the actual size of the incoming class, is Unfortunately, there is yet no reliable Manpower Supply and Admissions Policy in Israeli Social determined and admission letters are sent out. research data that corroborate the hypotheti­ Work Education Acceptable candidacy for social work cal relationship between a good grade on the education at the Hebrew University requires a entrance exam and good grades in social work grade point average of 8 or higher on high courses.5 There is also some evidence that ELIEZEH D. JAFFE, D.S.W. school matriculation performance, or a personal interviews with candidates are not School of Social Work, Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel weighted score based on a special admissions good predictors of their performance in social examination combined with matriculation work; this is due to the great subjectivity of In my view, it is essential to "loosen-up" traditional social work education methods, copied for grades.4 Those fulfilling the former require­ interviews and lack of consensus among them. the most part from American social work education models of the 1950's and early 1960's. Above ment are exempt from the latter. What has happened, therefore, is that the all, I believe that it is essential to undertake meaningful experimentation in Israeli social work more economical, impersonal method of education. We cannot afford, neither morally, professionally, or economically, to let social work In the final analysis, a list of applicants is drawn up by grade rank, and an arbitrary admissions testing has become the basic needs and daily practice develop in one corner of our society, and social work education in qualitative screening tool and the "incoming another. cutting point is selected which will provide the quota of students to be accepted, specifically class quota" the determinant of the quality of taking into account the expected "fall-out" or students to be accepted. Israel's current economic situation and the social work teaching content, and inadequate non-starters among those accepted. The In my opinion, the present admissions consequent search for areas where the nation's supply of social work manpower. arbitrary cutting-point varies from year to procedure is exceedingly inequitable, tends to budget can be trimmed has inevitably resulted This article will relate mainly to the related year, and from department to department, discriminate unfavourably against low-income in a closer look at the costs of university issues of admissions policy and manpower based on the quota of students to be accepted and minority groups, both Jewish and Arab, education. The recent decision by the Knesset supply and sorne suggestions for change and the number of applicants. For example, especially from rural areas, and perpetuates a Finance Committee to slice Israel university relevant to developments in the social work the cutting-point for admission to the Psycho­ situation in Israel where students from budgets was appealed by the Minister of Social field. logy Department in 1975 was 25.75, for Social advantaged classes of Western origin become Welfare, Mr. Zvulun Hammer, who insisted in Inequity in Admissions Work 20.0, and for the Social Sciences faculty social workers tending the needs of under­ January, 1976 that funding for social work 18.5. Often, slight variations in determining privileged, primarily middle-Eastern, clientele. education not be curtailed and that students The Hebrew University School of Social the cutting-point score could result in the Social work admission policy should look for from professions where employment was Work admits approximately 120 students each acceptance or rejection of tens or hundreds of active ways of recruiting and reaching out to unavailable, such as sociology, philosophy, year. In 1975 over 620 applicants applied for applicants. For example in 1976, by lowering potential social workers from underprivileged history, and political science, be channelled admission to the School. Of these, 226 the cutting-point in social work from 20.5 to backgrounds and provide special tutorial and towards social work where full employment received admission letters acknowledging that 20.0, approximately 30 more students would educational help after admission to help them was almost certain. 1 Although the issue has they had passed the "entrance requirements". have been guaranteed admission and lowering become professional social workers and been temporarily referred to the Inter-Minis­ Only 117 of the 226 accepted actually appeared the cutting-point from 20.5 to 19.25 would leaders of their communities. I would not, by terial Committee on Welfare, the academic for classes.3 This "fall-out" of 109 students have resulted in 68 more students. any means, want to see an "ethnic" quota community has been presented with a chal­ who were accepted but opted not to study system introduced into Israeli social work, but lenge that has far-reaching implications for social work at the Hebrew University is due to In social work, the determining factors rather more aggressive efforts to recruit and higher education, and social work educators a number of reasons: they may have been which decide the size of the quota and assist disadvantaged groups to take part in the have not been spared. accepted to other social work schools (multiple consequently the arbitrary cutting-point for profession, and I would expect this task to be applications), or were accepted to other admission are the availability of academic Schools of social work in Israel, including departments in the University; 81 in fact listed staff and sufficient field work apprenticeships. that of the Hebrew University, have come social work as their second departmental The entrance examination is based on a 5 Dina Vardi, op cit., p. 4. The U.S. experience under fire from many quarters during recent regarding admission criteria and predictions is choice. Some of the non-starters may have battery of intelligence tests, past educational years.2 These complaints fall into three major similar to the Israeli experience, see: decided to delay their vocational plans, many performance, general education, and knowl­ categories: admissions policy, the relevancy of Charles O'Reilly, "Issues in Student Recruit­ edge of English. The entrance examination has have remained in the army, moved, or gone ment and Selection" in Educationally Disadvan­ 1 Report of the Knesset Finance Committee abroad to study. From year to year over a been favoured over interviews because it is less taged Students in Social Work Education, Council deliberations reported by Menachem Barash in third of those admitted do not show up for subjective and because those who do well on it on Social Work Education, New York, 1968, pp. Yediot Acharonot, January 26, 1976. classes. This predictable phenomenon is taken theoretically will be able to cope with the 85-95. 2 Yitzchak Kadman, "Problems of Manpower in into consideration when the class quota, i.e. course requirements of the School. Dennis M. Dailey, "The Validity of Admissions Social Welfare" Saad, Vol. 17, No. 6, (November, 4 Predictions: Implications for Social Work Educa­ School of Social Work, The School Bulletin: 1973), pp. 12-13. See also: 3 Djna Vardi, Report on Admissions for the tion", Journal of Education for Social Work, Vol. 1975-1976, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Eliezer Jaffe, "The Social Work Establishment Academic Year 1975-1976, Paul Baerwald School of 10, No. 2 (Spring, 1974), pp. 12-19. (no date), pp. 11-12. and Social Change in Israel", Social Work, Vol. 15, Social Work of The Hebrew University, Jerusalem, No. 2, (April, 1970), pp. 103-109. December 12, 1975, p. 1, (mimeo). 243

242 undertaken as a declared policy of the schools incoming class at the Hebrew University of social work, along with well-defined, public School of Social Work was remarkably Services Committee of the Knesset, Mr. Aaron professional workers. Since only 2,157 work­ criteria for its implementation. The, Hebrew dissimilar to that of students enrolled at Tel Langerman, Director General of the Ministry ers are presently on the job, we need another University's pioneering Centre for Pre- Aviv University's School of Social Work. Only of Social Welfare, described Israel's present 3,085 social workers immediately.14 Academic Studies has done truly excellent 15 per cent of the fathers of the 123 first year and projected social work manpower needs. 11 If one projects present manpower standards work, but it has not "solved" the problem of Hebrew University social work students were As of April, 1976 there existed 1,723 onto expected growth of target populations in recruiting the disadvantaged into social work. born in Africa or Asia, while 64 per cent of the professional positions in social welfare offices. 1980, and expected social work manpower Perhaps we need another. Center for "Post- students' fathers were from western coun­ Only 1,077 of the professional positions were available then, we will need an additional Admission Academic Support". The "reach­ tries. 8 (The number of western-born parents filled, leaving 646 available positions. In other 1,464 social workers, assuming that we can fill ing out" concept that is a treasured principle of the Jerusalem students is probably much words, 38 per cent of the budgeted profession­ the new 3,085 positions now unfilled. Theo­ of modern social work practice is not yet higher, since records did not show fathers' al positions were unfilled. 12 Furthermore, retically, between 1976 and 1980 we will have enough in evidence in the admissions policy of birthplace for 9 per cent of the students and recent data from the Israel Social Workers to produce 4,549 professional social workers many Israeli schools of social work. Haifa another 11 per cent of the fathers were listed as Union shows that 20 per cent (approx. 500) of to fill the positions which will be needed at that University has made an imaginative start in Israeli born). the presently occupied professional positions time. 15 Arid all this, on the assumption that this direction by creating an experimental Dr. Sami Jeraisi, Chief Juvenile Probation are held by non-professional (non-certified) new job markets for social workers do not university-wide "Unit for Bridging the Gap" Officer from Nazareth, recently complained to social workers. The Union also reports that develop, an unlikely prospect in view of in 1974. Its nmodest three-pronged effort the Knesset Social Services Committee that approximately 20 per cent of social work relatively active interest in hiring social reaches out in three directions: (1) to locate Arab social workers are in short supply graduates do not enter the field after workers shown by private industry and various and recruit local leadership to come and study graduation, and that 50 per cent of all "because the University imposes unrealistic government Ministries such as Finance, Ab­ at the University in its various departments; (2) government tenders for professional social entrance qualifications".9 Bergman's study sorption, Defense and the Jewish Agency. to utilize 26 volunteer and salaried "consuls" work positions are not applied for by even one revealed that only 5 per cent of Tel Aviv Indeed, social work has succeeded very well in to identify and recruit students from develop­ candidate.'3 University's social work students were from getting itself onto the professional landscape ment towns and disadvantaged neighbor­ the low-income group as determined by Undaunted by the lack of manpower for in Israel, but its professional schools are hoods; and (3) to provide educational and occupation of the students' fathers; over 48 budgeted social work positions in public incapable thus far of meeting these new economic help to disadvantaged students once per cent were from the two highest income welfare offices, the Ministry of Welfare is obligations. they are enrolled in their studies. Thus far, groupings on a five-point scale. '0 working towards implementing recent agree­ The four schools of social work, the Hebrew approximately 240 students, primarily from ments, secured from the Ministry of Interior University, Tel Aviv University, Bar Han middle-Eastern countries of origin, are being Manpower Needs in the Next Decade

6 and the Authority of Local Councils, regard­ aided by the programme. The Hebrew In addition to the clear ethnic bias of present University and Haifa University, "produce" University and other universities have also admission policy, the limited quantity of social ing additional positions based on new caseload approximately 350 graduates a year, 75 per 6 begun some support programmes to the work candidates accepted for admission each standards. According to these new standards cent of whom are females,' and about 15 per disadvantaged, but few post-admission pro­ year is exceedingly inadequate compared to the there would be an immediate need for 2,635 cent of whom will most probably cease being grammes have been developed in social work large number of social work positions now new social workers in services sponsored by actively employed within five years of gradua­ 7 focussing on calculated risks among the available or about to open up in the coming the Ministry of Social Welfare, and an tion.' Of the 135 students admitted to their disadvantaged. five years. In a recent report to the Social additional 450 social workers in social services first year of study at the Hebrew University operated by other government Ministries such School of Social Work in 1973 ("class of 8 Bergman, et al studied the social back­ Rebecca Bergman, Tamar Krulik and Itzchak as the Ministry of Health, the Ministry of 1976"), only 89 eventually completed their full Ditzian. "Opinion (of Social Workers) on Nurs­ ground of 94 social work students enrolled at Labour etc., a total of 3,085 workers. The three years of study, a drop-out rate of 35 per ing," International Nursing Review, 1976, pp. Tel Aviv University during the 1973-1974 approved standards for delivery of all social 15-18. 4 academic year and found that 76 per cent of work services recognized in Israel today, if ' Aaron Langerman, op. cit., p. 8. the students' fathers were from Asia or 9 Testimony from the Social Services Committee immediately budgeted, would require 5,241 15 Ibid, p. 2. Africa.7 of the Knesset, quoted in the Jerusalem Post, 16 Mordechai Wertheimer, Professional Man­ February 26, 1976, p. 2. 11 Aaron Langerman, Manpower in Social Wel­ The ethnic composition of the 1975-1976 power in Israeli Public Welfare. Israel Ministry of fare Offices, Israel Ministry of Social Welfare, 6 Arlet Adler, Programmes to Support Higher 10 Rebecca Bergman, et al, p. 16. The ethnicity Social Welfare, Jerusalem, 1970. See also: Jerusalem, February 23, 1976 pp. 1-8. Education in Development Towns and Among the issue in Israeli social work is as yet less acute than in Yitzchak Kadman, Guidelines for Public Rela­ 2 Disadvantaged Population, The Unit for Bridging the U.S., See: 1 Yitzchak Kadman, Guidelines for Public Rela­ tions Work Regarding Social Workers' Salaries, op the Gap, Haifa University, Haifa, (November, Seymour Mirelowitz and Leona Grossman, tions Work Regarding Social Workers' Salaries, cit. Association of Social Workers, The Histadrut 1975), pp. 1-12. "Ethnicity: An Intervening Variable in Social Work 17 Shoshanna Berlin, et al, "A Survey of 7 Federation of Labour, Tel Aviv, February, 1976, Data compiled from students' records by the Education," Journal of Education for Social Work, University Social Work Graduates from 1966 to pp. 2. author especially for this article. (February, 1076). Vol. 11, No. 3 (Fall, 1975), pp. 76-83. 1970," Saad, Vol. 17, No. 2 (March, 1973) pp. 13 Ibid., p. 3. 13-22. 244 245 cent for that class of students!'8 Some of Israel.21 and behavioral sciences which they would have infrequent today. It would also be possible to them, however, may eventually come back to The demand for university trained social to pass at a predetermined level in order to go hire good quality junior faculty personnel to complete their education or may have taken work manpower is clearly outrunning the on with their social work education. The effect fill a good deal of the teaching positions lighter loads to finish later. supply, and apparently will continue to do so of this procedure would be that students would necessary for a modular programme. Negotiations are now underway for the in the forseeable future. screen themselves out of, or into, social work. In discussions with colleagues at the School opening of a fifth school of social work during There is currently a greatly increased In the event that the number of students taking of Social Work in Jerusalem and elsewhere, it 1977 at the Ben Gurion University of the sensitivity to social problems in Israel and to generic first-year courses is too high, it may be is clear that the main bottleneck to a modular Negev in Beersheva. Even this addition, and the varied roles that social work professionals logical to offer these general courses in the curriculum, and to enlarging enrollment in the Ministry of Welfare's six non-university can fulfill in that arena.22 in this new climate, social science faculty instead of in the school social work, is the fear of not being able to diploma programmes for 50 social workers the schools of social work should adequately of social work as is the practice today. At any find enough good field work apprenticeships for larger numbers of students. This may be each year will not meet the demand for social relate to the new manpower challenge, and rate, it may be worth the effort to assess anew true // the present method of field work workers. Nor will the gap be closed by the have to face the crucial issue of increasing the the rationale for teaching introductory social instruction is maintained, namely, simultan­ annual addition of approximately 50 social number of graduates without endangering the science courses in the School of Social Work eous field work placement and class-room science students who complete special re­ quality of the programme. rather than in the relevant Social Science education. If, for example, the block system training ("HASAVA") and obtain their Departments. Some Conceptual Changes Needed were introduced, e.g. 3 to 6 months of second B.A. in social work from one of the The social work curriculum might be The present model of social work education full-time, summer or other field work exper­ four universities noted above. The recent restructured in a modular manner, whereby and, to a large degree, admission policy, have ience in a welfare agency, as is the practice at attempt by the Ministry of Welfare's Institute basic courses are offered several times during been copied from the public school and Smith College and other schools of social for Social Work Training (a non-university the year, including during the summer, and medical school models. That is, an entire work, this might alleviate the problem. diploma programme) to train Russian immi­ students could map-out, together with a cohort of students, the incoming class, enters Another model currently in use (and about to grants for social work has met with difficulty faculty adviser, annually, the educational path the programme and about 80 per cent finish be discarded) at Tel Aviv University's School and raises serious questions as to the feasibility and credits needed to complete their B.A. together, as a class, three years later. The of Social Work is the fourth (senior) year of obtaining social workers in the near future degree. This would allow for sequenced social work faculty decide a priori in apprenticeship with accompanying seminars. from this source. '9 It is felt by many that education to continue, but it would also allow admissions if the student can manage the Still another model is that used by Israel's law more success has occurred so far from students to retake courses which they fail programme, relying heavily on the students' schools where the apprenticeship is a final assisting experienced social work graduates without necessarily having to abandon the past academic performance. formal requirement, not accompanied by from the Western countries, particularly the programme, and it would enable students to It is my belief that much of the single cohort seminars.23 All of these systems would also U.S. and Canada, in immigrating to Israel and take courses at their own pace, a factor concept should be abandoned in favour of enable selection of field placements through­ learning the language and culture, rather than especially important if they are employed larger numbers of incoming students who can out the country. educating new Russian immigrants or others persons or parents of young children. present high school degrees, perhaps as part of from scratch in Israeli schools of social I would build into the programme special Another suggestion might be to provide the a trial period, all those who have achieved at work.20 There is also some Parliamentary non-credit tutorial help for students having field apprenticeship before the student even least a 70 average during their high school support for investing in bringing western- difficulty with their studies, akin to the Haifa enters the academic social work programme, education. These incoming students should be trained professional social work immigrants to model, including teaching them skills in immediately after acceptance to the program- offered a series of basic courses in the social composition, reading of scientific material, me.24 Perhaps field work could be simulated 21 Esther Herlitz, M.K., submitted a Parliamen­ 18 Paul Baerwald School of Social Work, Data and scientific material and other content that by use of video-tape and other devices in the tary Question to the Welfare Minister on February Concerning the Sixteenth Graduating Class, The must be taught in small groups or individually. 21, 1976, asking what was being done to encourage Hebrew University, Jerusalem, (February 19, 1976), Jewish professional social workers around the world A campus-wide service of this type would not 23 Post block-placement seminars in social work p. 1. to come to Israel either as immigrants or as be unrealistic, and students from various education are lucidly described in: Sheldon R. short-term contractees to fill empty posts here. departments could be referred to these Gelman, "Integrated Learning Through a Post- 19 Ruth Klein and liana Schmueli, "A First Quoted in the Jerusalem Post, February 22, 1976, p. services. Placement Seminar", Social Work Education Evaluation of a Retraining Programme to Social 3. Reporter, Vol. 19, No. 3 (Sept.-Oct., 1971), pp. Work for Russian Immigrants," Saad, Vol. 18, No. The modular-type curriculum would require 22 Eliezer D. Jaffe, "Poverty in the Third Jewish 42-44. 5 (September, 1974) pp. 63-67. additional faculty and field-work placements, Commonwealth: Sephardi-Ashkenazi Divisions," but I believe that these could be attracted to an 24 Elizabeth Torre. "Student Performance in Journal of Jewish Communal Service, Vol. 52, No. experimental programme and that present Solving Social Work Problems and Work Exper­ 20 A. Langerman, op. cit., p. 4. See also: 1 (Fall, 1975), pp. 91-99. See also: faculty could, if properly compensated, take ience Prior to Entering the M.S.W. Programme," Aliza Masiurik, "Opinions on the Value of a Eliezer D. Jaffe, "Alternatives to the Welfare on extra loads rather than work part-time Journal of Education for Social Work, Vol. 10, No. Retraining Programme for Social Work," Saad, System in View of Israeli Political Realities," Social 2 (Spring, 1974), pp. 114-117. Vol. 20, No. 1 (January, 1976), pp. 30-32. Security, No's. 9-10, (December, 1975), pp. 159-162. outside of the University which is not

246 247 cannot insist that government welfare policy in Armand Lauffer, "Trends Affecting Social Israel change and welfare services expand, Work Education and Their Implications for classroom setting.25 Perhaps field work Modular Spin-Off Continuing Education," in Social Work Continuing should be dispensed with entirely and students without taking stock of what we as social work Some positive spin-off which could result Education Yearbook, University of Ann Arbor, required to come back to the University for faculty are willing to contribute to the effort from modular teaching and more liberal Michigan, 1973, pp. 127-128; Thomas Walz, "A systematic "refresher" coursework based on and how willing we are to change our own set admission procedures would be, perhaps, Continuing Education Curriculum for the Graduate ways and to experiment with new ones. We experiences and new developments subsequent more extensive use of the classroom facilities Social Worker," Journal of Education for Social cannot expect our graduates to be involved to their graduation as is the practice in presently available. By all measures, these Work, Vol. 9 (Winter, 1973), pp. 68-78. with change and social reform, unless we as branches of medicine. facilities today are extremely underused. The faculty are prepared to demonstrate these The field work bottleneck, admittedly, social work buildings could be utilized long Georgia Pinnick, "The Educationally Disad­ traits in our own daily work and lives. needs conceptual and logistical expertise, but it after 5 p.m., including the libraries. Class­ vantaged — Implications for^Social Work Educa­ is solvable, and no "solution" need exist room hours in social work should be geared Lois G. Swack, "Continuing Education and tion" in Educationally Disadvantaged Students in forever if changing needs and circumstances towards the role of the urban university, and Changing Needs," Social Work, Vol. 20, No. 6 Social Work Education, Council on Social Work Education, New York, 1971, pp. 101-110. dictate otherwise. Ironically, enlarging the evening hours would make for economization (November, 1975) pp. 474-480. See also: student population may be directly correlated of heat and utilization of space, both crucial with solving the fieldwork problem. Without items in the university's financial situation. A field supervisors, admission must be limited; modular curriculum and liberalized admis­ without more students graduating, we can't sions policy might draw into the School of find enough supervisors. And around it goes. Social Work new types of students, in Perhaps this is also the place to suggest that addition to the young army veterans and the time has come in Israeli social work young single women who overwhelmingly education for the Universities to develop a populate the School today. I believe that night, consortium of field work placements for all of evening, and late afternoon classes would be the schools to use in a pooled, coordinated heavily concentrated with veteran social manner. The country is so small and the workers who never had a chance to leave work number of adequate placements so limited that and complete their education, or people from we may soon begin to hoard or to compete for neighboring professions who want to learn field agencies and supervisors, and the trend of about social work, but not study towards the providing varied field experiences during the degree, and mature citizens who want to students' stay with us, will, I predict, hasten register for a social work course without credit the need for establishing a sophisticated because it simply interests them. Continuing national consortium of agency placements. education for graduate social workers and for What makes me impatient about solving the staff development could well be offered in the field-work bottleneck is not the dearth of evening sessions.26 possible solutions, but the rather conservative In my view, it is essential to "loosen-up" approach to grappling and experimenting with traditional social work education methods, them on the part of many social work faculty. copied for the most part from American social The status-quo has a relatively strong grip on work education models of the 1950's and early us, and we have sanctified and ritualized much 1960's. Above all, I believe that it is essential of how and what we do to the point that we to undertake meaningful experimentation in often feel too much is at risk in change. Israeli social work education. We cannot afford, morally, professionally, or economi­ 25 Roland G. Meinert, "Simulation Technology: cally, to let social work needs and daily A Potential Tool for Social Work Education", practice develop in one corner of our society, Journal of Education for Social Work, Vol. 8, No. and social work education in another. We 3, (Fall, 1972) p. 50-59. See also: Stephen F. Canfield, et al, "A Laboratory 26 Frank Loewenberg, ed. Essentials for Under­ Training Model for the Development of Effective graduate Social Welfare Teachers, New York, Interpersonal Communications in Social Work," Council on Social Work Education, 1969. See also: Journal of Education for Social Work, Vol. 11, No. KayDea. The Instructional Module. Council on 1 (Winter, 1975), pp. 45-50. Social Work Education, New York, 1971, pp. 1-50. 249 248