There • The ADF should adopt a policy whereby would be value in locating it at ADC and those with such qualifications can expect in linking it to a resident faculty at ADC to be employed in teaching at ADFA, (see Recommendation 6). ACSC or CDSS.

4. A relevant system: behavioural 6. An in-house faculty at ADC science • ADC should expand its current faculty to • UNSW@ADFA (the University of New three or four scholars. South Wales at ADFA) should introduce a compulsory one-semester behavioural 7. Outsourcing expertise: relations with science course (6 units of credit) as a Australian universities general education course. • ADC should begin to analyse future • UNSW@ADFA should introduce a contracting issues with a view to three‑year program in behavioural developing an appropriate strategy. science as an optional specialisation. • ADC should examine whether there are • In teaching behavioural science, UNSW@ ways of encouraging more universities to ADFA should make use of service enter the market in order to encourage personnel qualified in psychology and greater competition in tendering. qualified civilians in Defence. Educating for the profession of arms in Australia 3

• ADC should examine ways of 10. Professional identity and public maintaining contact with universities perceptions in general, including developing some form of relationship with their peak body, • The ADF should develop the Australian Universities Australia. Defence Force Journal into a flagship journal for the profession of arms 8. Promoting the study of in Australia. defence‑related subjects in Australian universities 11. Management of ADC

• The ADF should examine the feasibility • The appointment of a Deputy of a program to expand the study of Commander ADC to take responsibility military‑related behavioural science at for the training element of ADC should Australian universities. be considered.

9. Beyond the course • The post of Commander ADC should be for three years to provide the • ADC should develop a consistent necessary continuity. methodology for evaluating all of the courses for which it is responsible.

• Each service should compare the retention and promotion rates of officers who have entered via ADFA against officers who have entered by other paths.

• ADC should engage with the Centre for Military Education Outreach at King’s College London as one means of measuring itself against international standards.

• ADC should give high priority to developing alumni groups.

• Membership of an alumni group should include a subscription to a printed journal, perhaps at a reduced annual fee (see Recommendation 10). 4 Special Report

Contents

Executive summary 1

1 Why PME matters to Australia 5

2 Getting PME right 9

3 How the ADF does PME 14

4 Recommendations for change in PME 27

Concluding remarks 36

Note on costings 37

Notes 38

Appendix A: Professional military education in the US 42

Appendix B: Professional military education in the UK 45

Acronyms and abbreviations 47 Educating for the profession of arms in Australia 5

1 Why PME matters to Australia as is now essential in any major operation. (The term ‘PME’ is used here to refer to both The most powerful tool any soldier carries single-service and tri-service PME unless is not his weapon but his mind. otherwise qualified.)

—General David H Petraeus, US Army Third, the report concentrates on the first of (retd), ‘Beyond the cloister’, The American the four qualities mentioned above—intellect. Interest, July–August 2007 This refers to the capacity of individual Professional military education (PME) is members of the profession of arms to think the process of developing four essential critically, analyse complex issues, understand qualities that are required by members of events, and make sound judgements. It also the profession of arms: intellect, expertise, refers to the collective or ‘organisational’ ethos and leadership.1 For the individual, it’s intellect of the ADF—its capacity as a military a career-long undertaking that lasts from force to learn, utilise knowledge and adapt to 2 initial engagement through to the most new circumstances. PME is the key factor in senior positions—even generals can learn. It’s developing both facets. also a significant challenge for the Australian PME certainly contributes to expertise, Defence Force (ADF) which must not only ethos and leadership, which are no less determine the content and format of PME, important than intellect in a military force but also ensure that personnel receive it at the but which can’t be covered in detail in a right time and in the right sequence. short study. Expertise consists of those skills This report focuses first on PME in Australia. essential to the conduct of operations and Some of the matters discussed have supporting activities (both single-service generated significant debate in the US, the and tri-service). Ethos refers to the intangible UK and Western militaries generally. These factors that make for loyalty and cohesion in developments are referred to where they have a military force and a sense of responsibility 3 particular relevance to PME in the Australian and duty to the community. Leadership setting. An indication of some of the issues is the indispensable quality that ensures in the US and the UK can be found in the subordinates not only do things right but do two appendixes. the right thing. Each of these factors deserves a study in its own right. Second, the report addresses PME delivered in a tri-service context. Each service contributes PME is an essential contributor to Australia’s 4 to PME by developing its members’ skills military capability. Without educated people, and expertise in the employment and the most powerful weapon platforms, the management of its particular equipment— most intelligent munitions and the most rapid naval, land or air. Navy and Air Force, in communications systems are of little value. particular, must master complex technology, Yet there’s a tendency on the part of many although Army also faces technological in uniform to dismiss PME as ‘too academic’ challenges. Such expertise is developed by a or as low priority when faced with pressures mix of training and education conducted by of time, numbers, budgets and operations. each service and underpins the effectiveness Acquiring education appears to lack of the ADF as a whole. Tri-service or ‘joint immediate and tangible pay-offs compared PME’ (JPME) is intended to facilitate the with acquiring weapons and warriors. effective combination of these capabilities, 6 Special Report

Maintaining or expanding investment in PME Australia’s relatively small armed forces and is all the more important because of four vast land area. This involves not only more developments in Australia’s circumstances. sophisticated weapons systems but also advanced communications, intelligence, and First, national security policy has become command and control systems. The ADF more challenging as Australia seeks to adjust must prepare for participation in high-tech simultaneously to a complex and shifting conflicts, most probably as an ally of the US, global power balance and a potentially and this requires it to maintain advanced turbulent regional environment. Government technological expertise and war-fighting skills. policy requires the ADF to prepare for a Yet technology is also critical in ‘wars among diverse range of operations. Australia’s alliance the people’ where it can help provide essential with the US and commitment to global intelligence, assist in close control over tactical security can take the ADF to many parts of operations and allow highly discriminating the world, from fighting in Afghanistan to attacks. The effective operation of hi-tech peacekeeping in Africa. If these are operations equipment requires both technological of choice (albeit limited choice), there are also know-how and behavioural expertise in regional conflicts and instabilities in which understanding how operations affect local Australia may have no option but to intervene. societies and cultures. As the ‘local superpower’, this country may find itself thrust into leadership because Fourth, several specific developments in no-one else can or will take up the burden. Australia present challenges for PME: ADF personnel must be sufficiently adaptable • The ADF is no longer the sole provider of and intellectually agile to operate in a wide security in Australia. It must cooperate variety of situations, often at short notice. (and perhaps on occasions compete) with Second, greater and more complex demands other agencies, such as the Australian will be placed on uniformed personnel by the Federal Police and the border protection sorts of conflict in which Australia is likely agencies. There’s a National Security to be involved. Most wars, as British General Committee at cabinet level, and the ADF Sir Rupert Smith puts it, now occur ‘among is one voice among many in shaping the people’, where the ‘enemy’ is difficult to national security policy. Those in uniform distinguish from the general population and need the knowledge and expertise to is prepared to use violence anywhere against make their input relevant and persuasive. anyone.5 Conflicts today are often highly • There’s a marked disparity between the volatile and complex, yet force must be used professional development and succession sparingly and with great discrimination. In planning for senior military personnel such environments, military personnel must and their civilian counterparts in the not only operate at different levels but also Department of Defence, who often lack ‘a comprehend the underlying nature of the strong understanding of the complexities conflict and the purpose of their mission. of defence policy and the defence Tactics and strategies that will reduce force’.6 PME needs to be extended to antagonisms and build cooperative relations more civilian personnel, not only in the with local people are needed. Department of Defence, but in other Third, Australian security depends in part departments and agencies, with whom on maintaining a technological edge over ADF personnel are likely to cooperate likely opponents as a way of offsetting in future. Educating for the profession of arms in Australia 7

• There’s a need to cater for reserve have a high and deserved reputation for (part-time) officers, who are increasingly the conduct of operations in the field, but being called upon to make substantial the ADF’s individual and collective intellect contributions to Australia’s military is rarely on display. Instead, the media operations (as in East Timor and the offer up a steady stream of failures and Solomons) as well as border protection scandals—from a lack of amphibious vessels and domestic security. to misbehaviour at the Australian Defence Force Academy (ADFA), and from cost • The traditional membership of the overruns to concerns about military culture. profession of arms has broadened to Constant reviews and inquiries take place, include not only commissioned officers attracting adverse publicity that’s difficult to but also senior non-commissioned counter. A comprehensive PME system won’t officers (NCOs) and warrant officers who guarantee against such problems, but should are taking on greater responsibilities and equip military personnel with better insight exercising high levels of judgement.7 and skills to foresee and deal with difficulties • The attendance of overseas military before they become unmanageable. personnel at residential and other Finally, the magnitude of the task of providing PME courses in Australia has become PME shouldn’t be underestimated. The ADF important as a means for the ADF to has around 59,000 full-time members, of develop ties with regional forces and whom some 14,100 are officers or officers in maintain ties with traditional allies training. They’re the primary target of PME, such as the US, Britain, Canada and but to them should be added some senior New Zealand. NCOs, some of the 7,000 ADF Reserve officers • The development of educational and about 6,400 civilian executive-level technology and communications permits officers in the Department of Defence. These courses to be offered in distance mode aren’t small numbers, given that PME is a and allows the use of expert lecturers costly, continuous and career-long process. overseas through video links. Some suggest that this reduces or eliminates Criticisms of PME in Australia the need for residential courses. A great deal is expected of PME, and it’s • The ADF faces significant budgetary attracted considerable attention over the constraints in the coming years.8 years—not only from military personnel but There are likely to be across-the-board also from the media, parliament, academia reductions in equipment purchases, and the community at large. Often, the facilities, training opportunities and attention has been highly critical. personnel numbers, and PME may In a bipartisan report in 1995, for example, struggle to maintain its share of the pie. a parliamentary defence committee However, the key factor in maintaining recommended the abolition of ADFA and the the ADF’s capability and effectiveness use of civilian universities to educate future in straitened times is smart, adaptable, officers.9 The main reasons were the cost of imaginative and professional personnel. ADFA compared with the cost of recruiting PME is also important for the ADF in officers from civilian university graduates maintaining its status in the community and and the closed nature of the academy, which in the eyes of politicians. Service personnel was dubbed a ‘military monastery’ by the 8 Special Report

chair, Roger Price, in his tabling speech.10 However, the ADF has not been inactive on In 1997, former Army officers Graeme PME. Important changes have been made Cheeseman and Robert A Hall advocated during the past two decades, often amid opening up ADFA to civilian students and its much debate. ADFA survived the Price report, reinvention as a tri‑service ‘special conditions’ but other PME institutions were closed as reserve unit along the lines of a large-scale the ADF itself moved to promote greater university regiment attached to University ‘jointery’—the ability of the three services College, UNSW.11 to operate in unified fashion. In 2001, the three single-service staff colleges at different In 2004, Professor Jeffrey Grey of locations were combined into the ACSC for University College, ADFA, argued that PME officers at the major level (and Navy and Air in Australia was suffering from several Force equivalent levels) based in Canberra. fundamental problems, especially in the From 1994, officers at colonel/brigadier post-commissioning element. There was levels had been educated at the Australian a lack of coherence resulting from failure College of Defence and Strategic Studies, a to align different stages and to develop a new institution in Canberra that evolved into unifying philosophy. Grey also criticised the CDSS in 2001.16 The Joint Services Staff an undiscriminating drive to outsource College, which had catered for lieutenant curriculum development, course content colonels and equivalents from 1970, closed and delivery to universities, as well as the down in 1998. related scourge of ‘credentialism’—the desire to provide university qualifications for staff In 1999, an umbrella organisation, the college students regardless of the quality or Australian Defence College (ADC), was relevance of those awards.12 Another critic established to bring greater coherence to saw this as ‘an outsourcing of intellectual the process of PME at all levels and to make responsibility’ on the part of the ADF.13 better use of related learning centres in the ADF as well as ADFA, ACSC and CDSS. The PME has also been criticised for its failure to charter of the ADC sees it as ‘Defence’s centre prepare officers for command of operations. of expertise in vocational and professional In 2008, a resident academic at the Australian education and training, together with related Defence College accused the ADF of having a research in areas of Defence interest’. ‘closed mind’ about that need and of falling behind those overseas military forces that As well as institutional change, developments it’s most likely to be deployed with.14 Equally have taken place in the curricula of ADFA, trenchant at that time was retired Major ACSC and CDSS. At ADFA, future officers General Jim Molan, who asked whether our have undertaken more strategic studies and senior military leaders in the East Timor management units, while offerings in military intervention were successful because of ethics have expanded. In 2007, a review of ‘our JPME system or were they competent ADF joint education and training by Major despite it?’ Teaching generalship, he argued, General David Morrison identified deficiencies was neglected at the Centre for Defence and made recommendations for change. In and Strategic Studies (CDSS), while at the recent years, for example, both ACSC and Australian Command and Staff College CDSS have introduced more material relevant (ACSC) majors (and equivalents) were taught to the sorts of operations that the ADF is likely generalship by lieutenant colonels.15 to be engaged in. Educating for the profession of arms in Australia 9

ADFA has now been in place for over 25 years Training focuses on practical activities, and the ADC, ACSC and CDSS over 10 years. particularly those that are predictable and It seems timely to ask how well they’re repetitive and can be done in right way performing and how they might change in or a wrong way. It’s a matter of acquiring the future. As General Hurley, then Vice Chief knowledge, skills and attitudes relevant to of the Defence Force, observed in 2011: specific tasks and activities. Training thus relates to ‘doing’ more than ‘thinking’. [R]eform of the ADF’s education and Practice and rehearsal are important—hence training model is an important element the principle: ‘train for certainty, educate of the Defence Department’s current for uncertainty’.18 reform agenda. There is certainly a view shared by many in the ADF that Education develops skills, capacities and we have the opportunity now to create moral values that are relevant to all aspects a professional officer development of life. Among other things, education is system that will enable us to produce about building in the individual a capacity for the military leadership that can meet our learning and an ability to think critically, to future challenges.17 analyse, to describe, to deduce and to make judgements—in short, to exercise reason and The following sections examine how the ADF imagination. As Sir Michael Howard put it, is facing up to this task. referring to study of the past, ‘the true use of history … is … not to make men clever for next 2 Getting PME right time; it is to make them wise forever.’19

[F]or too long we have been training Professional military education develops leaders who only know how to keep the these qualities as they relate to the diverse routine going. Who can answer questions, activities of the profession of arms. It assists but don’t know how to ask them. Who can individuals to analyse, investigate and fulfill goals, but don’t know how to set research complex issues that they might face them. Who think about how to get things as military officers—issues that will often be done, but not whether they’re worth unexpected and unpredictable, complex and doing in the first place. challenging. The focus of PME can’t be limited —William Deresiewicz, American author to purely military matters, but embraces and critic, address to the plebe class at the the wider context in which armed forces US Military Academy, 2009, reprinted as are employed. PME is intended to provide a ‘Solitude and leadership’ in The American broader perspective on all military activities Scholar, Spring 2010 and a deeper understanding of them.

This section examines the generic The key objectives of PME reflect the four problems inherent in delivering effective qualities identified earlier in section 1: military education to the profession of • to develop the qualities of intellect arms. In practice, education is often linked associated with the use of reason conceptually and organisationally to training. and imagination and the desire to Both seek to prepare individuals for future continue learning roles and tasks by providing them with knowledge and skills. Though grey areas exist, • to provide military personnel with the there are critical differences between the two. expertise required for war-fighting and other roles 10 Special Report

• to develop and sustain the spirit and capabilities. The profession therefore needs to ethos of the profession of arms, including produce commanders familiar not only with the desire to behave loyally, ethically their own service but also sufficiently familiar and responsibly with the wide range of expertise across the whole defence force. The accepted wisdom • to prepare and develop future leaders in is that officers need to understand their own the profession up to the highest levels. service before they can properly appreciate The third objective is often underrated the demands of joint operations. as part of PME i.e. the need to encourage The question here is at what point does JPME behaviour consistent with the highest come to be more important than continued moral and legal standards of the profession single-service PME? A service may believe of arms. Significantly, after abject ethical that an officer needs more single-service and legal failures in Somalia, the Canadian PME than JPME; at the same time completed Defence Force sought to revive its sense single-service PME might not have prepared of professionalism in part through greater the officer for JPME in the best way. As a emphasis on education at all levels of the compromise, a JPME course may well include officer corps.20 single-service components, thereby reducing PME can be presented at any rank and in the benefits of ‘jointery’. A workable balance diverse formats, from a liberal university between single-service PME and JPME must education through to exercises in war fighting constantly be determined. and the higher conduct of operations, and everything in between. It can be conducted Who carries the personnel burden? collectively in institutions or individually PME makes two sorts of demands on the through private study, and it may take place military personnel system. First, staff must before practical application, ‘on the job’ or be provided to run the institutions involved, as ‘lessons learned’. Moreover, PME is one whether in uniform or not. Ideally, those activity among many, competing for the in uniform will be drawn from the cream time and attention of personnel with other of the officer corps so they provide the essential elements of a military career, best education and the best exemplars for such as training, operations, administration students. In practice, of course, every element and command. of the armed forces seeks to obtain the best Providing for PME presents challenges for all personnel—a contest not all can win. military forces, including difficult questions Second, personnel managers ideally select for about military issues, means of delivery and PME those officers who promise to make the pedagogical matters. These are considered best commanders and leaders of the future. here in turn, with a focus on the education However, a 6-month or 12-month course takes of commissioned officers rather than talented personnel out of the pool from which officer candidates. other military positions must be filled—a challenge that’s exacerbated if there’s already Who owns PME—one service or some ‘hollowness’ in staff establishments three? and the force is maintaining a high tempo Any significant military operation these days of operations. The risk, in the words of one is likely to be ‘joint’, in that it requires the US Army general, is that the armed forces coordinated employment of land, sea and air will consider themselves ‘too busy to learn’.21 Educating for the profession of arms in Australia 11

The converse problem occurs when a service • Longer residential courses allow students sees staff college as a convenient place to to become immersed in learning and, park officers to get them out of the way, to with the right sort of guidance, to fill in time before a ‘real’ posting or to offer a develop lifelong habits of the educated comfortable berth before retirement. mind, such as participation in debate and discussion, sensitivity to the perspectives Residential courses—costs and of others, recognition of the limits of benefits one’s own knowledge and the desire to continue learning. There’s much debate about the value of residential courses (i.e. those that require • Longer courses are an important lengthy attendance at an institution, with means of bringing together regular and students accommodated on or off base). reserve officers, between whom there’s The principal objections are the cost of commonly a certain cultural prejudice maintaining the necessary institutions, and mistrust.23 the personnel burden in providing staff • Residential courses allow extended and students, and the view that classroom participation by officers from overseas learning can’t substitute for practical lessons forces.24 This helps military personnel or learning on the job. learn about other nations and make The merits of residential courses include: personal contacts with overseas officers; it also helps educate the latter about • Bringing a wide range of personnel the host nation. The informal networks together for an extended period created in this way can be valuable encourages the creation of mutual means of communication and influence confidence and the building of among military forces. informal networks. • Participation in residential courses • In joint institutions, personnel can by civilians from government and acquire a degree of familiarity with other non-government agencies helps create services and with the higher direction of mutual understanding and personal the defence force. networks between personnel likely • Residential courses are a powerful means to be working together in the field of of transmitting the culture and beliefs national security. desired by the military leadership.22 Values imparted in this way can do much E-learning—options and to counteract the sometimes perverse opportunities interpretations of military culture found Information technology and communications in local units from time to time. have greatly improved the effectiveness and • Educational institutions are able to quality of learning, creating new options for present students with ideas and PME, whether in institutions or outside. For arguments using some of the best example, staff colleges can provide real-time available subject matter experts, presentations by leading subject matter while ensuring that students experts anywhere in the world, including undertake a sustained and challenging live question-and-answer sessions. Current learning process. technology also allows highly realistic simulation exercises, which can create some 12 Special Report

of the psychological pressures likely to be Few aspects of knowledge and learning aren’t felt in the field. For their part, students on relevant directly or indirectly to the profession residential courses have come to expect of arms.25 The fact is that no military a sophisticated use of technology in the professional can hope to master all aspects of presentation of material and to have direct every field of knowledge that might be useful. access to the internet to gather information An attempt to cover everything will make the and conduct research. curriculum ‘a mile-wide and an inch-deep’. It may even be difficult to agree on the essential The greatest changes wrought by e-learning elements of a curriculum, while an agreed relate to the ability to deliver courses of curriculum may prove to be focused on the study to personnel who are posted to remote wrong thing. locations or who wish to study in their own time (and perhaps their own home). Distance One key factor in shaping a curriculum is the learning is probably best suited to shorter prevailing nature of conflict. If that changes, courses for which material can be focused so too will the roles and tasks assigned to and presented in manageable doses. The the military forces, and so should the PME disadvantage is that taking courses in this curriculum. The diverse forms of mission way doesn’t provide the intangible benefits (‘war among the people’, peacekeeping, gained from personal contacts among course stabilisation, counterinsurgency, border members and teaching staff. Teleconferencing security, counterterrorism and so on) have and the like may compensate for this now come to compete for inclusion in the deficiency to some extent. PME curriculum along with—or against—the traditional focus on major conventional wars Certainly, distance learning can provide a using high-tech weapons. This is a tension all valuable adjunct to residential courses. For PME systems must deal with. example, intending students can prepare in advance, while students who’ve failed At the same time, ideas and practice or missed units at a staff college can catch concerning the relationship between up on those units. Reservists, in particular, operations, strategy and policy are constantly can benefit from taking some parts of staff changing, as are considerations about how to college courses in distance mode, thereby design and plan military activities. Compared reducing the length of time they spend on a with normal arts curricula in universities, residential course. change is faster and the demands of the real world more pressing. Keeping up to date is What’s to be taught? a ‘complex balancing act’ akin to keeping up with the most recent legal decisions in a law The question of what to teach has bedevilled school or the latest surgical techniques in staff colleges ever since their invention about medical school.26 250 years ago. Just because PME is about the application of military force to achieve Who should teach the curriculum? objectives set by government does not make it a simple proposition. The use of military Presenting PME requires expertise in many force is never simple and it never takes place areas, and it’s rare for a military force to have in a vacuum. It’s always shaped by its physical, the requisite knowledge among those in technical, organisational, social, psychological, uniform. In the West, only the US forces are political, legal and ethical contexts. There’s large and well-resourced enough to be able never any certainty about the sort of war a to provide a significant proportion of their nation will be engaged in next. Educating for the profession of arms in Australia 13

own instructional staff—perhaps bolstered Is staff college really necessary? by the dubious assumption that ‘every officer There’s continuing debate about whether is a [good] teacher’ simply by virtue of being attendance at a staff college is really an officer.27 In practice, the US military also necessary. On the one hand, military employs civilian experts for substantial personnel may believe their prospects for elements of its PME, and has been mandated promotion are boosted more by taking up by Congress to do so. The common challenge command or other critical appointments is how best to integrate civilian educators into than by undertaking a lengthy residential a military system. course deemed to be of little practical value. By and large, US PME institutions place In the US, the level of deferment in some civilian academic staff into a military-led colleges is high because officers believe ‘it is hierarchy. This has led to complaints that more important to have made the “quality the military doesn’t understand concepts cut” evidenced by selection for a senior level such as academic freedom, creativity in the college than to actually attend’.30 curriculum or the professional obligation Service attitudes to the value of staff college and desire of academics to conduct research also vary. Some rate learning and training and publish findings. As one US critic puts on the job more highly, so that attendance it, a military academy ‘has a way of making even at the service’s own staff college is not liberal education feel like a subversive a requirement for promotion. Attendance activity’. 28 The situation isn’t much improved at a tri-service college is even more of a if retired military personnel are appointed distraction. This flows through to the way as civilian academics, including in positions each service regards results at staff college of leadership, since they often lack academic as relevant to future promotion. For some, values and skills and retain a fundamental attendance is an essential requirement and loyalty to the military.29 the level of performance at staff college is Smaller forces usually have few personnel taken into account.31 Another service will academically qualified for tertiary-level promote more on the basis of performance teaching and have no choice but to draw in command or operational posts than on on outside subject experts, most of whom performance at staff college. are found in universities. This presents two The value of staff college can also be difficulties. One is getting the right balance questioned on the grounds that virtually in the curriculum between material of direct no-one fails. Is it a case of ‘no fail, no gain’? relevance to military personnel and material If everyone passes, where is the incentive to appropriate to tertiary-level courses. The excel? Moreover, removing students from a second is the question of standards if a course or giving them a fail grade at the end tertiary award such as a degree or diploma may seem too difficult, since so much has is to be granted for the completion of a PME already been invested in their careers that course. The desire for such credentials can they are ‘too important to fail’.32 This is all the place the armed forces at a disadvantage more so when personnel shortages exist and when negotiating with universities to offer failure means an officer couldn’t be promoted courses. It can also lead course members or would choose to resign. to see themselves as engaging in PME to obtain these credentials, rather than to study On the other hand, students at staff colleges essentially military matters. tend to be well motivated even if they’re there somewhat reluctantly. A poor performance 14 Special Report

will look bad even if a good performance Measuring the value of staff college requires isn’t seen as particularly valuable or relevant. a demonstration not only of what’s been It’s also the case that failure rates are gained by attendance but also of what exactly often high at the precommissioning stage is lost by non-attendance. The benefits of PME when unsuitable and unmotivated officer to the individual and to the organisation are candidates are removed. generally long-term and indirect compared with training or with experience gained on Self-directed learning operations. This can lead to the neglect of rigorous evaluation. The fact that all or most Great military leaders often praise senior officers have been to a particular staff self‑directed learning—the PME that occurs college doesn’t in itself prove that the course outside colleges or barracks and is undertaken made them better officers; it may simply by officers at their own initiative and in their mean that the course was compulsory if they own time. It may take the form of reading wanted promotion. Evaluating education widely, making notes and observations, courses is an art in itself. studying for a university degree or writing for publication. Such self-directed learning may The ultimate test of a PME system, of extend to casual discussions or engagement course, is war. Here, at least, there are clear in debates with colleagues. Informal examples—such as the US Army before mentors can also be of great assistance in Vietnam—where failure to invest wisely in this context.33 PME carried a heavy price. By contrast, the rigour and excellence of US PME in the 1930s However, self-directed learning is rarely a returned good dividends in World War II. The substitute for learning at a staff college or test of war, however, is always after the event. similar institution, but is a valuable and highly desirable complement to more structured learning. Many of the great military leaders 3 How the ADF does PME and thinkers from Clausewitz onwards have [T]he officer PME system in Australia is in had a voracious appetite for private reading profound disarray, and is fundamentally and learning, but most have attended staff failing the organisation of which it colleges as well. Clausewitz himself was a should be the intellectual gatekeeper and student, a lecturer and a director at a war guiding beacon. college at various points in his career. —Professor Jeffrey Grey, University What’s the value of staff college? College, ADFA, ‘Professional military education and the ADF’, Defender, 21(3), If some officers can succeed without going Spring 2004 to staff college, why do others need it? The answer lies in the educational experience PME in the ADF takes a wide variety of of being presented with a variety of ideas forms, ranging from the largely academic and arguments and being compelled to to the severely practical, from single-service debate and discuss complex issues with staff, to tri‑service, from individual-based to fellow students and visiting experts. Much group-based, and from formal to informal. can be learned from private study, from While small numbers of ADF officers are sent colleagues and on the job, but ideas are best to overseas staff colleges at mid-level and developed by close interaction with others. An senior level, a large number go through PME outstanding few can thrive without this, but a in Australia. PME system must cater for the many. Educating for the profession of arms in Australia 15

This section gives a brief outline of PME needs and evaluate outcomes’. Its aims are (primarily JPME) as it exists today and the to determine ‘how people will learn in a organisations that are engaged in it. future Defence environment’; to ‘develop enabling systems to underpin access to Australian Defence College learning and assessment at a time and place to suit the learner’; and to ‘generate and drive The ADC is a tri-service organisation headed longer-term reforms’.34 It also manages the by a two-star military officer. It includes accreditation of ADF courses. The Defence four principal organisations for JPME: the Learning Branch was created in response to Australian Defence Force Academy (ADFA), fundamental shifts in learning and teaching the Australian Command and Staff College in the age of digital communications and (ACSC), the Centre for Defence and Strategic decentralised knowledge. Studies (CDSS) and the Defence Learning Branch—all at one-star level. Seven other ‘Learning Centres’ are also part of the ADC: the Capability and Technology The Defence Learning Branch was established Management College, the Defence Force in 2012, as Defence recognised its diminishing Chaplains College, the ADF Warfare Centre, ‘capacity to analyse education and training

Australian Defence College

Australian Defence Force Australian Command Centre for Defence and Defence Learning Academy and Staff College Strategic Studies Branch Campbell Campus, ACT Weston Campus, ACT Weston Campus, ACT Brindabella Park, ACT

Australian Command ADFA Midshipmen and Centre for Defence Client Relationship and Staff Course Officer Cadets Leadership and Ethics (Joint, RANSAC,ARes) Strategy and Planning Campbell Campus, ACT Campbell Campus, ACT Weston Campus, ACT Practice Management Capability and Centre for Defence Technology ADF Warfare Centre Research Management College Learning Solutions Williamtown, NSW Weston Campus, ACT Campbell Campus, ACT Learning Delivery

Defence Force ADF Learner Support Chaplains College Peacekeeping Centre Bonegilla, VIC Williamtown, NSW

Australia’s Federation Defence International Guard Training Centre Campbell Campus, ACT Laverton, VIC

Defence Force School of Languages Laverton, VIC 16 Special Report

the ADF Peacekeeping Centre, the Defence Australian Defence Force Academy International Training Centre, the Defence ‘ADFA’ is shorthand for what are two Force School of Languages and the Centre co‑located institutions: for Defence Leadership and Ethics. After ADC consolidates these functions by the end of • the Defence Academy itself, which is a 2012, it will enjoy an annual budget of around military unit whose members—staff, $400 million and employ more than 1,000 Army and Air Force officer cadets and military and civilian staff.35 In the longer term, Navy midshipmen—are under military it’s planned to bring those units currently command headed by a Commandant located outside Canberra to a single site in • the University College of UNSW, headed the capital. At the same time, the role of the by a Rector, which enrols academically ADC is growing from ‘delivering education qualified cadets and midshipmen for and training to greater strategic responsibility bachelor’s degrees, employs academic for oversight and governance of the Defence staff and determines the curriculum in education and training system’.36 consultation with ADFA and Defence. The three main JPME institutions in the ADC Officer candidates for all three services are ADFA, which provides initial military undertake limited military training at training for officer candidates while the ADFA while pursuing a full-time university University of New South Wales (UNSW) education at University College, UNSW, over provides their academic courses leading to a period of three years or four years in the bachelor’s degrees; ACSC, which prepares case of honours and engineering students. officers at the rank of major (and equivalent) As the ADFA website puts it, this combined for more senior postings with academic academic and military program is designed input provided by the Strategic and Defence to allow cadets ‘to develop their professional Studies Centre of the Australian National abilities and the qualities of character and University (ANU); and CDSS, which is designed leadership that are appropriate to officers of to develop colonels (and equivalent) for the Defence Force’. higher leadership positions and which has a cooperative arrangement with Deakin About one-third of new ADF officers are University. All three are residential courses, graduates of ADFA.37 This is a significant but each has distinct characteristics and its percentage, and a higher proportion of own way of delivering PME. those who will go on to senior ranks and become the most influential members of the One common factor is that all have found military profession. it necessary to come to some kind of arrangement with a university to secure Table 1 shows undergraduate military the necessary subject matter expertise enrolments in years 1 to 4 in recent years. and pedagogical skills in curriculum The total is around 1,000 at any one time, design, teaching methods and educational of whom about 21% are female. Navy’s technology. Each also offers qualifications percentage of females is highest at around with university status to those undertaking 31% and Army’s lowest at around 17%. In each PME—compulsory in the case of ADFA, service, the proportion of females at ADFA optional in ACSC and CDSS. is higher than that among commissioned officers (in 2011, Navy 19.0%, Army 13.9% and Air Force 18.3%). This suggests that, depending Educating for the profession of arms in Australia 17

Table 1: Initial composition of midshipmen, officer cadets and advanced students (years 1–4) at ADFA, by service and gender, 2009–2011 Year RAN Army RAAF Total 2009 148 450 380 978 Female (%) 50 (33.8%) 65 (14.4%) 86 (22.2%) 201 (20.6%) 2010 150 480 375 1005 Female (%) 49 (32.7%) 78 (16.3%) 84 (22.4%) 211 (21.0%) 2011 172 501 357 1030 Female (%) 53(30.8%) 88 (17.6%) 79 (22.1%) 220 (21.4%) Source: ADFA annual status reports.

Table 2: University College, ADFA, full-time staff equivalents Year Male academic Female academic Total academic Academic plus staff staff staff general staff 2009 153 31 185 364 2010 162 41 203 382 2011 153 46 199 366 2012 (31 March) 163 37 200 366 Note: Figures are rounded. Source: ADFA annual status reports. on service-specific attrition rates after Postgraduate study at University College commissioning, female enrolments at ADFA has been open to civilian and military have fed into the rising proportion of female students since its inception in 1986. Courses officers in recent years. offered range from postgraduate diplomas to PhDs with total full-time and part-time Separations from the ADF occur in all years enrolments numbering over 1,600 in April but are highest in first and second years 2012. Some 1,280 students are undertaking (roughly 10% annually), falling away markedly coursework programs and 330 research by third and fourth years to a maximum of degrees. A substantial proportion are ADF and under 4%. Female separations are generally Department of Defence personnel, some of lower proportionately than male separations. whom are enrolled on their own initiative. There are limited numbers of overseas Academic staff at University College military students and a few civilians in the number around 200 and are organised into undergraduate body. The Defence Materiel four schools: Business; Engineering and Organisation sponsors civilian staff in Information Technology; Humanities and the engineering undergraduate program, Social Sciences; and Physical, Environmental while the Defence Science and Technology and Mathematical Sciences. The 170 or so Organisation may sponsor civilian students general staff include those in the Academy in the science program in future years. In Library, which is a national resource on addition, there are plans to admit a number military and defence subjects. of ADF reservists to undergraduate study at ADFA from 2013; they will enrol as civilians and Table 3 shows the output of University live off campus. College in recent years. In 2011, for example, 322 bachelor degrees were awarded, virtually 18 Special Report

Table 3: University College, ADFA, undergraduate and postgraduate awards conferred, 2009–2011 Year Bachelor Postgraduate Postgraduate PhDs All degrees degrees coursework research (excluding PhDs) 2009 270 428 7 32 737 2010 259 607 8 26 900 2011 322 607 11 34 974 Source: ADFA annual status reports.

Table 4: ADFA total operating costs ($million) Financial year Total cost Paid to UNSW Military salaries Defence Support Groupa 2008–09 $88.1 $44.5 $39.5 $0 2009–10 $140.6 $49.2 $46.4 $40 2010–11 $104.2 $52.7 $46.8 $20 a The level of defence overhead costs attributed to ADFA is a matter of discussion. Source: ADFA annual status reports. all going to ADF personnel. Postgraduate ADF, such as the Master of Defence Studies awards were nearly double at 652; most were in 1987. by coursework, while a significant number (45) The relationship with UNSW dates back to entailed research. an agreement with Defence in 1967 whereby UNSW is paid for its services by the the university established a faculty at the Department of Defence under an agreement Royal Military College (RMC) Duntroon to that was initially set at 10 years. The provide undergraduate degrees to Army agreement is reviewed every five years with officer cadets. This relationship with UNSW a view to extending it a further five years led through many twists and turns to the beyond the expiry date. The cost of University creation of a University College of UNSW at College in 2010–11 was around $52 million, ADFA in 1986.38 which was about equal to the military budget One reason for the success of the for the academy (Table 4). The bulk of ADF arrangement is the separation between costs are for military salaries, of which the academic and military organisations. In largest component is paid to cadets; in contrast to US cadet academies and staff addition, an overhead cost attributed to the colleges, there’s no attempt to integrate Defence Academy has been calculated at academic staff into a single military widely varying levels. hierarchy or place them under the control Defence has periodically stated that the of the Department of Defence, with all University College meets its requirements, the consequent problems noted above. including the accreditation of engineering The apparent anomaly of having two chief courses by the Institution of Engineers executives on one campus—the Rector of Australia and the addition of new subjects in University College and the Commandant of response to ADF needs. The college has also ADFA—has been overcome by a clear division greatly expanded its postgraduate offerings of labour between the two organisations to include many of particular relevance to the and by a shared preference for settling Educating for the profession of arms in Australia 19

problems on campus rather than taking them commencing university studies. In turn, up the UNSW or ADF hierarchy. In sum, the this reduces the burden on ADFA in taking relationship between Defence and UNSW responsibility for large numbers of cadets has become institutionalised. Both sides have and midshipmen who are relatively young come to understand each other and learned and immature. It was to counter this problem how to work together. that the Broderick review of the treatment of women at ADFA in 2011 recommended one Key issues year of military training for all cadets before attendance at ADFA. Defence has agreed to Study first or salute first? examine this option.39

Army and Air Force cadets mostly join ADFA On the other hand, lengthy initial military at a young age (between 17 and 19 years) and training is more costly than funding have limited exposure to practical military life undergraduate study and may dissuade some for four years or so. Midshipmen (male and trainees from a military career altogether. female Navy officer candidates) also used to More critically, skills and expertise that come directly to ADFA but now do the Naval are acquired in the first year may well be Officer Year One course (six months basic lost during the three subsequent years of training plus six months advanced training education and may need to be relearned at sea) before joining the academy if they at the end or at least kept topped up. As prove suitable. However, it’s possible that a general principle, skills are best applied Navy will reduce the initial 12 months military immediately after they’ve been learned and training to six months. Air Force and Army are newly commissioned officers are posted considering a similar approach to that of Navy. directly to military units.

Traditionally, Army has taken its officer To allow time for the initial military training candidates directly into a four-year course it recommended, the Broderick review of academic study combined with military proposed a more intensive two-year degree training before commissioning—a pattern in place of the standard three-year degree. A followed from 1911 to 1985 at RMC. Since 1986, two-year degree doesn’t seem practical on Army graduates from ADFA have transferred academic grounds, save at great cost, but two to RMC for one year of full-time military and a half years could be feasible. A shorter training; they join an 18-month direct entry time for degrees has some merit, although officer training course at the six-month point, it may create a ‘busy’ course with less time and both groups are commissioned together for reading and reflection unless military from RMC. demands are reduced considerably in the light of prior training—though, as noted, top-up These different approaches reflect a may become essential. A shorter degree also longstanding debate in Australia. On the one risks losing credibility for the course, given hand, there’s value in providing young people, that the great majority of bachelor’s degrees often straight from school, with immediate in Australia remain at three years. experience of full-time military life. This gives them a chance to try out their chosen Diversity career and assists the service to assess their potential for commissioning at an early stage. A major criticism of ADFA made in the 1995 In addition, early military training gives young Price report concerned the lack of diversity in people time to develop some maturity before the student body. This has been ameliorated 20 Special Report

somewhat by the presence of a small ADFA opened in 1986, there have been number of civilian undergraduates, to be 16 commandants compared with six rectors of supplemented in the near future by additional University College. Defence has accepted the Defence civilians and by a number of ADF recommendation of the Broderick report that reservists who will study for undergraduate the term of appointment of the Commandant degrees. It wouldn’t be surprising to find be a minimum of three years.41 that there’s a large demand from reservists Academic instruction and curriculum to attend ADFA and that their numbers will development are overwhelmingly conducted grow considerably. by civilian staff. There has long been an Price’s alternative to ADFA was to recruit option for small numbers of military officers officers from civilian university graduates, to provide academic instruction as Visiting as occurs in the UK. The principal drawbacks Military Fellows, and some have proven of this approach are the uncertainty of highly successful, but the services find it hard the recruiting environment in universities to make qualified people available for long and likely fluctuations in the numbers that enough (preferably two to three years). could be secured; the difficulty of tailoring One discipline that is largely absent from a curriculum in a civilian university to meet the curriculum at ADFA (in contrast to its US the needs of officer candidates (for example, and Canadian counterparts) is behavioural in engineering); the value of attracting science—sociology, psychology and teenagers considering a military career into anthropology. The grounds for expanding the ADF before they enter civilian universities this field at ADFA are argued more fully in and look to other options; the absence of a Section 4 of this report. tri-service environment at the outset of an officer’s career; and the loss of an opportunity Australian Command and Staff to influence cadet values appropriately.40 College The Price report also criticised the high cost The ACSC, according to its website, ‘aims to of ADFA compared with recruitment from prepare selected career officers for command civilian universities. It’s certainly the case and staff appointments at the O5 level that the small scale of ADFA and its extensive (lieutenant colonel and equivalent) in single overheads compared to most civilian Service, joint and integrated environments’. universities mean that its cost per graduate This entails an 11-month residential course at is higher. However, the margin is reduced Weston Creek in Canberra for attendees from if the relatively high pass rate of students all three services, mainly at the rank of major at ADFA is taken into account. Much also or equivalent. In addition, selected NCOs depends on the type and scale of program attend parts of the ACSC course, while a Joint that would be required to ensure that enough Warrant Officers Course is planned for 2013. civilian graduates could be recruited. The costs of closing ADFA and transitioning to The course normally has around a new system also need to be factored into 175 members—about 120–125 from the ADF, any analysis. about 45 overseas personnel, plus Australian civilians (Table 5). Females make up between Other issues 10% and 14%. The graduation rate is very high at 99%, reflecting partly the presence of A problem that has beset ADFA is the suitable candidates and partly the importance high turnover of commandants. Since to individuals of passing the course. Army Educating for the profession of arms in Australia 21

Table 5: ACSC course members and graduation rates, 2009–2012 Course members 2009 2010 2011 2012 RAN 26 25 23 15 a Army 68 63 68 60 RAAF 29 37 30 33 Overseas 43 44 43 46 Australian civilians 9 9 9 6 Total (female) 175 (19) 178 (21) 173 (24) 160 (16) Graduation rate 99% 99% 99% - a The RAN reduced its participation by 15 course members at short notice to address recommendations of the Rizzo report on naval maintenance. Source: ACSC. makes explicit use of an officer’s performance number of subject experts at SDSC who are at ACSC in determining future employment associated with particular views on Australian and promotion. This is less important in Navy defence, that perception can be countered by and Air Force, but still a factor. ensuring that a diversity of views is presented, including by outside experts. The personnel burden in running the ACSC is not great, involving between 22 and 28 ADF A major positive aspect of the new contract members, including a one-star appointment is that four or five academic staff from SDSC and two to seven female officers. Around plus an administrator are physically located six overseas military personnel and a similar at ACSC and are available to assist course number of Australian Public Service members members. A 10-year timeframe—rather than also contribute to the management of ACSC. three years—will also assist in attracting There was one academic staff member until and retaining staff, and in developing the 2012, when the ANU took over the academic desired mutual understandings between the component of the course. academic and military sides. With careful management on both sides, what’s now A three-year contract with UNSW at ADFA called a ‘partnership’ by SDSC may develop to provide academic courses came to an end into a more institutional relationship similar in 2011. The ACSC has now signed a 10-year to that of UNSW and ADFA. agreement with the Strategic and Defence Studies Centre (SDSC) at the ANU to provide The ACSC course is designed to be substantial elements of the course from 2012, academically demanding enough to warrant at an average cost of about $1.78 million a the award of some kind of university year over the period. While this development qualification, from a postgraduate certificate has attracted some criticism relating to the or diploma to a master’s degree in military choice of provider and the length of the studies—or, where candidates complete an contract, there seems to be merit in the additional 15,000 word sub-thesis, a master new arrangement. of arts. For its part, the ANU must ensure that proper academic requirements for an award SDSC has acknowledged expertise in the are set and met. Failure to do this would required areas and has taught postgraduate lower the status of the award for recipients, courses in relevant subjects at the ANU undermine the university’s standing, and campus. While some critics see the curriculum short-change Defence. as possibly subject to influence by a small 22 Special Report

Key issues Centre for Defence and Strategic Studies ACSC replaced three long-established single‑service staff colleges, each of The CDSS is the ‘senior educational institution 42 which had its own history and distinctive of the ADC’. Course members include characteristics. It’s no surprise that the ADF and overseas military officers (mostly balance between single-service and tri-service at the colonel level or equivalent), senior interests in the curriculum at ACSC is often government officials and members of related difficult to secure and to maintain. Various security organisations, such as police and accommodations have been made to cater emergency management agencies. The for service interests, including single-service centre’s objective is to impart the ‘knowledge components in the course. Clearly, if the and skills required by commanders, strategic course doesn’t seem to meet the interests of leaders and managers engaged in national a service, that service will be reluctant to send security issues’, including policy skills needed enough people and its best personnel. to understand and operate effectively in the complex security environment of the modern The ACSC doesn’t select its students or world; leadership and decision-making impose academic entry requirements. skills; and a deep understanding of global, This leads to a student body with diverse regional and national issues of defence and educational backgrounds, some of whom strategic importance.43 may need to be brought up to speed either before attendance or during the course. The first principal of CDSS’s predecessor Others are ahead of the game and need to be institution was a recently retired Chief of Air challenged intellectually. Staff, who stressed the importance of the college in the following terms: Taking some 120 ADF officers out of the so-called ‘mainstream’ for 12 months places There is nothing more important in the demands on the personnel system of each preparation of people for senior positions service, particularly because of the high in the defence hierarchy than to be operational tempo in recent years. From time intellectually challenged in a sustained to time, members are taken off the ACSC and directed manner on those issues course by their service to meet pressing they will confront in the last and most operational requirements. This is undesirable, important phase of their professional lives. if unavoidable. Twelve months is the minimum period for that to be achieved.44 The relatively frequent turnover of commandants of ACSC has created some The focus is clearly on developing senior difficulties. There have been 10 since 1999, leaders, but it’s evident that the course is including seven since 2005. As with ADFA, also valuable for those subsequently posted it would be desirable to set three-year overseas as defence attachés. appointments. The different leadership styles Around 15–17 ADF personnel and of the services have created some tensions, 5–7 Australian public servants attend CDSS but this can perhaps be seen as a good each year (Table 6). They make up about 50% example of learning ‘jointery’ in practice. of the course numbers; the remainder are mainly overseas attendees plus a handful of non-Defence civilians. Staff total 15 to 18, of whom four to six are drawn from the ADF. Educating for the profession of arms in Australia 23

Table 6: CDSS course members, 2009–2012 2009 2010 2011 2012 RAN (Female) 5 (1) 4 4 (1) 5 Army (Female) 8 (1) 8 (1) 8 (1) 8 (2) RAAF (Female) 4 5 3 3 Australian Public 5 6 (2) 5 (1) 7 (2) Service (Female) Others 22 21 22 22 Total 44 44 42 45 Source: CDSS.

The relationship between CDSS and Deakin ADF personnel constitute about 40% of the University is of some years standing, but less total course membership on average; of extensive than that of ACSC with ANU or the rest, about 10% are from the Australian ADFA with UNSW. While CDSS retains control Public Service and the remainder are a mix over the curriculum, Deakin awards a Master of other Australian civilians and overseas of Arts (MA) in Strategic Studies without the military and civilian personnel drawn from requirement for significant additional work by up to 18 different countries. There’s some those who enrol (in contrast to ACSC). From concern that having a majority of civilians 65% to 80% of attendees undertake the MA, and overseas attendees tends to shift and about two-thirds merit distinctions or the curriculum away from a focus on ADF high distinctions.45 The university provides operations and interests; it also precludes one full-time academic to liaise with staff the use of classified material. However, the at CDSS and monitor the performance of diversity among course members ensures those course members enrolled in the MA. a wide range of perspectives, not least in Negotiations in relation to future academic relation to issues in Australia’s region, from provision are currently underway. which some overseas members are drawn. It also enhances the centre’s role in developing Key issues personal contacts between ADF and Australian Public Service members, overseas Those selected for the course have already military officers and others. reached senior rank and can be expected to be capable of promotion to star rank The position of ‘syndicate directors’, who play (brigadier and above). The pool of potential some part in learning by course members, can attendees is thus much smaller than that be a difficult one. They’re dealing with course of ACSC and it may be difficult for the ADF members who are senior and experienced to release some individuals for a year-long officers and may struggle to find acceptance course. Most course members possess if they aren’t as well qualified as those they first degrees and in many cases higher monitor. The selection of directors with the degrees. In recent years, CDSS has been right blend of academic qualifications and active in negotiating with non-ADF sending practical experience is critical. organisations in Australia and overseas to There’s an argument that the Principal of ensure that attendees have appropriate CDSS should be a senior military officer (or academic qualifications and, in the case of one recently retired) in order to demonstrate civilian attendees, suitable backgrounds. 24 Special Report

the status of CDSS to course members, an innovative role in teaching on leadership especially those from overseas. Wearing a and ethical issues not only within ADC but uniform rather than a lounge suit during also across the ADF. One of its principal official visits to or by the centre would also offerings is the Oboe course, a five-day add some prestige. If well-qualified officers classified program for one- and two-star can be found, this is a tradition worth reviving. officers and Band 1 and 2 Senior Executive Service officers of the Australian Public CDSS conducts extensive evaluation of Service. Delivered since 2006, the course its course, both during the course (weekly covers issues such as contingency planning for and end of year) and subsequently. A operations, support provided by intelligence longitudinal survey tracks course members agencies, working with ministers, strategic around 12–18 months after graduation and communication and key capability issues. By again after three years. Data is gained from May 2012, over 120 officers had completed graduates and their supervisors about the the course.47 utility of the course in preparing for work at the strategic level. This is fed back into The Centre for Defence Leadership and course development.46 Ethics contributes to a range of courses throughout the ADF and will engage with It may not be practical to require attendance some 600 personnel during 2012. It also at CDSS for all ADF officers before promotion makes a point of targeting warrant officers to star rank, although that should be the as well as commissioned officers. To promote expectation. Some individuals will attend ethical debate and expertise in the wider ADF, counterpart institutions overseas. Others the centre has published a series of papers mightn’t be available at the right point in and studies on topics relating to leadership their career but still merit promotion without and ethics. It also uses case studies of failures attending the centre. A comprehensive in ethics and leadership—including in the evaluation of the CDSS course would need to ADF—to good effect. compare its graduates as a group with those who don’t attend CDSS—a complex and Capability and Technology difficult undertaking. Management College As required by its top-level guidance and The Capability and Technology Management mission statement, CDSS focuses its attention College runs a year-long program that on the national strategic level. However, there prepares selected officers to manage are arguments to the effect that high-level capability and technology programs and to PME doesn’t adequately cover the conduct lead project teams in Defence. The academic of operations, whether war fighting or curriculum is presented at master’s level stabilisation/peacekeeping. A later section and is accompanied by military modules, considers how this might be remedied. technical staff studies, relevant short courses and industry visits. Students are expected Centre for Defence Leadership and to read extensively, conduct research, Ethics exercise analytical skills and apply military The Centre for Defence Leadership and Ethics and professional judgement. The college is is a small but important element of ADC that focused on technology and requires a certain focuses, as its title suggests, on two of the level of education in mathematics and physics four qualities that are central to PME. It plays for entry. Educating for the profession of arms in Australia 25

General issues at ADC courses with a career development focus and courses relevant to Defence needs. While ADC embraces the full gamut of Contributions towards study costs normally education and training, the other centres depend on successful completion of a course. of learning, apart from the five outlined In addition, each service runs a ‘civil schooling’ above, have a more practical focus. The ADF scheme to encourage external study. Warfare Centre and the ADF Peacekeeping Centre are focused on military operations. Another form of support is the ADF Higher The Defence Force Chaplains College and the Education Advanced Standing Scheme, which Defence Force School of Languages prepare enables specified education and training individuals in specialised functional areas, provided by Defence to be accepted as while the Defence International Training ‘advanced standing’ or ‘credit’ towards agreed Centre and Australia’s Federation Guard have university qualifications at undergraduate a training focus. and postgraduate levels. The standing given varies from university to university and award One challenge for the ADC is thus to maintain to award. Some 29 Australian universities now a clear distinction between education and offer these pathways to higher education. training and the very different principles on which each centre of learning is based. There’s ADC secures national recognition of courses a natural tendency in military organisations and qualifications provided by the ADF (‘civil for academic education to drift towards accreditation’). While many courses and the training end of the spectrum because qualifications take the form of training for of a desire to achieve quick and definitive specific trades and skills, some can be classed outcomes and to find additional time in as professional development. This wider overcrowded curricula. recognition of ADF instruction also enhances the standing of the military profession in At the same time, the question arises of the community. what other elements of PME should come under ADC. It already has an emerging role The ADC also publishes the Australian Defence in making its ‘learning resources available to Force Journal, the aim of which is to promote those not enrolled in [its] formal courses’.48 discussion and understanding of all facets This is particularly important for reservists, of defence for the profession of arms in given the growing reliance of the ADF on Australia. The importance of a professional reserve personnel. Part-timers should be journal in PME is explored below, and some encouraged to access PME both on campus suggestions for change are offered. and off campus. The changes in train under Plan Suakin in relation to part-time and PME outside ADC full-time service should also help to make Single-service institutions personnel available for courses at ADC.

Self-directed study raises a number of While the tri-service ADC plays a leading role possibilities for ADC. At present, ADF in PME, single-service organisations remain members who wish to undertake tertiary important. They aren’t necessarily focused study at civilian institutions to develop their on delivering PME but include significant professional careers can apply for financial elements of it. The issue therefore arises of support and time off work under the Defence whether and how such courses should include Assisted Study Scheme, which is managed the preparation of personnel for the ACSC by ADC. The scheme covers ‘ADF-preferred’ 26 Special Report

as an objective. Each service approaches this presentation of and contributions to courses from a different perspective. for the professional development of service personnel, together with the publication of Initial officer training conducted by each journals, papers and monographs, further service is also relevant to JPME. For those raises the sense of military professionalism officers commissioned through their own in the ADF and awareness in the services, ACSC is usually their first substantial wider community. tri-service course. • Sea Power Centre–Australia was The Royal Military College, Duntroon enrols established by the RAN in 1990 as a direct-entry Army officer candidates who research centre to foster and encourage take an 18-month precommissioning course the development of maritime strategic and are joined by ADFA graduates at the thought by injecting intellectual rigour six-month point. Direct entrants to RMC are into the public debate on maritime usually older than the cadets who enter ADFA. strategy and other maritime issues. The RMC’s charter focuses on personal qualities centre, which adopted its current name such as ‘leadership and integrity’, ‘high ideals in 2002, publishes a range of material and the pursuit of excellence’ and ‘a sense on maritime issues and has a staff of duty, loyalty and service to the nation’.49 establishment of 16. Its primary role is to produce officers ready to command platoon groups at the rank of • The Land Warfare Studies Centre was set lieutenant. A secondary role is to prepare up by the Army in 1997 to promote the specialist officer candidates for commissions. wider understanding and appreciation of land warfare, to support applied The Royal Australian Naval College at Jervis research into the study of land warfare, Bay conducts a New Entry Officer Course that and to raise the level of professionalism is designed to teach the knowledge, skills and and intellectual debate within the Army. attitudes needed to be an effective junior Its principal publications include the naval officer. The focus is on the Navy’s core Australian Army Journal (since 2003), values of honour, honesty, courage, integrity working papers and study papers. Under and loyalty; on learning to live in a communal the command of the Directorate of environment; and on qualities of leadership Army Research and Analysis, the centre and team membership. About six months has a staff of 14 (four full-time ADF, long, the course requires students to live at five part‑time ADF, five civilian Defence HMAS Creswell. personnel). The RAAF College at Wagga runs an Initial • The Air Power Development Centre was Officer Course that lasts 17 weeks. It includes created in 1989 ‘to promote a greater training in a variety of skills and disciplines, understanding of the proper application and is focused on developing qualities such as of air and space power within the leadership, commitment and teamwork. Australian Defence Force and in the Each service also operates its own ‘think tank’, wider community’. Its roles include the which directly and indirectly contributes to ‘development and revision of indigenous PME. All three are designed to raise awareness doctrine, the incorporation of that among uniformed personnel about the doctrine into all levels of RAAF training, history of their individual service, to promote and increasing the level of air and space discussion of conceptual and doctrinal issues, power awareness across the broadest and to examine future challenges. Their possible spectrum’. The centre published Educating for the profession of arms in Australia 27

32 papers up to September 2011. It – ACSC: postgraduate coursework has 20 permanent staff (10 military, standard, leading to the award of 10 civilian) plus five non-permanent postgraduate qualifications for those staff (reservists). meeting university standards. This level should develop the capacity to 4 Recommendations for apply logical thinking and analysis to change in PME practical issues. The expectation is that those entering ACSC should have a first PME reform is not a pedagogical problem. degree or demonstrate intellectual It’s a personnel problem that can be capacity for postgraduate coursework. addressed only by changing the military’s – CDSS: postgraduate research level, reward system to favor those with the leading to the award of postgraduate intellectual right stuff. qualifications for those meeting —Major General Robert H Scales, US Army university standards. This level should (retd), ‘Too busy to learn’, Proceedings, US develop students’ capacity for original Naval Institute, vol. 136/2/1, February 2010 thinking and for discovering original solutions to problems. This section makes recommendations for The focus at each level is thus on PME. The recommendations are essentially intellectual performance, not on incremental and recognise that much detailed curriculum content or the valuable change is already underway. No span of command. major new directions or significant increases in expenditure are proposed. The changes • Efforts should be made to fill the could be implemented over a period of four approximately 10-year gaps between years or less. ADFA and ACSC, and between ACSC and CDSS: 1. A coherent and unified PME – ADC should engage with the individual system services to orient their PME so that it Australia’s PME system has developed in a meshes better with courses at ADC. somewhat ad hoc fashion over the years. – ADC should seek ways of establishing In the past, the unifying concept was that or maintaining contact with officers would learn to lead larger and larger graduates of ADFA and ACSC during force elements in a progressive or ‘stairway’ the gap period, including through process.50 In the contemporary operating encouraging them to undertake environment, a new measure of coherence self‑directed learning. and unity needs to be created: • The eventual co-location of all Australian • The ADF should develop a clear definition Defence College (ADC) centres of learning of PME and set out the objectives that is supported as contributing to the PME is intended to achieve. creation of a critical mass of teaching staff and a more diverse student body, as • Clear minimum standards should be set well as to economies of scale and more for the different levels of JPME: integrated delivery of courses. – ADFA: undergraduate standard requiring the award of a bachelor’s degree by UNSW. This level should lay the foundation for lifelong learning. 28 Special Report

2. A flexible system: students and and higher command in favour of strategic methods policy, and that by remaining focused on the strategic–tactical interface Australia had ADC already has a degree of diversity among fallen behind its military peers in the US, students, especially at ACSC and CDSS. The Britain and Canada.51 presence of civilian and overseas students contributes significantly to the learning Large strides have been taken to remedy this process for ADF personnel and also develops deficiency in the past few years. Both ACSC valuable informal relationships between and CDSS now offer substantial components course members: on operational art. However, the presence of international students drawn from up • Further efforts should be made to reach to 18 different countries, while providing out to members of the ADF Reserve who many benefits, means that only unclassified bring civilian skills and attributes into material can be used. the ADF. A further issue is that the gap is essentially The experiment of admitting reservists between ACSC and CDSS. Australian officers to ADFA should be supported and usually undertake command roles on numbers increased as far as possible. This operations at a rank just below that required will contribute in a major way towards to attend CDSS, while those deployed after stronger ties between full-time and CDSS tend to be working at the national or part-time personnel. international strategic level for which the • An increase in the number of reservists college prepares them.52 Ad hoc efforts have taking full-time ACSC and CDSS been made to fill this gap, but a more stable courses should be sought, given the long-term solution is desirable: growing reliance on reserve forces by all • The ADF should introduce an Operational three services. Warfighting Command Course • The delivery of courses and modules by comparable to the UK’s Higher Command distance methods is supported. This will and Staff Course. An annual course help both full-time and reserve personnel lasting around three months might to access JPME. Consideration should cater for 8–15 ADF officers plus a small be given to opening suitable courses to number of Defence public servants civilians. and representatives from relevant agencies.53 Such a course might be 3. A relevant system: operational developed in cooperation with Canada art and New Zealand and conducted on a rotating basis. ‘Operational art’ refers to expertise in planning, mounting, leading and Given the existence of three single-service maintaining major operations, which almost studies centres, it’s anomalous that no such invariably have tri-service, international, centre exists for the study of joint warfare whole‑of-government and non-government operations. Such a centre would focus on organisation dimensions. The importance keeping up with overseas developments of developing this expertise in the ADF was and refinements in campaign planning and noted some years ago by commentators operational art and on concept and doctrine who argued that Australia’s JPME at the development in the joint context. It would higher levels had neglected operational art perhaps also serve as a think tank for the Educating for the profession of arms in Australia 29

Chief of the Defence Force, in the same way To send an officer into a conflict-ridden nation that the single-service studies centres support without some ideas and concepts about their chiefs. 54 how different cultures and societies function is to place great faith in innate ability and • The ADF should examine the need for a learning on the job. As a result, one officer centre of studies on joint warfare. There writes, ‘the Australian army is continuously would be value in locating it at ADC and embarrassed by the superior language skills in linking it to a resident faculty at ADC and cultural awareness of other military (see Recommendation 6). forces operating in our neighbourhood.’58 The Army’s approach to cultural understanding, 4. A relevant system: behavioural another observes, has so far been ‘largely science ad hoc and won on‑the-job’.59 This sort of A notable absence from the PME curriculum casual approach is not adopted with regard to is the discipline of behavioural science, military operations. which embraces sociology, psychology Basic cultural awareness training is and anthropology. While related to ethics, provided for ADF personnel before overseas leadership and management, which are operations, but a higher level of behavioural taught in the system, behavioural science understanding is required on the part of those seeks to understand the actions of individuals who must devise tactics and strategies and and groups in terms of culture, social norms, lead in conflict situations. The effective leader religious beliefs, mental processes and so on. needs a higher level ‘cultural competency’, Military academies in the US, Canada and an ‘ability to adapt to increasingly diverse, elsewhere have long accepted the value of remote, and antagonistic cultures and teaching behavioural science in one form or environments’.60 This can’t be achieved by another.55 Australia’s neglect of this discipline last-minute briefings on local customs. As is perhaps due to the assumption that its then Vice Chief of the Defence Force General officers naturally understand such things and David Hurley observed in 2011, the ADF have no need of academic instruction. There needs to be ‘deeply engaged with regional are two reasons to challenge that view. countries and possess an exceptionally strong First, the nature of many contemporary understanding of their cultures, languages, conflicts means that the military professional and ways of thinking’.61 must come to grips directly with sources of The second reason to doubt that the ADF tension such as culture, religion, clan and can manage without some familiarity with tribe. When military personnel are caught behavioural science lies closer to home. The up in ‘war among the people’, one Australian ADF proclaims that its ‘people’ are its most Army officer writes, it’s essential that they important asset and are central to military have some understanding of such issues as effectiveness. Yet its ‘people problems’ have ‘behavioural norms, the role and accepted repeatedly created some of the most negative treatment of women, tribal and ethnic power and embarrassing publicity for the ADF. Over bases, economic reliance and historical the past 20 years or so, there’s been a series of and existing social conflicts’.56 Another sociological and cultural challenges that the former Australian Army officer describes defence force hasn’t seemed well equipped counterinsurgency as in essence ‘armed to handle: the integration of women; sexual social work’.57 harassment and assault; bastardisation and the bullying of subordinates; homosexuals; 30 Special Report

ethnic minorities; alcoholism; and the The study of military sociology as such management of suicides. Several incidents has been almost totally absent from PME in these areas have prompted parliamentary in Australia, although subjects such as inquiries or ministerial intervention as well as personnel management and organisational adverse media coverage. behaviour have been taught. Those subjects are valuable, but don’t necessarily provide The ADF has struggled ‘manfully’ with these what C Wright Mills called the ‘sociological issues, often with real effort and sometimes imagination’—the ability to imagine oneself with moderate success, but those endeavours outside a social system and understand how are rarely enlightened by sociological insight it works in all its complexity. from within. External inquiries are set up and outside experts with sociological Arguments for the inclusion of behavioural expertise are called in. Nowadays, there’s science in PME aren’t new. The UNSW– at least a recognition that such expertise is Defence Academic Planning Committee valuable and that culture plays a central role for ADFA prior to 1986 recommended that in explaining much of the behaviour—good a Department of Behavioural Science be and bad—found in the ADF. Following the established within two years of the academy’s Skype incident at ADFA in 2011, for example, opening. Nick Jans supported this proposal, six reviews of the ADF with a distinctly pointing out that it would enhance the ADF’s cultural focus were established. The reviews understanding of the relationship between covered topics such as the treatment of the armed forces and society, increase its women at ADFA and in the wider ADF (by the ability to meet demands from subordinates Sex Discrimination Commissioner, Elizabeth for greater work satisfaction and lead to Broderick), the use of alcohol in the ADF, the better management of organisational place of social media in Defence and the change. ‘An understanding of organisational personal conduct of ADF personnel. The behaviour’, he concluded, ‘is fundamental to Defence Committee response to the reviews the profession of arms in the modern world.’64 focused on the need to change major aspects Now, more than ever, there’s a need for a of Defence culture.62 systematic and institutionalised approach to As well as throwing light on military culture in teaching behavioural science across all three its broadest sense, behavioural science is also services within the framework of PME. The relevant to key factors that are intrinsic to the ADF will certainly need to make use of outside successful management of ADF personnel. expertise, but that’s not a substitute for also Thus Nick Jans argues that military sociology, having some of that expertise within the ADF. a subfield of behavioural science: This would enable the ADF to better analyse its own cultural problems and to deal more … focuses on why people behave as they effectively with personnel problems before do within military organisations and on they happen. the underlying social issues associated with important practical matters, such The experience of Canada in peacekeeping as military professionalism, the military operations in Somalia in 1993 is instructive. ethos, recruitment, retention, career Canadian military personnel committed development, combat motivation, a number of atrocities against the local leadership, family adjustment, population, grossly failing to understand military–civilian career transitions, and Somali society as well as their own internal military–civil/political relationships.63 cultural failings, which should have been Educating for the profession of arms in Australia 31

evident for some years. In an effort to restore 5. A few good academics (in military professionalism, the Royal Military uniform) College of Canada introduced ‘compulsory The benefits to military officers of high-level and significant doses of arts, humanities, education at research level are significant. and social sciences education for all officer They include a rigorous testing of their cadets, including those studying science intellectual powers and a broadening of their and engineering’.65 Australian forces on understanding of the world. If conducted at a peacekeeping and similar operations have top-class civilian university, such an education performed well, but that’s no reason to will bring officers into contact with future assume that future disasters will be avoided leaders in the civilian community and provide or that the ADF couldn’t do better with the opportunity to get to know the experts in greater expertise in this area. a given field. The following recommendations don’t seek On such grounds General David Petraeus of to provide all officers with a high level of the US Army has argued that all candidates sociological expertise. The aim is to develop for higher command positions should attend a degree of ‘sociological imagination’ among a top-tier civilian graduate school for a year a good proportion of officers and to enable a or two on a full-time basis.66 In his view, the smaller number to specialise in the discipline: study undertaken should be in history or • UNSW@ADFA should introduce a social science (including behavioural science) compulsory one-semester course in and be highly demanding. Petraeus further behavioural science (6 units of credit) as a recommends that the period of study should general education course. be followed by a teaching assignment at a service academy. Similarly, General Robert • UNSW@ADFA should introduce a Scales proposes that officers who have proved three‑year program in behavioural their ability to command at tactical level be science as an optional specialisation. given ‘a fully funded two-year hiatus to study Courses in ethics and organisational military art, behavioral science and alien behaviour (already offered by the culture and language at a top-tier civilian School of Social Sciences and the School graduate school’.67 of Business) could be included in the program, since they deal with relevant The ADF can’t match the numbers of the aspects of human behaviour. The US Army, and it has difficulty in releasing additional staff requirement is estimated personnel for full-time higher studies. Only at two academics. rarely are outstanding officers sent to leading universities in Australia and overseas for • In teaching behavioural science, UNSW@ extended periods. Resources should therefore ADFA should make use of service be devoted to increasing the number of personnel qualified in psychology and ADF personnel with higher postgraduate qualified civilians in Defence. qualifications. The number of full-time ADF • ACSC and CDSS should introduce lectures officers with at least a first degree has been and/or electives relating to behavioural steadily rising in recent years. As of mid-2012, science in general and military sociology the figure was 5,669 officers (about 50% of in particular. the total) and 337 other ranks. Of those, many would be capable of undertaking a one- or • ADC should include a behavioural two-year master’s degree with a significant scientist in its resident faculty. 32 Special Report

component of research. While the ADF already cost. The appointment of a behavioural makes some effort in this area, a more explicit scientist should be a priority. policy goal could prove helpful. Such a faculty would have various roles, As noted above, University College at including contributing to teaching and ADFA has a long-established program for curriculum development in ADC, providing academically qualified Visiting Military advice and support to ADC course Fellows who teach full-length courses members, undertaking research on current alongside their UNSW counterparts. This has military issues, publishing through ADC benefited students who learn from teachers and in academic journals, contributing with practical experience in the services and to single‑service PME, assisting with the who can see that academic interests are publication of the Australian Defence compatible with being a professional military Force Journal, providing academic advice officer. A higher number of academically to Commander ADC, and developing links well-qualified military personnel should make between ADC and civilian universities. it easier to find personnel to serve as Visiting • ADC should expand its current faculty to Military Fellows at ADFA and also at ACSC and three or four scholars. The faculty could CDSS: include not only civilians but also serving • The ADF should adopt a policy of and retired officers with appropriate increasing the number of personnel with academic qualifications and skills, higher postgraduate qualifications. including those who have completed a research-level master’s degree (see • The ADF should examine ways and Recommendation 5). The faculty would means of securing for selected officers be distinct from the proposed centre a one- or two-year master’s degree at for joint warfare studies, but valuable a civilian university with a significant synergy between the two should component of research. The coursework be expected. could include an element of pedagogy.

• The ADF should adopt a policy whereby 7. Outsourcing expertise: relations those with such qualifications can expect with Australian universities to be employed in teaching at ADFA, It’s clear that the ADC will continue to rely on ACSC or CDSS. Australian universities for most of the subject matter expertise required at ADFA, ACSC and 6. An in-house faculty at ADC CDSS, even if the number of ADF personnel PME would benefit from the presence of a with suitable qualifications increases and small academic faculty based at the ADC. At the resident faculty is established. The present, there’s a faculty of one, a scholar ADC has already gained much experience who contributes to teaching and who’s also a in reaching agreements with universities, productive researcher and publisher of articles but its position will be enhanced by the and monographs. There are also occasional development of a clear ADF policy on PME academic visitors. The addition of two to three (see Recommendation 1). Over time, moreover, more resident scholars, including shorter-term contracts will come up for renewal, and it’s appointments such as for one or two years, worth developing a long-term strategy. would greatly enhance the expertise directly • ADC should begin to analyse future available to ADC for PME at relatively little contracting issues with a view to Educating for the profession of arms in Australia 33

developing an appropriate strategy. Until recently, the Canadian program Relevant questions include whether supported a very wide range of defence and contracts should be so arranged as to security studies, many of which weren’t be due for renewal at different times or directly related to the Canadian armed forces. at the same time, and whether or not it It’s now become more focused.68 In Australia would be desirable for a single provider to there is a case for focusing such a program win all three contracts. on military-oriented behavioural science, including military sociology. • ADC should examine whether there are ways of encouraging more universities to There are two reasons for this enter the market in order to encourage recommendation. First, these fields are greater competition in tendering (see also largely underdeveloped in Australia in Recommendation 8). contrast to comparable overseas countries. Nonetheless, there are university faculties • ADC should examine ways of that teach and research sociology, psychology maintaining contact with universities and anthropology, and they could be in general, including developing some encouraged to direct their expertise towards form of relationship with their peak body, military‑related topics. Second, behavioural Universities Australia. science, as argued above, can help fill important gaps for the ADF in overseas 8. Promoting the study of operations and personnel management defence‑related subjects in at home. Australian universities The objective of such a program would be to The teaching of defence-related subjects promote teaching and research in the areas in universities is highly concentrated in of interest and to raise the level of expertise Canberra, as is research in the field. Outside in those areas among academic staff in the Canberra, courses on international politics, tertiary sector. Potential measures include: foreign policy, security in general and the like can be found, but not courses on topics such • grants to universities outside Canberra as defence policy, military ethics, operations or for the creation of centres of excellence military sociology. This means that Australia in military-related studies to support has few academics who specialise in defence undergraduate and postgraduate and military issues—and hence a limited field teaching, research and publication. from which to draw subject matter experts Universities close to major ADF centres and a limited number of universities qualified might be particularly interested in such to tender for PME contracts. Broadening the an opportunity; grants should be on study of defence‑related subjects beyond a competitive basis, with universities Canberra could thus be of direct benefit to contributing resources. Defence. In the longer term, there’s potential • awards (scholarships) to individual for awakening interest in defence-related students to pursue master’s, doctoral issues among universities and a deepening and postdoctoral studies in the proposed of public interest in and understanding of areas. Such awards could be held at a defence matters. centre of excellence or elsewhere, if there An outreach program should be developed is relevant expertise in the university along the lines of that in Canada, but concerned; the awards should carry modified to suit Australian circumstances. appropriate names, as is the case with 34 Special Report

the Sir Arthur Tange Scholarships offered need to be at arm’s length to ensure exclusively by SDSC at ANU. that academic freedom is maintained. In Canada, an independent body provides • special grants to individuals or guidance and makes recommendations institutions to finance academic research to the Minister of National Defence. projects, conferences, workshops and Members are drawn from academia and other activities considered of value to the defence community, while the chair the ADF is selected on the basis of recognised • the award of a visiting professorship expertise in the field. for 12 months to an eminent overseas scholar in the field (the holder to spend 9. Beyond the course some time at the ADC and some time at The impact of any educational course is universities outside Canberra). intended to last well beyond the course The sum proposed for this program is itself and, in the case of military education, $1.5 million (see Note on Costing below) which well beyond the next posting. However, would provide for 3 or 4 substantial grants to it’s difficult to estimate the true benefits universities outside the ACT. of attendance at ADFA, ACSC or CDSS. The problem is partly that the benefits are In this context, the existence of other intangible, long-term and variable, and partly cooperative arrangements between Defence that no controlled experiment can be run to and Australian universities can be noted. show what would happen if individuals hadn’t The ADF Military Law Centre in Sydney was attended those institutions. established in 2001 to train ADF legal officers and to contribute to the Asia–Pacific Military CDSS conducts extensive evaluation both Law Centre. The latter is a cooperative during and after its course in an exercise partnership between the Military Law that’s made easier by its smaller numbers. Centre and the University of Melbourne There’s scope for more evaluation of courses Law School that offers military law courses at ACSC and at ADFA: to ADF and regional military officers. In • ADC should develop a consistent addition, the Australian Centre for Military methodology for evaluating all of the and Security Law (formerly the Australian courses for which it is responsible. Centre for Military Law and Justice) was set up at the ANU in 2008 to promote research • Each service should compare the into military law and complement the retention and promotion rates of officers postgraduate teaching of Defence lawyers. who have entered via ADFA against Other such cooperative centres deal with officers who have entered by other paths. veterans’ health (University of Queensland) • ADC should engage with the Centre and with defence science (University of for Military Education Outreach South Australia). at King’s College London as one • The ADF should examine the feasibility means of measuring itself against of a program to expand the study of international standards. defence-related behavioural science at The objectives of the Centre for Military Australian universities. Education Outreach include the While ADC should have carriage of such a ‘exchange of best practice in the delivery program, detailed administration would of Professional Military Education’. It also Educating for the profession of arms in Australia 35

has a focus on providing advice on PME to The Australian Defence Force Journal also less developed countries—an activity in appears to be relatively uncritical in content which ADC may seek to become involved and doesn’t foster vigorous professional in the future. debate. A true profession demonstrates its willingness to engage in serious discussion The long-term influence of courses on those of ideas.69 In the US, the National Defense who have attended them depends in part, University publishes the flagship Joint Force first, on the maintenance of the informal Quarterly for the Chairman Joint Chiefs of links between individuals developed during Staff. The Joint Force Quarterly welcomes the course and, second, on the existence scholarly, independent research from of a continuing contact through an alumni all quarters in the US and overseas and association. An effective alumni association enjoys a wide readership among civilians will make it easier to maintain links and keep as well as military personnel. The Canadian alumni abreast of developments at the ADC. Military Journal was created along similar The importance of developing an online lines in 2000 as part of efforts to revive community for alumni has been recognised professionalism in Canada’s armed forces. by ADC, as has the difficult problem of In Australia the official magazine of the catering for graduates from its diverse range Australian War memorial Wartime provides a of learning centres. good example of attractive presentation and substantial content. • ADC should give high priority to developing alumni groups. Membership • The ADF should develop the Australian may be more valued by individuals if Defence Force Journal into a flagship there’s a subscription cost attached, journal for the profession of arms including the option of a one-off in Australia. subscription for life membership. Key features of a new model professional • Membership of an alumni group should journal (to be published in print and online) entitle members to a printed journal, should include: perhaps at a reduced annual fee (see – encouragement of ADF personnel Recommendation 10). to contribute articles of high quality, including editorial assistance to 10. Professional identity and public improve agument and presentation perceptions – invitations to leading Australian and Most professions have a journal that serves overseas experts on defence and as a focal point for their members and as security to contribute on topical issues a flagship for their profession. The ADC – informed and measured critical publishes the Australian Defence Force analysis, which shouldn’t merely be Journal, which contains items of interest accepted but welcomed for military personnel but appears to have – quarterly publication, so that readers little public appeal. Readership among the are frequently presented with new interested general public is important, ideas while each edition is not since wider circulation will raise the status unduly lengthy of the profession and demonstrate to the community that serious analysis of weighty – relatively short articles (for example, issues does take place within the ADF. This 3,000 words maximum) isn’t always evident at present. 36 Special Report

– illustrations and photographs It needs a mass of equipment to perform – book reviews, debates, correspondence those tasks, but it depends critically on the and similar components intellect, expertise, ethical character and leadership qualities of its people. Securing – an independent editorial board with these factors is the primary purpose of PME. freedom to publish scholarly articles The challenge for the ADF, as for any military on controversial topics. force, is to avoid undue attention to doing and The journal should be distributed to members owning while giving proper weight to learning of alumni organisations and should include a and thinking. section devoted to alumni matters. This paper points to several areas where initiatives might be taken or existing 11. Management of ADC developments continued: developing The learning centres within ADC are very a coherent policy on PME; embracing diverse, running the gamut from high-level diversity in students and means of strategic analysis at CDSS to the ceremonial delivery; a greater focus on operational functions of Australia’s Federation Guard. art; expanding behavioural science in the Against this background, it’s important curriculum; producing more academics in that training and education be kept distinct uniform; creating an academic faculty at conceptually and organisationally: ADC; managing relations with universities; promoting military-related expertise across • The appointment of a Deputy Australian universities; ensuring the lasting Commander ADC to take responsibility influence of courses; and the publication of a for the training element of ADC should flagship professional journal. be considered. This is also important because of the lean staffing structure The most important factor in developing of ADC. PME, however, will be the culture of the ADF itself. Will it value conceptual thinking about • The post of Commander ADC should be the profession? Will it encourage individual for three years to provide the necessary personnel to achieve academically, rather than continuity. In any educational institution, simply ensuring that those attending courses change and development take time; are given university qualifications? Will it sustained effort from the top is essential give greater weight to intellectual quality to achieve desired goals. in promotion and selection for command? Will it post well-qualified personnel to Concluding remarks appointments that make the best use of [T]he more you cut force structure, the their expertise? Will it develop programs and more vital your professional military publications that underpin such a philosophy? education system becomes. To some extent, these things are already —Bill Taylor (ed), Professional military happening and are to be welcomed. There’s education: an asset for peace and progress, already a shift in thinking away from the Center for Strategic and International traditional view of PME as something that Studies, Washington DC, March 1997, must take the form of institutions performing pp. 19–20 specific roles for a specific group of officers. The approach now is to see a range of assets, The ADF is by nature a ‘doing organisation’: it located primarily within ADC, that can be exists to carry out important national tasks. used flexibly to provide PME to groups and Educating for the profession of arms in Australia 37

individuals as required. The institutional Note on costing perspective won’t disappear entirely as While the recommendations outlined here long as residential courses remain (as they will incur some additional costs, on close should), but even those courses can be inspection the additional cost burden doesn’t managed flexibly. appear to be heavy. The US is prone to use legislation to reform First, the budget of the ADC is already set PME. The Goldwater–Nichols Act of 1986, for to rise from $80 million per year to about example, required officers to undertake JPME $400 million per year by the end of 2012.72 at two levels, while promotion to admiral Some of the proposed expenditure increases or general was to require service in at least are likely to already be included in forward one joint appointment. Only recently, US estimates. Army General Robert Scales advocated ‘the legislative hammer … to drive the services A small proportion of the proposed to reward intellectual merit’.70 Congress expenditure might not fall within the ADC has also directed the services to use more budget but, assuming that it does, the sum civilian academic staff in PME, although the estimated ($4 million) amounts to only 1% of main response has been to engage retired ADC’s annual expenditure. military people.71 The growth of the ADC is predicated on the In Australia, PME can progress without such realisation of savings through a better and legislative help. The ADC would require a more efficient alignment of single-service modest budget increase and a number of and joint education and training and through additional staff to take on the full range better procurement of education and training of additional activities outlined here. It on the part of Defence Learning Branch. The should be given primary responsibility for savings are expected to be far greater than the development of a culture in the ADF the sum proposed in this report. that embraces learning and its associated Second, some of the recommendations values which are essential to any healthy and are largely cost free (such as defining PME, vigorous profession. setting appropriate standards, engaging with

Table 7: Approximate annual costs of proposals Measure Cost Centre of Studies on Joint Warfare (3 staff)a $500,000 Expansion of behavioural science at ADFA (2 staff)a $350,000 ADC in-house faculty (2 additional staff)a $350,000 Military-related behavioural science at universitiesb $1,500,000 Professional journalc $300,000 Alumni support $200,000 ADC Deputy Commander $300,000 Joint Warfighting Course $500,000 Total $4,000,000 a The proposed staff numbers are set at an absolute minimum. b Based on the cost of the Canadian program. c Some income may be earned from sales. 38 Special Report

other institutions and developing evaluation 4 On the importance of personnel factors criteria). These will require staff time, which to capability, see Nick Jans and David can be found by an adjustment of priorities. Schmidtchen, The real C-cubed: culture, careers and climate and how they affect Third, some recommendations (such as capability, Australian National University, sending more ADF officers to study at civilian Canberra, 2002. universities and releasing them for teaching at PME institutions) may be more difficult to 5 General Sir Rupert Smith, The utility of implement. However, the likely slowdown force, Allen Lane, London, 2005. in operational tempo over the next three or 6 Mark Thomson, Serving Australia, four years should ease the staffing situation. Australian Strategic Policy Institute, In addition, the introduction of Plan Suakin Canberra, 2011, p. 3. should provide greater flexibility in releasing officers for extended periods. 7 See Warrant Officer Michael Craig, ‘War of the people: counterinsurgency education Where staff numbers are proposed to be for non-commissioned officers’, Australian increased—as in the case of a centre for Army Journal, V(3), Summer 2008. joint warfare studies—it may be possible to reallocate personnel from existing 8 Mark Thomson, The cost of defence, organisations. To expand behavioural science Australian Strategic Policy Institute, at University College, ADFA, some reallocation Canberra, 2012. of the teaching staff might be negotiated. 9 Parliament of Australia, Officer education: The more substantial recommendations the military after next, report of the can be costed in annual terms (including Defence Sub-Committee, Joint Standing overheads) very approximately as shown in Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence Table 7. and Trade, Australian Government Publishing Service, 1995. Notes 10 A similar argument is made by Thomas 1 There is no formal ADF definition of Ricks for the abolition of the US ‘professional military education’. The Naval, Army and Air Force Academies definition here draws on Clausewitz’s on the grounds that they are costly, analysis of military genius as a unrepresentative and elitist, while combination of mind (intellect, expertise) encouraging closed minds and failing to and character (ethos, leadership). produce better officers than those who attend reserve training at universities; 2 Sanu Kainikara, Professional mastery and ‘Why we should get rid of West Point’, air power education, paper no. 33, Air Washington Post, 10 April 2009. Power Development Centre, Canberra, August 2011, pp. 21–2. 11 Graeme Cheeseman, Robert A Hall, Preparing for the ‘military after next’: the 3 Cathy Downes, Special trust and Price report and a ‘new model’ Australian confidence: the making of an officer, Frank Defence Force Academy, Australian Cass, London, 1991, p. 2. Defence Studies Centre, Canberra, 1997, p. 43 Educating for the profession of arms in Australia 39

12 Jeffrey Grey, ‘Professional military 21 Robert H Scales, ‘Too busy to learn?’, US education and the ADF’, Defender, 21(3), Naval Institute Proceedings, February 2010. Spring 2004. 22 Vice Admiral Ann Rondeau, ‘Identity in the 13 David Schmidtchen, ‘Following the white profession of arms’, Joint Force Quarterly, rabbit of professional military education’, 62, July 2011. unpublished paper, 2006. 23 James T Currie, ‘Senior officer professional 14 Michael Evans, ‘The closing of the military education as an equalizer’, Joint Australian military mind: the ADF and Force Quarterly, 59, 2010; Andrew Davies, operational art’, Security Challenges, 4(2), Hugh Smith, Stepping up: part-time forces Winter 2008, p. 129. and ADF capability, Australian Strategic Policy Institute, Canberra, November 2008. 15 Jim Molan, ‘Debate: the ADF and operational art’, Security Challenges, 4(2), 24 Keith D Dickson, ‘A strategic asset for Winter 2008, p. 134. engagement: enhancing the role of the National Defense University’, Joint Force 16 On the establishment of the Australian Quarterly, 52, January 2009. College of Defence and Strategic Studies, see David Cox, Andrew O’Neil, 25 Hugh Smith, Undergraduate and ‘Professional military education in postgraduate education in the ARA Officer Australia: has it all gone terribly right?’, Corps, working paper no. 10, Australian Australian Defence Force Journal, 171, 2006. Defence Studies Centre, Canberra, 1993.

17 Lieutenant General David Hurley, 26 Michael Evans, pers. comm., 21 June 2012. General Sir John Hackett Memorial 27 Howard Wiarda, Military brass versus Lecture, Kings College, London, civilian academics at the National War 11 November 2010, p. 9, available from: College: clash of cultures, Lexington Books, http://www.defence.gov.au/adc/ Lanham, Maryland, 2011, pp. 70–75. docs/cdf_conf2010/CDFConf_101201_ SirHackettMemorialLecture.pdf 28 Edward F Palm, ‘Real officers don’t teach Keats: the Naval Academy, ROTC, and 18 Michael Evans, From the long peace to military spiritualism’, in Douglas Higbee the long war: armed conflict and military (ed), Military culture and education, education and training in the 21st century, Ashgate, Burlington, Vermont, 2010, p. 17. occasional paper no. 1, Australian Defence College, 2007, pp. 16–17. 29 Wiarda, 2011, ch. 2; Joan Johnson‑Freese, ‘The reform of military education: 19 Cited in Thomas Bruscino, ‘Navel gazing twenty‑five years on’, Orbis, 2012, Google deep: The expertise gap in the pp. 142–4. academic–military relationship’, in Douglas Higbee (ed), Military culture and education, 30 Charles D. Allen, ‘Redress of Professional Ashgate, Burlington, Vermont, 2010, p. 146. Military Education: The Clarion Call’, Joint Force Quarterly, 59, 2010. 20 David J Bercuson, ‘Up from the ashes: the re-professionalization of the Canadian 31 The Canadian forces now take formal Forces after the Somalia affair’, Canadian education into account as ‘a major factor Military Journal, 9(3), 2000. in career advancement and command appointment’; Bercuson, 2009, p. 37. 40 Special Report

32 Daniel Hughes, ‘Professors in the colonels’ Commandant a stronger hand in selecting world,’ in Douglas Higbee (ed), Military outstanding staff, particularly in ensuring culture and education, Ashgate, Burlington, appropriate representation of females. Vermont, 2010, p. 154. 42 CDSS Handbook 2012, p. 2. For a valuable 33 Molan, 2008, pp. 133–134. benchmarking of CDSS against comparable institutions in Canada, the UK 34 http://www.defence.gov.au/adc and the US, see Geoff Peterson, Nurturing 35 Major General Craig Orme, foreword, the Australian military mind: a considered Transforming defence education and assessment of senior professional military training, DPS-DEC009-11, Canberra, 2011. education, Shedden Papers, Australian Defence College, March 2012. 36 Major General Craig Orme, foreword, Planning guidance: transforming defence 43 http://www.defence.gov.au/adc education and training, DPS-MAY019-12, 44 Ray Funnell, ‘Debate: the ADF and Canberra, July 2012. operational art’, Security Challenges, 4(2), 37 Rear Admiral James Goldrick, ‘Thoughts Winter 2008, pp. 138–139. on joint professional military education’, 45 Geoff Peterson, pers. comm., 6 March 2012. Australian Defence Force Journal, 181, 2010, p. 8. 46 Geoff Peterson, pers. comm., 24 July 2012.

38 Hugh Smith, ‘Educating the guardians: the 47 Jamie Cullens, Director, Centre for Defence politics of the Australian Defence Force Leadership and Ethics, pers. comm., Academy’, Politics, 19(1), May 1984. 3 July 2012.

39 Elizabeth Broderick, Report on the 48 Major General Craig Orme, foreword, Review into the Treatment of Women at Transforming defence education and the Australian Defence Force Academy, training, DPS-DEC009-11, Canberra, 2011. Australian Human Rights Commission, 49 RMC, http://www.army.gov.au/ Sydney, 2011; Defence Committee, Who-we-are/Divisions-and-Brigades/ Pathway to change: evolving defence Forces-Command/Royal_Military_College_ culture. A strategy for cultural change and of_Australia/RMC-D reinforcement, Department of Defence, Canberra, 2012. 50 Michael Evans, From the long peace to the long war: armed conflict and military 40 Hugh Smith, Officer education and the education and training in the 21st century, ‘military after next’: A response to the Price occasional paper no. 1, Australian Defence report, working paper no. 33, Australian College, 2007, p. 16. Defence Studies Centre, Canberra, 1995. 51 See, for example, Michael Evans, 2008, 41 Defence Committee, Pathway to change: p. 129. evolving defence culture. A strategy for cultural change and reinforcement, 52 Peterson, 2012, p. 25. Department of Defence, Canberra, 53 Peterson, 2012, p. 25. 2012, Recommendation 13. Defence also agreed to Recommendation 12 to give the Educating for the profession of arms in Australia 41

54 See Evans, 2008, p. 130; Aaron P Jackson, 64 Nick Jans, ‘Academy cadets should be ‘It’s time for an ADF joint warfare studies taught behavioural science’, Australian centre’, Australian Defence Force Journal, Defence Force Journal, 59, July–August 181, 2010, pp. 41–49. 1986, pp. 46–47.

55 For a review of teaching in nine overseas 65 Bercuson, 2009, p. 37. countries, see ‘Sociology at military academies around the globe’, Armed Forces 66 Petraeus, 2007. & Society, 35(1), special edition, October 67 Scales, 2010. 2008. There’s no article on Australia. 68 For information on Canada’s Security and 56 Michael Lehmann, ‘Military operations Defence Forum, see http://www.forces. in the 21st century: a cultural gc.ca/admpol/SDF-eng.html cringe?’, Australian Army Journal, 5(3), Summer 2008. 69 On the need for vigorous professional debate in the ADF, see Lt-Col. Jim Bryant, 57 David Kilcullen, ‘Twenty-eight articles: ‘Are we a thinking Army?’, Australian Army fundamentals of company-level Journal, 3(2), Winter 2006. counterinsurgency’, Military Review, May–June 2006, pp. 103–108. 70 Scales, 2010.

58 Major Cate Carter, ‘Cause for engagement: 71 Edward F Palm, ‘Real officers don’t teach examining the case for foreign area Keats: the Naval Academy, ROTC, and officers in Army’,Australian Army Journal, military spiritualism’, in Douglas Higbee 8(2), Winter 2011. (ed), Military culture and education, Ashgate, Burlington, Vermont, 2010, p. 11. 59 Lehmann, 2008, pp. 22–23. 72 Major General Craig Orme, foreword, 60 Russell D Howard, Educating Special Transforming defence education and Forces junior leaders for a complex security training, DPS-DEC009-11, Canberra, 2011. environment, report 09-6, Joint Special Operations University, Hurlburt Field, Florida, 2009, pp. 13–14.

61 Hurley, Hackett Memorial Lecture, 2011.

62 Defence Committee, Pathway to change: evolving defence culture. A strategy for cultural change and reinforcement, Department of Defence, Canberra, 2012.

63 Nick Jans, ‘The sorry state of military sociology in Australia’, Australian Defence Force Journal, 175, January–February 2008. 42 Special Report

Appendix A: Professional environment as well as the experiences of military education in the US our leaders that will challenge us to deliver high quality Joint education as never before. PME in the United States is currently under The explosion of information technologies debate. The following document was issued that provides global and regional actors by the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff on nearly instant access to information means 16 July 2012. that the United States no longer enjoys clear operational and technological advantages in Joint Education the competition to “observe, orient, decide 2 White Paper and act” more effectively than adversaries. We must learn and properly place in context 16 July 2012 the key lessons of the last decade of war and in doing so, we will prepare our leaders ‘I am convinced that learning and leadership for what is ahead - not just what is behind are at the core of our profession. Military us. This is why we must review our joint service must continue to be our Nation’s education objectives and institutions to pre-eminent leadership experience. We ensure that we are developing agile and will continue to reform and leverage the adaptive leaders with the requisite values, Professional Military Education enterprise to strategic vision and critical thinking skills advance our profession. It is more important necessary to keep pace with the changing than ever to get the most from the potential strategic environment. If we get this right, and performance of every Service member’. and get it right now, we will excel well beyond 2020. Martin E. Dempsey General, US Army The Value Proposition Chairman of the Joints Chiefs of Staff Our military has traditionally relied on Introduction education in times of uncertainty to develop understanding of the future security As we reflect on the conduct of Joint environment, lead adaptation and ensure operations since the passage of the readiness to face future, unknown challenges. Goldwater-Nichols Defense Reorganization During the years between World War I and Act of 1986, the lessons of the last decade the outbreak of World War II, when we of war, and on the future it is clear that joint also faced change and resource challenges, education is essential to the development of strategic thinking at the Service Colleges laid our military capabilities. Today’s Joint Force the foundations for innovative capability is a highly experienced, battle-tested body of development that proved essential for victory men and women, with a decade of practical, in both the European and Pacific theaters.3 focused warfighting knowledge. Our colleges We are at a similar warfare inflection point; and schools have not had so many seasoned one that eclipses the introduction of nuclear combat leaders in their classrooms for at least weapons, the introduction of the air domain two decades. Our education efforts provide and the airplane, and the transition from a force multiplier in our effort to develop and battleship to aircraft carrier. Warfare is advance the shared values, standards, and changing in all domains, and we have also 1 attributes that define our Profession of Arms. added new domains. The introduction of the However, much is changing in the security cyber domain, for example, may be an even Educating for the profession of arms in Australia 43

greater change than those of the past as it Other attributes for leader development will eludes national control, political boundaries, evolve and will need to be aligned with future legal authorities, and attribution. We are in an operations envisioned by Capstone Concept era where we cannot even define “militarily” for Joint Operations 2020 and incorporated much more beyond the status of those in into our curriculums to ensure that gaps are uniform. More importantly, we are in an era identified and eliminated. of austerity where budget cuts and economic Our maturing understanding of the uncertainties will impose serious challenges requirement to conduct operations at the on how we allocate resources. Our ability to speed of the anticipated security environment define and inculcate our value proposition across multiple domains reinforces the need across the Joint enterprise will be critical to expand the practice of mission command in achieving the proper balance between throughout the force. To fully realize the competing operational and joint education potential of mission command, our joint requirements. education efforts must effectively instill the Education Outcomes cognitive capability to understand, receive, and clearly express intent, to take decisive Ensuring relevancy in our delivery of Joint initiative within intent, accept prudent risk, 4 education requires us to fundamentally and build trust within the force. understand the experiences and perspectives Intent of our students and the changes that have occurred in 25-plus years of post The last decade has further demonstrated Goldwater‑Nichols joint education, joint that our enlisted force requires education operations, and joint experience. The enduring and not “just training”. Recognizing that purpose of Professional Military Education officers and enlisted personnel have different (PME) is to develop leaders by conveying a functions, responsibilities, authorities and broad body of professional knowledge and levels of organizational accountability, developing the habits of mind essential to our Joint Force 2020 must develop the talents profession. Our joint education institutions and abilities of leaders at every echelon will continue to be measured in part by the to maximize their individual potential, performance of leaders serving in areas build effective units, and to optimize their where critical thinking skills are essential. contribution to the joint fight. Beyond providing critical thinking skills, our education programs must also ensure that We must assist every service member our leaders have: in becoming a life-long learner, always hungry for new knowledge and deeper • the ability to understand the security understanding. Learning opportunities must environment and the contributions of all occur in every aspect of service and should elements of national power; not be restricted to episodic attendance in • the ability to deal with surprise and formal schools. Every member of the force uncertainty; should seek to be a scholar of the Profession of Arms in their own right and a teacher to • the ability to anticipate and recognize those coming along behind. Time in the duty change and lead transitions; and day set aside for individual learning, balanced • the ability to operate on intent through with unit duties, is a clear commitment to the trust, empowerment, and understanding. imperative for life-long learning. 44 Special Report

The quality of professors and teachers • Provide the foundation for leaders to has been and will remain an enduring and be able to understand the security essential component in our institutional environment, change, and transitions; commitment to joint education. Simply put, • Provide the foundation to design and we need the right folks teaching. The best execute campaigns at the operational and brightest minds in our rising generation level in pursuit of strategic objectives; should be shaped by the best and brightest minds from both our military and civilian • Establish and sustain mission command institutions. Within the military, instructor throughout the force; duty should be seen both by individuals and • Enable jointness through the integration by the organization as an essential element of of diverse service cultures and a successful career. We should also continue approaches; to recruit the best and brightest from civilian academia and the interagency to expand our • Maintain our competitive learning educational expertise. advantage through:

The members of our profession have been – Mastery of fundamentals of the art raised in an interconnected “e-savvy” and science of war; world where the sharing of information is – Intellectual curiosity, coupled with automatic and nearly instantaneous. This openness to new ideas; generation absorbs and diffuses information rapidly and in different ways than preceding – Operational adaptability (to include ones. Coupled with their high levels of critical thinking, prudent risk acceptance operational experience is the desire to actively and rapid adjustment fueled by participate in their own education as life‑long continuous assessment) – fundamentally, learners. Collaborative, context‑based the ability to deal with the unexpected problem-solving events will have great by making sound choices based on appeal and consequently greater effect measured risk; in achieving educational outcomes. Joint – The ability to properly balance the art educational approaches must adapt to stay of command with the science of control, relevant to how students learn best, while to include the ability to create trust balancing “tried and true methods” with relationships with seniors, subordinates new techniques. and partners; As we continue to develop our future leaders, – Skills in negotiations, culture and I expressly desire that joint education: language; • Lead the way in the renewal of our – An understanding of intelligence - both commitment to the Profession of Arms its capabilities and limitations; with leadership as its foundation; – The ability to process information into • Prepare the leaders of Joint Force 2020 to knowledge, then share that knowledge, be adaptive, innovative, critical thinking and act on it. leaders capable of operating in complex and unstructured environments; • Attract and maintain civilian and military faculty members who are among the very best and brightest of their contemporaries. Educating for the profession of arms in Australia 45

• Expand access and opportunity to Appendix B: Professional populations outside of conventional military education in the UK classrooms, pursuing legislative authorities as needed. The Defence Academy of the United Kingdom was established in 2002 as the body Endstate responsible for the higher education of British armed forces personnel. From a single budget, The desired endstate of the review is to it provides a range of courses for officers define and achieve the specified and implied at all levels but, unlike ADC in Australia, education tasks needed to lead and support doesn’t embrace precommissioning courses, the development of Joint Force 2020. This which are run by each service. Its principal is our opportunity to harness the power of components are as follows. joint education to develop leaders who can meet the challenges of an uncertain, complex, Royal College of Defence Studies and increasingly competitive and dangerous Dating back to 1922 and located in London, world. We must, and will, seize it. the Royal College of Defence Studies provides Notes a 10-month course for brigadiers and colonels (or equivalents) who have the option of 1 See my White Paper, ‘America’s Military – taking an MA with King’s College London. A profession of arms’, (Available at www. Civilians and overseas personnel constitute jcs.mil). about two-thirds of the 90-member course. The college is headed by a three-star with a 2 Boyd’s ‘OODA’ loop. two-star directing staff from each service. Its 3 Examples include the Rainbow plans mission is: at the Naval and Army War Colleges; To prepare senior officers and officials of the ‘Industrial Web’ theory, created the United Kingdom and other countries at the Air Corps Tactical School, that and future leaders from the private and was the blueprint for World War II air public sectors for high responsibilities campaigns; and the creation of the in their respective organisations, by Tentative Landing Operations Manual by developing their analytical powers, the faculty and students of Marine Corps knowledge of defence and international schools in 1933 of the Tentative Landing security, and strategic vision. Operations Manual, that came to fruition in the amphibious operations in the In practice, the emphasis is very much on Pacific theatre. strategic thinking rather than military practice or force capability. The workload is kept light 4 See my White Paper, ‘Mission Command,’ to maximise time for thought and reflection.1 (3 April 2012) (Available at www.jcs.mil). Joint Services Command and Staff College

Formed in 1998 from a merger of the single‑service staff colleges and the Joint Service Defence College (similar to the Joint Services Staff College in Australia), the Joint Services Command and Staff College 46 Special Report

moved to purpose-built accommodation at age of course members had risen from about Shrivenham in 2000. The college provides a 36 to 40 years. range of courses, as set out below. A key driver of change in the syllabus was Higher Command and Staff Course the broadening of the spectrum of military missions to include activities such as This is a 14-week course for about 30 UK peacekeeping and humanitarian operations one-stars and colonels (or equivalent), as well as war fighting. Officers would be civilian equivalents and personnel from more likely than ever to be working with NATO countries. The course focuses on civilian authorities and non-government high command and on operational art organisations and in a multinational in the context of joint and multinational environment. Broad intellectual and analytical operations. It seeks to equip its students to be skills would be required, together with operational leaders. qualities of temperament such as flexibility, the ability to make difficult decisions and the Advanced Command and Staff Course capacity to cope with uncertainty and change.

A review of the Advanced Command and This is a 46-week course for about Staff Course in 2003–04 agreed that there 330 personnel, particularly officers at the would be a four-week preparatory course to major and lieutenant colonel levels. It ensure common entry levels; that there would prepares officers for higher positions in be a common syllabus, without modules the planning, conduct and command of for specific groups of students; that the operations. Instruction is provided by military course would prepare students for all higher staff and by academics employed by King’s positions, not simply colonel equivalent; and College London, which accredits the course that the course would have both pass and fail as an MA in Defence Studies under an grades. Overall, the aim is on acquiring skills ongoing agreement. such as problem-solving, research, creativity The course was shaped by a comprehensive and continuous learning, rather than simply Defence Training Review in 2001, which knowledge and information. Consequently, aimed to make education and training ‘more students were given more time for private aligned to operational and business needs’.2 study and research (up from 27% to 38%, and Recognising that most officers were university consolidated into larger blocks). graduates, the review concluded that study should be at postgraduate level and should Junior/Initial/Intermediate Command include essential topics such as military and Staff Training Courses operations, international studies, strategy and security policy; command, leadership These are for officers aged between 26 and management; defence business and 34 and include an eight-week maritime management, acquisition and logistics; and course for Navy senior lieutenants and junior defence-related areas of science, technology lieutenant commanders, a 32-week land and engineering. The Defence Training course for Army majors on promotion, and an Review also took into account the high level eight-week air course for squadron leaders. of operational experience (around 80%) and As well as providing single-service instruction combat experience (around 40%) among to equip students for command and staff students, as well as the fact that the average appointments at the next level, the courses Educating for the profession of arms in Australia 47

also help prepare officers for selection to the Acronyms and abbreviations Advanced Command and Staff Course. ACSC Australian Command and Staff There are also courses for warrant officers and College for reservists, as well as an individual studies course based on distance learning for new ADC Australian Defence College Royal Air Force officers. ADF Australian Defence Force

College of Management and ADFA Australian Defence Force Academy Technology ANU Australian National University

Based at Shrivenham, the College of CDF Chief of the Defence Force Management and Technology provides postgraduate level courses in leadership, CDSS Centre for Defence and Strategic management, technology and engineering Studies as well as languages. Since 1984, the chief JPME joint professional military education academic provider has been Cranfield University, which now has a contract that MA master of arts runs to 2027. NCO non-commissioned officer

The Defence Academy also had an Advanced PME professional military education Research and Assessment Group (under various names) that had evolved from the RAAF Royal Australian Air Force Soviet Studies Research Centre in the Cold RAN Royal Australian Navy War era. Consisting of subject matter experts in various fields of security, it published RMC Royal Military College research on strategic issues, contributed to SDSC Strategic and Defence Studies Centre ‘red teams’ in war games and administered civilian and reserve skills databases, among UNSW University of New South Wales other tasks. When it was closed down on financial grounds in 2010, its functions were taken over by a private consultancy, the Conflict Research Studies Centre.

Notes

1 Geoff Peterson, Nurturing the Australian military mind: a considered assessment of senior professional military education, Shedden Papers, Australian Defence College, March 2012, pp. 7 and 10

2 Kate Utting, ‘Beyond Joint: professional military education for the 21st century’, Australian Defence Force Journal, 181 (2010), p. 63. This and the following two paragraphs are also based on this article. 48 Special Report

Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful to all those serving Important disclaimer and retired ADF officers, Defence officials and This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information academics who shared their expertise and in relation to the subject matter covered. insights on professional military education. It is provided with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering The authors also wish to thank Dr Ros any form of professional or other advice Richardson, Research Associate at ASPI, for her or services. No person should rely on invaluable assistance in this project. the contents of this publication without first obtaining advice from a qualified professional person. About the authors About Special Reports Hugh Smith is an Honorary Visiting Fellow Generally written by ASPI experts, at University College, ADFA, having taught Special Reports are intended to deepen at RMC Duntroon from 1971 to 1986 and at understanding on critical questions ADFA from 1986 to 2004. While at ADFA he facing key strategic decision-makers was the founding director of the Australian and, where appropriate, provide policy recommendations. In some instances, Defence Studies Centre and introduced material of a more technical nature may postgraduate courses on legal and moral appear in this series, where it adds to problems of international violence and on the understanding of the issue at hand. Special Reports reflect the personal armed forces and society. He has been a views of the author(s), and do not in any frequent lecturer at Australian staff colleges way express or reflect the views of the since 1976. Dr Smith is the author of On Australian Government or represent Clausewitz: a study of military and political the formal position of ASPI on any particular issue. ideas (Palgrave Macmillan, 2005) and the ASPI co-author of Stepping up: part-time forces and Tel +61 2 6270 5100 ADF capability (ASPI, November 2008). Fax + 61 2 6273 9566 Email [email protected] Anthony Bergin is the Deputy Director at Web www.aspi.org.au ASPI. He taught for five years on the staff © The Australian Strategic Policy Institute of the Royal Australian Naval College and Limited 2012 for 20 years lectured in political science and This publication is subject to copyright. defence studies at University College, ADFA. Except as permitted under the Copyright For 12 years he served as Director of the Act 1968, no part of it may in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, Australian Defence Studies Centre. He also microcopying, photocopying, recording served for five years on the academic advisory or otherwise) be reproduced, stored in a board of the Joint Services Staff College. retrieval system or transmitted without prior written permission. Enquiries should be addressed to the publishers. Notwithstanding the above, Educational Institutions (including Schools, Independent Colleges, Universities, and TAFEs) are granted permission to make copies of copyrighted works strictly for educational purposes without explicit permission from ASPI and free of charge.