From Stories to Worlds: the Continuity of Marvel Superheroes from Comics to Film

From Stories to Worlds: The Continuity of Marvel Superheroes from Comics to Film David Sweeney, June 2013 Before its 2011 re-launch as the ‘New 52’ DC Comics’ advertising campaigns regularly promoted their inter-linked superhero line as ‘The Original Universe’. As DC did indeed publish the first ‘superteam’, the JSA (in All-Star Comics 3, Winter 1940), this is technically correct; however, the concept of a shared fictional world with an on-going fictive history, what comic book fans and professionals alike refer to as ‘continuity’, was in fact pioneered by DC’s main competitor, Marvel Comics, particularly in the 1960s. In this essay I will discuss, drawing on theories and concepts from the narratologists David A. Brewer and Lubomir Dolezel and with particular focus on the comic book writer Roy Thomas, how Marvel Comics developed this narrative strategy and how it has recently been transplanted to cinema through the range of superhero films produced by Marvel Studios. Superhero Origins Like DC, Marvel emerged from an earlier publishing company, Timely Publications, which had produced its own range of superheroes during the so-called ‘Golden Age of superhero comics, ushered in by the debut of Superman in Action Comics 1 in June, 1938) and lasting until the end of World War II, including Namor the Submariner, Captain America, and The Human Torch. Superhero comics declined sharply in popularity after the War and none of these characters survived the wave of cancellations that hit the genre; however, they were not out of print for long. Although the ‘Silver Age’ of superhero comics is often thought to have begun in October 1956 with DC’s publication of a new version of the Golden Age ‘speedster’ superhero, the Flash (in Showcase 4) - the success of which led to the revival of more Golden Age characters by the publisher, beginning with the Green Lantern (in Showcase 22, November 1959) - Timely had in fact already attempted a revival of their Golden Age superheroes, albeit for a short period, three years earlier, beginning with the publication of issue 24 of the anthology title Young Men 24 (December, 1953). This issue featured the ‘return’ of Namor, Captain America, and the Torch. Timely’s superhero revival lasted just under two years, ending with issue 42 of the Submariner’s eponymous title (October, 1955), but here we can already see the publisher make the decision to establish continuity between this new range of comics and those that had come before: the numbering of each character’s eponymous title carried directly on from the last pre-cancellation issue. The Torch and Namor also made cameo appearances in the Captain America strip in Young Men 24, implying that these characters shared a world, even when they did not appear in each other’s titles. Roy Thomas Writing about his response as a twelve year who had ‘slowly watched beloved super-heroes disappear one by one’ in the wave of post-war cancellations, Roy Thomas, who would become instrumental in the creation and organization of the nationwide superhero ‘fandom’ network that emerged in the 1950s and, later, a major writer and editor for both Marvel and DC, remembers being ‘impressed by how [Young Men 24] accounted believably for [the characters’] four year absence’: the superheroes, it was explained, had been incapacitated for exactly the same length of time as they had been out of print. Thomas also recalls admiring how the writer of the Captain America story ‘had done his homework’ by making reference to earlier comics, even using dialogue from the character’s debut appearance in a flashback scene, and that the history of Namor was similarly ‘brought up to date’ (4). Furthermore, Thomas remembers being pleased at Namor’s and the Torch’s appearance in the Captain America story but adds that this was a ‘false omen’ as ‘none of the heroes ever appear in each other’s adventures again for the length of the revival’(6). As Gerard Jones and Will Jacobs have observed, Thomas was representative of an emerging type of superhero fan whose enthusiasm for the genre had persisted during the ‘wilderness years’1 after the Golden Age and for whom ‘the stories were of less importance than the stuff: the texture, the background details, the “continuity” of old comics to new ones’ (90, original emphasis) even though this had not been the case for publishers or professionals during the Golden Age itself in large part because comics were considered to be disposable items and also because no reliable distribution system for them existed(see Pustz, 130-1). In other words, fans like Thomas were preoccupied with the worlds of the superhero comics they consumed. For such fans the ‘domain of fiction' is, as it is for Lubomir Dolezel, ‘broader than that of the story’. Dolezel identifies story as the ‘microstructure’ of a narrative while its ‘macrostructure’ is its ‘world’. (ix). ‘Fictionality’, Dolezel states, ‘is primarily a semantic phenomenon located on the axis “representation (sign) – world”’ (2). Fictional acts, he argues, generate fictional worlds and these worlds have histories which are implicit in the stories set within them. These histories include not only the events of the story itself but what has occurred before the beginning and what happens after the end. Furthermore, Dolezel describes fictional worlds as always being incomplete because ‘[f]inite texts [are] the only texts that humans are capable of producing’ (169). There are, therefore, always gaps in the representation of a fictional world as we do not, because we cannot, ever see it in its entirety. This is as true of superhero comics as of any other text; however, the physical absence of most superhero comics from the actual world in the period between the Golden and Silver Ages, and the subsequent return or revival of cancelled characters, seems to have created a powerful desire in fans 1 Jones and Jacobs use this term to refer to both the paucity of superhero comics available at the time following the extensive post-war cancellations and also the mutual isolation of superhero fans before the establishment of the national fandom network. like Thomas for completeness beyond the process of ‘filling in’ that Dolezel identifies as a necessary part of the ‘reconstruction’ of the fictional world that is involved in all reading. The ‘variable saturation of fictional worlds is,’ Dolezel writes, ‘a challenge to the reader [which] increases as the saturation decreases’ (170): the short-lived revival of the Timely heroes may have explained their absence in terms of actual world time but the longer delay in the return of the rest of Thomas’s ‘beloved superheroes’, particularly the JSA who would not be revived until 1963 (in Justice League of America 21, August) , appears to have ‘challenged’ him to the extent that he was inspired to undertake the task of filling in the gaps not just for himself but for first Marvel and then DC’s readership. That Thomas felt able, even compelled, to do so can be understood in Brewer’s terms of the detachability of the superheroes, resulting from both their seriality and their incompleteness, and the emotional attachment Thomas had for them as ‘beloved’ characters. Thomas’s speculations on the fates of the missing superheroes first appeared publicly in the letters pages of DC’s Silver Age comics, then later in the pages of the fanzine Alter Ego (1961- ), which he continues to publish and contribute to today as a ‘prozine’ (i.e. a journal produced by professionals rather than fans but independently of the industry in which they are employed). Once Thomas ‘graduated’ to professional status he was in the position to make these speculations fictional fact. Thomas began his career at Marvel Comics in 1964, by which time the company’s editor-in-chief, Stan Lee, was the writer and/or editor of most of the company’s superhero comics, which he had decided to unite into a single line of titles with a shared, on-going continuity, the macrostructure of which became known as the ‘Marvel Universe’2. As Jones and Jacobs observe, by this point ‘[g]uest appearances by heroes in each other’s stories were old hat, but no one had done them as often or as casually as Marvel started doing’ (89, emphasis mine). Marvel’s heroes became part of each other’s environment and community, appearing in the background, often only fleetingly, or simply cropping up in conversations between other characters. Despite the ‘casualness’ of Lee’s approach, however, all these references and appearances were expected to be ‘in continuity’: i.e. to correspond to the on-going fictive history for the Marvel Universe that the publisher was developing. Replacing Lee on the superteam title X-Men in 1966, Thomas’s work on the comic was immediately distinguished by its density; as Jones and Jacobs write: 2 The nature of the collaboration between Lee and artist Jack Kirby, and particularly the extent of Lee’s involvement in it relative to the credit has received, is a contentious issue in comic book circles. When campaigning to have his original artwork returned to him by Marvel, Kirby claimed to have ‘written every word’ of the comics he produced for them, despite Lee being credited as writer. Lee has dismissed this claim and continues to refer to his collaboration with Kirby as a partnership. For contrasting views on the situation see Jones and Jacobs, (299-300) and Lee and Mair, (172-5). The opening splash panel [a panel the full size of the page] of his first issue (X-Men 20, May 1966) sports eleven word balloons and captions – totalling nearly two hundred words – which allow us to understand the depicted bank robbery from the point of view of villains, victims, and bystanders alike.

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