DOCSLIB.ORG

Going the Distance? the Safe Transport of Spent Nuclear Fuel and High-Level Radioactive Waste in the United States

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Going the Distance? the Safe Transport of Spent Nuclear Fuel and High-Level Radioactive Waste in the United States Going the Distance? The Safe Transport of Spent Nuclear Fuel and High-Level Radioactive Waste in the United States There are no fundamental technical barriers to the safe transport of spent nuclear fuel and high-level radioactive waste in the United States. When conducted in strict adherence to existing regulations, such transport is a low radiological risk activity with manageable safety, health, and environmental consequences. However, there are a number of social and institu- tional challenges to the successful initial implementation of large-quantity shipping programs. bout 55,000 metric tons of spent nuclear fuel and high-level radioactive waste— byproducts of nuclear power production, defense-related activities, and research Aactivities—are stored at more than 70 sites around the United States (see Figure 1). The vast majority is commercial spent fuel stored at nuclear power plant sites. The remainder is defense-related spent fuel and high-level waste stored at four government-owned sites. These materials are highly radioactive and, without proper shielding, can be harmful or fatal to those exposed to it. All of the U.S. sites are considered interim storage solutions. The federal plan is to transport spent fuel and high level waste from those sites to permanent disposal in a geologic repository that is to be built at Yucca Mountain, Nevada. The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) is responsible for transporting spent fuel and high-level waste to the repository. Transportation of spent fuel on our nation’s railways and highways is nothing new. Since the 1950s, it has been transported in small quantities from a variety of sources, including nuclear-pow- ered naval ships, research facilities, and nuclear power plant sites that have been shut down or run short of storage. It is also being transported in many other countries, in some cases in much larger quantities than in the United States. To date, only about 3,000 metric tons of the total U.S. inventory has been transported, and that inventory is growing by about 2,000 metric tons per year. Figure 1. Locations Hanford WA Site of current spent fuel ME ND Idaho National West Valley and high-level waste Laboratory MN OR MT Demonstration VT storage sites, Yucca WI Project NY NH ID SD MA WY MI Mountain, and Private RI NJ Private Fuel IA PA CT Storage NE Fuel Storage. The stars NV OH MD DE Yucca UT IN are nuclear power plant Moutain CO IL WV KS VA sites; circles are govern- CA MO KY NC ment-owned sites for TN AZ OK NM AR defense-related wastes. SC MS AL GA Savannah Source: Modified from LA River Site the U.S. Department of TX Energy FL 1-1 TOP (left hand page) Landscape view With the potential opening of Yucca Mountain also includes social risks that arise from social pro- now estimated at 2017, attention has turned to the ques- cesses and people’s perceptions even in the absence tion of how to safely transport much larger quantities of of radiation exposures. Risks can also arise from spent fuel and high-level waste in the future. A large- incidents such as terrorist attacks, but such incidents scale transportation program is especially challenging are not addressed in this report. because much of the U.S. commercial spent fuel inven- tory is now being stored at sites near large populations, Health and Safety Risks of Transport Are and shipments would pass through 31 states and many Generally Low major population centers on their way to the repository. Recognizing the need for an independent ex- There are two potential sources of radiation amination of the risks and key concerns associated exposure during transport of spent fuel and high-level with this transport, the National Research Council’s waste: 1) emitted radiation or “radiation shine” from Nuclear and Radiation Studies Board and Transporta- packages during routine transport conditions; and 2) tion Research Board jointly initiated this study. A key potential increases in radiation shine and release of finding of the study report is that transport by highway radioactive materials under accident conditions severe (for small-quantity shipments) and by rail (for large- enough to compromise the robust containers or “pack- quantity shipments) is, from a technical viewpoint, ages” used to transport the spent fuel and high-level a low radiological risk activity with manageable waste. The report finds that the radiological risks safety, health, and environmental consequences when associated with the transportation of spent fuel and conducted in strict adherence to existing regulations. high-level waste are well understood and are generally However, there are a number of social and institu- low. This statement is based on several factors (de- tional challenges to the successful initial implementa- scribed in chapters 2 and 3 of the report) that include tion of large-quantity shipping programs that require the following: expeditious resolution as described in the report. • Rigorous international standards and U.S. regu- Moreover, the challenges of sustained implementation lations for the design, construction, testing, and should not be underestimated. maintenance of spent fuel packages; Assessing Transportation Risks • Full-scale crash testing of transport packages under severe accident conditions; Risk is a multidimensional concept: It in- cludes the health and safety risks that potentially arise • A series of increasingly sophisticated analytical from exposures of workers and members of the public and computer modeling studies of spent fuel to radiation from spent fuel and high-level waste. It transport package performance; and Limit or Dose (mSv) • Reconstructions of the mechanical 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 and thermal loading conditions from DOE annual occupational dose limit 50 severe accidents that did not involve ICRP annual occupational dose limit 20 spent fuel to assess how spent fuel Current DOE annual occupational administrative limit 20 Max. dose to YM transportation worker (annual) 20 packages would have performed Single whole-body CT scan 12 under the same conditions. Annual natural background dose, South Dakota 9.6 YM post-10,000 year proposed dose limit (annual) 3.5 Annual natural background dose, U.S. average 3.0 However, extreme accidents Annual natural background dose, Florida 1.3 involving very-long-duration (hours ICRP annual public dose limit 1.0 to days) fires that fully engulf the Max. exposed YM SS worker, mostly truck (annual) 1.0 Single X-ray of human hip 0.6 transportation package might compro- Land disposal facility dose limit (annual) 0.25 mise its ability to contain its radioac- YM pre-10,000 year dose limit (annual) 0.15 Single roundtrip airline flight, New York -Tokyo 0.145 tive contents. While the likelihood of Max. exposed resident near YM rail stop (annual) 0.12 Exposure Examples such extreme accidents appears to be Single chest X-ray 0.1 very small, their occurrence cannot Max. hourly dose at 2 meters from trans. vehicle 0.1 Single X-ray of human extremity 0.01 be ruled out based on historical data Single round-trip airline flight, St. Louis-Tampa 0.009 Max. exposed resident along YM rail route (annual) 0.0007 for other types of hazardous materials shipments. However, the likelihood Figure 2. Estimates of radiation exposureLandscape from transport view of spent fuel and of occurrence and consequences can high-level waste under routine conditions. be reduced further through relatively Limit or Dose (mSv) 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 DOE annual occupational dose limit 50 ICRP annual occupational dose limit 20 Current DOE annual occupational administrative limit 20 Max. dose to YM transportation worker (annual) 20 Single whole-body CT scan 12 Annual natural background dose, South Dakota 9.6 YM post-10,000 year proposed dose limit (annual) 3.5 Annual natural background dose, U.S. average 3.0 Annual natural background dose, Florida 1.3 ICRP annual public dose limit 1.0 Max. exposed YM SS worker, mostly truck (annual) 1.0 Single X-ray of human hip 0.6 Land disposal facility dose limit (annual) 0.25 YM pre-10,000 year dose limit (annual) 0.15 Exposure Examples Single roundtrip airline flight, New York -Tokyo 0.145 Max. exposed resident near YM rail stop (annual) 0.12 Single chest X-ray 0.1 Max. hourly dose at 2 meters from trans. vehicle 0.1 Single X-ray of human extremity 0.01 Single round-trip airline flight, St. Louis-Tampa 0.009 Max. exposed resident along YM rail route (annual) 0.0007 Portrait view fig 3-3 Please choose which view simple operational steps and route-specific analyses. Department of Energy for gathering information about The report recommends that transportation planners social risks in its Yucca Mountain transport program: and managers undertake detailed surveys of transpor- tation routes to identify potential hazards that could 1. Expand the membership and scope of an exist- lead to or exacerbate extreme accidents involving long ing advisory group to obtain outside advice on duration, fully engulfing fires, and also take steps to social risks, and avoid or mitigate such hazards. The report also recom- 2. Establish a transportation risk advisory group mends that the Nuclear Regulatory Commission build that is explicitly designed to provide advice on on recent progress in understanding package perfor- characterizing, communicating, and mitigating mance in very long duration fires through additional the social, security, and health and safety risks analyses. that arise from the transport of spent fuel. Potential for Harmful Radiation Exposure Low Although these recommendation are focused primarily on the Department of Energy, they apply to Transportation packages contain heavy shield- any large-quantity shipping program, including the ing to protect workers and the public from the radia- program to ship commercial spent fuel to centralized tion emitted by the spent fuel or high-level waste interim storage (e.g., Private Fuel Storage, LLC in contained within them.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Spent Nuclear Fuel Pools in the US
    Spent Nuclear Fuel Pools in the U.S.: Reducing the Deadly Risks of Storage front cover WITH SUPPORT FROM: WITH SUPPORT FROM: By Robert Alvarez 1112 16th St. NW, Suite 600, Washington DC 20036 - www.ips-dc.org May 2011 About the Author Robert Alvarez, an Institute for Policy Studies senior scholar, served as a Senior Policy Advisor to the Secre- tary of Energy during the Clinton administration. Institute for Policy Studies (IPS-DC.org) is a community of public scholars and organizers linking peace, justice, and the environment in the U.S. and globally. We work with social movements to promote true democracy and challenge concentrated wealth, corporate influence, and military power. Project On Government Oversight (POGO.org) was founded in 1981 as an independent nonprofit that investigates and exposes corruption and other misconduct in order to achieve a more effective, accountable, open, and ethical federal government. Institute for Policy Studies 1112 16th St. NW, Suite 600 Washington, DC 20036 http://www.ips-dc.org © 2011 Institute for Policy Studies [email protected] For additional copies of this report, see www.ips-dc.org Table of Contents Summary ...............................................................................................................................1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................................4 Figure 1: Explosion Sequence at Reactor No. 3 ........................................................4 Figure 2: Reactor No. 3
    [Show full text]
  • The Nuclear Waste Primer September 2016 What Is Nuclear Waste?
    The Nuclear Waste Primer September 2016 What is Nuclear Waste? Nuclear waste is the catch-all term for anything contaminated with radioactive material. Nuclear waste can be broadly divided into three categories: • Low-level waste (LLW), comprised of protective clothing, medical waste, and other lightly-contaminated items • Transuranic waste (TRU), comprised of long-lived isotopes heavier than uranium • High-level waste (HLW), comprised of spent nuclear fuel and other highly-radioactive materials Low-level waste is relatively short-lived and easy to handle. Currently, four locations for LLW disposal exist in the United States. Two of them, Energy Solutions in Clive, Utah and Waste Control Specialists in Andrews, Texas, accept waste from any U.S. state. Transuranic waste is often a byproduct of nuclear weapons production and contains long-lived radioactive elements heavier than uranium, like plutonium and americium. Currently, the U.S. stores TRU waste at the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) near Carlsbad, New Mexico. High-level waste includes spent nuclear fuel and the most radioactive materials produced by nuclear weapons production. Yucca Mountain is the currently designated high-level waste repository for the United States. 1 | What is Spent Nuclear Fuel? Spent nuclear fuel (SNF), alternatively referred to as used nuclear fuel, is the primary byproduct of nuclear reactors. In commercial power reactors in the U.S., fuel begins as uranium oxide clad in a thin layer of zirconium-aluminum cladding. After several years inside of the reactor, around fi ve percent of the uranium has been converted in some way, ranging from short-lived and highly radioactive fi ssion products to long-lived actinides like plutonium, americium, and neptunium.
    [Show full text]
  • Nuclear Transmutation Strategies for Management of Long-Lived Fission
    PRAMANA c Indian Academy of Sciences Vol. 85, No. 3 — journal of September 2015 physics pp. 517–523 Nuclear transmutation strategies for management of long-lived fission products S KAILAS1,2,∗, M HEMALATHA2 and A SAXENA1 1Nuclear Physics Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai 400 085, India 2UM–DAE Centre for Excellence in Basic Sciences, Mumbai 400 098, India ∗Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected] DOI: 10.1007/s12043-015-1063-z; ePublication: 27 August 2015 Abstract. Management of long-lived nuclear waste produced in a reactor is essential for long- term sustenance of nuclear energy programme. A number of strategies are being explored for the effective transmutation of long-lived nuclear waste in general, and long-lived fission products (LLFP), in particular. Some of the options available for the transmutation of LLFP are discussed. Keywords. Nuclear transmutation; long-lived fission products; (n, γ ) cross-section; EMPIRE. PACS Nos 28.41.Kw; 25.40.Fq; 24.60.Dr 1. Introduction It is recognized that for long-term energy security, nuclear energy is an inevitable option [1]. For a sustainable nuclear energy programme, the management of long-lived nuclear waste is very critical. Radioactive nuclei like Pu, minor actinides like Np, Am and Cm and long-lived fission products like 79Se, 93Zr, 99Tc, 107Pd, 126Sn, 129I and 135Cs constitute the main waste burden from a power reactor. In this paper, we shall discuss the management strategies for nuclear waste in general, and long-lived fission products, in particular. 2. Management of nuclear waste The radioactive nuclei which are produced in a power reactor and which remain in the spent fuel of the reactor form a major portion of nuclear waste.
    [Show full text]
  • Spent Fuel Reprocessing
    Spent Fuel Reprocessing Robert Jubin Oak Ridge National Laboratory Reprocessing of used nuclear fuel is undertaken for several reasons. These include (1) recovery of the valuable fissile constituents (primarily 235U and plutonium) for subsequent reuse in recycle fuel; (2) reduction in the volume of high-level waste (HLW) that must be placed in a geologic repository; and (3) recovery of special isotopes. There are two broad approaches to reprocessing: aqueous and electrochemical. This portion of the course will only address the aqueous methods. Aqueous reprocessing involves the application of mechanical and chemical processing steps to separate, recover, purify, and convert the constituents in the used fuel for subsequent use or disposal. Other major support systems include chemical recycle and waste handling (solid, HLW, low-level liquid waste (LLLW), and gaseous waste). The primary steps are shown in Figure 1. Figure 1. Aqueous Reprocessing Block Diagram. Head-End Processes Mechanical Preparations The head end of a reprocessing plant is mechanically intensive. Fuel assemblies weighing ~0.5 MT must be moved from a storage facility, may undergo some degree of disassembly, and then be sheared or chopped and/or de-clad. The typical head-end process is shown in Figure 2. In the case of light water reactor (LWR) fuel assemblies, the end sections are removed and disposed of as waste. The fuel bundle containing the individual fuel pins can be further disassembled or sheared whole into segments that are suitable for subsequent processing. During shearing, some fraction of the radioactive gases and non- radioactive decay product gases will be released into the off-gas systems, which are designed to recover these and other emissions to meet regulatory release limits.
    [Show full text]
  • GAO-15-141, SPENT NUCLEAR FUEL MANAGEMENT: Outreach
    United States Government Accountability Office Report to Congressional Requesters October 2014 SPENT NUCLEAR FUEL MANAGEMENT Outreach Needed to Help Gain Public Acceptance for Federal Activities That Address Liability GAO-15-141 D October 2014 SPENT NUCLEAR FUEL MANAGEMENT Outreach Needed to Help Gain Public Acceptance for Federal Activities That Address Liability Highlights of GAO-15-141, a report to congressional requesters Why GAO Did This Study What GAO Found DOE is responsible for disposing of Spent nuclear fuel—the used fuel removed from nuclear power reactors—is commercial spent nuclear fuel. DOE expected to accumulate at an average rate of about 2,200 metric tons per year in entered into contracts with owners and the United States. This spent nuclear fuel is mostly stored wet, submerged in generators of spent nuclear fuel to pools of water. However, since pools have been reaching their capacities, begin disposing of it beginning in 1998, owners and generators of spent nuclear fuel (typically utilities and reactor with plans for disposal in a national operators) have been transferring it to canisters that are placed in casks on repository. DOE, however, was unable concrete pads for dry storage—which is an expensive and time-consuming to meet the 1998 date and, as a result process. When operating reactors’ licenses begin to expire in the 2030s, the rate of lawsuits, the federal government has of spent nuclear fuel accumulation is expected to decrease, but the amount in dry paid out about $3.7 billion for storage storage will increase as the pools are closed and all spent nuclear fuel is costs.
    [Show full text]
  • Characteristics of Spent Nuclear Fuel and Cladding Relevant to High-Level Waste Source Term-CNWRA 93-006 Property of CNWRA 93-006 CNWRA Library
    CNWRA 93-006 :~~~~~~~~~ I I S _~~~~~~~~~~~ Prepared for Nuclear Regulatory Commission Contract NRC-02-88-005 Prepared by Center for Nuclear Waste Regulatory Analyses San Antonio, Texas May 1993 462.2 --- T19930511000 8 Characteristics of Spent Nuclear Fuel and Cladding Relevant to High-Level Waste Source Term-CNWRA 93-006 Property of CNWRA 93-006 CNWRA Library CHARACTERISTICS OF SPENT NUCLEAR FUEL AND CLADDING RELEVANT TO HIGH-LEVEL WASTE SOURCE TERM Prepared for Nuclear Regulatory Commission Contract NRC-02-88-005 Prepared by Hersh K. Manaktala Center for Nuclear Waste Regulatory Analyses San Antonio, Texas May 1993 PREVIOUS REPORTS IN SERIES Number Name Date Issued CNWRA 92-017 An Assessment of Borosilicate Glass as a High-Level Waste Form September 1992 CNWRA 92-018 Leaching of Borosilicate Glass Using Draft ASTM Procedure for High-Level Waste August 1992 ii --- ABSTRACT This report, based on literature study, describes characteristics of light water reactor (LWR) fuel assemblies for boiling water reactors (BWR) and pressurized water reactors (PWR) and the changes that take place in both cladding and uranium dioxide fuel during service in commercial power reactors. This information is provided as a background for the evaluation of important factors related to fuel stability under geologic repository conditions. Data related to discharged fuel storage (both wet and dry) are also provided, along with the condition of the fuel in terms of damaged and leaking fuel assemblies. The degradation of spent fuel and cladding while in service in the reactor and likely degradation in a geologic repository are discussed in terms of cladding oxidation and corrosion, and fuel-pellet cracking, fuel restructuring, microstructure and fission product mobility, inventory and distribution of fission products, fuel pellet rim effect, and fission gas release and pressure increase.
    [Show full text]
  • Background, Status and Issues Related to the Regulation of Advanced Spent Nuclear Fuel Recycle Facilities
    NUREG-1909 Background, Status, and Issues Related to the Regulation of Advanced Spent Nuclear Fuel Recycle Facilities ACNW&M White Paper Advisory Committee on Nuclear Waste and Materials NUREG-1909 Background, Status, and Issues Related to the Regulation of Advanced Spent Nuclear Fuel Recycle Facilities ACNW&M White Paper Manuscript Completed: May 2008 Date Published: June 2008 Prepared by A.G. Croff, R.G. Wymer, L.L. Tavlarides, J.H. Flack, H.G. Larson Advisory Committee on Nuclear Waste and Materials THIS PAGE WAS LEFT BLANK INTENTIONALLY ii ABSTRACT In February 2006, the Commission directed the Advisory Committee on Nuclear Waste and Materials (ACNW&M) to remain abreast of developments in the area of spent nuclear fuel reprocessing, and to be ready to provide advice should the need arise. A white paper was prepared in response to that direction and focuses on three major areas: (1) historical approaches to development, design, and operation of spent nuclear fuel recycle facilities, (2) recent advances in spent nuclear fuel recycle technologies, and (3) technical and regulatory issues that will need to be addressed if advanced spent nuclear fuel recycle is to be implemented. This white paper was sent to the Commission by the ACNW&M as an attachment to a letter dated October 11, 2007 (ML072840119). In addition to being useful to the ACNW&M in advising the Commission, the authors believe that the white paper could be useful to a broad audience, including the NRC staff, the U.S. Department of Energy and its contractors, and other organizations interested in understanding the nuclear fuel cycle.
    [Show full text]
  • Title: Low Dose Whole Lung Radiotherapy for High Risk Intubated Patients with COVID-19 Pneumonia and ARDS
    Title: Low Dose Whole Lung Radiotherapy for High Risk Intubated Patients with COVID-19 Pneumonia and ARDS Applicants: Harry Michael Moyses, Assistant Clinical Professor. Radiation Oncology University of California Irvine; Dante Roa, Clinical Professor, Radiation Oncology University of California Irvine: Ales Necas, Senior Scientist; Toshiki Tajima, Professor, University of California Irvine Summary: In the early part of the 20th century the relatively new modality of radiotherapy was effectively used to treat pneumonia. With the advent of very effective antibiotics and steroids in late 1930’s and 1940’s the use of radiotherapy for pneumonia was abandoned and forgotten. Although radiotherapy is still used for inflammatory diseases: graves opthalmopathy and for the prophylaxis of keloids, dupuytren contractures, and heterotopic ossification after surgery. It is also used occasionally for acute and chronic inflammatory diseases not responding to antibiotics and other therapies, most notably in Germany. In light of the COVID-19 epidemic resulting in long periods of intubation, refractory pneumonias, ARDS high mortality rates, especially in the elderly with high population penetrance and quick spread, we propose a novel approach: Low Dose Whole Lung Radiotherapy for High Risk Intubated Patients with Covid-19 pneumonia and ARDS. This would be for a specific high risk population who are refractory to other therapies for ARDS including steroids, antivirals and antibiotics, who otherwise are at a high risk of death. We would deliver very low doses which have been shown to be effective and would have minimal to no acute side effects. There are potentially some late side effects, such as uncommon secondary cancers, and therefore initially, we would enroll people over 50.
    [Show full text]
  • A Review of the Nuclear Fuel Cycle Strategies and the Spent Nuclear Fuel Management Technologies
    energies Review A Review of the Nuclear Fuel Cycle Strategies and the Spent Nuclear Fuel Management Technologies Laura Rodríguez-Penalonga * ID and B. Yolanda Moratilla Soria ID Cátedra Rafael Mariño de Nuevas Tecnologías Energéticas, Universidad Pontificia Comillas, 28015 Madrid, Spain; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +34-91-542-2800 (ext. 2481) Received: 19 June 2017; Accepted: 6 August 2017; Published: 21 August 2017 Abstract: Nuclear power has been questioned almost since its beginnings and one of the major issues concerning its social acceptability around the world is nuclear waste management. In recent years, these issues have led to a rise in public opposition in some countries and, thus, nuclear energy has been facing even more challenges. However, continuous efforts in R&D (research and development) are resulting in new spent nuclear fuel (SNF) management technologies that might be the pathway towards helping the environment and the sustainability of nuclear energy. Thus, reprocessing and recycling of SNF could be one of the key points to improve the social acceptability of nuclear energy. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to review the state of the nuclear waste management technologies, its evolution through time and the future advanced techniques that are currently under research, in order to obtain a global vision of the nuclear fuel cycle strategies available, their advantages and disadvantages, and their expected evolution in the future. Keywords: nuclear energy; nuclear waste management; reprocessing; recycling 1. Introduction Nuclear energy is a mature technology that has been developing and improving since its beginnings in the 1940s. However, the fear of nuclear power has always existed and, for the last two decades, there has been a general discussion around the world about the future of nuclear power [1,2].
    [Show full text]
  • NDA Techniques for Spent Fuel Verification and Radiation Monitoring
    STUK-YTO-TR 133 FI9700145 AUGUST 1997 NDA techniques for spent fuel verification and radiation monitoring Report on Activities 6a and 6b of Task JNT C799 (SAGOR) Finnish Support Programme to the IAEA Safeguards Matti Tarvainen Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority, Helsinki, Finland Ferenc Levai Technical University, Budapest, Hungary Timothy £. Valentine Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA Mark Abhold Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM, USA Bruce Moran USNRC, Washington D.C., USA The conclusions presented in the report are those of the authors and do not represent the official position of the Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority. RADIATION AND NUCLEAR SAFETY AUTHORITY (STUK) P.O.BOX 14, FIN-00881 HELSINKI, FINLAND Tel. +358-9-759881 Fax +358-9-75988382 V 9-0 1 ISBN 951-712-222-5 ISSN 0785-9325 Oy Edita Ab Helsinki 1997 STUK-YTO-TR 133 RADIATION AND NUCLEAR SAFETY AUTHORITY TARVAINEN, Matti (STUK), LEVAI, Ferenc (Budapest Technical University), VALENTINE, Timothy E (Oak Ridge National Laboratory), ABHOLD, Mark (Los Alamos National Laboratory), MORAN, Bruce (USNRC). NDA techniques for spent fuel verification and radiation monitoring. Report on Activities 6a and 6b of Task JNT C799 (SAGOR). Finnish Support Programme to the IAEA Safeguards. STUK-YTO-TR 133. Helsinki 1997. 23 pp. + Annexes 24 pp. ISBN 951-712-222-5 ISSN 0785-9325 Keywords: safeguards, spent fuel, NDA ABSTRACT A variety of NDA methods exist for measurement of spent fuel at various stages of the disposition process. Each of the methods has weaknesses and strengths that make them applicable to one or more stages in disposition.
    [Show full text]
  • Curium in Space
    ROBIN JOHANSSON Curium in Space KTH Royal Institute of Technology Master Thesis 2013-05-05 Abstract New technology has shown the possibility to use a miniature satellite in conjunction with an electric driven engine to make a spiral trajectory into space from a low earth orbit. This report has done an investigation of the new technique to produce power sources replacing solar panels which cannot be used in missions out in deep space. It is in essence an alternative use of curium among the many proposals on how to handle the intermediate stored used nuclear fuel or once through nuclear fuel as some people prefer to call it. The idea of sending radioactive used nuclear fuel into outer space has been considered before. There was a proposal, for example, to load a space shuttle with radioactive material. This could have serious consequences to the nearby population in the event of a major malfunction to the shuttle. The improvement to this old idea is to use a small satellite with only a fraction of the spent fuel. With this method and other technological advances, it is possible to further reduce the risk of contamination in the event of a crash. This report has looked into the nuclear energy production of Sweden and the current production of transuranium elements (Pu, Np, Am and Cm). The report has also focused on the curium (Cm) part of the transuranium elements, which is the most difficult to recycle in a fast neutron spectra. The physical property of curium reduces many of the safety parameters in the reactor as it is easily transmutated into californium, which is a high neutron emitter.
    [Show full text]
  • Plutonium-238: the Fuel Crisis
    BRAZILIAN JOURNAL OF RADIATION SCIENCES BJRS 09-01A (2021) 01-11 Plutonium-238: The Fuel Crisis Smitha R. B., Romerob F., Vicentea R. a Waste Management Department / Nuclear and Energy Research Institute (IPEN/CNEN-SP), Av. Professor Lineu Prestes, 2242, 05508-000, São Paulo, SP, Brazil b Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), Rua Sena Madureira, 1500, 04021-001, São Paulo, SP, Brazil [email protected] ABSTRACT Plutonium-238 is currently still the best fuel to power satellites to be sent to deep space in regions where the solar panels can no longer efficiently receive the sunlight. For 50 years, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has used this radioisotope as a fuel in radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) installed on satellites such as Pioneer 10 and 11, Voyager 1 and 2, Cassini-Huygens and New Horizons, as well as the various rovers sent to the Moon and to Mars, among others. Plutonium-238 is not a naturally occurring isotope on the planet, it was produced in greater quantity during the Cold War period as a by-product of the production of Plutonium-239 used for nuclear bombs. However, after the shutting down of the Savannah River reactors in 1988 and the ending of the Soviet Union in 1991, the United States stock of Plutonium-238 has been increasingly reduced, which threatens NASA's future space projects. This paper presents a brief bibliographic review about the subject, as well as commentaries on the options available to the United States, from restarting the production of this fuel, to possible alternatives for a new type of fuel or equipment that may supply the spacecrafts.
    [Show full text]